Etymology

Main article: Names of India

The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word
Hindu.[19] The latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the h
istorical local appellation for the Indus River.[20] The ancient Greeks referred
to the Indians as Indoi (??d??), which translates as "The people of the Indus".
[21]
The geographical term Bharat (Bharat, pronounced ['b?a?r?t?] ( listen)), which i
s recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country,[2
2] is used by many Indian languages in its variations. It is a modernisation of
the historical name Bharatavarsha, which traditionally referred to the Indian su
bcontinent and gained increasing currency from the mid-19th century as a native
name for India.[23][24] Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of
Bharatas in the second millennium B.C.E.[25] It is also traditionally associate
d with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata.[26] Ga?arajya (literally, peop
le's State) is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for "republic" dating back to the ancient
times.[27][28][29]
Hindustan ([??nd??'st?a?n] ( listen)) is a Persian name for India dating back to
the 3rd century B.C.E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely u
sed since then. Its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed north
ern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety.[23][24][30] Currently, the name
may refer to either the northern part of India or the entire country.[30]
History
Main articles: History of India and History of the Republic of India
Ancient India
The earliest authenticated human remains in South Asia date to about 30,000 year
s ago.[31] Nearly contemporaneous Mesolithic rock art sites have been found in m
any parts of the Indian subcontinent, including at the Bhimbetka rock shelters i
n Madhya Pradesh.[32] Around 7000 BCE, the first known Neolithic settlements app
eared on the subcontinent in Mehrgarh and other sites in western Pakistan.[33] T
hese gradually developed into the Indus Valley Civilisation,[34] the first urban
culture in South Asia;[35] it flourished during 2500 1900 BCE in Pakistan and wes
tern India.[36] Centred around cities such as Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, Dholavira,
and Kalibangan, and relying on varied forms of subsistence, the civilisation eng
aged robustly in crafts production and wide-ranging trade.[35]
Map of the Indian subcontinent during the Vedic period
During the period 2000 500 BCE, in terms of culture, many regions of the subcontin
ent transitioned from the Chalcolithic to the Iron Age.[37] The Vedas, the oldes
t scriptures associated with Hinduism,[38] were composed during this period,[39]
and historians have analysed these to posit a Vedic culture in the Punjab regio
n and the upper Gangetic Plain.[37] Most historians also consider this period to
have encompassed several waves of Indo-Aryan migration into the subcontinent.[4
0][38] The caste system arose during this period, creating a hierarchy of priest
s, warriors, free peasants and traders, and lastly the indigenous peoples who we
re regarded as impure; and small tribal units gradually coalesced into monarchic
al, state-level polities.[41][42] On the Deccan Plateau, archaeological evidence
from this period suggests the existence of a chiefdom stage of political organi
sation.[37] In southern India, a progression to sedentary life is indicated by t
he large number of megalithic monuments dating from this period,[43] as well as
by nearby traces of agriculture, irrigation tanks, and craft traditions.[43]
Damaged brown painting of a reclining man and woman.
Paintings at the Ajanta Caves in Aurangabad, Maharashtra, 6th century
In the late Vedic period, around the 6th century BCE, the small states and chief
doms of the Ganges Plain and the north-western regions had consolidated into 16

major oligarchies and monarchies that were known as the mahajanapadas.[44][45] T

he emerging urbanisation gave rise to non-Vedic religious movements, two of whic
h became independent religions. Jainism came into prominence during the life of
its exemplar, Mahavira.[46] Buddhism, based on the teachings of Gautama Buddha a
ttracted followers from all social classes excepting the middle class; chronicli
ng the life of the Buddha was central to the beginnings of recorded history in I
ndia.[47][48][49] In an age of increasing urban wealth, both religions held up r
enunciation as an ideal,[50] and both established long-lasting monastic traditio
ns. Politically, by the 3rd century BCE, the kingdom of Magadha had annexed or r
educed other states to emerge as the Mauryan Empire.[51] The empire was once tho
ught to have controlled most of the subcontinent excepting the far south, but it
s core regions are now thought to have been separated by large autonomous areas.
[52][53] The Mauryan kings are known as much for their empire-building and deter
mined management of public life as for Ashoka's renunciation of militarism and f
ar-flung advocacy of the Buddhist dhamma.[54][55]
The Sangam literature of the Tamil language reveals that, between 200 BCE and 20
0 CE, the southern peninsula was being ruled by the Cheras, the Cholas, and the
Pandyas, dynasties that traded extensively with the Roman Empire and with West a
nd South-East Asia.[56][57] In North India, Hinduism asserted patriarchal contro
l within the family, leading to increased subordination of women.[58][51] By the
4th and 5th centuries, the Gupta Empire had created in the greater Ganges Plain
a complex system of administration and taxation that became a model for later I
ndian kingdoms.[59][60] Under the Guptas, a renewed Hinduism based on devotion r
ather than the management of ritual began to assert itself.[61] The renewal was
reflected in a flowering of sculpture and architecture, which found patrons amon
g an urban elite.[60] Classical Sanskrit literature flowered as well, and Indian
science, astronomy, medicine, and mathematics made significant advances.[60]
Medieval India
The granite tower of Brihadeeswarar Temple in Thanjavur was completed in 1010 CE
by Raja Raja Chola I.
The Indian early medieval age, 600 CE to 1200 CE, is defined by regional kingdom
s and cultural diversity.[62] When Harsha of Kannauj, who ruled much of the Indo
-Gangetic Plain from 606 to 647 CE, attempted to expand southwards, he was defea
ted by the Chalukya ruler of the Deccan.[63] When his successor attempted to exp
and eastwards, he was defeated by the Pala king of Bengal.[63] When the Chalukya
s attempted to expand southwards, they were defeated by the Pallavas from farthe
r south, who in turn were opposed by the Pandyas and the Cholas from still farth
er south.[63] No ruler of this period was able to create an empire and consisten
tly control lands much beyond his core region.[62] During this time, pastoral pe
oples whose land had been cleared to make way for the growing agricultural econo
my were accommodated within caste society, as were new non-traditional ruling cl
asses.[64] The caste system consequently began to show regional differences.[