GOM Testing

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Technical Documentation as of V8 SR1

Digital Image Correlation and Strain

Computation Basics

GOM GmbH
Schmitzstr. 2
38122 Braunschweig
Germany
www.gom.com

Tel.: +49 (0) 531 390 29 0

Fax: +49 (0) 531 390 29 15
E-Mail: info@gom.com

Legal Notes
Legal Notes
No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or by any means or
used to make any derivative work (such as translations, transformations or
adaptations) without the prior written permission of GOM.
GOM reserves the right to revise this publication and change contents from
time to time without obligation on the part of GOM to provide notification of
such revision or change.
GOM provides this manual without warranty of any kind, either implied or
expressed, including, but not limited, to the implied warranties of merchantability and fitness for a particular purpose.
GOM may improve or change the manual and/or the product(s) described
herein at any time.
Copyright 2016
GOM GmbH
All rights reserved

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Table of Contents
Table of Contents
Legal Notes........................................... .....2
1
1.1
1.2

Important Notes.................................... .....5

Standard Signal Words................................5
Target Group................................................5

Introduction................................................7

3
3.1

Digital Image Correlation..................... .....9

Homologous Point Tracing in 2D Measurement Images...........................................9
Evaluating Image Areas via Reference
Point Markers...............................................9

3.1.1

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3.1.2
3.2
3.2.1

Evaluating Image Areas via Facets........ ...10

Triangulation........................................... ...12
Calibration..................................................13

4
4.1
4.2
4.2.1
4.2.2

Strain Computation.............................. ...15

Definition of Strain.................................. ...15
Computation of the Stretch Tensor......... ...16
Mathematical Basics..................................16
Computation in the GOM Software............19

Index...................................................... ...29

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Important Notes
1
1.1

Target Group

Important Notes
Standard Signal Words

In this publication the following standard signal words can be used:

DANGER

The label points to an imminent danger. The situation can lead to serious
bodily harm or death!

WARNING

The label points to a dangerous situation. The situation can lead to serious bodily harm or death!

CAUTION

The label points to a dangerous situation. The situation can lead to light
bodily harm!

NOTICE

Info

The label points to a situation which can lead to material damages. The
damages can result on the product or in the vicinity of the product!

The label indicates important application notes and useful information.

1.2

Target Group

Good knowledge in the field of linear algebra is required for a successful

transfer of knowledge.

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Introduction
2

Introduction

This technical documentation describes the general computation principles of

the GOM software. You get to know the basics about the digital image correlation applied by GOM. Additionally, the documentation explains basics about
the strain computation in general and its implementation in the GOM software.

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Digital Image Correlation

3

Homologous Point Tracing in 2D Measurement

Images

Digital Image Correlation

In this section, you get to know the basics of the position computation in the
GOM software.
The key aspects are approaches for homologous point tracking in 2D measurement images, the correlation of the points between the images of the ARAMIS stereo camera and the principle of triangulation for computing 3D points
from the correlated image positions.

3.1

Homologous Point Tracing in 2D Measurement Images

The software can clearly identify areas of a measurement image which contain sufficient image information. That way, the software can identify the same
areas also in other measurement images.
Info

In order for the software to be able to identify the areas in other measurement
images, the pattern inside these areas must not differ from the original pattern.
Due to the clear, homologous identification of the image points, the software
can triangulate 3D coordinates. From the 3D coordinates, you can then compute derived quantities like velocities, accelerations or strains.
You can perceive a measurement image as a two-dimensional signal. The
signal needs a significant amplitude to be detectable.
A discrete signal value indicates a gray value of a pixel. Because the GOM
software defines a gray value in eight bits, you get 28 = 256 possible values.
That means, a pixel can have a value between 0 and 255.
However, the gray value will probably be found several times in the whole
measurement image. Also, the gray value at one spot can still vary over time.
Thus, the correlation is not clear. Therefore, image areas are used to identify
the 3D points in the image.

3.1.1

Evaluating Image Areas via Reference Point Markers

When capturing reference point markers, the software uses the orientation of
the reference point markers and the contrast at the boundary between black
and white for identification.
The software can identify the positions of distinct gray value transitions from
black to white by the gradient. In each distinct gray value transition, the software fits an ellipse. The center point of the ellipse is the measuring point.
Info

The fitted geometry is an ellipse as a generalization of a circle. If a circular reference point marker is viewed under a certain angle, it is determined as
ellipse.
For identifying the reference point markers in the camera images, the images
are first locally converted to binary images. That means, in local image areas,
threshold values are defined which determine whether a pixel is displayed in
black or in white. Afterwards, enclosed white areas can be found all over the
image. Threshold values in size and shape ensure that the enclosed white
areas are similar to ellipses.

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Homologous Point Tracing in 2D Measurement

Images

Digital Image Correlation

Fig. 1: Identification of reference point markers in camera image

The centroids of the found ellipses serve as start points for an iterative algorithm which determines the real ellipse center points.
Starting at the center point, the algorithm searches in different directions for
distinct gray value gradients along each direction. To determine the center
point of an ellipse, the positions of the gray value transitions are then used in
a further ellipse fitting algorithm.

Fig. 2: Determination of the center point of an ellipse

To be identified as a reference point, the found ellipse must conform to some
accuracy parameters. That can e.g. be a maximum deviation of the real gray
value transition from the fitted ellipse or that the diameter from the fitted
ellipse corresponds to a real reference point diameter.

3.1.2

Evaluating Image Areas via Facets

If you do not use reference point markers to clearly identify the individual
image areas, the software can use stochastic image information.
These image areas are called facets in the GOM software.
In their original state, facets are square areas in the image. You can adjust the
size and the distance of the facets to each other in the software.
The term stochastic pattern shows that it is a pattern which is as random as
possible.
The random distribution of image information ensures that a facet can be
identified as clearly as possible in its local neighborhood. The chance that a
random pattern exists twice in a random neighborhood is low. For a facet size

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Digital Image Correlation

Homologous Point Tracing in 2D Measurement

Images

of 19 times 19 pixels and 256 gray values, you get 25619*19 > 10362 possibilities.
When perceiving the gray values as signal, you need a maximum amplitude,
thus a maximum possible contrast for detecting the signal.
The ideal facet has a distinct and equally distributed pattern.
However, more factors like the blurriness of the image, perspective distortions
or the offset of the binarization have to be considered. Therefore, a pattern
structure with three to four contrast points in one facet has proven to be ideal.

Fig. 3: Example of facets on a stochastic pattern

Every measurement image can be divided into square image fragments. Each
of these facets represents its center point which is used similar to the ellipse
center point of the reference point markers as identification point.
The identification of a facet in several images is called matching or facet
matching.

Fig. 4: Facets in their original state (left) and deformed (right)

The image information contained in the facets can be used for clearly identifying the facets in the image plane.
For identifying deforming image areas, several approaches exist.
Adaptive approaches provide the image correlation or the method of least
squares. The main assumption is that a causal connection exists between the
original state and the deformed state.

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Triangulation

Digital Image Correlation

!
f ( x, y )
g ( xt , yt )

The correlation function provides a rate for the similarity of two signals f and g.

c ( Dx, Dy ) =

f ( x, y ) , g ( x + Dx, y + Dy )
f ( x, y ) g ( x, y )

In the equation, is the standard scalar product and x and y are the displacements in the respective directions.
Thus, the software can determine the similarity of two subsets of pixels (facets
and search area) at different examined locations and with different displacements. Different subpixel interpolations, e.g. bilinear interpolation, bicubic
interpolation or spline interpolation provide the corresponding maximum of
similarity in the subpixel area.
With the iterative algorithm, the squares of the gray value differences are
minimized at various examined locations.
If you assume that a changing observation angle of the facet only leads to a
change in the perspective of the image, the position of the examined locations
can be determined via a pseudoaffine transformation:

xt = a1 + a2 x + a3 y + a4 xy
yt = a5 + a6 x + a7 y + a8 xy
The position of the examined positions is generally in the subpixel area. The
gray values at the examined locations can be determined via bilinear, bicubic
or spline interpolation.
Also, it can be assumed that the original state can be transformed into the
deformed state via radiometric transformation. The radiometric transformation
considers changes in the illumination situation as well as perspective distortions.

f ( x, y ) = r0 + r1 g ( xt , yt )
This modeling solves the facet matching problem via an overdetermined system of equations. The gray value gradients give more information. The gradients describe the change of the gray value distribution. Therefore, they give
additional terms for the iterative determination of the minimum gray value differences. The resulting system of equations can be solved e.g. with NewtonRaphson or Likelihood:
n

min f ( xi , yi ) - ( r0 + r1 g ( xt , yt ) )

i =1

3.2

Triangulation

The software uses the computed image point coordinates to compute 3D

points on a surface. To do so, the software uses the principle of triangulation.
If the software identifies two or more signals coming from a point, it can compute the point of origin.

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Digital Image Correlation

Triangulation

The software identifies optical signals (rays of light) with optical sensors.
Using the information of the sensor calibration, the software determines the
spatial coordinates of the origin from the corresponding image points.

Fig. 5: Principle of triangulation

To define the observation rays, the software needs specific information.
Orientation of the cameras in space
Coordinates of the observed point in the image plane
Parameters for modeling distortions
The parameters you need for describing the orientation in the image plane are
called intrinsic camera parameters or internal camera parameters. The
parameters you need for describing the orientation of the cameras in space
are called extrinsic parameters or external camera parameters.

3.2.1

Calibration

To get correct measuring data, you must calibrate the cameras in the GOM
software. The software determines geometrical parameters, for example position and orientation of each camera, based on the recorded camera images
and the imaging properties of the camera lenses and the camera chips.

3.2.1.1

Intrinsic Camera Parameters

The intrinsic camera parameters depend on the camera type used.

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Triangulation

Digital Image Correlation

The simplest camera is the pinhole camera. For this camera model, you need
the three coordinates of the optical center and the focal length.
The reality deviates from this ideal model. The differences are e.g. the lenses
used or the applied production process. Deviations from the ideal camera
model are e.g. distortion or aberration.
The deviations must be considered when computing the 3D coordinates.

3.2.1.2

Extrinsic Camera Parameters

The extrinsic camera parameters describe the position of the individual cameras in 3D space. Only with their help, the observation rays of the points
found in the images can be created and intersected.

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Definition of Strain

Strain Computation
4

Strain Computation

In this section, you get to know the basics about continuum mechanics, especially strain computation as well as some important terms applied and used in
the GOM software.
The focuses of the section are the definition of strain, basics about the computation of a stretch tensor and the conversion of measured surface coordinates into displayed strain values in the GOM software.

4.1

Definition of Strain

If an external force is applied to a solid, the solid deforms. If you e.g. pull a
wire, the wire lengthens and narrows. The elongation is also called strain.
The strain indicates the relative length change of an element.
If an element with the reference length

l0

lengthens by

Dl

, the strain is

defined as follows.

e=

Dl
l0

This strain is called technical strain.

The stretch ratio of an element is the quotient of the current length
reference length

L=

l0

l1

and the

l1 l0 + Dl
=
=1 + e l1 = l0 L =l0 (1 + e )
l0
l0

L =1 + e
You can regard the deformation of a solid in several steps.
If a solid lengthens by

Dl

, the solid has a new reference length after every

deformation step.
n

Dl =Dl1 + Dl2 + ... + Dln = Dli

i =1

For the technical strain, the following inequation applies:

n

Dl
e= =
l0

Dl
i =1

l0

Dl1
Dl2
+
+ ... +
l0 l0 + Dl1

Dln

n -1

l0 + Dli

=e1 + e 2 + ... + e n = e i
i =1

i =1

Thus, the total strain is unequal to the sum of all individual strains.
The left-hand side of the equation regards the deformation in relation to the
reference length. The right-hand side of the equation regards the deformations of each individual step.

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Computation of the Stretch Tensor

Strain Computation

The infinitesimal change of the strain of an element is defined as follows.

dl
l

de =

Therefore, the strain can be regarded as integral of the infinitesimal change:

l1

l
l
1
e = dl = ln ( l ) l =ln ( l1 ) -ln ( l0 ) =ln 1 = ln ( L ) = ln (1 + e )
l
l0
l
1

This strain is called true strain or logarithmic strain. Because the strain
regards infinitesimal changes, it always refers to the current state.
Compared to the technical strain, the true strain has the advantage that you
can add up the individual strains. For the technical strain, you have to multiply
the individual strains.
Technical strain:

l2 = L 2 l1 = L 2 ( L1 l0 ) = ( L 2 L1 ) l0 = (1 + e1 + e 2 + e1e 2 ) l0
True strain:

l2 = ln ( L1 L 2 ) l0 =ln ( L1 ) + ln ( L 2 ) l0 =( e1 '+ e 2 ') l0

Another type of the strain is the Green strain.
The Green strain is defined as follows.

e% =
4.2

1 2
( L - 1)
2
Computation of the Stretch Tensor

This chapter provides you with basic information about continuum mechanics.
The chapter focuses on basics about the definition of the strain tensor used in
the GOM software.

4.2.1

Mathematical Basics

The opening question is how the material in a solid behaves.

The positions in space

r
x

and time

in a solid can be described by the fol-

lowing function (trajectory).

r
r
x =c X , t

The material coordinates in the initial configuration

using the Cartesian unit vectors

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r r r
e1 , e2 , e3

r
X

can be described

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Computation of the Stretch Tensor

Strain Computation
3
r
r
X = X i ei
i =1

The deformation of a solid is the change of its form in space over time. The
change of a function in space is its gradient.
Thus, the deformation gradient can be defined as follows.

( ( ))

r r
F := grad c X , t

F11
dc i r r
=
ei e j = F21
dX j
F
31

F12
F22
F32

F13

F23
F33

where

Fij =

c i
X j

As the differentiation takes place at material coordinates, F is also called

material deformation gradient or Green-Lagrange strain tensor.
The deformation gradient can also be regarded as a conversion of element

r
dX

to

r
dx

r
r
dx = F dX
Element

r
dX

to element

, which in its original state has a volume V, is converted via F

r
dx

, which in its current state has a volume v .

As material does not change with constant state of aggregation, the conversion is bijective. Both inversion and polar decomposition can be applied to the
tensor F .
If the state of aggregation changes, the bijection is no longer effective. This
case can no longer be called deformation.

4.2.1.1

Polar Decomposition of the Deformation Gradient Tensor

A polar decomposition of a linear operator is a generalization of the decomposition of a complex number into a stretch part and a rotational part. As the
deformation gradient tensor is a linear operator but not necessarily a symmetric matrix, it can be subject to polar decomposition.
Thus, the deformation gradient tensor is divided into a stretch part and a rotational part.
The polar decomposition

F =R U

provides the two new tensors R and

U . R contains the rotation and U contains the stretch.

Fig. 6 shows a schematic representation of the polar decomposition. In the

upper left corner, you see the representation of a complex number into a
stretch part and a rotational part. The further images show the displacement
vectors which result from the tensors on defined positions.
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Computation of the Stretch Tensor

Strain Computation

Fig. 6: Polar decomposition

Fig. 7 shows the deformed state (green border) of the unit square (red border)
after applying F .

Fig. 7: Effect of the deformation gradient tensor to the unit square

U is the right stretch tensor because the tensors R and U are not commuta-

tive because a polar decomposition would also be possible into a left stretch
tensor and a rotation matrix. When transforming the points from the original
state to the current state, the stretch is carried out first. Then, the stretched
points are rotated.

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Computation of the Stretch Tensor

Strain Computation

Fig. 8: Decomposition of the deformation into rotation and stretching

You can compute the right stretch tensor from the Cauchy tensor
(

C = FTF

):

F T F =U T R T RU =U T I U = U T U
U = + FTF
The stretch tensor contains the stretch ratios and thus the strains:

U11

U = U 21
U
31

U12
U 22
U 32

U13 L11

U 23 = L 21
U 33 L 31

L12
L 22
L 32

L13

L 23
L 33

The stretch tensor is symmetric and positive.

4.2.2

Computation in the GOM Software

In the GOM software, a global coordinate system always exists. The initial,
global coordinate system is defined by the first calibration image via the position of the calibration panel. You can transform the global coordinate system
later via an alignment.
Strains in X-direction are always computed in material coordinates, i.e. in local
coordinates which move with the material. Thus, each point has its own coordinate system.
The software computes the strains in the moving coordinate systems and not
in the global coordinate system.
The software uses the Z-axis as thickness direction.
To allow for a common alignment, the software uses the normal of a local
compensation plane
The local X-axis

r
ex

r
nLP

around the respective point as Z-direction

results from the cross product of the normal vector of the

plane and the global Y-axis

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r
ez

r
ey

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Computation of the Stretch Tensor

The local Y-axis

Strain Computation
r
ey

results from the cross product of the local Z-axis and the

local X-axis.

r r
ez =nLP

r r r
ex = ey ez
r r r
ey = ez ex

Fig. 9: Schematic distribution of local coordinate systems

Example:
Fig. 10 shows an exemplary distribution of local coordinate systems on a
cylindrical specimen (left) and on a flat specimen (right). Fig. 11 shows the
distribution of local coordinate systems on a formed specimen.

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Strain Computation

Computation of the Stretch Tensor

Fig. 10: Distribution of local coordinate systems on cylindrical and flat specimen

Fig. 11: Distribution of local coordinate systems on formed specimen

The measuring system ARAMIS measures points on a surface. With these
points, you can determine strains in the surface, especially in the current reference plane tangent to the surface. When assuming other factors, e.g. a vol0000001118_004_EN_16-11-2016

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Computation of the Stretch Tensor

Strain Computation

ume consistency, you can also compute values in the third dimension. That
can e.g. be the thickness reduction.
To do so, all points which are used for the computation are first computed to
be in a local compensation plane. The plane is determined by averaging the
surface normals of the involved triangles. That means, the point positions
which are used for determining the strain values are the positions of the compensation points which are projected into the local compensation planes.

Fig. 12: Local compensation plane size 1

Fig. 13: Local compensation plane size 2

So far, the considerations are only valid for material coordinates. If an element
moves through space during the deformation, this movement must be considered in addition.
The movement of an element of

points in 2D space can be taken into

consideration using a displacement vector

r r
u .u

represents the rigid body

translation.
The movement and deformation of an element which consists of

points

pi

is described as follows.

uur r
uur
pi ' = u + F pi

px u x F11
= +
p y u y F21

The equation contains six unknowns in two dimensions (

F12 , F21 , F22

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F12 px

F22 p y

ux , u y

F11

). Thus, you need at least three points with known unde-

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Computation of the Stretch Tensor

Strain Computation

formed and deformed coordinates for computing the displacement and the
deformation.
The goal of the software is to compute a 2D stretch tensor from an amount of
points.
The topology of the point distribution in the measurement image is based on
triangles. As you need at least three points to determine the unknowns, one
triangle is theoretically enough for computing a strain. However, to reach a
better support of the individual measurement points, the software uses further
adjacent points of the respective point to be computed.
Fig. 14 and Fig. 15 show different neighborhood sizes.

Fig. 14: Neighborhood size 1

Fig. 15: Neighborhood size 2

This computation method results in an overdetermined system of equations.
The computed tensor represents the strains in the surface which is surrounded by the equilateral hexagon.
The density of the involved points and their distances to the center of the
respective surface can differ from point to point. To take this into consideration, the points get a weighting factor

wi

which represents both factors. The

condition of the material coordinates determines that the positions in the different deformation states of the point for which the strain is to be defined can
be used for defining the displacement. That is:

r
r
p0 = p0 + u u = p0 - p0
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Computation of the Stretch Tensor

Strain Computation

Via an iterative minimization, you can solve the overdetermined system of

equations.
n

min wi pi - F pi

i =1

4.2.2.1

Results from the Stretch Tensor

From the points which were projected into the local compensation plane, the
software computes the deformation gradient tensor via the method of least
squares. The deformation gradient tensor can be decomposed into a rotational part and a stretch part.
The stretch tensor contains the stretch values. Thus, you can derive the strain
from the stretch tensor:

Lx
U=
L yx

L xy e x + 1 e xy
=

L y e yx e y + 1

The tensor is symmetric:

e xy = e yx

You can compute the shear angle from the stretch tensor. The shear angle

q xy

is computed from the shear

e xy = e yx

and the stretching:

q xy = q x + q y
e
q x = arctan xy
e x +1
e
q y = arctan yx
e +1
y

For small strains, you can often find the approximation

e x 0, e y 0, arctan ( x ) =x

Thus, you get:

e
e
q xy = arctan xy + arctan yx = arctan ( e xy ) + arctan ( e yx ) = 2 e xy
e +1
e x +1
y

Info

In this case, this approximation cannot be used. In general, the following

applies:

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q xy 2 e xy

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Computation of the Stretch Tensor

Strain Computation

Fig. 16: Graphical representation of the shear angle

For computing the thickness reduction, the first and second principle strain
are used instead of the strains in X-direction and Y-direction. The first and
second principle strain are also called major strain and minor strain.
Major strain is the largest possible strain and minor strain is the smallest
strain of a checked element. Major strain and minor strain result from the principal axis transformation of the strain tensor.
The principal axis transformation provides by definition eigenvalues and
eigenvectors and moves the tensor into a new orthonormal basis consisting of
eigenvectors. The largest eigenvalue is major strain ( 1). The smaller eigenvalue is minor strain ( 2). The respective directions are represented by the
corresponding eigenvectors.
2

l1,2 = 1 +

ex +ey
e -ey
2
x
+ e xy e1,2 + 1
2
2

Fig. 17: Computation of the eigenvalues

Fig. 18: Graphical representation of the directions

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Computation of the Stretch Tensor

Info

Strain Computation

The indicated major and minor strains are the largest possible and smallest
possible strains in the surface. In three dimensions, they might not always be
the largest and smallest strains.
For example, you have the strains x = 1,2 ; y = 1,1 ; z = 0,76 in three
dimensions. In the GOM software, y (the largest value in the surface) would
be the major strain and x (the smallest value in the surface) would be the
minor strain. However, in three dimensions, z = 0,76 would be the major
strain.

4.2.2.2

Volume Constancy and Equivalent Strain

In some cases, you also want to analyze changes inside the material.
To define strains inside the material, the strains in the surface have to be related to the strains inside the material. To be able to do so, e.g. volume constancy must be assumed.
If the volume is constant, the product of all stretches must be 1. With volume
consistency, the following applies:

L1 L 2 L 3 = 1 L 3 =

1
L1 L 2

The software indicates the thickness reduction

-e 3

L1 L 2 L 3 = (1 + e1 ) (1 + e 2 ) (1 - (-e 3 ) ) = 1
When describing forming processes, usually equivalent strains are used.
Equivalent strain is commonly expressed as true strain. The value inside the
material is only valid with volume consistency.
The GOM software determines the equivalent strain with von Mises
Tresca

jT

jM

and

The following applies:

2 n 2
jM =
ji
3 i =1

jT = j Max
You can compute the equivalent strains with the following formulas:

j = e ' = ln ( L ) L = ej e =L - 1 = ej - 1

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Computation of the Stretch Tensor

Strain Computation

Example:
The example shows the computation of an equivalent strain in 3D space with
volume consistency.
The values are 1 = 2 = 0.1 and 3 = 0.2.

eM = e

2 2 2 2
j1 +j2 +j3
3

-1 = e

2
2
0.12 + 0.12 + ( -0.2 )
3

- 1 = 22%

jT = j Max = 0.2 e T = e -0.2 - 1 = 22%

When computing the equivalent strain with Tresca, the following condition
applies:

e =e

j Max

- 1 ej - 1

Max

Thus, the correct computation example is:

e1 = e 2 = e 0.1 - 1 = 0.11
e 3 = e -0.2 - 1 = 0.22
eT = e

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j Max

- 1 =0.22

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Index
5

Index

A
Aberration
Adaptive approaches
Adjacent points

M
14
11
23

B
Bicubic interpolation
Bilinear interpolation

12
12

19
11
12

D
Deformation gradient
Displacement vector
Distortion

17
22
14

E
Eigenvectors
Equivalent strain
External camera parameters
Extrinsic parameters

25
26
13
13

11
11
10

9
16
17

I
Image correlation
Infinitesimal change
Internal camera parameters
Intrinsic camera parameters
Iterative minimization

11
16
13
13
24

L
Least squares
Logarithmic strain

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23

O
Optical sensor
Optical signals
Overdetermined system of equations

13
13
23

P
Polar decomposition
Principal axis transformation

17
25

Radiometric transformation
Reference point markers
Right stretch tensor
Rigid body translation

12
9
18
22

G
Gray value transition
Green strain
Green-Lagrange strain tensor

F
Facet
Facet matching
Facets

25
11
26
17
25

Neighborhood size

C
Cauchy tensor
Contrast
Correlation function

Major strain
Matching
Material
Material deformation gradient
Minor stain

11
16

Shear
Shear angle
Spline interpolation
Standard scalar product
Stochastic image information
Stochastic pattern
Stretch radio
Stretching
Subpixel interpolations

24
24
12
12
10
10
15
24
12

T
Technical strain
Thickness direction
Thickness reduction
Tresca
Triangles
Triangulation
True strain

15
19
26
26
23
12
16

Page 29 (30)

Index
V
Volume constancy
von Mises

Page 30 (30)

26
26

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