Hypercomplex number

As Hawkins[3] explains, the hypercomplex numbers are

stepping stones to learning about Lie groups and group
representation theory. For instance, in 1929 Emmy
Noether wrote on hypercomplex quantities and representation theory.[4] In 1973 Kantor and Solodovnikov
hypercomplex numbers which
In mathematics, a hypercomplex number is a traditional published a textbook on
was translated in 1989.[5][6]
term for an element of a unital algebra over the eld of
real numbers. The study of hypercomplex numbers in Karen Parshall has written a detailed exposition of the
the late 19th century forms the basis of modern group heyday of hypercomplex numbers,[7] including the role
representation theory.
of such luminaries as Theodor Molien[8] and Eduard
Study.[9] For the transition to modern algebra, Bartel van
der Waerden devotes thirty pages to hypercomplex numbers in his History of Algebra.[10]
Not to be confused with surcomplex number.
Hypernumber redirects here. For the extension of
the real numbers used in non-standard analysis, see
Hyperreal number.

History

2 Denition

In the nineteenth century number systems called

quaternions, tessarines, coquaternions, biquaternions,
and octonions became established concepts in mathematical literature, added to the real and complex numbers.
The concept of a hypercomplex number covered them all,
and called for a discipline to explain and classify them.

A denition of a hypercomplex number is given by

Kantor & Solodovnikov (1989) as an element of a
nite-dimensional algebra over the real numbers that is
unital and distributive (but not necessarily associative).
Elements are generated with real number coecients
(a0 , . . . , an ) for a basis {1, i1 , . . . , in } . Where possible, it is conventional to choose the basis so that i2k
{1, 0, +1} . A technical approach to hypercomplex
numbers directs attention rst to those of dimension two.

The cataloguing project began in 1872 when Benjamin

Peirce rst published his Linear Associative Algebra, and
was carried forward by his son Charles Sanders Peirce.[1]
Most signicantly, they identied the nilpotent and the
idempotent elements as useful hypercomplex numbers
for classications. The CayleyDickson construction
used involutions to generate complex numbers, quaternions, and octonions out of the real number system. Hurwitz and Frobenius proved theorems that put limits on hypercomplexity: Hurwitzs theorem (normed division algebras), and Frobenius theorem (associative division algebras). Finally in 1958 J. Frank Adams used topological methods to prove that there exist only four nitedimensional real division algebras: the reals , the complexes , the quaternions , and the octonions .[2]

3 Two-dimensional real algebras

Theorem:[5]:14,15[11][12] Up to isomorphism, there are exactly three 2-dimensional unital algebras over the reals:
the ordinary complex numbers, the split-complex numbers, and the dual numbers.
Proof: Since the algebra is two dimensional,
we can pick a basis {1, u}. Since the algebra
is closed under squaring, the non-real basis element u squares to a linear combination of 1
and u:

It was matrix algebra that harnessed the hypercomplex

systems. First, matrices contributed new hypercomplex
numbers like 2 2 real matrices. Soon the matrix
paradigm began to explain the others as they became represented by matrices and their operations. In 1907 Joseph
Wedderburn showed that associative hypercomplex systems could be represented by matrices, or direct sums of
systems of matrices. From that date the preferred term
for a hypercomplex system became associative algebra as
seen in the title of Wedderburns thesis at University of
Edinburgh. Note however, that non-associative systems
like octonions and hyperbolic quaternions represent another type of hypercomplex number.

u 2 = a0 + a1 u
for some real numbers a0 and a1 . Using the common
method of completing the square by subtracting a1 u and
adding the quadratic complement a1 2 / 4 to both sides
yields
u 2 a1 u +
1

a21
4

= a0 +

a21
4 .

4 HIGHER-DIMENSIONAL EXAMPLES (MORE THAN ONE NON-REAL AXIS)

u2 a1 u +
u
2 = a0 +

a21
4
a21
4

(
= u

)
a1 2
2

=u
2 so that

The three cases depend on this real value:

Imposing closure under multiplication generates a multivector space spanned by a basis of 2k elements, {1, e1 , e2 ,
e3 , ..., e1 e2 , ..., e1 e2 e3 , ...}. These can be interpreted as
the basis of a hypercomplex number system. Unlike the
basis {e1 , ..., ek}, the remaining basis elements may or
may not anti-commute, depending on how many simple
exchanges must be carried out to swap the two factors.
So e1 e2 = e2 e1 , but e1 (e2 e3 ) = +(e2 e3 )e1 .

If 4a0 = a1 2 , the above formula yields 2 = 0.

Hence, can directly be identied with the nilpotent
element of the basis {1, } of the dual numbers. Putting aside the bases for which ei2 = 0 (i.e. directions
in the original space over which the quadratic form was
If 4a0 > a1 2 , the above formula yields 2 > 0. This degenerate), the remaining Cliord algebras can be idenleads to the split-complex numbers which have nor- tied by the label Cp,q(R), indicating that the algebra is
malized basis {1, j} with j 2 = +1 . To obtain constructed from p simple basis elements with ei2 = +1,
j from , the latter
must be divided by the positive q with ei2 = 1, and where R indicates that this is to be
a2
real number a := a0 + 41 which has the same a Cliord algebra over the realsi.e. coecients of elements of the algebra are to be real numbers.
square as has.
These algebras, called geometric algebras, form a system If 4a0 < a1 2 , the above formula yields 2 < 0. This atic set, which turn out to be very useful in physics probleads to the complex numbers which have normal- lems which involve rotations, phases, or spins, notably in
ized basis {1, i} with i2 = 1 . To yield i from , classical and quantum mechanics, electromagnetic theory
the latter has
to be divided by a positive real num- and relativity.
a21
ber a :=
4 a0 which squares to the negative Examples include:
the complex numbers C,(R),
2
of .
split-complex numbers C,(R), quaternions C,(R),
split-biquaternions C,(R), coquaternions C,(R)
The complex numbers are the only two-dimensional hy- C,(R) (the natural algebra of two-dimensional space);
percomplex algebra that is a eld. Algebras such as C,(R) (the natural algebra of three-dimensional space,
the split-complex numbers that include non-real roots of and the algebra of the Pauli matrices); and the spacetime
1 also contain idempotents 12 (1 j) and zero divisors algebra C,(R).
(1 + j)(1 j) = 0 , so such algebras cannot be division The elements of the algebra Cp,q(R) form an even subalgebras. However, these properties can turn out to be algebra C0 q,p(R) of the algebra Cq,p(R), which
very meaningful, for instance in describing the Lorentz can be used to parametrise rotations in the larger algetransformations of special relativity.
bra. There is thus a close connection between complex
In a 2004 edition of Mathematics Magazine the twodimensional real algebras have been styled the generalized complex numbers.[13] The idea of cross-ratio
of four complex numbers can be extended to the twodimensional real algebras.[14]

4
4.1

Higher-dimensional
examples
(more than one non-real axis)
Cliord algebras

A Cliord algebra is the unital associative algebra generated over an underlying vector space equipped with a
quadratic form. Over the real numbers this is equivalent
to being able to dene a symmetric scalar product, uv =
(uv + vu) that can be used to orthogonalise the quadratic
form, to give a set of bases {e1 , ..., ek} such that:

{
1
2 (ei ej

+ ej ei ) =

1, 0, +1
0

i = j,
i = j.

numbers and rotations in two-dimensional space; between

quaternions and rotations in three-dimensional space; between split-complex numbers and (hyperbolic) rotations
(Lorentz transformations) in 1+1-dimensional space, and
so on.
Whereas CayleyDickson and split-complex constructs
with eight or more dimensions are not associative with
respect to multiplication, Cliord algebras retain associativity at any number of dimensions.
In 1995 Ian R. Porteous wrote on The recognition of
subalgebras in his book on Cliord algebras. His Proposition 11.4 summarizes the hypercomplex cases:[15]
Let A be a real associative algebra with unit element 1. Then
1 generates R (algebra of real numbers),
any two-dimensional subalgebra generated by an element e0 of A such that e0 2 = 1 is isomorphic to C
(algebra of complex numbers),
any two-dimensional subalgebra generated by an element e0 of A such that e0 2 = 1 is isomorphic to 2 R
(algebra of split-complex numbers),

4.3

Tensor products

any four-dimensional subalgebra generated by a set

{e0 , e1 } of mutually anti-commuting elements of A
such that e20 = e21 = 1 is isomorphic to H (algebra
of quaternions),

3
split-octonions with basis {1, i1 , . . . , i7 } satisfying i21 = i22 = i23 = 1 , i24 = = i27 =
+1.

Unlike the complex numbers, the split-complex numbers

are not algebraically closed, and further contain zero divisors and non-trivial idempotents. As with the quaternions, split-quaternions are not commutative, but further
contain nilpotents; they are isomorphic to the 2 2 real
any eight-dimensional subalgebra generated by a set matrices. Split-octonions are non-associative and contain
{e0 , e1 , e2 } of mutually anti-commuting elements nilpotents.
of A such that e20 = e21 = e22 = 1 is isomorphic to
2
H (split-biquaternions),
4.3 Tensor products
any four-dimensional subalgebra generated by a set
{e0 , e1 } of mutually anti-commuting elements of A
such that e20 = e21 = 1 is isomorphic to M2 (R) (2
2 real matrices, coquaternions),

any eight-dimensional subalgebra generated by a set

{e0 , e1 , e2 } of mutually anti-commuting elements
of A such that e20 = e21 = e22 = 1 is isomorphic to
M2 (C) (biquaternions, Pauli algebra, 2 2 complex
matrices).

The tensor product of any two algebras is another algebra,

which can be used to produce many more examples of
hypercomplex number systems.

In particular taking tensor products with the complex

numbers (considered as algebras over the reals) leads to
For extension beyond the classical algebras, see four-dimensional tessarines C R C , eight-dimensional
biquaternions C R H , and 16-dimensional complex ocClassication of Cliord algebras.
tonions C R O .

4.2

CayleyDickson construction

For more details on this topic, see CayleyDickson

construction.
All of the Cliord algebras Cp,q(R) apart from the real
numbers, complex numbers and the quaternions contain
non-real elements that square to +1; and so cannot be division algebras. A dierent approach to extending the
complex numbers is taken by the CayleyDickson construction. This generates number systems of dimension
2n , n = 2, 3, 4, ..., with bases {1, i1 , . . . , i2n 1 } , where
all the non-real basis elements anti-commute and satisfy
i2m = 1 . In 8 or more dimensions (n 3) these algebras are non-associative. In 16 or more dimensions (n
4) these algebras also have zero-divisors.
The rst algebras in this sequence are the fourdimensional quaternions, eight-dimensional octonions,
and 16-dimensional sedenions. An algebraic symmetry
is lost with each increase in dimensionality: quaternion
multiplication is not commutative, octonion multiplication is non-associative, and the norm of sedenions is not
multiplicative.
The CayleyDickson construction can be modied by inserting an extra sign at some stages. It then generates the
split algebras in the collection of composition algebras
instead of the division algebras:
split-complex numbers with basis {1, i1 } satisfying i21 = +1 ,
split-quaternions with basis {1, i1 , i2 , i3 } satisfying i21 = 1, i22 = i23 = +1 , and

4.4 Further examples

bicomplex numbers: a 4-dimensional vector space
over the reals, 2-dimensional over the complex numbers
multicomplex numbers: 2n1 -dimensional vector
spaces over the complex numbers
composition algebra: algebra with a quadratic form
that composes with the product

5 See also
Thomas Kirkman
Georg Scheers
Richard Brauer
Hypercomplex analysis

6 References
[1] Linear Associative Algebra (1881) American Journal of
Mathematics 4(1):2216
[2] Adams, J. F. (July 1960). On the Non-Existence of Elements of Hopf Invariant One. Annals of Mathematics.
72 (1): 20104. doi:10.2307/1970147. JSTOR 1970147.
[3] Thomas Hawkins (1972) Hypercomplex numbers, Lie
groups, and the creation of group representation theory,
Archive for History of Exact Sciences 8:24387

[4] Noether, Emmy (1929), Hyperkomplexe Gren und

Darstellungstheorie [Hypercomplex Quantities and the
Theory of Representations], Mathematische Annalen (in
German), 30: 64192, doi:10.1007/BF01187794
[5] Kantor, I.L., Solodownikow (1978), Hyperkomplexe
Zahlen, BSB B.G. Teubner Verlagsgesellschaft, Leipzig
[6] Kantor, I. L.; Solodovnikov, A. S. (1989), Hypercomplex
numbers, Berlin, New York: Springer-Verlag, ISBN 9780-387-96980-0, MR 996029
[7] Karen Parshall (1985) Wedderburn and the Structure of
Algebras Archive for History of Exact Sciences 32:223
349
[8] Theodor Molien (1893) "ber Systeme hher complexen
Zahlen, Mathematische Annalen 41:83156
[9] Eduard Study (1898) Theorie der gemeinen und hhern
komplexen Grssen, Encyclopdie der mathematischen
Wissenschaften I A 4 14783
[10]

B.L. van der Waerden (1985) A History of Algebra,

Chapter 10: The discovery of algebras, Chapter
11: Structure of algebras, Springer, ISBN 3-54013610X

[11] Isaak Yaglom (1968) Complex Numbers in Geometry,

pages 10 to 14
[12] John H. Ewing editor (1991) Numbers, page 237,
Springer, ISBN 3-540-97497-0
[13] Anthony A. Harkin & Joseph B. Harkin (2004) Geometry
of Generalized Complex Numbers, Mathematics Magazine 77(2):11829

EXTERNAL LINKS

lie Cartan (1908) Les systmes de nombres complex et les groupes de transformations, Encyclopdie des sciences mathmatiques pures et appliques I 1. and Ouvres Completes T.2 pt. 1, pp
107246.
Max Herzberger (1923) Ueber Systeme hyperkomplexer Grssen, doctoral dissertation at Frederick
William University.
Jeanne La Duke (1983) The study of linear associative algebras in the United States, 18701927,
see pp. 147159 of Emmy Noether in Bryn Mawr
Bhama Srinivasan & Judith Sally editors, Springer
Verlag.
Silviu Olariu (2002) Complex Numbers in N Dimensions, North-Holland Mathematics Studies #190,
Elsevier ISBN 0-444-51123-7 .
Irene Sabadini, Michael Shapiro & Frank Sommen,
editors (2009) Hypercomplex Analysis and Applications Birkhauser ISBN 978-3-7643-9892-7 .
Henry Taber (1904) On Hypercomplex Number
Systems, Transactions of the American Mathematical Society 5:509.
Joseph Wedderburn (1908) On Hypercomplex
Numbers, Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society 6:77118.

8 External links

[14] Sky Brewer (2013) Projective Cross-ratio on Hypercomplex Numbers, Advances in Applied Cliord Algebras
23(1):114

Hazewinkel, Michiel, ed. (2001), Hypercomplex

number, Encyclopedia of Mathematics, Springer,
ISBN 978-1-55608-010-4

[15] Ian R. Porteous (1995) Cliord Algebras and the Classical

Groups, pages 8889, Cambridge University Press ISBN
0-521-55177-3

History of the Hypercomplexes on hyperje.com

Further reading
Daniel Alfsmann (2006) On families of 2^N dimensional hypercomplex algebras suitable for digital signal processing, 14th European Signal Processing Conference, Florence, Italy.
Emil Artin (1928) Zur Theorie der hyperkomplexen Zahlen and Zur Arithmetik hyperkomplexer Zahlen, in The Collected Papers of Emil
Artin, Serge Lang and John T. Tate editors, pp 301
45, Addison-Wesley, 1965.
Baez, John (2002), The Octonions, Bulletin of
the American Mathematical Society, 39: 145205,
doi:10.1090/S0273-0979-01-00934-X, ISSN 00029904

Hypercomplex.info
Weisstein, Eric W. Hypercomplex number.
MathWorld.
E. Study, On systems of complex numbers and their
application to the theory of transformation groups
(English translation)
G. Frobenius, Theory of hypercomplex quantities
(English translation)

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