WILJAM FLIGHT TRAINING

Chapter 1.5
Airspeed Indicator
Introduction
The airspeed at which an aeroplane is travelling through the air is essential to the pilot, both for
the safe and efficient handling of the aeroplane and as a basic input to the navigation
calculations.
Principle of the Airspeed Indicator (ASI)
When an aeroplane is stationary on the ground it is subject to normal atmospheric or static
pressure, which acts equally on all parts of the aeroplane structure. In flight the aeroplane
experiences an additional pressure due to the aeroplane's motion through the air, which is
known as dynamic pressure, and is dependent upon the forward motion of the aeroplane and
the density of the air, according to the following formula:
PT = 1/2V2 + PS
where PT = total or pitot pressure(also known as total head pressure or stagnation pressure)
PS - static pressure
- air density
V = velocity of the aeroplane (TAS)

Re-arranging the formula, the difference between the pitot and static pressures is equal to
2
V (dynamic pressure). The airspeed indicator thus measures the pressure differential
between the two sources, and provides a display indication graduated in units of speed.
Operation of a Simple ASI
In the simple ASI, a capsule acting as a pressure sensitive element is mounted in an airtight
case, as shown on the next page. Pitot pressure is fed into the capsule and static pressure is
fed to the interior of the case which, when the aeroplane is in motion, will contain the lower
pressure. A pressure difference will cause the capsule to open out with any movement being
proportional to the pressure differential across the capsule skin (pitot - static). A mechanical
linkage is used to transfer the capsule movement to a pointer that moves over a dial, and which
is normally calibrated in knots. A bi-metallic strip is also incorporated in the mechanical linkage
to compensate for any expansion/contraction of the linkage caused by temperature variations.
Sensitive and Servo Airspeed Indicators
Sensitive and Servo airspeed indicators both use the same principle of operation as the simple
ASI. The sensitive ASI uses a stack of two or more interlinked capsules, which are connected
to two pointers via an extended gear train. This enables the instrument to respond to smaller
pressure changes and thus smaller changes in airspeed. The capsule assembly has a linear
pressure/deflection characteristic, which is more closely controlled than the single capsule used
in the simple ASI.
The servo airspeed indicator also uses an electrical linkage rather than a mechanical linkage to
position the indicator needles, which is done by firstly amplifying the error signal

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THE AIRSPEED INDICATOR IS A

DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE GAUGE

Calibration of the ASI

Standard datum values are used in the calibration of air speed indicators since dynamic
pressure varies with air speed and air density. Density also varies with temperature and
pressure,. The values used are the sea level values of the ICAO International Standard
Atmosphere (ISA).
Colour Coding of the ASI
The scale is calibrated in terms of speed, usually knots or miles per hour (MPH), but in some
cases may be kilometres per hour (KPH). It is thus essential that you know which terms are
being displayed on the ASI. On light aeroplanes the dial is normally colour coded as shown on
the next page, with the coloured segments indicating the following:White arc. This arc extends from VSO (stall full flap) to VFE (maximum speed with flaps
extended), and marks the flap operating speed range.
Green arc. This arc extends from VSI (stall clean) to VNO (normal operating speed), and
is the normal operating speed range.
Yellow. This arc extends from VNO to VNE (never exceed speed), and denotes the
cautionary speed range. Operations within this speed range should not be carried out
except in smooth air only.
Red Radial line. This line marks VNE.

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Other lines may also be used, eg. a blue radial line, which is sometimes used to indicate the
maximum rate of climb speed in a twin-engine aeroplane with one engine inoperative (VYSE).
Some ASIs also have adjustable bugs that can be used to set a target speed, eg. the
threshold speed.

STALL SPEED
FULL FLAP

RED
240
220

V NE
NEVER
EXCEED
SPEED

VS0
V S1

40

AIRSPEED

200

60

STALL SPEED
CLEAN

(BOTH WINGS LEVEL

MAXIMUM WEIGHT)

80
KNOTS

180

WHITE

100
160

140

120

V FE

YELLOW

MAXIMUM FLAPS
EXTENDED SPEED

VNO

GREEN

NORMAL OPERATING
LIMIT SPEED

ASI Errors
The dial of the ASI is calibrated to a formula, which assumes constant air density (standard
mean sea level) and no instrument defects. Any departure from these conditions, or disturbance
in the pitot or static pressures being applied to the instrument, will result in a difference between
the indicated and true air speeds. The following sources of error exist:Instrument Error. This error is caused by the manufacturers' permitted tolerances in
the construction of the instrument. This error is determined by calibration and if it is
found to be significant is recorded on a calibration card. This correction is normally
combined with that for pressure error.
Pressure Error. This error arises from the movement of the air around the aeroplane
and causes disturbances in the static and pitot pressure. The causes of this error are:Position of the Pitot-Static Sensors. This can alter the pressures being fed
to the instrument, and is particularly so in the case of a combined pitot-static
head where the dynamic pressure component may significantly affect the static
supply. To minimise this source of error separate static vents are positioned
well away from the pitot head, which can result in a 95% reduction in the overall
pressure error.
The position/pressure error is normally determined by
calibration, and a pressure error card is tabulated in the Aeroplane Flight
Manual. This card may also incorporate any instrument error calibrations.
Manoeuvre Induced Error. This is caused by changes in the aeroplanes
attitude and/or configuration and is normally only short term. The main sources
of error is normally in the static supply, but since the transient affects of
manoeuvre induced error are not predictable or avoidable, the flight crew must
be aware of this problem.
The pressure error will change if any of the following vary:-

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Airspeed
Angle of attack
Configuration (flap setting, undercarriage etc)
Position of the pitot/static sources and sideslip

Compressibility Error. The calibration formula for most airspeed indicators does not
contain any compensation for the fact that the air is compressible. At low airspeeds this
is insignificant but at airspeeds over 300KTAS this factor becomes significant. This is
especially so at high altitudes where the less dense air is easily compressed.
Compressibility causes an increase in the measured value of dynamic pressure, which
will cause the ASI to over-read. Thus, compressibility varies with airspeed and altitude.
The error and correction can be compensated on some mechanical navigation
computers but is tabulated against altitude, temperature and CAS in the handbooks of
others.
Density Error. Dynamic pressure varies with airspeed and density of the air. In
calibration, standard mean sea level pressure is used; thus, for any other condition of
air density, the ASI will be in error. As altitude increases, the density decreases and the
indicated airspeed (IAS), and thus equivalent air speed (EAS) at speeds in excess of
300 KTAS, will become progressively lower than the true air speed (TAS). For example
at 40,000 ft the density is only of its msl value. The dynamic pressure, which is
proportional to TAS2, will thus be the msl value for the same TAS, ie. an aeroplane
flying at 400 KTAS will have an IAS of 200 knots. The following formula will help to
establish the relationship:

EAS = TAS

altitude
sea level

For accuracy, the correction of CAS to TAS is done on a navigational computer using
the ambient temperature (outside air temperature), at the required pressure altitude. A
useful formula for estimating TAS is:TAS = CAS + (1.75% of CAS per 1000 ft of altitude)
For example for a CAS of 100 knots at 10,000 ft:
TAS = 100 + (1.75/100 x100 x 10) = 117.5 knots
The relationship between the various air speeds is as follows:

Air Speed Indicator Reading (ASIR) + Instrument Error Correction=Indicated Air

Speed(IAS)

IAS + Pressure Error Correction = Calibrated Air Speed (CAS)

CAS + Compressibility Error Correction = Equivalent Air Speed (EAS)

EAS + Density Error Correction = True Air Speed (TAS)

In practice, the corrections are combined to give:

ASIR + Instrument Error Correction + Pressure Error Correction = CAS

CAS + Compressibility Error Correction + Density Error Correction = TAS

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ASI Faults
The following faults may occur in the ASI:
Blockages. A blockage of the pitot tube, as shown on the next page, possibly due to
ice, will cause the ASI not to respond to changes of speed in level flight. The capsule
will however behave as a barometer or altimeter capsule, and will react to changes in
the static pressure. If the aeroplane climbs, the ASI will indicate an increase in airspeed
(over-read) and if it descends, it will indicate a decrease in airspeed (under-read).
CLIMB

DESCENT

PITOT BLOCKAGE

STATIC

A. STATIC IN CASING
DECREASES

PITOT BLOCKAGE

STATIC

A. STATIC IN CASING
INCREASES
OVERREAD

B. STATIC IN CAPSULE
REMAINS HIGH

B. STATIC IN CAPSULE
REMAINS LOW

UNDERREAD

If the static line is blocked, the ASI will over-read at lower altitudes, and under-read at
higher altitudes than that at which the line became blocked.
CLIMB

PITOT

DESCENT

STATIC
BLOCKAGE

A. STATIC IN CASING
REMAINS HIGH
B. STATIC IN CAPSULE
REDUCES

PITOT

STATIC
BLOCKAGE

A. STATIC IN CASING
REMAINS LOW
UNDERREAD

B. STATIC IN CAPSULE
INCREASES

OVERREAD

Leaks. A leak in the pitot system will cause the ASI to under-read, whilst a leak in the
static line will cause the ASI to over-read in an unpressurised fuselage (cabin pressure
is usually lower than the atmospheric static pressure), and under-read in a pressurised
aeroplane (cabin pressure higher than static).
Whilst any under-reading of the ASI is undesirable, it is not necessarily dangerous, but overreading of the ASI is dangerous, since a stall will occur at a higher indicated airspeed than that
specified for the aeroplane.
Some modern ASIs also employ coloured flags and needles as attention getters, ie. to indicate
any electrical or transmission failure, and also to draw attention to important altitude indicators.

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Calculation of CAS to TAS (up to 300 knots)
To calculate TAS from CAS using a CRP5 rotate the inner disc of the computer to align the
outer edge of the airspeed window with the pressure altitude (altitude with 1013 mb set on the
altimeter subscale) inside the window. Position the cursor through the CAS on the inner circular
slide rule scale and read off TAS on the outer scale.
Example: If the pressure altitude is 18,000ft, the COAT is 30C and CAS is 170 knots, then
the TAS will be:Solution: In the airspeed window set 18 (pressure altitude x 1000 ft) opposite 30C
on the COAT scale. Next position the cursor through the CAS of 170 knots on the inner
slide rule scale and read of the TAS of 220 knots on the outer scale.
Note: As a reminder of which way to read CAS to TAS there is a red CAS (RAS) on the inner
scale between 35 and 40, and a red TAS on the outer scale also between 35 and 40.

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