Cha 2 PDF

Chapter 2
Hydrocarbon Reservoirs in Venezuela
Introduction
Ta Juana (onshore)
Lagunillas
Ta Juana (offshore)
Ceuta
Mara Oeste
Silvestre
Oveja
Santa Rosa
Carito
El Furrial
Pedernales
Cerro Negro
HYDROCARBON RESERVOIRS IN VENEZUELA
Introduction
During the last eight decades Venezuela
has been outstanding worldwide as one of
the most important countries for its
significant oil reserves, production potential
and variety of crudes. In this chapter,
Venezuelan hydrocarbon accumulations are
described from the exploitation point of
view, first in a broad basin-to-basin overview, and then in a discussion of 12 specific
reservoirs that are typical of Venezuelan oil
fields. Their geographical and geological
locations are defined, petrophysical and
thermodynamic properties are indicated,
reserves and extracted fluids are quantified,
and their particular reservoir drive mechanisms are characterized.
Table 2.1
Western Province
Maracaibo
Area
Primary oil fields
Western Coast
La Paz, Boscn, Concepcin, Mara, Los Claros,

Urdaneta, Los Manueles, Tarra
Lama, Lamar, Centro
Ta Juana, Lagunillas, Bachaquero, Ceuta,
Motatn, Barua, Ambrosio
Center Lake
Eastern Coast*
Falcn
Western
Eastern
Tiguaje, Hombre Pintado, Media, El Mene

La Vela, La Ensenada, Cumarebo
Barinas-Apure
Barinas
Apure
Silvestre, Silvan, Sinco, Pez-Mingo

Guafita, La Victoria
Eastern Province
Area
Primary oil fields
Maturn**
Anaco
Oficina
Santa Rosa, San Joaqun, El Roble, Santa Ana

Melones, Oficina Central, Yopales, Oveja,
Oritupano, Dacin, Ostra, Mata
North Monagas
South Monagas
Orinoco Belt
El Furrial, Santa. Brbara, Jusepn, Carito,

Pedernales, Quiriquire
Jobo, Morichal, El Salto, Piln
Cerro Negro, Hamaca, Zuata, Machete
Las Mercedes
Beln, Guavinita, Palacio
Gurico**
*Also called Bolvar District Coast or Bolvar Coastal Field (BCF)

** Sub-basin
Geographical location of the main oil fields in Venezuela.
Geographical location
A total of 360 oil fields have been
identified in Venezuela, representing more
than 17,300 hydrocarbon reservoirs in an
area of 23.41106 acres (13% of the national
territory surface), of which 52% is found in
the eastern province and the remaining in
the western province (Fig 1.0 from Geology
chapter and Table 2.1).
General description
Before describing the different hydrocarbon accumulations, it is important to
mention that Venezuela produces all of the
crude oil types currently existing in the
world. Specific API gravity classification is
as follows:
Bitumen
(B)
up to 8.2
Extra-heavy crudes
(XH)
up to 9.9
Heavy crudes
(H)
from 10.0 to 21.9
Medium crudes
(M)
from 22.0 to 29.9
Light crudes
and condensates
(L)
(C)
from 30.0 up
Western Province
1) Maracaibo Basin
The main hydrocarbon accumulations

are found in the Eocene and Pliocene sandstones of deltaic origin. In general, the
lightest crudes and condensates lie in the
oldest and deepest formations (Cretaceous,
Basement, Paleocene, Eocene).
Offshore Area
Member
Upper
Medium
BAMED38
Lower
BAINF59
Laguna
Reservoir
BASUP10
BASUP57
BA2
A3
Sta.
Brb. Lower Upper Lower Lag.
Sta.
Brb. Lower Upper Lower Lag.
La Rosa
Laguna
MIOCENE
Lagunillas
Bachaquero
AGE
Formation
Figure 2.1
BA12
BA16
A10
LL345
LL711
LL12
LL34
LR11
SB1471
SB05
EOCENE
Stratigraphic nomenclature of
Miocene reservoirsBolvar
District Coast (Source: Roger,
J. V. et al., 1989).
a) Eastern Coast
Onshore oil fields are the Cabimas, Ta
Juana, Lagunillas and Bachaquero, which
produce heavy crudes from the Miocene-age
Lagunillas and La Rosa Formations that
overlie the Eocene unconformity (Fig. 2.1).
These reservoirs extend offshore along the
lake coast, but at greater depth, which
affects fluid properties and results in heavy
to medium crudes.
The Misoa Formation sandstones
constitute the main Eocene hydrocarbon
reservoirs. Crudes are medium to light,
varying with depth. The B sandstone
package, divided into nine members, mainly
produces medium crude and partially light
crude from the B-7 to B-5 sandstones. The
C sandstone package has a light crude
accumulation and the C-7 to C-4 members
are the main producers.
Gas and condensates from the Cretaceous have been discovered in the Ambrosio
Field, close to Cabimas, north of the Lake.
The prevailing production mechanisms
are solution gas, water drive, and compaction, as well as gas and/or water injection for
pressure maintenance in the reservoirs.
Later in this chapter, the Ta Juana,
Lower Lagunillas-07, B-6-X.03, and Ceuta
Eocene C/VLG-3676 are described as
examples of Eastern Coast reservoir .
Table 2.2
Formation
Member*
Gravity
API
Depth
M ft
OOIP
MMSTB
Recovery
Factor (%)
Drive**
Sta. Barbara (a)
2932
711
750
30
1,2
Misoa (b)
2934
7.113.5
7600
40
1,2,4
Guasare (c)
3538
1017.5
10
17
2,3
S/L/C (d)
3242
12.420
720
21.5
1,2,3
*(a) Miocene, (b) Eocene, (c) Paleocene, (d) Cretaceous Socuy/La Luna/Cogollo
** 1. Water, 2. Solution gas, 3. Gas cap, 4. Expansion
b) Center Lake
In the Center Lake area the most
important oil fields are Lama, Lamar and
Centro. Production comes primarily from the
Eocene (B and C sandstones) and partially from the Miocene La Rosa Formation,
Santa Barbara Member. Crudes are mainly
light. Light oil is also produced from the
Paleocene Guasare Formation limestones.
The Cogollo Group, including the Maraca,
Lisure and Apn Formations, as well as the
La Luna Formation and the Socuy Member,
all of Cretaceous age, are fractured
sandstones and light oil producers. Some
Lama Field characteristics, shown in the
Table 2.2, describe the Center Lake oil
accumulations in general terms.
c) Western coast
The areas most important fields are
Boscn, Mara-La Paz and Urdaneta northward and Tara-Manueles southward. In
general, oil from Basement and Cretaceous
limestones is light, and heavy to medium
from the Tertiary (Eocene, Misoa Formation
to the north, Mirador Formation to the
south). There are some exceptions, such as
heavy crudes from the Eocene Boscn and
Urdaneta Fields and 16API Cretaceous Mara
Field (see Cretaceous DM-115 reservoir description later in this chapter). The La Paz
Field produces light oil from the Basement
and Cretaceous; however, nearby the La
Concepcin Field is a light oil and gas
producer from the Tertiary. To the south,
medium to light oil accumulations are found
in the Tertiary, and the Cretaceous limestones contain gas and condensates. The
light to medium oil from the Cretaceous limestones are in the center zone, which includes
Alpuf, San Jose and Machiques Fields.
Characteristics of the oil-producing sands in the Lama Field, located in Center Lake.
2) Falcn Basin
Figure 2.2
Formation
depth range
AGE
Sand
In the Falcn Basin the hydrocarbon accumulations occur in

Oligomiocene rocks. In general the
oil from the Falcn Western fields
(Tiguaje, El Mene, Hombre
Pintado) and some from Eastern
fields (Mene de Acosta, Cumarebo)
comes from sandstones. From the
Ensenada y La Vela areas, production comes from carbonates.
Crudes are light with low sulfur
and metal content.
Member
A710
B
C
D
F
LOWER-MIDDLE MIOCENE
TERTIARY
AQA6
H
IJ
KL
MN
UP
R
S
Oficina
10005000 feet
Azul
Moreno
Naranja
Verde
Amarillo
Colorado
OLIGOCENE
T
Merecure
2501500 feet
a) Barinas
Heavy to medium crudes are produced from the Eocene GobeStratigraphic column Oficina Formation
rnador Formation (Members A
Greater Oficina Area (Source: Roger, J. V.
and B) and medium crude from
et al., 1989).
the Cretaceous Escandalosa Formation (Member P). The Pez-Mingo, Hato
and Sinco Fields are located in the southern
area; Silvestre (see reservoir P1/2 [0017] later
in this chapter) is in the center area, and
Figure 2.3a
40,000
30 Percentage of each region total
34.823
34.819
MMSTB
30,000
48
67
20,000
16.370
22
10.956
10,000
9.716
8.430
15
47
6.340
4.665
30
1
22
108
12
2.087
0
3
C
L M
XH
Venezuela
6.654
4
4
M H XH
Western
Remaining oil reserves (1996) by region and type of crude.
3.765
13
4.676
9
7
1.979
C
b) Apure
Light crudes come from Guafita
(Oligocene Carbonera Formation, Members
A and B) and La Victoria Fields
(Cretaceous Escandalosa Formation). The
reservoirs main drive mechanisms are water
and fluid expansion.
Eastern Province
1) Maturn sub-basin
3) BarinasApure Basin
Temblador
8002000 feet
CRETACEOUS
Silvan, Maporal and Palmita Fields are in the

northern area. Water is the prevailing
reservoir drive mechanism.
H XH
Eastern
The most important hydrocarbon

accumulations occur in Tertiary formations
mainly from the Oligocene (Merecure
Formation) and the Miocene (Oficina and
Merecure Formations), (Fig. 2.2). More than
10,000 proven reservoirs have been
classified, most of them being small, with
variable rock and fluid characteristics and all
with known natural production mechanisms.
a) Greater Oficina Area
South Anaco thrust fault reservoirs
mainly contain saturated and unsaturated
oils, as well as some dry gas and condensate
types.
The produced crudes are light (Zapata,
Nardo, Chimire, Kaki, Sato, La Ceibita, Zulos,
Budare), medium (Oficina Central, Limn,
Yopales, Nipa, Mata, Oscurote, Aguasay) and
heavy (Melones, Migas, Oveja, Dacin,
Ostra). As an example, see J-3 (OM-100)
Oveja reservoir later in this chapter.
Sandstone thicknesses vary from 3 to 100 ft
and the depths of the productive intervals
are between 4000 and 14,000 ft. Porosity
varies from 10 to 35% and permeability from
50 to 1000 md, and sometimes several
darcies. Most of these reservoirs have a gas
cap and some contain only gas.
b) Greater Anaco Area

The main fields in this area are Santa
Rosa (see RG-14-COEF reservoir description), Joaqun, Santa Ana and El Toco. They
are located north of the Anaco thrust fault.
Oil and condensate reservoirs prevail, even
though some dry gas reservoirs are present.
The average depth is around 7000 ft, and
average net oil sand (NOS) and net
condensate sand (NCS) are each 18 ft thick.
Porosity, permeability and water saturation
are approximately 17%, 160 md and 15%,
respectively. Average oil gravity is 39API
and condensate is 51API. In the Greater
Oficina and Anaco areas secondary recovery
(gas and/or water), steam and air injection,
and gas recycling projects have been
implemented.
Figure 2.3b
Venezuela
25%
29%
Western
50%
65%
10%
Eastern
21%
Orinoco Belt
5%
0.2%
Western
Maracaibo
Barinas-Apure
95%
99.8%
5%
4%
Eastern
2%
San Tom*
9%
70%
13%
Anaco
11%
6%
27%
N.Monagas**
8%
S.Monagas
44%
Gurico
1%
Orinoco Belt
* Mainly Oficina
** Includes other
minor fields
Oil
c) North Monagas Area

The main light oil fields are Jusepn,
Santa Brbara, Mulata/Carito, El Furrial;
medium to heavy crude fields are Orocual
and Manresa (Las Piedras Formation); and
near the Amacuro Delta medium to heavy
crudes are from Pedernales (La Pica Formation). Also described later in this chapter are
the so-called Naricual Sands from Carito
Central and El Furrial Fields. The main difference between these two is a huge gas cap in
Carito Central.
Associated and
solution gas
Remaining oil and gas reserves (1996) by region and geographical area.
Figure 2.3c
Western
2%
1%
12%
Maracaibo
98%
Barinas-Apure
CL
88%
99%
H XH
Eastern
1%
2%
3%
2%
3%
10%
13%
55%
35%
41%
37%
23%
1%
M
5%
2%
11%
74%
Anaco
1%
San Tom
N.Monagas
49%
S.Monagas
37%
Gurico
95%
Orinoco Belt
XH
Remaining oil reserves (1996) by type of crude and geographical area.
Table 2.3 Injection projects
Projects
Total (Active)
Water
Gas
Gas & Water
Steam
Total
83 (54)
119 (83)
13 (12)
2 (0)
217 (149)
Injected Volume
MMBWPD
MMscf/D
920
Oil Production
MMBOPD
MMSTB
970
543
317
(Primary & Secondary)

483
974
6972
3867
179
7138
1463
1287
323
1636
18,300*
*38% cumulative oil production (19141996)
Secondary recovery projects in Venezuela, 1996).
d) South Monagas Area

The main oil fields in this area are Piln,
Jobo, Morichal, El Salto, Temblador, Uracoa,
Bombal and Tucupita. Heavy and extraheavy crudes come from the Miocene
Oficina Formation. The thickest Member is
Morichal, overlain by Yabo, Jobo and Piln
Members. Reservoirs are shallow (1200 ft),
and oil viscosity is high (1200 cp, but can
reach up to 15,000 cp or more). Average
porosity, permeability and water saturation
are 30%, 2500 md and 27%, respectively.
Figure 2.4
Western
Eastern
30 Percentage of each region total
20000
24%
MMSTB
18000
17,782
17,481
14,903
14000
13,903
12,187
10000
36 36
40
8013
6000
2
2000
1
25
792
37
5 4174
22
L M H XH
2879 3578
36 25 31 3 383
575
217
383
C
76%
L M H XH
Western
Venezuela
M H XH
Eastern
Cumulative oil production (19141996) by region and type of crude.
e) Orinoco Belt
The 8.9 million acres in the Orinoco
Belt area have been divided into four sectors
from east to west: Cerro Negro (see Bitor
Area reservoir description), Hamaca, Zuata
and Machete. For the next decade, 600
MBOPD of enhanced crude (synthetic) are
expected from five major projects. Also, an
additional production of 400 MBOPD is
expected, which would be used to prepare
and export Orimulsin (70% extra-heavy oil
with 29% water and 1% surfactant).
2) Gurico sub-basin
Figure 2.5a
400
30
Western
Percentage of each region total

389
Eastern
388
42%
58%
300
MMSTB
285
35
281
35
200
207
176
182
44
28
25
100
105
103
45
22
27
2
C
M H XH
Venezuela
4
C
L M H XH
Western
Annual oil production (1996) by region and type of crude.
22
35
28
35
22
7
C L M H XH
Eastern
The producing zones of the Gurico

sub-basin consist of the Cretaceous Tigre
Formation and the Tertiary La Pascua,
Roblecito and Chaguaramos Formations.
Commercial production is located in the
Greater Las Mercedes area where 20
hydrocarbon accumulations are distributed
between seven fields. Southward crudes
have low gravity and high viscosity; to the
north condensate, associated gas and dry gas
are found; and in the center transitionalgravity crudes are present. In the early stages
of production, water was the main reservoir
drive, which later on was replaced by a
solution gas drive.
97% of the total proven remaining dry

gas reserves (13,600 Bscf) are found in the
eastern part of the country and the other 3%
occur within Occident.
Figure 2.5b
5%
Venezuela
Western
37%
58%
Eastern
58%
42%
Orinoco Belt
8%
Western
0.6%
Maracaibo
Barinas-Apure
92%
1%
11%
99.4%
Eastern
6%
5%
1%
8%
Anaco
17%
San Tom
41%
48%
N.Monagas
S.Monagas
57%
Oil
Annual oil and gas production

(1996) by region and
geographical area.
Gurico
Orinoco Belt
5%
Associated and
solution gas
Estimated reserves as of 12/31/96

By the end of 1996 total hydrocarbon
reserves in Venezuela, including proven,
probable and possible, are more than
200,000 million barrels of oil and 242,000 Bcf
of gas, of which 30,000 Bcf are associated
gas. Worldwide, Venezuela ranks sixth
among countries with major remaining
proven crude reserves, seventh with
remaining gas reserves and sixth as an
annual oil producer.
Estimated proven oil and gas reserves as
of December 31, 1996 are indicated in the
table on this page and shown by area and
type of crudes in Figs. 2.3a, 2.3b and 2.3c.
Oil
MMSTB
Gas*
Bscf
Original in place
838,680
291,629
Recovery factor (%)
14.5
66.6
Remaining reserves
72,666**
129,610
Production until 12/31/96

During the last eight decades until
December 1996, Venezuela has produced
48,600 MMSTB of oil (Fig. 2.4), 64,600 Bscf
of associated and solution gas, and 585 Bcf
of dry gas from almost 40,000 wells. During
1996, production capacity was 3.4 MMBOPD
(see distribution by region, area and type of
crudes in Figs. 2.5a and 2.5b) from 14,900
active wells. Another 15,000 wells can be
reactivated when needed.
Venezuelan hydrocarbon exploitation
was the result of natural depletion (natural
flow, artificial gas lift, mechanical and electrical pumping); enhanced recovery (cyclic
steam injection, in-situ combustion, polymers injection, and others); and, during the
last 50 years, by secondary recovery to maintain reservoir pressure and displace additional oil (gas and/or water injection, steam
drive injection). Table 2.3 shows the secondary recovery efforts in Venezuela (data from
the Ministry of Energy and Mines, 1996).
* Includes associated and solution gas, as well as 23,070

Bscf injected gas.
** Includes 2263 MMSTB of bitumen from the Orinoco Belt
(Bitor Area).
Figure 2.6
Geographical location of typical reservoirs.
West Mara
5
Maracaibo
Altagracia
Cabimas
B-6-X.03 1 Ta Juana
3
2 Lagunillas
LL-07
Bachaquero
Lake
Maracaibo
4
Ceuta
Barinas
Silvestre
6
0
Cumana
Barcelona
El Carito
40 km
El Furrial
11
9 10 Maturn Pedernales
Santa Rosa
8
50 km
Tucupita
Typical hydrocarbon
reservoirs
A total of 12 reservoirs are
identified in Fig. 2.6 and the following
table, and are considered typical of the
area in which they are located. Each of
these reservoirs is described below from the
production, geological, petrophysical and
reservoir engineering points of view.
oco
Oveja
7
0
Bitor Area Orin

12
50 km
Ciudad Bolvar
Ref.
Field
Reservoirs
Ta Juana
Lagunillas Formation
Lagunillas
Lower Lagunillas-07
Ta Juana
B-6-X-.03
Ceuta
Eocene C/VLG-3676
West Mara
Cretaceous DM-115
Silvestre
P1/2 (0017)
Oveja
J-3 (OM-100)
Santa Rosa
RG-14-COEF
Carito Central
Naricual Sands
10
El Furrial
Naricual Sands
11
Pedernales
P2 Sands
12
Cerro Negro
Morichal Member
RESERVOIR: LAGUNILLAS FORMATION
Introduction
The Ta Juana Field (onshore) is located
northeast of Lake Maracaibo between
the towns of Cabimas and Lagunillas
(Fig. 2.7). It is divided into Principal Ta
Juana and East Ta Juana Fields on which
18 thermal projects (17 cyclic steam injection
and one steam drive injection) have been
parceled out. The field has a heavy oil
accumulation (original oil in place [OOIP] of
more than 11,000 MMSTB) extending over
an area of more than 39,000 acres. There
have been 2700 wells drilled, 1800 of which
are still active.
Figure 2.7
Maracaibo
Boscn
Cabimas
Tia Juana
Lagunillas
Bachaquero
Machango
Mene
Grande
Los
Claros
FIELD: TIA JUANA (ONSHORE)
Location map of the Ta

Juana Field.
Figure 2.8
250'
'
250
U D
U
U D
750'
U
U D D
U D
U D
0'
U D
L D
D
U U
D D
75
U U
D D
U D
1250'
U D
U
D
125
0'
75
U D
0'
D U
D U
DU
D U
D U
D U
D U
1750
'
D U
D U
Lake
Maracaibo
Geology
a) Structure
The Ta Juana Field structure is a

monocline oriented northwestsoutheast
and gently dipping an average of 4 to 6 to
the southwest. The intersecting faults are
normal, with variable directions and
displacements (between 20 and 250 ft). The
main fault has a preferential northwestsoutheast trend (Fig. 2.8).
b) Stratigraphy
The post-Eocene stratigraphic sequence

(Fig. 2.9) in the Ta Juana Field consists,
from bottom to top, of the La Rosa
Formation of Miocene age, which
unconformably overlies the Misoa Formation
of Eocene age; the Miocene Lagunillas
Formation, which is subdivided into four
members: Lower Lagunillas, Ojeda (the most
shaly), Laguna and Bachaquero, with Lower
Lagunillas being the most important
producer; and the La Puerta Formation of
Mio-Pliocene age. The contacts between
these three main formations are conformable. The La Rosa Formation (70 ft
thick) consists of greenish-gray laminated
shales interbedded with thin sandstone
layers. The Lagunillas Formation (1260 ft
thick) is a sequence of shales, clays and
sandstones with occasional lignite layers.
The La Puerta Formation is a sequence of
white and gray clays, claystones and gray
sandstones.
D U
2250
'
12
50
U
D U
1750
'
'
Structural contour
D
Fault
Lower Lagunillas Top
Structural map of the Ta Juana reservoir.
c) Depositional environment
Formation (AGE)
Member
Figure 2.9
The Lower Lagunillas Member in the

Ta Juana Field consists of paralic, nonmarine sediments showing eventual marine
transgressions. Toward the northwest, the
lower section consists of alluvial fan and
fluvial deposits. Conglomeratic sandstones
are very common, as well as claystone
conglomerates with a sandy matrix and
some intervals of claystones and
heterolites. Near the top of the section it is
less sandy, with the paralic deposits being
more common, consisting of medium- to
fine-grained sandstones.
ILD
GR
0
(gAPI)
ILM
Depth
120 (ft) .2 (ohm-m) 2000
Lagunillas (MIOCENE)
Lower Lagunillas
2300
2400
Petrophysical properties
The formation is a sequence of shales
and high-porosity (approximately 36%), unconsolidated sandstones (Fig. 2.9). Permeabilities are between 2 and 6 darcies and
irreducible water saturation is approximately 10%. The primary clays are
kaolinite, illite and montmorillonite, whose
volumes may reach 10 to 20%. The typical
interpretation parameters for the WaxmanSmits equation are: a=1, m*=1.6, n*=2.0, and
rg=2.6 g/cm3. Water salinity is between
2500 and 3500 ppm equivalent NaCl.
2500
La Rosa
2600
Typical log of the Lower

Lagunillas in Ta Juana Field.
The cutoffs used for porosity, water

saturation and shaliness are 20%, 50% and
50%, respectively.
Fluid properties
The oil formation volume factor (FVF)
is 1.05 RB/STB and the initial gas-oil ratio
(GOR) is 90 scf/STB at a 725 psia bubble
point pressure and 113F. These values are
averages and vary according to the
producing sandstone depth. Oil gravity
fluctuates between 9.2 and 14API (12API
average) and the temperature between 100
and 125F. The original pressure was
between 400 and 1000 psia, oil viscosity at
100F and atmospheric pressure between
1500 and 70,000 cp.
Reserves calculations were made
based on a 39,429-acre area, 130-ft average
sandstone thickness, 36% porosity, 68% oil
saturation, and an oil FVF of 1.05 RB/STB.
The official results are OOIP=11,114
MMSTB, recovery factor=25%, and
remaining reserves=1002 MMSTB.
Reservoir behavior until 12/31/96
a) Production, injection and pressure history
Figure 2.10
Wells-month
4000
Wells-month
3000
2000
1000
60
400
40
20
0
0
Qo
Np
1500
M-6
SDI
CSI
Thermal
recovery Generalization
pilot
tests
150
0
'52
'60
'64
'68
'72
500
CSI+
Additives
Nationalization
Large scale
CSI test
'56
1000
shut-in due
to market
'76
Year
Production history of the Ta Juana reservoir.
80
'80
'84
0
'88
'92
'96
Np (MMSTB)
Qo (MBOPD)
GOR
B, S &W
B, S & W (%)
GOR (scf/STB)
The Ta Juana Field was discovered in

1928. Since then and until 1959, the cold
average production was about 75 MBOPD,
with accumulations of 418 MMSTB coming
from approximately 900 wells. From 1957
until 1962, thermal recovery tests were
completed, such as Cyclic Steam Injection
(CSI), In Situ Combustion (dry and wet)
and Thermal Sandwich. In 1964, a CSI
project was started on a large scale, which
increased the production to 110 MBOPD.
Figure 2.11
Principal Ta Juana
East Ta Juana
R
A
APTJN
(Project A-3)
B
Proj. B/C-3
C
Proj. C-5 ext.
Proj. C-2/3 4
Proj. C-3/4
APTJEN
(C-7)
Proj. C-5
Proj. D-2/E-2
Project D-6
Proj. D/E-3
Proj. E-8
A total of 18 thermal projects have been

completed (Fig. 2.11). These are: 7 CSI in
Principal Ta Juana, including the so-called
Peripheral Areas along the field boundaries,
and 11 in East Ta Juana, including the M-6
SDI project. A total of 34.1 MM tons of steam
were injected into 2266 wells, recovering
1775 MMSTB of oil, 1039 MMSTB of which
are additional to what would have been
produced by natural depletion. An average of
approximately 4675 tons of steam has been
injected per cycle.
b) Reservoirs drive mechanisms

F
Proj. F-7
Proj. G-2/3
G
APTJC
Proj.
H-6
Proj.
H-7
Proj. G-2/3 ext.

Project
J-7
APTJEE
K
Project M-6
(inj. alt.)
Project M-6
(inj. cont.)
Lake
Maracaibo
M
N
APTJES
Thermal projects in the Ta Juana Field.
Figure 2.12
Graphic scale
5 10 km
400 cm
400
20
Ta Juana
500
Lagunillas
400
0
Lake
Maracaibo
400
Bachaquero
Then, starting in 1969, the CSI was

generalized for the whole Ta Juana
Field until a 230 MBOPD peak was
reached. The production then declined
to 60 BOPD in 1986. The M-6 Steam
Drive Injection (SDI) project was
initiated in 1978. Low production
between 1987 and 1991 is a consequence of partially shut-in wells due
to adverse marketing conditions. The
field is presently producing approximately 80 MBOPD with 18% B, S & W
and a GOR of 220 scf/STB (Fig. 2.10).
The main production mechanisms that

activate the Lagunillas Formation reservoirs in
Ta Juana Field are solution gas drive and
compaction. Compaction is especially
outstanding in the unconsolidated sandstones
of Ta Juana and other Bolvar District Coast
fields. Compaction is a consequence of fluid
pressure reduction in the reservoir during
production, which at the same time increases
the over-layer pressure. This causes these
layers to sink into the reservoir, which is
reflected as subsidence on the ground surface
(Fig. 2.12). Average subsidence until 1996
was approximately 15 ft. However,
compaction is an effective way to maintain
the reservoir pressure and, therefore, to
increase total oil recovery. Around 70% of the
production can be allocated to compaction.
50
Subsidence in the Bolvar

District Coast.
2 10
RESERVOIR: LOWER LAGUNILLAS07
Introduction
The Lower Lagunillas-07 (LL-07)
reservoir is located on Lake Maracaibos
eastern coast (offshore), in front of the
town of Lagunillas and north of
Bachaquero (Fig. 2.13). Its production life
started in 1926 and to date about 960 wells
that are approximately 4200 ft deep have
been completed. The reservoir covers an
estimated area of 31,000 acres and its OOIP
is 3830 MMSTB of heavy crude. Since 1984,
water from the Lagunillas Tank Yard has
been injected into the reservoir to maintain
its pressure, increase oil recovery and
eliminate the drainage of water effluents into
Lake Maracaibo.
Figure 2.13
Ta Juana
FIELD: LAGUNILLAS (LAKE)
Lagunillas
LL-07
Lake
Maracaibo
Bachaquero
Location map of the

LL-07 reservoir.
Figure 2.14
Isopach
60
650'
700
'
0'
Reservoir limit
D
20
34
Well
ke
Di
00'
Fault
0'
2000 Meters
550'
S. 55000
D
U
36
00
LL07
0'
0'
70
'
50
U
D
U
80
0'
40
0'
00
U D
'
50
UD
S. 60000
20
650'
0'
50'
0
35
'
U D
40
0'
40
0'
48
00'
D
U
46
00'
550'
U D
S. 65000
5
00
52
700'
00
'
0'
D
U
650'
5400'
350'
500'
E. 30000
E. 35000
Isopach-structural map of the LL-07 reservoir, on top of LL-A.
2 11
E. 40000
a) Structure
The isopach-structural map built on top

of the LL-A sandstone (Fig. 2.14) indicates a
monocline with 3 to 3.5 dip southwestward. The LL-07 reservoir extends to the
northwest (not shown on the map) at the
Laguna Member lease. To the southwest, the
reservoir is limited by a normal fault dipping
to the north, and is northwest-southeastoriented. Also to the south is an oil-water
contact that was originally found at
approximately 5000 ft subsea. To the
southwest and central-eastern areas there
are several extension faults with 30- to 50-ft
displacements intersecting the reservoir, but
they have a relatively small impact on its
trapping mechanism.
b) Stratigraphy
Structural
Geology
The LL-07 reservoir consists of the

Laguna and Lower Lagunillas Members of
the Lagunillas Formation, and the La Rosa
and Santa Brbara Members of the La Rosa
Formation, both of Miocene age (Fig. 2.15).
The reservoir conformably underlies the
Bachaquero Member, also from the
Lagunillas Formation, and uniformly overlies
the post-Eocene formations. The most
important member is the Lower Lagunillas,
which contains 89% of OOIP. This member
has been divided into three layers: LL-A, LLB and LL-C. The Laguna Member is
subdivided into four lenses, from LaA to
LaD, and the La Rosa Formation into two
lenses, the LRA and LRB.
FIELD: LAGUMILLAS (LAKE)
GR
Member
Formation (AGE)
Figure 2.15
(gAPI)
100
CALI
0.8
RHOB
ILD
Depth
(ft)
18
0.2
(in.)
2000 1.9
(ohm-m)
(g / cm3)
8.9
LaA
Laguna
3500
Lagunillas (MIOCENE)
LaB
LaC
3600
LaD
Data from 800 wells, of which only 31
have porosity logs, were used to determine
LL-07 reservoir petrophysical properties; a
few cores were also taken. A 12-ohm-m
resistivity was considered the cutoff to
estimate NOS thickness. The range of
sandstone thickness, porosity and oil saturation for each of the Lower Lagunillas Member
layers are as follows:
LLA
Lower Lagunillas
3700
LLB
3800
La Rosa
Sta. La.
Brb. Rosa
LLC
LRA
3900
LL-A
LL-B
LL-C
Thickness (ft)
2051
2654
1743
Porosity (%)
18.629.1
22.429.7
27.133.1
Oil Saturation (%) 84.685.9
76.285.0
30.267.2
LRB
Typical log in the LL-07 reservoir.

Figure 2.16
The Laguna Member and La Rosa

Formation sandstones do not have as attractive petrophysical properties or good lateral
continuity as the Lower Lagunillas Member.
A 1500-md average permeability was
determined from a permeability-thickness
ratio varying between 25 and 275 darcies/ft,
and was validated by core analysis.
400
Qo (MBOPD) B,S&W (%) GOR (scf/STB) Producers
The Laguna and Lower Lagunillas

Members of reservoir LL-07 consist mainly of
fluvial-deltaic deposits with some coastal
marine sediments, while the La Rosa
Formation is predominantly marine. In
general, the Laguna Member represents a
less extensive progradation than that of
the Lower Lagunillas, since fewer and
thinner sandstones are present. Its fluvial
deposition apparently did not extend as far
westward and southwestward as the Lower
Lagunillas Member.
200
0
2000
1000
0
80
40
0
40
20
0
'56
'60
'64
'68
'72
'76
'80
'84
'88
'92
'96
Year
Production history of the LL-07 reservoir.
2 12
FIELD: LAGUNILLAS (LAKE)
Figure 2.17
500
150
400
120
300
90
200
60
100
30
Qiw (MBPD)
Wi (MMSTB)
Water injection rate per day, Qiw

Cumulative water injected, Wi
0
'84
'85
'86
'87
'88
'89
'90
'91
'92
'93
'94
'95
'96
Year
Injection history of the LL-07 reservoir.
Fluid properties
Data from pressure-volume-temperature
(PVT) analyses (samples taken at 3700 ft
subsea and 140F) were used to determine
the LL-07 reservoir fluid properties, as
shown below:
Original pressure
1785
psia
Bubble point pressure, Pb
1785
psia
Oil FVF @ Pb
1.145
RB/STB
GOR @ Pb
213
scf/STB
Oil viscosity @ Pb
21
cp
Oil gravity
18
API

The following average data were used
to calculate oil reserves: 68 ft sandstone
thickness, 31,639 acres of area, 30% porosity
and 84% oil saturation. Results are shown in
the next table:
OOIP
3828 MMSTB
Recovery factor*
44.75%
Remaining reserves
201 MMSTB
*Including primary (39.29%) and secondary (5.46%)
89% of OOIP comes from the Lower

Lagunillas Member (LL-A=40%, LL-B=35%,
LL-C=14%), an average of 10% from the
Laguna Member, and less than 1% from the
La Rosa Formation.
2 13
The LL-07 reservoir production life

started in May 1926, and by December 1996
has produced 1512 MMSTB of 18API heavy
oil, 179 MMSTB of water and 863 Bscf of
gas. A total of 960 wells have been
completed. 284 of these wells are, on
mechanical pumps, producing 34,250 BOPD
(average December 1996) with a 850 scf/STB
GOR and 47% B, S & W. Until 1979 the
annual decline rate was 7.2%, when more
wells were completed in the reservoir,
increasing its production until 1984. In
February 1984 a water effluents injection
project was initiated on the southern flank.
The production continues to decline but at
an annual rate of 1.8%. Since 1991, the
production was maintained constant above
30,000 BOPD (Fig. 2.16). Water effluents
coming from the Lagunillas Tank Yard were
injected, mainly in the LL-A, LL-B and LL-C
lenses through 10 injector wells at a rate of
90 to 110 MBWPD, totaling 446 MMbbl of
water (Fig. 2.17). It was observed that the
injected water in the LL-C which was already
flooded, invaded the LL-B through vertical
communication.
The original bubble point pressure
declined from 1785 psia at a rate of 0.67
psia/MMSTB. The water injection started in
1984 when the pressure was 780 psia and
the cumulative oil production was 1400
MMSTB (Fig. 2.18). Pressure increased in the
reservoir up to the actual 911 psia, indicating
that the secondary recovery was beneficial
(between 1000 and 1400 psia were observed
in the non-drained areas, between 600 and
800 psia in the productive zone, and
between 900 and 1200 psia in the area close
to the injectors). Cumulative fluid
replacement is 78%. Cyclic steam injection
has been successfully tested in six wells; this
is another production technique that will
allow the recovery of substantial remaining
heavy oil reserves.
FIELD: LAGUMILLAS (LAKE)
Figure 2.18
1800
Pressure (psia)
1600
1400
Injection start
February 1984
1200
1000
800
600
~
~
~
~
The LL-07 reservoirs prevailing

production mechanism is rock compaction
mostly in the central-eastern region. Water
has also made a very important contribution
to oil recovery and, so has, to a lesser extent,
solution gas drive. Finally, water effluents
injection, which has been successful in
maintaining the pressure in the reservoir,
should be considered as another production
mechanism.
0
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
Cumulative oil production (MMSTB)
Pressure history of the LL-07 reservoir.
RESERVOIR: B-6-X.03
Figure 2.19
Maracaibo
Cabimas
Lake
Maracaibo
B6XX.03
Location map of the

B-6-X.03 reservoir.
Ta
Juana
FIELD: TIA JUANA (LAKE)
Introduction
The B-6-X.03 reservoir is located
offshore of the eastern coast of Lake
Maracaibo in the North Eocene area of the
Ta Juana Field (Fig. 2.19). It is characterized
by a medium OOIP of 2300 MMSTB, and by
gas injection at the top of the reservoir
combined with four water injection projects.
Cumulative oil production since 1945 has
been 456 MMSTB from 240 producers
associated with 70 water injectors and two
gas injectors.
Geology
a) Structure
The reservoir structure consists of two

asymmetrical anticlines (Fig. 2.20). The first
one, in the Punta Benitez area of the
northern block, has a flank facing NNW with
a 10 to 15 variable dip. The SSE flank has a
2 to 4 gentle dip. The second structure is
located in the southern block at the NNW
reservoir limit of the Ta Juana sector. It
extends toward the SSE as a monocline
gently dipping between 2 and 4. The B-6X.03 is limited by normal faults that separate
it from the B-6-X.02, B-6-X.10 and B-6-X.29
reservoirs. Possible communication exists
between the Area Sur-03 and B-7-X.04/B-6X.10 reservoirs, as well as between the
reservoir in the furthest southern sector and
the B-6-X.85.
2 14
RESERVOIR: B-6-X.03
b) Stratigraphy
Figure 2.20
B-6-X.49
N
B-6-X.01
B-6-X.29
NORTH-03
70
4
0
00
U D
B-6-X.02
NORTH-02
DU
00
5
0
470
B-6-X.93
U D
NORTH-01
D U
SOUTH-03
D U
50
The B-6-X.03 reservoir reflects six

prevailing environments of deposition:
crevasse fan, littoral, stream mouth bars, main
channel, distributary channel and delta front.
SOUTH-01
B-6-X.10
550
600
The source of basic petrophysical data
is from 24 cores from 24 wells with almost
1500 porosity and 1900 permeability
measurements. The correlation between
permeability and porosity is very poor for
each of the available cores. Therefore, two
groups of correlations have been established
according to the interpreted environment of
deposition, which affects the porous matrix.
SOUTH-02
A-01
UD
Structural
Area limit
D
B-6-X.85
Fault
Anticline axis
Structural map of the B-6-X.03 reservoir.
Table 2.4
Area
Datum
ft subsea
Temp.
F
Gravity
API
Rsi
scf/STB
Pb
psia
Bob
RB/STB
Mob
cp
B-6-X.03
5600
184
25.0
305
1720
1.201
3.80
North01
5600
184
25.0
305
1720
1.201
3.80
North02
5275
178
26.0
379
1816
1.238
2.15
North03
5200
177
26.5
396
1838
1.246
2.10
South01
5800
187
22.1
260
1646
1.179
5.30
South02
5950
190
20.9
226
1602
1.162
7.10
South03
5200
177
26.5
396
1838
1.246
2.10
Fluid property average values for the six regions that divide the B-6-X.03 reservoir.
2 15
The B-6-X.03 reservoir is part of the

Misoa Formation B sandstones of Eocene
age belonging to the Lake Maracaibo North
Eocene geological area (Fig. 2.21). It
conformably overlies and underlies the B-7X and B-5-X members, respectively. The B6-X.03 reservoir is divided into three
intervals called A, B and C from top to
bottom. A has the poorest geological and
petrophysical characteristics, with an
average thickness of 15 ft. It is believed to
have been eroded in several places. B and
C each have a 60-ft average thickness.
Each sandstone body is massive and shows
good vertical transmissibility.
RESERVOIR: B-6-X.03
Figure 2.21
Member
Formation
(AGE)
ILD
1
(ohm-m)
SFLU
1000
(ohm-m)
RXO
1000
45
(p.u.)
RHOB
-15
(ohm-m)
1000
1.9
(g cm3)
2.9
CALI
4
14
(gAPI)
150
B5X
(in.)
GR
Depth
(ft)
NPHI
6800
B6X
Misoa (EOCENE)
6900
Permeability
63 to 144 md
Porosity
14 to 15.2%
Oil saturation
77.7 to 85.2%
Fluid properties
Average fluid property values for the six
regions that divide the B-6-X.03 reservoir are
shown in Table 2.4:
The reservoirs formation water analysis
indicates 8000 ppm chlorine with 3000 ppm
bicarbonates.
7000
7100
B7X
The resulting two equations were considered reliable tools for obtaining area
distributions and permeability trends in all
reservoir layers and sectors. Based on 55
drainage capillary pressure tests, a correlation of the irreducible water saturation with
permeability and porosity was elaborated.
The ranges of the petrophysical properties
are as follows:

The B-6-X.03 reservoirs estimated
reserves, as well as those regions with water
injection, are shown in Table 2.5.
7200

Typical log in the B-6-X.03 reservoir.
Table 2.5
Area (acres)
Thickness (ft)
OOIP (MMSTB)
Prim. recov. factor (%)
Sec. recov. factor (%)
Remain. reserves (MMSTB)
B-6-X.03
North-01
North-02
South-01
South-02
16,663
1200
2030
1920
2240
186
186
186
186
166
2528
164
277
247
257
20.4
26.9
29.0
26.6
18.1
9.8
20.8
12.7
14.5
13.2
308
13
17
58
The B-6-X.03 reservoirs estimated reserves, as well as those regions with

water injection.
2 16
B-6-X.03 commercial production started

in 1947, and until 1952 it produced by
natural depletion. A flank water injection
pilot test was initiated south of the reservoir,
but was suspended in 1978 due to high
heterogeneity and discontinuity of the
sandstones. Gas injection at the top of the
reservoir started in 1974. A strategy to
implement four water injection pattern
projects was established in the North-01
area in 1980, South-01 area in 1983, North02 area in 1984 and South-02 area in 1986.
By the end of 1996, the cumulative oil
RESERVOIR: B-6-X.03
Figure 2.22
180
Number of producers
120
60
0
400 Cumulative oil production (MMSTB)
200
0
Oil production rate per calendar day (MSTB)
Liquid production rate per calendar day (MSTB)
40
0
4 GOR (Mscf/STB)
2
0
B, S & W (%)
50
0
'54 '56 '58 '60 '62 '64
'66 '68 '70 '72
'74 '76 '78 '80
'82 '84 '86 '88 '90 '92 '94 '96
Year
Production history of the B-6-X.03 reservoir.
Figure 2.23
150
120
Water injection rate per calendar day (MSTB)
90
60
30
0
100
Gas injection rate per calendar day (MMscf)
75
50
25
0
Cumulative water injection (MMSTB)
Cumulative gas injection (Bscf)
400
200
0
'72
'74
'76
'78
'80
'82
'84
Year
Injection history of the B-6-X.03 reservoir.
2 17
'86
'88
'90
'92
'94
'96
production was 457.3 MMSTB, of which 267

MMSTB came from the four water injection
projects (60.3 MMSTB of water and 698.7
Bscf of gas). Average production during
December 1996 was 15,540 BOPD (7860
BOPD correspond to water injection
projects) with a 3850 scf/STB GOR and
49.4% B, S & W (Fig. 2.22). By December
1996, 535.1 MMbbl of water and 337 Bcf of
gas had been injected into the B-6-X.03
reservoir (Fig. 2.23), resulting in a 117%
cumulative replacement (gas 64% and water
55%). General information on water
injection is shown in Table 2.6.
From January 1974 to date, 337 Bcf of
gas have been injected in the North and
South blocks (14.6 Bcf in 1996).
The original pressure taken in 1944 at
5300 ft subsea declined from 2500 psia to
990 psia in 1973 (Fig. 2.24) when the
secondary recovery projects were initiated.
In 1996 the pressure was 1444 psia. During
the last eight years the reservoir pressure has
been maintained between 1404 to 1508 psia.
RESERVOIR: B-6-X.03
Figure 2.24
2600
2400
Pressure (psia)
2200
2000
1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
1945
1955
1965
1975
1985
1995
During the natural depletion period, the

prevailing production mechanism was
solution gas drive. To a lesser extent, gas
gravitational segregation and a water drive
from a small aquifer located in the southern
sector of the reservoir are also production
mechanisms. The combined gas and water
injection projects have successfully
maintained the reservoir pressure and
should be considered as secondary
production mechanisms.
Year
Pressure history of the B-6-X.03 reservoir.

Table 2.6
Project
Starting date
South block
North01
Type
Volume
MMbbl
1996 Average
MBWPD
6/73 (a)
Flank
44.0
12/80 (b)
Pattern (c)
137.3
South01
1/83
Pattern (c)
147.5
16.0
North02
11/84
Pattern (c)
135.9
29.4
South02
5/86
Pattern (c)
70.4
10.6
Total
535.1
56.0
Water injection in the B-6-X.03 reservoir: a) suspended in 1978, b) suspended in July

1995 and c) 1:1L. modified.
RESERVOIR: EOCENE C/VLG-3676

Figure 2.25
Bachaquero
Mene
Grande
III
IV
XI
VII
XII
Barua
Motatn
Ceuta: VLG-3676
Location map of the Ceuta
Introduction
The Eocene C/VLG-3676 reservoir is
located southeast of Lake Maracaibo
(Block VII) and southwest of Ceuta Field
(Fig. 2.25), extending over one of its
subdivisions called Area 2 Sur. With a
proven oil area of 28,000 acres containing an
OOIP of almost 2800 MMSTB of light oil, the
Area 2 Sur is considered one of the most
attractive fields in Ceuta, confirmed by the
high productivity of its completed wells and
the potential reservoir development to the
south.
FIELD: CEUTA
Geology
a) Structure
At the Eocene level, the structure is an

oriented east-west homocline with 3 to 7
gentle dip to the south (Fig. 2.26). Its most
important components are the north-southtrending VLC-70 and VLG-3686 faults
dipping to the east, being the reservoirs
western
and
eastern
boundaries,
respectively. The northern limit is a
northeast-oriented normal fault. The
southern limit has not been determined,
since this area is under consideration for
expanding the reservoir.
Field.
2 18
FIELD: CEUTA
Figure 2.26
Structural
D
13900'U
0'
1460
D
U
Well
14000'
141
D
00
142
00'
U
Fault
00
1
14
14200'
14300'
14400'
14500'
14600'
U
ault
14700'
6 86 f
14800'
14900'
D U
V L G- 3
15000'
15100'
15200'
15300'
VLC-0 7 0 f a
ult
15400'
15500'
15600'
15700'
15800'
15900'
16000'
16100'
16200'
0'
1630
16400'
16500'
'
16700
16900'
16600'
16800'
17000'
17100'
2 19
Structural map of the
b) Stratigraphy
VLG-3676 reservoir.
The stratigraphic sequence from top to

bottom consists of the El Milagro and Onia
Formations of Pleistocene-Pliocene age, then
the La Puerta, Lagunillas (Lower Lagunillas,
Laguna and Bachaquero Members) and La
Rosa Formations of Miocene age. Miocene
rocks unconformably overlie the Eocene
Misoa Formation, which is partially eroded
at the B sands (Upper: B-1 to B-5, Lower:
B-6/7) level. Those sandstones conformably
overlie the C productive sands (Upper: C-1
to C-3, Lower: C-4 to C-7). The upper C

section thickness varies from 600 to 900 ft
and consists of interbedded sandstones and
shales, the C-3 interval being the cleanest.
The lower C section thickness varies from
700 to 800 ft and consists of clean and
massive sandstones interbedded with thin
shale layers. The Misoa Formation
unconformably overlies the Paleocene
Guasare Formation limestones. Hydrocarbon
accumulation is controlled by stratigraphic
and structural factors that have created
complex sandstone body continuities and
distributions, primarily in the C-2 and
C-3 sands.
The basal section of the Eocene

C/VLG-3676 reservoir was deposited by a
complex, fluvial-dominated delta prograding
into a brackish-water estuary. The
development of numerous distributary
channels enabled the deltaic system to
advance rapidly. A subsequent marine
transgression caused the channels to retreat,
where they were overlain by delta front
deposits such as mouth bars and prodelta
shales. The geometry of these deposits
varies from asymmetrical, elongate channel
sandstones to long, laminated mouth bar
deposits. The width of the channels is
estimated is to be approximately 20 times
their thickness.
The Eocene C/VLG-3676 reservoir is a
continuous sequence of shales and shaly
sandstones, some of them of considerable
thickness (Fig 2.27). The most productive
facies have porosities varying from 11 to
17%, the irreducible water saturation is
around 20% and shale volume less than 15%.
Shales are mainly composed of kaolinite and
illite with some smectite.
FIELD: CEUTA
Petrophysical evaluation was made

through a study of porosity (density/neutron) and resistivity logs, with the following
results for each productive sand:
Figure 2.27
RXO
0.2
(ohm-m)
IMPH
2000
0.2
(ohm-m)
2000 45
Sand
Formation
(AGE)
GR
0
120
CALI
0.6
C-1
(gAPI)
(in.)
16
Depth
(ft)
16200
Misoa (EOCENE)
16400
C-2
16600
C-3
16800
C-4
17000
NPHI
IDPH
0.2
(ohm-m)
(p.u.)
-15
Sand
NOS
(ft)
Porosity
(%)
Water
saturation (%)
C-1
1247
11.514.3
2843
C-2
62.595
12.014.4
1935
C-3
2667.5
12.013.5
2535
C-4
010.5
11.316.7
3948
RHOB
2000 1.9
(g / cm3)
2.9
Water saturation calculations were

determined using the Waxman-Smits
equation with a = 1, m* = 1.9 to 2.0, n* =
1.85 to 2.0. Cutoffs for water saturation,
porosity and clay volume were 50%, 10%,
and 50%, respectively.
A 70-md average (range 50 to 1000 md)
absolute permeability was obtained from
core analysis and validated by build-up
pressure restoration calculations. The upper
C and lower C sands salinity was
estimated to be 8100 and 5900 ppm
equivalent NaCl, respectively. Starting in
1996, oil-based mud (OBM) is used
routinely, which limits log interpretation but
allows us to have a hole adjusted to the bit
diameter.
Fluid properties
PVT analysis of a C-3 producer (samples
taken at 15,000 ft subsea and 309F) yields
the following characteristics:
Original pressure
10,000 psia
Bubble point pressure, pb
3442 psia
Oil FVF @ pb
1.791 RB/STB
GOR @ pb
1148 scf/STB
Oil viscosity @ pb
0.253 cp
Oil gravity
36.8API
C-5
Typical log of the VLG-3676 reservoir.
2 20
FIELD: CEUTA
Figure 2.28
OOIP
2780 MMSTB
Recovery factor
17%
Remaining reserves
437 MMSTB
Wells-month
30
15
a) Production and pressure history

GOR
B, S & W
80
60
40
20
0
B, S & W (%)
0
Oil rate
Np
30
30
20
20
10
10
0
'77
'79
'81
'83
'85
'87
'89
'91
'93
'95
NP (MMSTB)
Oil rate (MBOPD) GOR (Mscf/STB)
0
'97
Year
Production history of the VLG-3676 reservoir.
Figure 2.29
10000
Pressure (psia)
Several
wells
8000
6000
4000
~
~
~
~
0
'86
'88
'90
'92
'94
'96
'98
Year
Pressure history of C-3 unit

in the VLG-3676 reservoir.
2 21

The last Eocene C/VLG-3676 hydrocarbon reserves calculation, including all C1 to C-7 sands, was made in September
1996. The resulting 23% increase in OOIP
was caused by the drilling of a well south of
the Area 2 Sur. The results are as follows:
Since 1979, a total of 35 wells have been

completed in the Eocene C/VLG-3676
reservoir, of which 23 are producing an
average of 36.6 MBOPD. Cumulative oil
production is 36 MMSTB (Fig. 2.28). Until
1993, the exploitation plan consisted of
multiple selective completions and then was
focused to non-selective single completions
with commingled production of C-1 to C-6
sands. The production distribution has been
estimated as follows: 61%, 28%, 8% and 3%
from C-3, C-2, C-5 and C-4 sands, respectively. The GOR has gradually increased up
to the 1000 scf/STB level, while water
production is practically insignificant.
At 15,000 ft subsea, the original pressure
was estimated at 9950 psia for all the
reservoir sandstones. To date (Fig. 2.29) the
pressure in the northern sector of the
reservoir is lower for individual sand, such
as: 5450 psia in C-3, the most productive
sand, 7005 psia in C-2, and approximately
9500 psia in C-4 and C-5. In the southern
sectors with little or no production, the
pressure stays around 10,000 psia. With a
bubble point pressure of 3442 psi, the
reservoir is still highly undersaturated.
b) Reservoirs drive mechanism
Expansion of the rocks and fluids is the

main production mechanism of the Eocene
C/VLG-3676 reservoir, based on production behavior and fluid characteristics.
Figure 2.30
RESERVOIR: CRETACEOUS DM115
FIELD: WEST MARA
Introduction
The Cretaceous DM-115 reservoir of the
West Mara Field is located northeast of
Maracaibo approximately 8 miles west of the
Mara Field (Fig. 2.30). Since 1951 it has
produced a 15API undersaturated heavy oil
from the Cretaceous (datum: 5500 ft subsea).
Production is mainly from the Apn
Formation in the lower section of the
Cogollo Group; however, all the wells are
completed with the entire Cogollo Group
(1400 ft) open to production.
Figure 2.30
West Mara
Mara
La Paz
Bajo
Grande
Boscn
Lake
Maracaibo
Location map of the West

Mara Field.
0'
90
0'
10
D
U
'
90
0'
70
0'
0'
730
50
0'
0'
0'
50
0'
10
50
0'
50
0'
30
D
U
The structural interpretation was based

on the analysis of a 1982 migrated 2-D
seismic survey integrated with the
stratigraphic correlation of wells drilled in the
area. A structure map was built on top of the
Socuy Member, which is part of the Coln
Formation (Fig. 2.31). The main structural
configuration is a major reverse fault oriented
N45E on its west branch and S60E on its
east branch. This reverse fault, with an
average of 3500 ft vertical thrust in its center
section, divides the area into a downthrown
block to the north (dip lower than 20) cut by
reserve faults oriented N20W and N10E, as
well as by normal faults with a N25W
direction. An upthrown block to the south
has normal faults oriented N30W with
vertical displacements between 50 and 1000
ft and dips between 75 and 80. Other minor
faults, perpendicular to the major reverse
fault with 50 to 55 dips, divide the area into
seven structural blocks, dipping approximately 20 southward, two of which have
been under exploitation. It is assumed that
there was no initial gas cap since gas-oil
contacts were not detected. Water-oil
contacts were not found but estimated to be
between 6500 and 7500 ft subsea.
0'
90
Structural
D
a) Structure
890
70
0'
5
70
0'
00'
41
D
U
90
0'
0'
90
0'
90
0'
'
00
0'
0'
10
D
U
0'
0
37
0'
'
2900
770
10
0'
'
'
00
930
1
4
8900
D U
7300
'
00
90
10
6
U D
0'
0'
Figure 2.31
Geology
Fault
Well
0.5
1.0 km
Structural map of the Cretaceous DM-115 reservoir.
2 22
FIELD: WEST MARA
b) Stratigraphy
Figure 2.32
Formation
Group (AGE)
HLLD
GR
(gAPI)
150
(ohm-m)
HLLS
20000
0.3
(V/V)
NPHI
(ohm-m)
RXOZ
20000
0.3
(ohm-m)
20000
2.1
(V/V)
RHOB
(g cm3)
Maraca
Depth
(ft)
Lisure
4250
Cogollo (LOWER-MIDDLE CRETACEOUS)
4500
2.7
4750
Deposition of the Ro Negro Formation

reflects a fluvio-shoreline environment,
bars and lateral lagoons in the Apn
Formation, marine in the Maraca Formation
and low-energy euxinitic marine in the La
Luna Formation.
Apn
5000
5250
5500
Typical log of the Cretaceous DM-115 reservoir.
2 23
CMRP
The Cretaceous in the West Mara Field

has 3000 ft average thickness. This section
lies unconformably on top of Paleozoic
rocks and conformably underlies the
Guasare Formation of Paleocene age. The
Cretaceous sequence, from bottom to top,
consists of the Rio Negro Formation (65 ft),
Cogollo Group (1400 ft), La Luna Formation
(340 ft) and Mito Juan/Coln (1200 ft)
Formations. The hydrocarbon accumulations
are found in the Cogollo Group limestones
(Apn, Lisure and Maraca Formations) and
in the La Luna Formation. The Cogollo
Group is characterized by mixed carbonates
and siliciclastics in its lower section and
clean carbonates in its upper section. The La
Luna Formation consists of a mixture of
limestones interbedded with marine shales.
It is also considered to be the main source
rock in the Maracaibo Basin.
Modern resistivity and porosity logs
(Fig. 2.32) were run in the Cretaceous
formations in various wells. This information
was complemented by lithology logs with
the results shown in Table 2.7.
The Archie equation (a=1, m=1.5 to 2.2,
n=2) was used to calculate the hydrocarbon
saturation in the virgin zone. Selection criteria were established for the NOS and the net
oil limestone (NOL) with cutoffs as follows:
porosity less than 3%, water saturation
60% and Vsh 0%. Water salinity is between
30,000 and 40,000 ppm equivalent NaCl.
FIELD: WEST MARA
Tabla2.7
Formation
NOL/NOS
(ft)
Porosity
(%)
Water saturation
(%)
La Luna
24/125
<3
1025
Cogollo Group
Maraca
Lisure
Apn
7/10
9/100
115/288
912
912
1012
1214
2530
2025
0/18
810
20100
Ro Negro
Fluid properties
Results from a PVT analysis of 15.7API
oil gravity taken at 5500 ft subsea at 157F
are shown in Fig. 2.33.
Petrophysical properties in the West Mara Field.
Figure 2.33
200
1.14
180
1.12
Solution gas
(scf STB)
1.10
pb = 1117 psia
1.08
120
100
1.06
80
1.04
60
1.02
40
Oil volumetric factor

(RB STB)
160
140
1.00
20
0
0
400
800
1200
1600
2000
Matrix permeability between 1 and 3 md has

been assumed. For OOIP calculations, the
following parameters were assumed: average
porosity and oil saturation estimated at 11.0
and 85%, respectively, area of 3020 acres and
average thickness of 178 ft.
2400
2800
3200
0.98
3600

Since the Cretaceous DM-115 reservoir
is fractured, heterogeneous and with a high
degree of uncertainty in the rock property
values, several reserves estimates have been
made. The last one, in 1995, indicates an
OOIP of 503 MMSTB and 47.7 MMSTB
of remaining reserves, for a recovery factor
of 15.0%.
Pressure (psia)
PVT fluid analysis of the Cretaceous DM-115 reservoir.
GOR (scf/STB)
Figure 2.34
3000
1500
20
10
Qo (MBOPD)
0
Qo
NP
12
20
9
6
10
3
0
'72
'74
'76
'78
'80
'82
'84
'86
'88
'90
'92
'94
'96
0
'98
B, S & W (%) Np (MMSTB)
30
The Cretaceous DM-115 reservoir, from

the West Mara Field, was discovered in 1951
after drilling well DM-115. So far 14 wells
have been drilled, of which five are still in
production and one has been abandoned
because of high water production during a
drill stem evaluation test.
Year
Production history of the Cretaceous DM-115 reservoir.
2 24
FIELD: WEST MARA
Figure 2.35
2800
2700
Several
wells
Pressure (psia)
2600
2500
2400
2300
2200
2100
2000
1900
5
10
15
20
Cumulative production (MMSTB)
Pressure history of the Cretaceous DM-115 reservoir.
The reservoirs cumulative production is

27.8 MMSTB of oil, 3.9 MMSTB of water and
7.2 Bscf of gas. Presently the reservoir is
producing by natural flow and submersible
electrical pumps at 6.6 MBOPD with
15% B, S & W and 800 scf/STB GOR
(Fig.2.34).
The original pressure of 2588 psia (more
than 1400 psia above the bubble point
pressure) was calculated from early tests.
The pressure has gradually declined and is
now 2000 psia, indicating that the reservoir
is still undersaturated (Fig. 2.35).
The reservoirs pressure and production

behavior suggest that the main reservoir energy source is a water drive probably combined
with the fractured limestone compaction.
RESERVOIR: P-1/2 (0017)
Figure 2.36
Barinas
Northern
Area
Silvan Maporal
Estero
Palmita
Central
Area
Silvestre
Hato
Southern
Area
Sinco
Paez-Mingo
Location map of the

Silvestre Field.
2 25
Introduction
Reservoir P-1/2 (0017) from Silvestre
Field is located approximately 22 miles
southeast of the town of Barinas (Fig.
2.36). The field covers an area of 482 acres
with an average sandstone thickness of 59 ft.
Commercial production started in 1962, two
years after its discovery. This is a highly
undersaturated reservoir and its original
pressure was 4120 psia versus a bubble point
pressure of 175 psia. The field is produced
by electrical-submersible pumping. The oil
characteristics are: 23.5API medium oil,
practically without gas (GOR 19 scf/STB) but
with a large volume of water that represents
about 60% of the total fluid production.
F I E L D : S I LV E S T R E
Geology
a) Structure
Silvestre is structurally higher than the

other Barinas Basin fields. The reservoir
structure is a small dome with a very gentle
2 dip on the north flank and displays faults
dipping to the east, west and south. The
northeast-oriented fault dips southward with
an approximate 50 ft throw. Another
northwest-oriented fault with similar
displacement dips eastward (Fig. 2.37). The
P-1/2 (0017) reservoir limits are: to the north
and east, a water-oil contact at 9450 ft
subsea; and to the south, west and east,
normal faults.
RESERVOIR: P-1/2 (0017)
b) Stratigraphy
Figure 2.37
Structural
9500'
Isopach
D
Fault
W.
O.
C.
.@
Well
0'
45
O.
U D
40
0'
U
D
25'
D
0'
0
93
50'
125'
100'
75'
Isopach-structural map of the P-1/2 (0017) reservoir.
Figure 2.38
NPHI
Formation
(AGE)
Sand
La Morita
(CRET.)
ILM
2
GR
0
(gAPI)
200
Depth
(ft)
(ohm-m)
2000
.45
RHOB
ILD
2
(ohm-m)
-.15
(V/V)
2000
11650
1.9
2.9
(g cm3)
DTCO
160
40
(ms ft )
DTSM
240
40
(ms ft)
The Escandalosa Formation of Early

Cretaceous age has been divided into four
members called, from bottom to top, S,
R, P, and O, with P being the main
producer in the basin. This member consists
of two sandy sections interbedded with a
thin layer of shale (Fig. 2.38). In the P-1/2
(0017) reservoir, this lenticular shaly layer
has an irregular, thin development, so that
both P-1 and P-2 sands form a single homogeneous lens (as far as production behavior
is concerned). The top and bottom of the P1/2 sand are well defined by a regional shaly
layer of constant thickness, and there is no
vertical communication with the underlying
and overlying layers. The P-1/2 sand is
medium to coarse-grained, crossed-stratified,
and contains residues of carbonaceous
plant material and occasional compacted
limolite intervals.
The P-1/2 sandstone deposition is

interpreted as a fluvial-deltaic environment
with some littoral influence. Distributary
channels over stream mouth bars show
littoral reworking. The axis of the best
reservoir rock development strikes southwest to northeast through the area.
P1
11750
Discovery well core data and other
porosity logs were used to determine P-1/2
(0017) reservoir rock properties. Average
values are shown in the following table:
11800
From cores
P2
Escandalosa (CRETACEOUS)
11700
11850
Porosity (%)
18.7
Water saturation (%)
39.0
R1
Permeability (md)
556
From logs
20.1
34.0
90753*
*Timur equation
Other data: area: 482 acres; thickness: 59 ft
R2
11900
Type log of the P-1/2 (0017) reservoir in the Silvestre Field.
2 26
RESERVOIR: P 1/2 (0017)

Reserves were calculated using the
volumetric method. OOIP was 36 MMSTB,
remaining reserves 7.5 MMSTB and the
recovery factor 29.8%.
6000
Wp
Np
B, S & W
Pressure
5000
4000
4120
3850
3726
3000
3800
3600
3354

100
2000
50
1000
10
'62
'65
'70
'75
'80
'85
'90
'95
B, S & W (%)
Cumulative fluid (MSTB), Pressure (psia)
Figure 2.39
'97
Year
Production and pressure history of the P-1/2 (0017) reservoir.
The main interpretation issue is the

water salinity. While logs (spontaneous
potential [SP], resistivity/porosity in the
water zone) tend to show salinity at
approximately 10,000 ppm (NaCl), the
samples vary but tend to show much lower
salinity. Clay volumes are low and mainly
consist of kaolinite.
Fluid properties
PVT analysis comes from a bottom
sample taken in March 1958 (datum: 9383 ft
subsea, temperature 290F). The resulting
values were validated with Eastern
Venezuela crude correlations obtained from
a PVT statistical analysis and are as follows:
2 27
Original pressure, pi
4120
psia
175
psia
GOR @ pb
19
scf/STB
Oil FVF @ pi
1.1133
RB/STB
Oil FVF @ pb
1.153
RB/STB
Oil viscosity @ pb
2.20
cp
Oil gravity
23.5
API
A total of 8.3 MMSTB of fluids has been

produced by mechanical and electricalsubmersible pumping, including 3.2 MMSTB
of medium oil and 5.1 MMSTB of water
(61.5% of total fluids) (Fig. 2.39). The
average production for December 1996 is 50
BOPD with 200 scf/STB GOR and 86% B,
S & W.
The original reservoir pressure of 4120
psia was based on a static pressure
measurement taken in the discovery well in
1957. During 1976, 1986 and 1988 static and
dynamic fluid levels were determined. After
producing for more than 25 years, the
reservoir pressure has always remained
above 3350 psia.
The reservoir characteristics and behavior indicate that the prevailing production
mechanism is a strong water drive.
RESERVOIR: J-3 (OM100)
Introduction
The J-3 (OM-100) reservoir, from the
Oveja Field, is located approximately 13
miles southwest of San Tom in the State of
Anzotegui (Fig. 2.40) and extends over
2300 acres. Commercial production was
initiated in June 1954. Starting in 1957, in
order to maintain the declining pressure,
water was injected for three years and then
gas from 1963 to the present. The reservoir
has produced approximately 55 MMSTB of
20API heavy oil, of which 37 MMSTB
(more than 25% of the OOIP was due to gas
injection, which maintained the reservoir
pressure for more than 12 years.
Figure 2.40
10 km
Guara
Central
SanTom
Oficina
Norte
Oficina
Central
FIELD: OVEJA
Guara Este
Ganso
El Tigre
Ostra
Oca
Oleos
Oveja
Miga
Yopales Sur
Location map of the Oveja

Field.
Geology
a) Structure
The J-3 (OM-100) reservoir structure

consists of a homocline oriented northwestsoutheast and dipping approximately 2 to
the northeast.
Figure 2.41
Structural
Pinch-out
O .O
.W.
C@
U
D
Producer
34
26'
(ES
T)
3
40
0'
33
50'
30
0'
Injector (gas)
The reservoir limits (Fig. 2.41) are: to

the north, a normal fault with approximately
50 ft of displacement northeast-southwestoriented and dipping to the south, with an
oil-water contact at 3426 ft subsea; to the
south, a normal fault with approximately 150
ft of displacement east-west-oriented and
dipping to the south; and to the east and
west by rock and sandstone pinch-outs.
b) Stratigraphy
The J-3 sand is located in the middle of

the Oficina Formation (early to medium
Miocene age) stratigraphically overlying the
Merecure Formation. The NOS maximum
thickness of about 50 ft is reached in the
central part of the J-3 (OM-100) reservoir
pinching out to the east and west.
The deposition of the J-3 sandstones is

interpreted to be fluvio-deltaic point bars.
This interpretation is derived from SP curves
and knowledge of the Oficina Formation.
Petrophysical properties were estimated
by analyzing 13 complete sets of logs (Fig.
2.42). Porosity values were determined by
density and neutron log data corrected for
shaliness. The resulting average values were
compatible with those obtained from core
data from two wells:
Injector (water)
D
Fault
Average values
Range
30.2
10.9
2384
29.033.4
4.817.0
9584267
Porosity (%)
Permeability (md)
O.G.O
.C
D U
0'
10
.@
3
- 3 18
2
1' ( 00
ES '
T)
Other reservoir data:

Shale resistivity (Rsh)
Shale porosity
Shale volume (Vsh) (%)
Water resistivity (Rw)
0'
325
11.52
18.6
13.5
0.103
ohm-m
%
%
ohm-m
U
D
-319
1
U
D
Structural map of the J-3 (OM-100) reservoir.
2 28
FIELD: OVEJA
Fluid properties
Reservoir J-3 (OM-100) fluid properties
were derived from correlation with other
similar reservoirs. Those parameters, as well
as others of importance, are shown below:
Figure 2.42
GR
Formation (AGE)
(gAPI)
150
SFLU
SP
Sand
200
(MV)
0.0
0.2
(ohm-m)
CALI
0.8
Depth
(ft)
18
(in.)
NPHI
2000 60
(p.u.)
0.2
(ohm-m)
0.0
RHOB
ILO
(g/cm3)
2000 1.65
2.65
Oficina (EARLY TO MIDDLE MIOCENE)
I2
4000
Datum
3300
ft subsea
Temperature
149
Initial pressure
1482
psia
Bubble point pressure, Pb
1482
psia
GOR @ Pb
209
scf/STB
Oil FVF @ Pb
1.127
RB/STB
Gas FVF @ Pb
1667
RCF/scf
Oil viscosity @ Pb
4.65
cp
Oil gravity
20.0
API
I3
I4
I5
I6
J1

Reservoir J-3 (OM-100) covers an area
of 2280 acres and has an average NOS
thickness of 33.7 ft. Reserves were calculated
using the volumetric method with the
following results:
4100
J2
J3
K
L0
4200
L1
OOIP
149.3 MMSTB
L2
Recovery factor*
37.5%
Remaining reserves
0.7 MMSTB
Figure 2.45
*Includes primary (12.6%) and secondary (24.2%)
mainly from gas injection.
Typical log of the Oveja Field.

Figure 2.43
20
80
60
40
10
Gp
GOR
GOR (Mscf STB)

Gp (Bscf)
20
70
0
B, S & W (%)
Wp (MSTB)
6
4
30
2
0
0
Qo (MBOPD)
Np (MMSTB)
60
40
5
20
0
'54
'57
'60
'63
'66
'69
'72
'75
'78
Year
Production history of the J-3 (OM-100) reservoir.
'81
'84
'87
'90
'93
0
'96
Np
Qo
10
2 29
Wp
B, S & W
The J-3 (OM-100) reservoir was discovered in 1952 but commercial production
did not start until 1954. The cumulative production to date has reached 55 MMSTB of
oil, 7 MMSTB of water and 74 Bscf of gas
(Fig. 2.43) through natural flow and
mechanical pumping. By the end of 1996,
the average daily production was 370 BOPD
with 39% B, S & W and 11,000 scf/STB GOR.
The almost 25% recovery of the OOIP was
due mainly to the large volume (more than
100 Bscf) of gas injected into this heavy
crude reservoir (Fig. 2.44). Oil recovery by
natural depletion was less than 13%.
FIELD: OVEJA
Figure 2.44
1700
140
Gas inj.
Water inj.
120
1300
100
1100
80
900
60
700
40
500
20
300
'53
'61
'57
'65
'69
'73
'77
'81
'85
'89
Year
'93
0
'97
10
Water inj. (MMSTB)
1500
Gas inj. (Bscf)
Pressure (psia)
Pressure
Injection and pressure history of the J-3 (OM-100) reservoir.
In 1954, the reservoirs original pressure

was 1482 psia, declining to 1380 psia by
November 1957, when a water injection
project was implemented. This project was

interrupted three years later and the pressure
continued to drop. A gas injection project
was started in December 1963 when the
reservoir pressure was 1215 psia and a
solution gas cap developed. In 1975 the
pressure was 1320 psia while the current one
is about 1060 psia, 60 psia below the project
goal for pressure maintenance (Fig. 2.44).
Originally the reservoir was considered

saturated without initial gas cap. During the
natural flow period, solution gas and water
were the main natural reservoirs drive mechanisms. Gas injection after 1963 is considered
a secondary production mechanism because
of its efficiency.
RESERVOIR: RG-14-COEF
Figure 2.45
La Vieja
La Ceiba
10 km
Greater
Anaco Area
Santa
Rosa
El Roble
Anaco
San Joaqun
Santa Ana
El Toco
Anaco thrust
fault
Location map of
the Santa Rosa Field.
Introduction
Reservoir RG-14-COEF, discovered in
1947, is located approximately 6 miles
north of Anaco, in the State of Anzotegui
(Fig. 2.45), and extends over approximately
26,000 acres. The reservoir is characterized
by a large gas condensate cap covering a
light oil leg. Gas injection started in 1959
after a sharp pressure drop in the reservoir.
After cumulative injection of 2220 Bscf of
gas, the oil and condensate cumulative
production is 118 MMSTB, which represents
a 61.2% recovery from the original volume
of liquids in place.
FIELD: SANTA ROSA
Geology
a) Structure
The Greater Anaco Area is located on

the upthrown block north of the Anaco
thrust fault, along which is a series of domes
with the hydrocarbon fields, San Joaqun,
Santa Ana, El Toco, El Roble, San Roque and
Santa Rosa.
The Santa Rosa dome is elongated in a
N45E direction. It is asymmetrical with a
gentle 8 to 11 northwest flank and a steep
southeast flank dipping 20 into the Anaco
thrust fault. The dome is cut by two
southeast-dipping faults that are parallel to
the axis of the Santa Rosa dome. The
reservoir RG-14-COEF covers the greater
portion of the Santa Rosa Fields proven area
and consists of a structural-stratigraphic trap,
whose limits are shown on the isopachstructural map (Fig. 2.46).
2 30
FIELD: SANTA ROSA
b) Stratigraphy
Figure 2.46
50 60O
40
10 20
5
.W.O.C. @ -1
30 40 50
....
....
....
....
50
1500
. @ -10500(Est
.)
O.C.O.C
....
....
10000
60
(Es 70 80
t.)
70
....
....
40
....
60
. ...
9000
80
90
100
70
000
700
8000
Structural
Isopach
Fault
Oil producer
Gas injector
00
N
Isopach-structural map of the RG-14-COEF reservoir.

Figure 2.47
AT10
AT30
GR
150
AT60
( gAPI )
Sand
Formation (AGE)
AT20
200
SP
( mV )
100
Depth
(ft)
Oficina (EARLY TO MIDDLE MIOCENE)
8450
AT90
( ohm-m )
1000
Deposition of the CO-EF occurred in a

deltaic environment with two distinguishing
units: a channel overlying mouth bar
deposits and a splay overlying distal bar
deposits. The first type of sandstones is
found in the northeast section of the
reservoir where different lenses coalesce and
have greater sandstone thickness and initial
porosity. The second type of sandstones is
found in the southwest section of the
reservoir. There the lenses are separated by
shales and have a more heterogeneous
nature than the channel, resulting in less
productive wells.
COD
8500
COE
8550
COF1
8600
COF2
COF3
Typical log of the RG-14-COEF reservoir.
2 31
0.1
Reservoir RG-14 corresponds to the COE and CO-F sandstone subdivisions of the
Colorado Member, which is the lowermost
member of Oficina Formation of Early to
Middle Miocene age. The CO-EF sands are
divided into four bodies: CO-E1, CO-E2, COE3 and CO-F1, which are separated by
shales that are locally discontinuous and
coalescing. The NOS increases from
southwest to northeast and reaches its
greatest thickness of 70 to 90 ft in the northcentral sector.
8650
Petrophysical properties were determined from porosity, resistivity, gamma ray
logs (Fig. 2.47), and core analysis data.
Average rock properties for the gas
condensate cap and the oil leg are as
follows:
Oil leg
zone
Gas condensate cap
56
40
Area (acres)
3500
22,670
Porosity (%)
10
13.8
Permeability (md)
150
300
Irred. water saturation (%)
20
15
Thickness (ft)
FIELD: SANTA ROSA

Simulation was used to estimate reserves:
Figure 2.48
120
30
Qo
Np
100
80
15
60
10
40
20
'60
'66
'72
'78
'84
'90
0
'96
3000
2000
Pressure (psia)
20
4000
Cumulative oil (MMSTB)
Oil rate (MBOPD)
25
0
'54
5000
Pressure
1000
Year
Production and pressure

history of the RG-14-COEF
reservoir.
Other studies show an average porosity

of 15%, maximum porosity of 20% and
average permeability of 286 md. Producing
facies are clean with only small amounts of
kaolinite. Water salinity is 14,500 ppm (NaCl).
Fluid properties
Oil leg fluids were determined from
a PVT test taken at 7750 ft subsea and
280F in well RG-120, which yielded the
following data:
Original pressure
4445
psia
4240
psia
GOR @ pb
1476
scf/STB
Oil FVF @ pb
1.944
RB/STB
Oil viscosity @ pb
0.25
cp
Oil gravity
37.2
API
Initial GOR
1881
scf/STB
To determine the fluid properties in the

gas condensate cap a PVT analysis was
performed by recombining the separator
products (oil and gas) taken from well RG58. The recombined fluid showed a dew
point pressure of 4675 psia at 274F. The
measured condensate gravity was 51.5API
and the initial gas condensate GOR was
13,200 scf/STB.
Condensate
MMSTB
Oil
MMSTB
Gas
Bscf
Original hydrocarbons in place
131.4
60.7
1345.6
Recovery factor (%)
73.2
60.0
Remaining reserves
8.1
6.7
Originally the CO-EF sands contained

approximately 100 bbl of condensate per
MMscf of gas. The 14.8 MMSTB of remaining
fluids are mainly located in the northeastern,
eastern and southern sections of the
reservoir.
Production of reservoir RG-14-COEF

started in April 1950 from well RG-14, which
was completed in the gas-condensate cap.
Gas injection started in 1955 after some
pressure drop in the reservoir. Until
December 1996, 10 wells have been drilled
into the oil leg and 10 into the condensate
zone. The cumulative production of these
wells through natural flow and artificial gas
lift is 1177.6 MMSTB of oil and condensate,
1673 Bscf of gas and 9.6 MMSTB of water.
The produced gas exceeds the original
gas in place by 327 Bscf, which indicates
that a great percentage of it is coming from
the injected gas (2220 Bscf through 13
injection wells).
After more than 40 years of gas
injection, production has dropped sharply,
while GOR water percentages have
substantially increased (330 BOPD, 100,000
scf/STB and 39% B, S & W). The reservoir
pressure has declined from 4445 psia to 2625
psia and is explained by leakage of some of
the gas injected into the eastern flank of the
dome which passed laterally to the western
flank and the CO-G sand. See Figs. 2.48 and
2.49 for a graphical display of the
production, pressure, and injection histories.
2 32
FIELD: SANTA ROSA
Figure 2.49
400
Qgi
Pressure
Gi
2500
350
1500
200
150
1000
100
500
50
0
'54
'60
'66
'72
'78
'84
'90
0
'96
4000
3000
2000
Pressure (psia)
Injection rate (MMscf/D)
2000
250
Cumulative injection gas (MMscf)
300
5000
During the first four years, condensate

was produced from the reservoir by natural
flow. The gas cap drive was apparently
limited, since a 100-psia pressure drop was
observed that led the operator to inject gas
into the RG-14-COEF reservoir. This
secondary recovery project was very
profitable early in its production life, since to
date 61.2% of the original fluids (oil and
condensate) in place has been recovered.
1000
Year
Injection history of the RG-14-COEF reservoir.
RESERVOIR: NARICUAL SANDS
Figure 2.50
North Carito
West
Carito
El Furrial
Maturn
Central
Carito
Santa
Brbara
Location map of the Carito

Field.
2 33
50 km
Introduction
The Carito Field is located 25 miles west
of Maturn, the Monagas State capital (Fig.
2.50). The field has been divided into three
areas: North Carito, West Carito and Center
Carito. The latter, with almost 1900 MMSTB
original fluids (oil and condensate) in place
of what has been locally called the Naricual
Formation, has one of the basins largest
hydrocarbon reserves. The 1400-ft thick
sandstone is characterized by a huge gas
condensate cap and has a peculiarity in that
the dew pressure, as well as the bubble
point pressure in the oil leg, varies with
depth, resulting in quite substantial changes
in fluid properties and type of produced
crude.
FIELD: CARITO CENTRAL
Geology
a) Structure
The Naricual Formation is a short

anticline-type of structure, oriented from
WSW to ENE. The northern, eastern and
southern reservoir limits are reverse faults
with displacements between 800 and 1000 ft,
detected from seismic interpretation. The
western limit is a reverse fault identified by
wells in the area. These faults and the
structural configuration at the top of the
hydrocarbon accumulations are shown in
Fig. 2.51.
Figure 2.51
Structural
D
1700
Fault
17200'
17000'
16800'16
600'
16400'
Producer
U
Injector
From electric logs and core analysis it

was determined that the Lower Naricual
corresponds to braided stream channel
deposits. At the bottom of the Middle
Naricual, nearshore deposits (coastal and
sublittoral bars) are interpreted, and in its
middle and upper sections there are tideinfluenced deposits (tidal channels and tidal
flats). In the Upper Naricual, the deposits are
interpreted to be coastal bars at the base,
grading up to more marine deposits in the
middle, and up to shallow shelf deposits at
the top.
0'
0'
1 6 00
U
1 50
14 0 0 0 '
U D
0'
40
14
14 6 0 0 '
1 4 8 0 0'
1 5 0 0 0'
14
0'
80
00
14 4 0 0 '
60
14
U
D
D
U
14 0 0 0 '
15
166
00'
D
D
14 2 0 0 '
15000'
'
1 5 2 0 0'
15000
'
00
0'
0'
U
D
Structural map of the Naricual Sands in the Carito Central Field.
b) Stratigraphy
The locally named Naricual Formation, which is still under study, has been
divided into three sandstone bodies: Lower
Naricual (700 ft thickness), Middle Naricual
(400 ft thickness) and Upper Naricual (400 ft
thickness). All the Naricual section is composed of sandy layers interbedded with
shales of variable thickness and extent. The
Naricual underlies the Carapita Formation
shales of Oligo-Miocene age. The pressure
behavior in these Naricual sandstone
packages is uniform and similar, indicating
some type of vertical communication.
The formation is a sequence of
sandstones and shales interbedded with coal
layers, all of which are clearly seen on
regular logs (Fig. 2.52). More difficult to
observe are the sandstones containing tar,
which are found at some levels in the
reservoir. The main producing facies have
porosities between 11 and 15%. Permeabilities are from 40 to 1000 md and the
irreducible water saturations are low (10 to
15%). They contain relatively small amounts
of kaolinite and carbonate cement. However,
facies with porosities of 7% and shale
volumes up to 30% are also considered
productive. Typical log interpretation parameters are m and n=1.8, and formation
water salinity=13,000 ppm (NaCl). Permeability varies considerably with porosity and
clay content, and is not easy to determine
accurately. OBM is used routinely.
2 34
LLD
CALI
Sand
Formation
(AGE)
Figure 2.52
(in.)
(gAPI)
GR
200
NPHI
DTCO
40
-.15 140
(ms ft )
(V/V)
RHOB
DTSM
1.9
2.9 240
40
(g cm3)
(ms ft)
.45
14
LLS
Depth
(ft)
MSFL
1
(ohm-m)
1000
Fluid properties
The results of 22 PVT analyses from the
oil leg and five from the gas condensate cap,
as well as pressure measurements and initial
production tests, show a fluid distribution
from top to bottom as: gas, condensate,
volatile, light and medium crude (Fig. 2.53).
This gradation leads to a variation of fluid
properties with depth, as can be observed in
Table 2.8. Other important data are indicated
below:
"Upper Naricual"
14200
Datum
14,400 ft subsea
Average temperature
280F
Original pressure at datum
11,367 psia
Oil gravity
2032API
Gas condensate gravity
33.535.5API
14600
"Middle Naricual"
"Naricual" (OLIGOCENE)
14400
14800
"Lower Naricual"
15000

The Naricual Formation sands have a
huge gas condensate cap (m=1.2). The estimated fluids (oil and condensate) are as
follows:
Original fluids in place
1883 MMSTB
Recovery factor*
58.0%
Remaining reserves
838 MMSTB
15200
Typical log of the Naricual Sands in the Carito Central Field.
2 35
There is an approximate 200-ft gas-toliquid transition zone where a critical fluid

was observed in which gas and oil
viscosities and densities are similar. To
maximize hydrocarbon recovery from this
kind of reservoir, pressure should be
maintained above the minimum dew point
(7000 psia in this case) to avoid condensate
oil loss by retrograde condensation (liquid
makeup in the reservoir), as well as
asphaltene deposits in the rocks.
*Primary (28%) and secondary (30%)
The original fluids in place reserves

include 713 MMSTB of condensate from the
gas cap. The original gas in place reserves
has been estimated at 2954 Bscf and the
original gas in solution in place in 1179 Bscf.
Table 2.8
Zone
Sat. P
psia
Oil FVF
RB/STB
Init. GOR
scf/STB
Oil visc.
cp
Cond. content
STB/MMscf
Upper gas cap
9220
2.047
1870
0.156
184
Middle gas cap
8375
2.043
1844
0.156
228
Lower gas cap
7445
2.038
1816
0.157
307
Gas/oil interph.
11,300
2.058
1932
0.155
307
Upper oil
5500
1.890
1531
0.169
32
Middle oil
4000
1.524
864
0.415
Lower oil
3500
1.430
686
0.640

Fluid property variations of the Naricual Sands in the Carito Central Field.
Figure 2.53
12,000
Upper gas cap zone

13,000
Depth (ft ss)
Medium gas cap zone

Lower gas cap zone
Gas-oil interphase @ 14,040 ft
14,000
Transition zone @ 200 ft
Upper crude zone

15,000
Saturation
pressure
Medium crude zone
16,000
Lower crude zone
Original
pressure
O.W.O.C @16,585 ft
17,000
0
10
11
12
13
Pressure (Mpsia)
Fluids column of the Naricual Sands in the Carito Central Field.
Since April 1988, when the Naricual

Formation started its production life, to
date, 21 wells have been drilled, 15 of which
were dual string completions. Cumulative
production is 258.7 MMSTB of oil (13.57% of
the OOIP), 362.7 Bscf of gas and practically
no water. The December 1996 average
production was 103.4 MBOPD by natural
flow with traces of water and 1880 scf/STB
GOR (Fig. 2.54). On December 24, 1996, a
gas injection project was initiated. The
discovery wells original reservoir pressure
was 11,367 psia calculated at a datum of
14,040 ft subsea. Drill stem pressure tests
taken from other wells and corrected at
datum, using defined pressure gradients for
each fluid zone, indicated a 15.4
psia/MMSTB decline index. Actual pressure
is 7630 psia.
Figure 2.54
300
140
Qo
Np
250
100
200
80
150
60
100
40
Np (MMSTB)
Qo (MBOPD)
120
50
20
0
Qg
Gp
400
500
400
300
300
200
200
100
Gp (Bscf)
Qg (MMscf/D)
The prevailing reservoir production

mechanisms are rock-fluid expansion
combined with a gas cap drive.
100
0
'88
'89
'90
'91
'92
'93
'94
'95
'96
'97
0
'98
Year
Production history of the Naricual Sands in the Carito Central Field.
2 36
Figure 2.55
North
Carito
West
Carito
El Furrial
Maturn
Central
Carito
Santa
Brbara
50 km
Location map of
El Furrial Field.
FIELD: EL FURRIAL
Introduction
El Furrial Field is located in north
Monagas State, approximately 22 miles west
of Maturn (Fig. 2.55). The locally named
Naricual Formation, containing 6900
MMSTB OOIP, is considered one of the
largest medium-gravity oil reserves in the
area. The hydrocarbon column consists of an
asphaltene type of crude, characterized by
the variation of API oil gravity, asphaltene
content and thermodynamic properties with
depth. The reservoirs are volumetric-type and
highly undersaturated, without gas caps, and
have a bitumen layer that inhibits the aquifer
activity. To prevent pressure dropping down
to the critical point, where asphaltenes
precipitate, water was injected into the
reservoir. This will substantially increase the
total oil recovery.
Geology
a) Structure
The structure at the top of the hydrocarbon accumulation is a symmetric anticline

6 miles long by 5 miles wide with a N70E
strike. The north flank dip varies between 18
and 24 and the south flank between 16 and
21. These anticline flanks are cut by reverse
Figure 2.56
N
U
El Corozo
'
0
00
0'
00
'
-1
60
00
-1 '
60
0
0'
-1
60
0
60
-1 D
D
U
-1
50
00
'
-1
Structural
Carito
Fault
Oil producer
Injector
Structural map of the Naricual Sands in El Furrial Field.
2 37
faults approximately parallel to the structural

axis; those of the northern flank with the
downthrown side to the north and those of
the southern flank with the downthrown side
to the south. A downthrown-side normal fault
system transversely cuts the structure (Fig.
2.56).
Northern and southern reservoir boundaries are determined by a bituminous layer
(tar mat) present in all the structures, while
the eastern and western limits consist of
normal faults separating El Furrial Field from
the adjacent El Corozo and Carito Fields,
respectively.
b) Stratigraphy
The stratigraphic sequences of more

than 16,000 ft drilled within the El Furrial
Field include Upper Cretaceous to Recent.
All the section is primarily siliciclastic.
Most of the El Furrial oil accumulations
are considered to be found in sandstones
that are locally called Naricual Formation
of Oligocene age. This assumption, as well
as the lithostratigraphic nomenclature of the
area, is still under study. These sandstones
are divided into three stratigraphic bodies
that are separated by laterally extensive
shales (Fig. 2.57): Lower Naricual, with
approximately 400 ft sandstone thickness,
Middle Naricual also with 400 ft, and Upper
Naricual with an average of 700 ft. The
pressure behavior (Fig. 2.58) indicates there
is some communication between the three
bodies in spite of the extensive shales
separating them. The Naricual Formation
overlies a section of shales that are probably
pre-Oligocene, and underlies the OligoMiocene Carapita Formation shales. The
Carapita shales are the regional seal for the
oldest hydrocarbon accumulations in the
Oligocene: Santa Brbara; West, North, and
Center Carito; El Corozo and El Furrial
reservoirs. It must be emphasized that this
description is unofficial and still under study.
FIELD: EL FURRIAL
ILD
CALI
6
Sand
Form. (AGE)
Figure 2.57
(in.)
16
GR
0
(gAPI)
200
Depth
(ft)
NPHI
(ohm-m)
ILM
2000
.45
(ohm-m) 2000
1.9
(V/V)
RHOB
(g cm3)
-.15
2.9
15000
"Upper Naricual"
"Naricual " (OLIGOCENE)
15100
15200
15300
"Middle Naricual"
15400
15500
Naricual Formation
partial log in El Furrial
Field.
The Lower Naricual section was

deposited in a nearshore environment
formed by estuarine tidal channels,
paleosurfaces, littoral bars and bays. The
Middle Naricual was deposited in a
sublittoral neritic environment with a
condensation surface at the base, and the
Upper Naricual in a coastal marine
environment with coastal bars and bays,
estuarine channels, and paleosurfaces.
Table 2.9
Sand
Average petrophysical properties for
each Naricual Sands are shown in Table 2.9.
Pressure build-up tests and drill stem
tests characterized these Naricual Sands
as relatively homogeneous and of high
flow capacity.
The Simandoux equation was used to
determine the water saturation (m and
n=1.89, a=0.81). Formation water salinity is
approximately 18000 ppm equivalent NaCl.
Porosity was calculated through an equation
where matrix and fluid densities were 2.65
and 0.89 g/cm3, respectively. Permeability
was considered to be a function of effective
porosity, water saturation and shaliness,
which in the best zones is low (less
than 5%).
Fluid properties
There is a linear relationship between
depth and temperature. The geothermal
gradient in El Furrial Field is 1.43F/100 ft
with 272F at 13,000 ft subsea. There are
substantial variations in the chemical
characteristics of the fluids and the
hydrocarbon thermodynamic properties in
both horizontal and vertical directions,
which are related to API oil gravity, as
shown in Table 2.10.
Variations
in
the
hydrocarbon
thermodynamic properties have resulted in
the formation of a high-viscosity bituminous
layer of variable thickness. This layer occurs
at the base of the structure and all across the
field. Likewise, an approximate 350-ft
thickness of medium crude to bitumen
transition zone has been found. Three
different fluid sectors are shown in the next
table (depths are in ft subsea):
Porosity
(%)
Permeability
(md)
Water
saturation (%)
NOS
(ft)
Lower Naricual
14.8
268
8.3
290
Middle Naricual
15.1
370
7.7
162
North
15,400
15,800
15,700
Upper Naricual
15.3
509
7.2
220
South
14,650
14,900
14,800
East
15,250
15,400
15,300
Sector
Top transition Top bitumen

16API
zone
layer
crude level
Petrophysical properties of the Naricual Sands, El Furrial Field.
2 38
FIELD: EL FURRIAL

The Naricual Sands original oil in
place (OOIP) has been estimated by
reservoir simulation, considering the
hydrocarbon column above the 16API oil
gravity level. Reserves are shown below:
Figure 2.58
Pressure (psia)
12000
Upper Nar.
Medium Nar.
Lower Nar.
10000
8000
6000
Qo
Np
700
Qo (MBOPD)
600
500
400
200
300
200
100
100
0
0
'86
'87
'88
'89
'90
'91
'92
'93
'94
'95
6881 MMSTB
Recovery factor*
46.65%
Remaining reserves
2431 MMSTB
* Including primary (13.45%) and secondary (33.2%)
Np (MMSTB)
300
OOIP
'96
Year
Reservoir studies indicate the feasibility

of implementing a high-pressure (7000 psi)
miscible gas injection project at the top of
the formation. This project will start in 1998
and additional oil recovery of 333 MMSTB
(5% of the OOIP) is estimated.
Production and pressure history of the Naricual Sands, El Furrial Field.

Table 2.10

Chemical properties:
Oil gravity
(API)
29.6< 8
Asphaltene
(% weight)
Sulfur
(% weight)
Vanadium
(ppm)
Iron
(ppm)
0,636,0
0,692,41
6,4562
2,21391,0
pb
(psia)
GOR @ pb
(scf/STB)
Bo @ pb
(RB/STB)
Oil viscosity
@ pb (cp)
48601517
1436245
1,9151,249
0,263,2
Thermodynamic properties:
Oil gravity
(API)
29,6< 8
Chemical and thermodynamic properties of the Naricual Sands, El Furrial Field.
Figure 2.59
Cumulative injection (MMSTB)

and Injection rate (MBWPD)
600
500
Cumulative injection
Injection rate
550 MBWPD
plant
400
400 MBWPD
plant
300
200
100 6 MBWPD
plant
50 MBWPD
plant
0
'92
'93
'94
Year
Injection history of the Naricual Sands, El Furrial Field.
2 39
'95
'96
Since 1986, cumulative oil production

has been 779 MMSTB and production of 370
MBOPD is from 58 wells (Fig. 2.58). Water
injection started in 1992 at a 6 MBWPD rate
and now has reached 550 MBWPD. Water
has been injected into 35 wells with a
cumulative injection of 420 MMbbl (Fig.
2.59).
The original Naricual Formation
pressure was 11,020 psia at a datum of
13,000 ft subsea. The pressure gradient
varies from 0.30 psia/ft at the top to 0.325
psia/ft at the base of the medium crude
column. By the end of 1992, after producing
approximately 272 MMSTB of oil, the
pressure drop was 3039 psia (down to 7971
psia), indicating an 11.2 psia/MMSTB
pressure decline factor. From 1992 to date,
when the water injection started, this factor
was reduced to 2.7 psia/MMSTB, indicating
that the pressure maintenance project is
highly beneficial (Fig. 2.58).
The El Furrial Naricual Formation

sands are highly undersaturated. The bituminous layer inhibits the water drive of any
underlying aquifer from being transmitted to
the overlying hydrocarbon reservoir, whose
behavior is volumetric. Taking these
RESERVOIR: P2 SANDSTONES
Figure 2.60
Caripito
Guanoco
Pedernales
0
Maturn
Location map of the

Pedernales Field.
40 km
Introduction
The Pedernales Field is on the northern
margin of the Orinoco delta in the
Amacuro Delta Territory (Fig. 2.60). It
lies beneath mangrove swamps and
tide-influenced river channels. The P2
sands are the main producers of the La
Pica Formation. The field was
discovered in 1933 but was shut-in for
long periods of time because of World
War II, remote access and contract
expirations with different operators. In
March 1993 an Operating Services
Agreement was signed to reactivate and
develop the Pedernales area. A total of 76
MMSTB of heavy to medium oil has been
estimated as proven reserves, as well as 377
MMSTB probable recoverable oil reserves.
Geology
a) Structure
The Pedernales Field is located on the

northern flank of the Pedernales structure,
which is a large decapitated anticline.
FIELD: EL FURRIAL
characteristics into consideration, the prevailing drive mechanism was rock and fluid
expansion until 1992, during the natural
depletion period; later on, expansion was
assisted by a water injection secondary
recovery project, which maintained the
pressure above the bubble point.
FIELD: PEDERNALES
The field is SW-ENE-oriented and has been

divided into four areas: SW and Central,
from which has come most of the
cumulative oil production, and NE and ENE
segments, which are in the development
phase (Fig. 2.61). Originally it was believed
that the Pedernales anticline was the result
of mud diapirism, but recent 3-D seismic
data indicate that the structure is also due to
faulting with deep thrusts. The reservoir dips
approximately 45 to the northwest and
trapping is mainly stratigraphic. P2 sands are
laterally bounded by transgressive NW-SEtrending faults. The upper limit has been
taken at approximately 3000 ft true vertical
depth (TVD) subsea and no oil-gas contact
has been detected. The base of the field is
defined by oil-water contacts (in SW/Central
areas at approximately 7240 ft TVD subsea;
in the NE area at +-7400 ft TVD, and +-7850
ft TVD subsea in the ENE area). The SW
reservoir limit is not stratigraphic but a
proven area boundary.
2 40
FIELD: PEDERNALES
b) Stratigraphy
Figure 2.61
N
EENE
Cotorra
Island
'
00
90
ENE
'
00
70
'
00
60
'
00
50
NE
'
0
00
'
00
40'
00
30 0'
0
20
Central
SW
9000'
'
00
20 00'
10
8000'
7000' 00'
'60 00'
50
Structural
Parcel limit
Fault
Well
Structural map of the P2 sands.

Figure 2.62
Sand
Member
Formation
(AGE)
ICM
0.2
GR
(gAPI)
150
Depth
(ft)
Top P2
4900
P2
5100
Pedernales
La Pica (MIO-PLIOCENE)
5000
5200
5300
5400
5500
P5
Top P5
5600
Typical log in the Pedernales Field.
41
NPHI
2000 60
IDL
Top Perdernales
(ohm-m)
0.2
(ohm-m)
(p.u.)
1.65
(g / cm3)
The oil in Pedernales Field is contained

in Pliocene sandstones and siltstones
deposited within a delta top (paralic) to
shallow marine environments. The SW and
Central parts of the field are characterized by
delta top distributary channels and delta
front mouth bars that are cut by incised
valley fills. The NE and ENE segments are
dominated by shoreface sands with intervals
of mouth bar sands (Fig. 2.63).
0.0
RHOB
2000
The Pedernales reservoir sandstones are

a lower Pliocene member of the MioPliocene La Pica Formation (Fig. 2.62). The
Pedernales sandstones were largely
deposited as lowstand wedges underlain by
the Amacuro highstand wedge and overlain
by a transgressive systems tract. The seal is
provided by the lower Cotorra shale
member.
2.65
Petrophysical studies of wireline logs
and limited cores show the lithology in the
Pedernales to be predominantly sandstones,
siltstones and shales. Clays are mainly illite
with some kaolinite and smectite. The
sandstones are fine- to medium-grained and
have good to moderate sorting with little or
no cementation. In the finer, shalier
sandstones, irreducible water can be high.
There is good agreement between core
and porosity logs. Water salinity is
approximately 20,000 ppm (NaCl) and m
and n are less than 2.0. Permeability was
estimated using available log and core data
and crossed-checked against test data. Cutoff
criteria to define net sand thickness were
60%, 13% and 50% for volume shale,
porosity and water saturation, respectively.
FIELD: PEDERNALES
Fluid properties
The Pedernales sandstones contain
undersaturated oil of 17 to 23API oil gravity
with 3% sulfur. Fluid data are limited and of
poor quality. Reservoir fluid properties were
derived using an equation of state that considers the variation of properties with depth.
Results at a datum of 5500 ft TVD subsea are
shown below:
Figure 2.63
SW
Central
NE
ENE
Top Ped
Upper sand
"sheet"
Basin
fill
Base
Ped
Am ac ur o Me mb e r
Pedernales Field.
3200
Bubble point pressure,

Pb (psia)
18333461
2671
Oil viscosity @ pb (cp)
10.318.2
13.3
Oil FVF @ pb (RB/STB)
1.131.24
1.19
GOR @ pb (scf/STB)
268558
413
1723
21.5
Data from the SW and ENE segments

are quite similar.
Shoreline delta front depositional environment

(shoreface and mouth bar sands)
Ranges of these parameters are shown

in the next table:
correlation in the
Most likely
29003400
Oil gravity (API)
Delta top delta front depositional environment

(incised valley, channel and mouth bar sands)
SW-ENE stratigraphic
Range
Original pressure (psia)
Net oil sand
128254
ft
Porosity
1630
Water saturation
1837
Permeability
1001000
md

Proven reserves have been calculated
using two methods, the volumetric and
reservoir simulation methods, with similar
results:
OOIP
973
MMSTB
Recovery factor
14.2
Remaining reserves
76
MMSTB
3500
18
Pressure
Field GOR
Monthly oil rate
16
3000
(33 Producers)
14
(11 Prod.)
2500
12
2000
10
8
6
1500
(11 Producers)
(17 Producers)
1000
World
War II
500
2
0
'35
'40
'45
'50
'55
'60
'65
'70
'75
'80
'85
'90
Reservoir average pressure (psia)
Oil rate (MSTB/D) and GOR (Mscf/STB)
Figure 2.64
Probable recoverable reserves were

officially estimated to be 377 MMSTB
considering a recovery factor of 12% and
1509 MMSTB probable OOIP.
0
'95
Year
Production and pressure history of the P2 sands, Pedernales Field.
2 42
FIELD: PEDERNALES

The Pedernales Field has produced

from the P2 sands 61.8 MMSTB of
oil over a period of 61 years (1935 to 1996)
in four separate phases. During the first
phase (1935 to 1942) the field reached a
peak of 5000 BOPD and yielded a total
production of 9 MMSTB, followed by a fouryear shut-in due to World War II. Production
during the second phase (1947 to 1965)
reached a peak of 12,000 BOPD (43
producers) and yielded a cumulative oil
recovery of 57 MMSTB and 56 Bscf of gas,
then was shut-in again for 16 years after
the expiration of the operators contract.
RESERVOIR: MORICHAL MEMBER
Figure 2.65
Temblador
El Salto
Jobo
Piln
Morichal
Cerro Negro
Bitor Area
Orinoco River
Puerto
Ordaz
Location map of the Bitor

Area.
2 43
The third phase of production (1981 to 1985)

peaked at 1000 BOPD (17 wells were drilled)
with an additional 1 MMSTB. The final phase
started with an Operating Services Agreement signed in 1993. The production has
been between 15,000 and 20,000 BOPD from
an additional 15 completed wells. A gas
injection project was started in September
1995 in the southwest area. See Fig. 2.64 for
a graphical display of the P2 production and
pressure history.
Rock and fluid expansion was the main

reservoir production mechanism until bubble point pressure was reached, and then
solution gas became the prevailing drive.
FIELD: CERRO NEGRO (BITOR AREA)
Introduction
The Orinoco Belt is known to be the
largest heavy and extra-heavy oil accumulation in the world, with 1200 billion
barrels of OOIP extending over an area of
approximately 13.3 million acres. Cerro
Negro (Fig. 2.65) is one of four blocks within
the Orinoco Belt and is located on its eastern
segment, south of Monagas and Anzotegui
states. Part of Cerro Negro is the Bitor Area,
which covers a surface area of 45,000 acres
and has an original bitumen in place (OBIP)
of more than 19.6 billion barrels. The oil
production is mostly used as raw material for
the Orimulsin (70% crude, 29% water and
1% surfactant), which is considered to be an
alternate source of energy of high commercial value on the international markets.
Geology
a) Structure
The Bitor Area structure is monoclinelike with a gentle north dip of approximately
4 and is fractured by multiple east-westoriented faults, as well as some minor
northeast-southwest-oriented faults. These
minor faults cut the main faults at
approximately 45 (Fig. 2.66). Most of these
faults are non-sealing, normal and of large
extent (more than 9 miles). Variable vertical
displacements range from 50 to 200 ft. The
vertical displacements north of Bitor Area
are larger than in the south. It is quite
difficult to detect faults on the electrical logs
because of the massiveness of the sandstones. The hydrocarbon accumulations are
essentially controlled by stratigraphic traps
and neither regional oil-water contacts nor
gas-oil contacts can be found on the logs.
c) Depositional Environment
Figure 2.66
2900'
2800'
2600'
2300'
N
Morichal Member Top
2200'
2200'
Structural
2100'
Parcel limit
Fault
Illustrated structural map of the Morichal Member.
Producing zones are closely related to

the depositional environment and lithofacies
interpretations (Fig. 2.67). Particularly,
"peak-to-peak" correlation of the Morichal
Member fluvial section cannot be performed
because there are no regional shaly intervals
of enough lateral extent to help distinguish
individual sandstones. Instead, there are
massive sandstone packages with good
vertical development and horizontal
coalescence.
The petrophysical evaluation of Morichal, Yabo, and Jobo/Piln Members is
based on a study that included 70 wells with
appropriate porosity logs (density/neutron)
and 206 wells with only resistivity curves
(laterolog) as well as two wells with core
analysis. The results are as follows:
b) Stratigraphy
The Bitor Area stratigraphic column

(Fig. 2.67) has an average thickness of 3000
ft. The Oficina Formation sandstones of
early Miocene age, deposited on a preTertiary unconformity, were arbitrarily
divided into 16 producing zones: Morichal
Member (from 0-16 to 0-11), Yabo Member
(from 0-10 to 0-9), and Jobo/Piln Member
(from 0-8 to 0-4). The remaining three zones
(F-3 to F-1) belong to the basal section of the
Freites Formation (Middle Miocene). The Las
Piedras Formation (Late Miocene to Pliocene) unconformably overlies the Freites
Formation. The Mesa Formation (Pliocene),
which overlies the Las Piedras Forma-tion,
contains huge volumes of sweet water
usable for industrial and domestic purposes.
Net sand thickness (ft)
Range
Morichal
Member
150470
218
Shale volume (Vsh) (%)
512
Porosity (%)
2835
31
400020,000
1000
1126
18
Permeability (md)
The cutoffs used to determine the petrophysical characteristics and the net bitumen
sand in wells with porosity logs are:
Sw=4.5%, Vsh=40%, Porosity=20% and
Swi=7%. The petrophysical parameters are:
Rw=0.50 ohm-m, a=1.0, n=2.0 and m=1.7. It
is important to observe that the low
resistivity values shown on the logs, at the
bottoms and tops of the massive sandstones,
are caused by normal granulometric changes
in the lithofacies that may be associated with
an increase in clay content and not
necessarily by high water saturation. In
addition, 40 ft is considered to be the minimum thickness for a commercial sandstone.
2 44
Member
Gamma Ray
API
Freites
(MIDDLE
MIOCENE)
Form.
(AGE)
Figure 2.67
Unit
Environment
Fluid properties
In the following table, fluid property
averages from several wells are compared
with a PVT analysis from well CO-04,
considered to be the most representative of
the reservoir.
F1
F2
Shallow marine
Deltaic margin
Average
PVT CO-04
Bubble point pressure* (psia)
1143
1040
Datum (ft subsea)
2500
2266
F3
Piln
04
05
Lower deltaic plane

to delta front
06
Jobo
07ab
Deltaic deposits
07c
Marine events
GBR @ pb (scf/STB)
72
79
Bitumen FVF @ pb (RB/STB)
1.047
1.047
Bitumen viscosity @ pb (cp)
8200
5900
Temperature (F)
131
126
Bitumen gravity (API)
8.2
8.0
08
Yabo
09
010
Coastal zone
The analyzed metals content is: 3.8% sulfur, 80 ppm nickel, and 300 ppm vanadium.
Tidal deposists
(marine)
011a
011b
012
Lower deltaic plane
Fluvial deposits
Morichal
Oficina (LOWER MIOCENE)
* Same as original pressure
013

Table 2.11 shows the Bitor Area
bitumen reserves (MMSTB) representing
only 1.6% of the Orinoco Belt.
Deltaic deposits

014
a) Production history
015
016
Landside
Valley fills
Igneous-metamorphic Basement (PRE-TERTIARY)
Stratigraphic column in the Bitor Area.
Table 2.11
OBIP (MMSTB)
Morichal
Jobo
Total
18,541
1055
21
19,617
Recovery factor (%)
12.2
9.0
9.0
12.0
Remaining reserves (MMSTB)
2166
95
2263
Bitor Area estimated bitumen reserves as of 1996.
2 45
Piln
The Morichal Members remaining

reserves represent about 96% of the Bitor
Area. A major portion, now under
exploitation, includes a pilot test initiated
back in 1984 in the so-called Production
Experimental Blocks. It is difficult to analyze
production behavior because of the large
numbers of field tests and the unpredictable
production shutdowns that occurred
between 1984 and 1996. The cumulative
bitumen production until December 1996
was 96 MMSTB and, for that month, the
average production was 70 MBBPD with
12% B, S and W and 160 scf/STB GBR.
Other field tests worth mentioning are the

cyclic steam injection, well spacings of 150,
300 and 400 m, and the use of different
types of diluent and well completions. See
Fig. 2.68 for a graphical display of the
production history.
Figure 2.68
400
Producers
200
0
Water cut, B, S & W (%)
50
800
Gas-bitumen ratio, GBR (scf/STB)
400
0
Bitumen production rate, Qb (BBPD)
50000
25000
0
'83
'84
'85
'86
'87
'88
'89
'90
'91
'92
'93
'94
'95
'96
Year
Production history of the Bitor Area.
By July 1996 a total of 349 wells had been

drilled, including four horizontal wells
where electrical submersible pumps were
successfully installed with added diluent at
the pump entry level. Also, a total of 23
horizontal reentries were performed, initially
completed with a progressive cavity pump.
It is assumed that the Morichal Member

crude was initially gas-saturated at its
original pressure. This assumption implies a
possible gas-solution drive. Compaction, as
in the Bolvar District Coast, might have
helped oil recovery. However, cumulative
bitumen production is relatively small
compared to the OBIP and subsidence has
not yet been observed. Incidentally, there is
some water invasion but neither its source
nor its energy are yet well known. All these
reservoir drive mechanisms must only be
considered as possible until better information on the Bitor Area, through special
studies of pressure/production behavior
analysis, is obtained.
AUTHOR AND CONTRIBUTORS
This chapter was written by J-C. Bernys

with the collaboration of L.Zamora, S.Antnez (MEM), F.Chiquito (PDVSA), A.Herrera
(BITOR), F.Rodrguez (Corpoven), O.Romero (Lagoven), O.Surez (Maraven)
and with contributions from M.Miln (MEM), F.Garca (PDVSA), I.Benzaqun (BITOR),
P.Talarico and D.Flores (Corpoven), C.Camacho, L. Escandn and K.Larrauri (Lagoven),
M.Rampazzo, X.Verenzuela, J.C.Ustariz and M.Mndez (Maraven), and E.Cazier,
B.Cunningham and H.Torres (BP de Venezuela).
2 46
Roger, J.V, N. Arteaga, J. Cabrera, G. Valera, P. Jam, M. Castillo, T. Boesi, Z.A.

Sancevic, Salazar, G. Rivero, F. Gmez, R. Lpez 1989- Explotacin
Seccin II: Ingeniera de yacimientos y Geologa de produccin ) en la
Industria Venezolana de los Hidrocarburos. Efraim Barberii, Editor TcnicoEdiciones del Cepet, Caracas 2 tomos.
J.C. Bernys PDVSA 1981 Aplicacin de los procesos trmicos para la
explotacin de los crudos pesados en Venezuela
Lagoven Informe de progreso 1996 Proyecto de recuperacin secundaria Yacimiento LL-07.
M.A. Shagroni, T. C. Boberg, J. A. Gonzlez, L. E. Matheus Exxon/Lagoven
LL-7 Reservoir Engineering studies
Lagoven- Ing. de Petrleo Dpto. de Produccin Divisin de Occidente
1993- Evaluacin del comportamiento de inyeccin de aguas efluentes del
yacimiento Lag. Inf. -07
J.E. Gonzlez- Lagoven 1993 Estudio de Ingeniera B-6-X.03
Lagoven Informe de progreso 1996 - Yacimiento B-6-X.03 - Proyectos de
inyeccin de agua Norte-1, Norte-2, Sur-1, Sur-2
L. Rodrguez, J. Miranda - Corpoven 1988 - Simulacin del comportamiento de produccin del yacimiento 0017 Arena P1/2 - Campo Silvestre
Simupet C.A. 1994 Estudio integrado de los campos Ostra, Oveja , Yopales
Sur-Yacimientos: OM -100, Arena-J-3, Campo Oveja - Informe preliminar
2 47
G. Zambrano, A. Granado A. Rincn - SPE 18279 1988 - A Compositional

Simulation Evaluation of the Santa Rosa Colorado EF Reservoir, Eastern
Venezuela
V. Villarroel - AAPG (Structural Traps VIII) 1993 -Santa Rosa Field
Venezuela - Eastern Venezuela Basin
Corpoven Gerencia de explotacin reas norte de Monagas, 1994Memoria descriptiva Proyecto de recuperacin secundaria mediante la
inyeccin de gas en la formacin Naricual del campo Mulata/El Carito
Lagoven/Corpoven - 1992 - Estudio del campo El Furrial para la implantacin
de un proyecto de recuperacin secundaria mediante un proyecto de inyeccin de agua en la formacin Naricual
Lagoven/Corpoven - Informe de progreso - 1996 Proyecto de recuperacin
secundaria yacimiento Naricual Campo El Furrial
J. Herbas Pizarro SPE 23685 1992 Reservoir engineering studies to
implement additional recovery projects in El Furrial Field
M.Villalba, P. Prez, C. Marcano Corpoven 1996 Memoria descriptiva
Proyecto perforacin horizontal Yacimiento RG-14 (COEF) Campo Santa
Rosa British Petroleum 1996 Pedernales Phase 2 Reservoir Studies
A. Santos, M. Gonzlez Geo Exploracin, C. A. 1996 Evaluacin geolgica rea Bitor

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Chapter 2

Hydrocarbon Reservoirs in Venezuela

HYDROCARBON RESERVOIRS IN VENEZUELA

Primary oil fields

La Paz, Boscn, Concepcin, Mara, Los Claros,

Tiguaje, Hombre Pintado, Media, El Mene

Silvestre, Silvan, Sinco, Pez-Mingo

Primary oil fields

Santa Rosa, San Joaqun, El Roble, Santa Ana

El Furrial, Santa. Brbara, Jusepn, Carito,

Beln, Guavinita, Palacio

*Also called Bolvar District Coast or Bolvar Coastal Field (BCF)

Geographical location of the main oil fields in Venezuela.

from 10.0 to 21.9

from 22.0 to 29.9

The main hydrocarbon accumulations

HYDROCARBON RESERVOIRS IN VENEZUELA

Sta. Barbara (a)

HYDROCARBON RESERVOIRS IN VENEZUELA

In the Falcn Basin the hydrocarbon accumulations occur in

Remaining oil reserves (1996) by region and type of crude.

Silvan, Maporal and Palmita Fields are in the

The most important hydrocarbon

HYDROCARBON RESERVOIRS IN VENEZUELA

b) Greater Anaco Area

c) North Monagas Area

Remaining oil reserves (1996) by type of crude and geographical area.

HYDROCARBON RESERVOIRS IN VENEZUELA

Table 2.3 Injection projects

Gas & Water

(Primary & Secondary)

*38% cumulative oil production (19141996)

Secondary recovery projects in Venezuela, 1996).

d) South Monagas Area

30 Percentage of each region total

Cumulative oil production (19141996) by region and type of crude.

Percentage of each region total

Annual oil production (1996) by region and type of crude.

The producing zones of the Gurico

HYDROCARBON RESERVOIRS IN VENEZUELA

97% of the total proven remaining dry

Annual oil and gas production

Estimated reserves as of 12/31/96

Recovery factor (%)

Production until 12/31/96

* Includes associated and solution gas, as well as 23,070

HYDROCARBON RESERVOIRS IN VENEZUELA

Geographical location of typical reservoirs.

Bitor Area Orin

RESERVOIR: LAGUNILLAS FORMATION

FIELD: TIA JUANA (ONSHORE)

Location map of the Ta

The Ta Juana Field structure is a

The post-Eocene stratigraphic sequence

Lower Lagunillas Top

Structural map of the Ta Juana reservoir.

RESERVOIR: LAGUNILLAS FORMATION

The Lower Lagunillas Member in the

FIELD: TIA JUANA (ONSHORE)

Typical log of the Lower

The cutoffs used for porosity, water

The Ta Juana Field was discovered in

RESERVOIR: LAGUNILLAS FORMATION