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CORNELL
UNIVERSITY
LIBRARY

U"'*ersity Library
T
TJ ^-F?*"
I

230.S64

Machine design.

3 1924 016 001 038

Cornell University
Library

The
tine

original of

tiiis

book

is in

Cornell University Library.

There are no known copyright

restrictions in

the United States on the use of the

text.

http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924016001038

WORKS OF
PROFESSOR ALBERT W. SMITH
PUBLISHED BY

JOHN WILEY & SONS.


Machine Design.

By Albert W. Smith, Director


Cornell University, and

of Sibley College,

Guido H. Marx, Associate

Professor of Mechanical Engineering, Leland Stan8vo, viii -1-369 pages, 278

ford Junior. University.


figures.

Cloth, $3.00.

Materials of Machines.

By Albert W. Smith,
Cornell University.
Cloth, $1.00.

Director of Sibley College,

121110,

v+142 pages,

17 figures.

MACHINE DESIGN

ALBERT W. SMITH
Director of Sibley College, Cornell University

AND

GUIDO

H.

MARX

Associate Professor of Mechanical Engineering

Leland Stanford jhmior University

FIRST EDITION
FIRST

THOUSAND

NEW YORK
JOHN WILEY & SONS
London: CHAPMAN & HALL, Limited
1905

Copyright, 1905

BY

ALBERT W. SMITH and GUIDO H.

MARX

ROBERT DBUMMOND, PRINTHR, NEW YOFK

INTRODUCTION.

In general

there are four considerations of prime importance

in designing machines:
ness, III.

This requires

I.

I.

Adaptation,

II.

Strength and

Stiff-

Economy, IV. Appearance.


all

complexity to be reduced to

its

lowest

terms in order that the machine shall accomplish the desired


result in the

most direct way

possible,

and with greatest convenience

to the operator.
II.

This requires the machine parts subjected to the action of

forces to sustain these forces, not only without rupture, but also

without such yielding as would interfere with the accurate action

many

of the machine.

In

be calculated, and

the laws of Mechanics

cases the forces to be resisted

and the known

may

qualities

of constructive materials become factors in determining proportions.

In other cases the force, by the use of a "breaking-piece,"

maximum value, which therefore dictates


other cases the forces acting are necesmany
the design. But
sarily unknown; and appeal must be made to the precedent of

may

be limited to a
in

successful practice, or to the judgment of


until one's

own judgment becomes

some experienced man,

trustworthy by experience.

In proportioning machine parts, the designer must always be


sure that the stress which is the basis of the calculation or the
estimate,

is

the

maximum

possible

stress;

otherwise

the part

be incorrectly proportioned. For instance, if the arms of a


pulley were to be designed solely on the assumption that they
will

INTRODUCTION.

iv

endure only the transverse

would be found

to

stress

due

to the belt tension, they

be absurdly small, because the stresses resulting

fi-om the shrinkage of -the casting in cooling are often far greater

than those due to the belt pull.

many machines is a result of what may be called


"machine evolution." The first machine was built according to
The

design of

the best judgment of

its

and some part yielded under the

stresses sustained ;

by a new part made stronger;


enlarged, or perhaps

was

designer; but that judgment

made

of

it

it

was replaced

and again was

yielded again,

some more

suitable material;

much under

part yielded too

continued

the whole

till

expensive, and
it

is

excellent

if

was

entirely safe

and the process


learned

machines have resulted from

however, two objections to

are,

it

stiffened

machine became properly proportioned

many

this process;

There

it.

was then

Many valuable lessons have been

for the resisting of stress.

from

although

stress,

this part

it

Some other

then sustained the applied stresses satisfactorily.

from actual rupture

fallible,

it:

it is

slow and very

any part had originally an excess of material,

not changed; only the parts that yield are perfected.

III.

The attainment

economy does not

of

saving of metal or labor, although

Suppose that
market.

The

it

is

is

sharp; the profits are small.

(a)

He may,

if

of metal used, maintaining strength

But

How

change the design of the lathes on the market

to increase profits ?

tribution.

mean the
To illustrate

necessarily

may mean that.

required to design an engine-lathe for the

competition

shall the designer

it

this

possible, reduce the weight

and

stiffness

must not increase labor

by better

in the

dis-

foundry or

machine-shop, nor reduce weight which prevents undue vibrations.


(b)

He may

design special tools to reduce labor without reduction

of the standard of workmanship.

The

interest

on the

first

cost

of these special tools, however, must not exceed the possible gain

from increased

profits.

venient for the workmen.

He may make the lathe more conTrue economy permits some increase

(c)

INTRODUCTION.
in cost to gain this end.

not meant that elaborate and

It is

expensive devices are to be used, such as often come from

of more inventiveness than judgment; but that

be rearranged, or

men

the parts can

if

any way changed so that the lathes-man

in

shall select this lathe to use because

it

handier,

is

economy has been

lathes are available, then

when other

served, even

though

the cost has been somewhat increased, because the favorable

opinion of intelligent

In

(a)

economy

workmen means

increased sales.

served by a reduction of metal; in

is

reduction of labor; in

may

(c) it

(b)

by a

be served by an increase of both

labor and material.

The

addition of material largely in excess of that necessary

for strength
interest of

and

economy, because

machine and

upon

reduce vibrations,

rigidity, to

repairs

and

may
may

to be of cast iron.

for B.

the machine

work

in

a machine part

is
is

is

to be

The

or B, will serve equally well.

pattern for

will cost twice

In the foundry and machine-shop, however,

can be produced a very

little

to be built,

cheaper than B-

B should

to be manufactured

Expense for patterns

preferable.

reduce the expense incident

illustrate further, that

but one machine


if

increase the durability of the

sales.

designed, and either of two forms,

The part is
as much as

also be in the

delays, thereby bettering the reputation of the

machine and increasing


Suppose, to

it

foundation;

its

may

is

Clearly then

if

be decided on; whereas,


in large
first

the foundry and machine-shop

is

numbers,

cost.

is

Expense for

repeated with each

machine.

Economy

of operation also needs attention.

upon the efficiency of the machine

i.e.,

upon the proportion

energy supplied to the machine which

This

efficiency is increased

resistances,

by

of the

really does useful work.

by the reduction

careful attention to the design

cation of rubbing surfaces.

This depends

of useless frictional

and means

of lubri-

INTRODUCTION.

VI

In order that economy

may

be best attained, the machine

designer needs to be famihar with all the processes used in the


construction of machines

and the processes

^pattern -making,

of the machine-shop

foundry work, forging,

and must have them con-

stantly in mind, so that while each part designed

enough and

and

of such

stiff

The

There

is

which

is

to be satisfactory in appearance,

fourth

important

is

strong

it

also

is

a minimum.

consideration

is

Appearance.

a beauty possible of attainment in the design of machines

always the outgrowth of a purpose.

Otherwise expressed,

a machine to be beautiful must be purposeful.


ornament's sake

is

seldom admissible

yet the striving for a pleasing effect

of a

made

enough, and properly and conveniently arranged,

form as

so designed that the cost of construction

IV.

is

machine designer as

it

is

is

in

as

Ornament

machine design.

much

for

And

a part of the duty

a part of the duty of an architect.

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER

I.

PAGE

Preliminary

CHAPTER
Motion

in

II.

Mechanisms

CHAPTER

III.

Parallel or Straight-line Motions

39

CHAPTER

IV.

Cams

44,

CHAPTER
Energy

in

V.

Machines

;.

CHAPTER

VI.

Proportions of Machine Parts as Dictated by Stress

CHAPTER

50

67

VII.

Riveted Joints

83

CHAPTER

VIII.

Bolts and Screws

112

CHAPTER

IX.

Means for Preventing Relative Rotation

141
vii

CONTENTS.

VIII

CHAPTER

X.
PAGB
iS3

Sliding Surfaces

CHAPTER

XI.

Axles, Shafts, and Spindles

i6i

CHAPTER

XII.

Journals, Bearings, and Lubrication.

CHAPTER

172

XIII.

Roller- and Ball-bearings

198

CHAPTER

XIV.

Couplings and Clutches

209

CHAPTER XV.
Belts

218

CHAPTER

XVI.

Fly-wheels

244

CHAPTER

XVII.

Toothed Wheels or Gears

261

CHAPTER

XVIII.

Springs

308

CHAPTER

XIX.

Machine Supports

313

CHAPTER XX.
Machine Frames

318

Appendix

353

Index

361

MACHINE

DESIGN.

CHAPTER

I.

PRELIMINARY.
I.

Definitions.

The

study of machine design

is

based upon

the science of mechanics, which treats questions involving the


consideration of motion, force, work, and energy.

Since

be necessary to use these terms almost continually,


exact statement of what

make an

is

to

Motion may be defined as change

Force

is

selves

is

will

well to

be understood by them.
of position in space.

one of a pair of equal, opposite, and simultaneous

by which the

actions between two bodies


is altered,

it

it

state of their

motion

or a change in the form or condition of the bodies themeffected.

is

Work

the

is

Energy

is

The law

name

given to the result of a force in motion.

the capacity possessed by matter to do work.


of Conservation of

This law may

problem.

energy in the universe


in space;

it

may be

is

Energy underlies every machine

be expressed as follows:
constant.

The sum

stored for varying lengths of time;

be cha:nged from one of

its

of

Energy may be transferred

several forms to another; but

it

may

it

can-

not be created or destroyed.

The

application of this law to machines

is

machine receives energy from a source, and uses

and

useless work.

as follows:
it

to

do useful

MACHINE DESIGN.

complete cycle of action of a machine

that all conditions in the

and end, each member


gone through

all

such an interval

is

machine are the same


machine having

of the

motions possible to

at

its

in the

beginning

mean time

it.

During a complete cycle of action of the machine, the energyreceived equals the total

as {a) useful
to

work

work done.

delivered

The work done may appear

by the machine, or as

heat due

(6)

energy transformed through frictional resistance, or as

stored mechanical energy in

some moving part

whose

The

velocity

is

increased.

machine

of the

but for any considerable time

machine action the algebraic sum of the stored energy

interval of

must equal
For a

may
may be

sign of the stored energy

be plus or minus, so that energy received in one cycle


delivered during another cycle;

(c)

zero.

single cycle:

Energy received = useful work + useless work

stored

energy.

For continuous action:


Energy received = useful work + useless work.
In operation a machine generally acts by a continuous repetition
of

cycle.

its

Efficiency of Machines.

2.

In

defined as the ratio of a result to the

general,
ejfort

efficiency

made

may be

to produce that

In a machine the result corresponds to the useful work,

result.

while the effort corresponds to the energy received.


efficiency

of a

designer must

Hence the

machine = useful work -h energy received.*


strive

for

high efficiency,

i.e.,

for

the

The

greatest

possible result for a given effort.


3.

Function

of

Machines.

energy,

and the supplying

done.

The function

of

of

Nature

human

machines

furnishes

sources

is to

cause matter possessing^

energy to do useful work.

The work and energy must,

of

needs requires work to be

of course, be expressed in the

same

units.

PRELIMINARY,

The

chief sources of energy in nature available for

machine

purposes are:
ist.

and

The energy

of air in

motion

its

mass

mass and motion or

posi-

wind) due to

{i.e.,

velocity.

2d.

The

energy of water due to

The

energy dormant in fuels which manifests

its

tion.

3d.

as

itself

heat upon combustion.

The

method by which the machine function

general

exer-

is

may be shown by the following illustration:


Illustration.
The water in a mill-pond possesses
(potential) by virtue of its position.
The earth exerts an

cised

upon

tive force

If there is

it.

work

sary factor of work, no

that part of

it

which overflows

can be brought

which brings
its

is

attrac-

the earth's attractive

outlet,

is

a neces-

done.

water overflows the dam, the earth's attraction causes

If the

it

no

and hence, since motion

force cannot cause motion;

energy

it

to rest again
If this

to rest.

move
it

to a lower level,

does work

water simply

is

But

the water

is

led

from the pond

and before

against the force


falls

transformed into heat, with no useful

energy
if

to

upon

rocks,

result.

to a lower level, in

closed pipe which connects with a water-wheel,

it

upon

will act

the vanes of the wheel (because of the earth's attraction), and


will cause the

whereby

and

is

it

wheel and

may

called a

its

shaft to rotate against resistance,

do useful work.

The

Prime Mover, because

water-wheel
it

is

the

is

first

a machine
link in the

machine-chain between natural energy and useful work.


Since

it is

distance from

usually necessary to do the required

of Transmission

is

the rotative energy

But

work

the necessary location of the water-wheel.

used
is

this rotative

at

some

Machinery

(shafts, pulleys, belts, cables, etc.),

and

rendered available at the required place.

may not
may be too

energy

quired work; the rotation

be suitable to do the

re-

slow or too fast; a resist-

MACHINE DESIGN.

4
ance

may need

to be

in straight, parallel lines, or at

overcome

Hence Machinery

periodical intervals.

of Application

intro-

is

duced to transform the energy to meet the requirements of the

work

to

Thus

be done.

the chain

is

complete, and the potential

energy of the water does the required useful work.

The chain

of

machines which has the steam-boiler and engine

prime mover transforms the

for its

Free Motion.

4.

the action of forces

heat energy of

potential

This might be analyzed in a similar way.

fuel into useful work.

The general science

of mechanics treats of

upon "free bodies."

In the case of a " free body " acted on by a system of forces

not in equilibrium, motion results in the direction of the resultant


system.

of the

If

another force

is

introduced whose line of

action does not coincide with that of the resultant, the line of
action of the resultant
direction.

The

upon the

forces

is

changed, and the body moves in a

new

character of the motion, therefore,

is

dependent

which produce the motion.

is

called free

This

motion.

Example.

In

i, suppose the free body


on by the concurrent forces

Fig.

whose

lines

center

of

of

of

M.

action of the resultant of

AB, and the body's center


move along this line.
If

another force,

i,

is

4,

The
these

5.

Constrained

Motion.

In

machine

line

of
is

would

introduced,

'

the

forces

of gravity

becomes the line of action of the


and the motion of the body is along the line CD.
^^'^-

and 3

2,

pass through

action

gravity

to be acted

CD

resultant,

certain

definite

any departure from these motions, or the production of any other motions, would result in derangement
motions occur;

of the action of the machine.


lathe

turns accurately about

Thus, the spindle of an engineits

axis;

the

cutting-tool

moves

PRELIMINARY.

and an accurate

parallel to the spindle's axis;


is

thereby produced.

5
cylindrical surface

were any departure from these

If there

motions, the lathe would

fail

In

all

machines certain

motions must be produced, and

all

definite

do

to

other motions must be prevented;


in

its

required work.

motion

in other words,

or,

machines must be constrained.


Constrained motion differs from free motion in being inde-

pendent of the forces which produce


ciently great to

motion

is

If

it.

any

produce deformation, be applied to a body whose

constrained, the result

mined motion, or no motion

is

either a certain predeter-

at all.

Force Opposed by Passive Resistance.

6.

force, not suffi-

A force

may

act

without being able to produce motion (and hence without being

do work), as

able to

be further illustrated:

The

the force

is

material of the table offers a passive resistance, and

unable to produce motion, or to do work.

therefore possible to offer passive resistance to such

is

forces as

may

be required not to produce motion, thereby render-

ing them incapable of doing work.

Whenever a body opposes

a passive resistance to the action of a force a change in


tion

Suppose a

say hand pressure, to be applied vertically to the top of a

table.

It

may

This

overflow or outlet.
force,

in the case of the water in a mill-pond without

is

effected:

the force sets

resistance to the
in the legs.

up an equivalent

Thus, when the table

material of the body.

hand -pressure, compressive

its

condi-

stress in

offers

the

a passive

stress is

induced

In every case the material of the body must be of

such shape and strength as to

resist

successfully the induced

stress.

In a machine there must be provision for resisting every


possible force

which tends

This provision

is

usually

of properly formed and


Illustration I.

to

produce any but the required motion.

made by means

of the passive resistance

sufficiently resistant metallic surfaces.

Fig. 2 represents a section

and end view of

MACHINE DESIGN.
a wood-lathe headstock.

It is

required that the spindle, S, and

the attached cone pulley, C, shall have no other motion than

Fig. 2.

rotation about the axis of the spindle.

At

any other motion

is

machine part cannot be used for the required pur-

possible, this

pose.

If

and

the cylindrical surfaces of the spindle are

enclosed by accurately fitted bearings or internal cylindrical sur-

Suppose any

faces.

force,

P,

whose

line of action Ues in the

plane of the paper, to be applied to the cone pulley.


resolved into a radial component, R,

T.

The

passive resistance of the

journal and

while

it

its

offers

no

from producing motion;

resistance, friction being disregarded,

action of T, which
i.e.,

rotation about the spindle's axis.

If the line of action of

and no motion

If the line of action of

results.

tangential

component becomes

to produce rotation.

If

apphed

into a radial component,

N, and

bearing surfaces, and


the bearings, which
pulley.

The

force

fit

is

zero,

and

is

wholly appHed

may
component, M,

to the cone,

resisted as before
is

resisted

it

zero,

become tangen-

a force Q, whose line of action

the plane of the paper, be

the spindle's axis.

motion,

component becomes

its

radial

to the

allowed to produce the required

is

pass through the axis,

tial, its

of the

surfaces

cylindrical

prevents

bearing,

may be

It

and a tangential component,

lies

in

be resolved
parallel to

by the journal and

by the shoulder surfaces of

against the shoulder surfaces of the cone

can therefore produce no motion at

all.

PRELIMINARY.
In general, any force applied to the cone pulley

may

be

resolved into a radial, a tangential, and an axial component.

Of

these only the tangential component

and that motion

is

therefore complete;

about the spindle's

is

the motion required.


i.e.,

able to produce motion;

The constrainment

is

there can be no motion except rotation

axis.

This result

is

due

to the passive resist-

ance of metallic surfaces.


Illustration II.

the

R,

Fig. 3, represents, with all details omitted,

"ram," or portion of a shaping-machine which

carries the

MACHINE DESIGN.

The constrainment

motion.
result is

due

to the passive resistance offered

Complete Constrainment

and

complete,

therefore

is

the

by metallic surfaces.

not always required in machines.

is

prevent such motions as interfere with

It is only necessary to

the accorriplishment of the desired result.

The weight

of a

moving part

some

sometimes utilized to produce

is

Thus

constrainment in one direction.

in a planer-table,

downward motion

lathe-carriages,

and

in

and. unallowable side

motion are resisted by metallic surfaces; while upward motion


is

by the weight

resisted

From

of the

foregoing

the

can be opposed to

it

whose

forces

all

moving

part.

follows that,

passive resistances-

as

lines of action

do not coincide

with the desired direction of motion of any machine part,

be said that the nature of the motion


producing

is

it

may

independent of the forces

it.

Since the motions of machine parts are independent of the forces

producing them,

it

follows that the relation of such motions

may

be determined without bringing force into the consideration.


7.

Kinds

of

Motion in Machines.^Motion

be very complex, but

When

it is

mains in the

same plane,

way

motion

its

its

own

plane.

moving body remain


the motion

is

plane motion

If the

is

that

any section of

must

such that

at a constant distance

all

all

motion of the body


Engine

is

cross-head,

AB.

line,

Rectilinear

lathe-carriage,

may

be

in straight parallel paths, the

called rectilinear translation.

translation

AB,

Example.
^

body move

special case of rotation, in

All

points of the

from some

called rotation about the axis

points of a

re-

also remain, each in

line-shaft with attached parts.


If

it

called plane motion.

is

sections parallel to the above section

machines inay

motion.

chiefly plane

a body moves in such a

in

planer-table,

conveniently

Examples.

considered

which the axis of rotation

infinite distance, at right angles to the

motion.

shaper-ram.
as

is at

a
an

PRELIMINARY.

a body moves parallel to an axis about which

If

the body

A nut

said to have helical or screw motion.

is

turning upon a stationaiy screw.

If all points of a body,

move

rotates,

it

Example.

whose motion

is

not plane motion,

so that their distances from a certain point, O, remain

constant, the motion is called spheric motion. This is because


each point moves in the surface of a sphere whose center is O.
Example. ^The arms of a fly-ball steam-engine governor, when

the vertical position

Motion.

8. Relative
all

known motion,

to

some other part

machine
motion

changing.

is

^The motion

of the

It is studied

usually (though not necessarily) fixed,

is

This fixed part

The motion

of the machine.

to the frame, or, as

motion

part of a

i.e., it

has no

frame

called the

machine part may be referred

of a

often necessary, to

is

is

part, like

by reference

Some one

same machine.

relative to the earth.

also has

any machine

of

relative motion.

is

some other part which

relative to the frame.

The kind and amount

of relative motion of a

depend upon the motions of the part

to

which

is

machine part
its

motion

is

referred.
Illustration.

plate

which

Fig.

4 shows a

motion being referred to ^,

move

vertically,

Motion

to

the frame;

of

helical motion,

and

combined rotation

is

may

it

communicated

The motion
is

cannot rotate.

but

of rotation is

the screw B.
ferred

press,

is so constrained that, its

to
re-

i.e.,

translation.

C, however, shares the translation of

B, and hence there

is left

as the relative motion

The motion
ferred to

is

of

only rotation
of

referred to

rotation

and C.

Ls

rotation,

Fig. 4.

The motion

The motion of C referred to A

is

of

C re-

translation.

MACHINE DESIGN.

10

In general,

depends on

and

if

M and N, move relative


M referred to N
shared by M. If
of N

two machine members,

the relative motion of

member, R,

to a third

how much

motion

of the

is

have the same motions relative to R, they have no mo-

tion relative to each other.

Conversely,

if

two bodies have no

relative motion, they

Thus

the same motion relative to a third body.


the constrainment of
as well as

its

in Fig. 4,

could share

would have

and no motion

helical

if

B's, rotation,

motion

at all relative to B.

is

body

is

rela-

This

is

one in which the distance between elementary

constant.

No body

absolutely rigid, but usually

is

machine members the departure from

in
it

it

to be self-evident.

rigid

portions

such that

translation, then

tive to the frame,

assumed

C were

have

may be neglected.
Many machine members,

rigidity is so slight that

as springs, etc., are useful because

of their lack of rigidity.

Points in a rigid body can have no relative motion, and hence

must
9.
tros.

all

have the same motion.

Instantaneous Motion and Instantaneous Centers or Cen-

Points of a moving body trace more or

less

complex paths.

be considered as moving from

If a point

one position in

its

definitely near, its

path to another

motion

stantaneous motion.
the

for

line

joining the

two

to the path.

aid of the conception of


sary to

know

instantaneous motion

the instantaneous motion of


its

a straight

indefinitely

such a

near

line is

In problems which are solved by the

the direction of motion;

path through the point.

in-

called in-

The point is mov-

instant, along

ing,

together positions, and

a tangent

is

a point

it

is

only neces-

hence, for such purposes,

is fully defined

by a tangent to

PRELIMINARY.

Thus
it

in Fig. 5,

a point

occupies the position

TT

at P,

motion
point

is

the tangent

and any one

of

is

The

TT.

represented by

TT

represents

them would be a
it

following,

may

of the possible paths

drawn tangent

possible path of

instantaneous

its

Any one

path.

its

anywhere

is

in the

about some point, O, in a

perpendicular to the direction of

Let the instantaneous motion


tion of a
is

center, but

may be any

it

motion of the body

line

point,

is

A and C

But

rotates about

about some point of

is

AB

a,?,

a.

if

line

the instantaneous

TiTi,

this

motion

But the points

are points in a rigid body, and can have no relative

center.

and

point,

a sec-

the motion

the line

about some point of CD.

motion, and must have the same motion,

same

and hence the instantaneous

motion of another point, C, be given by the


equivalent to rotation

6, in

Then

TT.

some point on

not determined.

is

equiva-

through the point

a point. A, Fig.

moving body be given by the

equivalent to rotation about

is

instantaneous motion.

its

of

line

NN.

normal

In general, the instantaneous motion of a point, P,


lent to rotation

instan-

be considered as equivalent, for the

whose center

instant, to a circle

its

instantaneous motion of a

therefore independent of the form of

is

APB, when

in the path

of curves could be

but whatever path

the point;

moving

is

Any number

taneous motion.
to

if

CD;

only

the

some point

i.e.,

of

rotation about the

AB, and

rotates

but they must rotate about the same

point

which

at the same time in both lines

is

their

intersection,

and

and

C,

all

of the body, rotate, for

about an axis
projection;

or,

of
in

O.

Hence

other

points

the instant,

which

is

is

the

is

the

other words, the

instantaneous motion of
rotation

O
the

body

pio.

6.

about an axis of which


projection.

This axis

is

the

instantaneous

axis of

MACHINE DESIGN.

12

the

body's

motion, and

motion of the section shown

For the sake

of brevity

instantaneous center

the

is

of

the

in Fig. 6.

an instantaneous center

will

be called

a centro.

TT

If

CD

would

at infinity;

and TiTi had been


also
in

have been

parallel to

and would have intersected

parallel,

infinitely distant;

i.e.,

it

would

translation.

The motion

body

of the

in Fig. 6

fixed body, which, in this case,

The

and

which case the body's instantaneous motion would

have been rotation about an axis


have been

AB

each other,

may

is

of course referred to a

be represented by the paper.

instantaneous motion of the body relative to the paper

rotation about O.

Let

M represent the

body represented by the paper.

Suppose the

Then a

to be extended so as to include O.

through O, materially connecting

M and

iV",

pin could be put

without interfering

Such connection

with their instantaneous motion.

is

N the fixed
material of M

and

figure,

at

any other

point would interfere with the instantaneous motion.

The

centro of the relative motion of two bodies is a point,

the only one, at

and

which they have no

the only one, that is

It will

common

to

relative motion;

it is

and

a point,

the two bodies for the instant.

be seen that the points of the figure in Fig. 6 might

be moving in any paths, so long as those paths are tangent at


the points to the lines representing the instantaneous motion.

In general, centres of the relative motion of two bodies are


continually changing their position.
stationary;
10.

i.e.,

they

may become

fixed centers of rotation.

Loci of Centres, or Centrodes.

tion they describe curves of

may be

As

some kind, and

centros change posithese loci of centros

called centrodes.

Suppose a section of any body,


to a section of another body,

plane.

They may, however, remain

Centros

may

M,

to have

(fixed), in the

be found for a

motion

relatively

same or a

series of positions,

parallel

and a

PRELIMIN/tRY.

13

curve drawn through them on the plane of


trode of the motion of
fixed,

N moves so that the

relatively to
relative

the centrode of the motion of

upon

the plane

of

M.

motion of two bodies

Now,

N.

motion

N would be tne cennow, M being


If,

is

relatively to

since

the

same

as before,

may

be located

the centro of the relative

a point at which they have no relative

is

motion, and since the points of the centrodes become successively the centros of the relative motion,

motion goes on, the centrodes would


Therefore,

slipping.

upon each

the

if

roll

centrodes

follows that as the

it

upon each other without


drawn,

are

other without slipping, the bodies

and

M and N

rolled

have

will

From this it foUows that


two bodies may be reproduced by

the same relative motion as before.


the relative plane motion of

Tolling together, without slipping, the centrodes of that motion.


II. Pairs

of

Motion Elements.

surfaces by which motion

be

called' pairs of

is

^The

motion elements.

a turning pair, and the pair in Fig. 3

The

helical surfaces

external

and internal

constrained, as in Figs. 2

The
is

and

pair in Fig. 2

is

3,

may

called

called a sliding pair.

by which a nut and screw engage with


pair.
These three pairs of

each other are called a twisting

motion elements have their surfaces in contact throughout.


are 'called lower pairs.

Another

class, called

contact only along elements of their surfaces.

and toothed

wheels.

They

higher pairs, have

Examples.

Cams

CHAPTER
MOTION
12.

IN MECHANISMS.

Linkages or Motion Chains; Mechanisms.

In Fig.

7,

b is joined to c

by a turning pair;

"

"

"

"
" turning "
"

"

Fig.

Evidently there

motion

II.

of a,

in either a,

b, c,
b,

is

and

or

c,

complete

sliding

7.

constrainment of the

For, d being fixed,

d.

the other two

if

relative

any motion occurs

must have a predetermined

corresponding motion.
c

may

represent the cross-head, b the connecting-rod,

the crank of a steam-engine of the ordinary type.


rigidly attached to a piston

steam acts toward the


represents a machine.

If c

upon which the expansive

right,

and a

a must rotate about ad.

The members

a, b, c,

This assemblage of bodies, connected so that there

may

a simple chain, because no

others.

If

is

8.

complete

be called a motion chain or linkage,

and the connected bodies may be


is

This

and d may be repre-

sented for the study of relative motions by the diagram. Fig.

constrainment of motion,

were

force of

called links.

link

is

The chain shown

joined to more than

two

any links of a chain are joined to more than two

MOTION
others, the chain is a

IN MECHANISMS.

compound

15

Examples

chain.

be given

will

later.

When

one link of a chain

is fixed, i.e.,

standard to which the motion of the others


is

different
is

a mechanism.

called

mechanisms.

that which

Fig. 7.

But
for b

is

would

the chain

Thus

in Fig. 8,

if

is fixed,

the

mechanism

used in the usual type of steam-engine, as in

is fixed,

the result

is

mechanism.

an entirely

then rotate about the

rotate about the

becomes the

it

is referred,

Fixing different links of a chain gives

It is called the slider-crank


if

when

permanent center

mechanism;

different

permanent center
ad, while c

ah,

d would

would have a more

complex motion, rotating about a constantly changing

centro,

whose path may be found.

I^^A

Fixing 6 or c would give, in each case, a

still

different

mechan-

ism.
13.

Location of Centros.Tn Fig. 8

quired to find the centers of rotation,


stantaneous, of the other three links.
to the fixed link d,

motion of

is

c relative to

and

is

re-

either permanent or

in-

(^

is

fixed

The motion

it

of a, relative

rotation about the fixed center ad.

is

The

translation, or rotation about a centro

MACHINE DESIGN.

cd,

The

at infinity vertically.

with a;

may

it is

link b has a point in

be considered as a point in o or

in either case

6;

common

This point

the centro, ah, of their relative motion.

it

can have

but one direction of motion relative to any one standard.


point in a

its

instant, then,

motion, relative to
it is

But, as a point in
to

h, its

b has a point, be, in

as above,

be,

as a point in

and one

of

is

Now

be.

The motion

of a

found (by reasoning


section of the lines

The motion

if

necessary.

may

Also,

about some

ab and be are points

some point

some point

for the instant about

(as well as all other points of b)

rotate about the intersection of

the centro of the motion of

relative

and by the same reasoning

rotates for the instant about

AB, and the other rotates


CD; hence both ab and be

must

motion

rotates for the instant

b,

point of the vertical line through


of a rigid body,

extended

c;

through ah.

to the circle

motion must be rotation

its

line ad-ab,

common with

For the

rotation about ad.

direction of instantaneous

d must be the same, and hence

about some point in the

of

d, is

moving along a tangent

As a

AB

and CD.

Hence bd

relative to d.

be referred to

e (fixed),

and ae

will be

like that applied to b) to lie at the inter-

EF

and GH.

chain in Fig.

8,

as before stated,

is

called the

slider-crank chain.
14.

in the

Centres of the Relative Motion of Three Bodies are always

Same

Straight Line.

three centros of

Thus
is

any three

In

Fig. 8

it

will

links lie in the

ad, ab, and bd are the centros of the links

true of

Proof.

any other

Consider

be seen that the

same
a, b,

straight line.

and

d.

This

set of three links.


a, b,

and

d.

The

centro ab as a point in a

has a direction of instantaneous motion relative to d perpendicular to a line joining

it

to ad.

As a point

in b it has a direcd perpendicular to a line


ab-ad and ab-bd are both

tion of instantaneous motion relative to

joining

it

to bd.

Therefore the lines

perpendicular to the direction of instantaneous motion of ab, and

MOTION

IN MECHANISMS.

17

they also both pass through ab; hence they must coincide, and
therefore ab, ad,
b,

and bd must

lie

in the

same

plane motion, and the above reasoning would hold.

be

stated:

The

three centres 0/

plane motion must

lie

any

three bodies

in the same straight line.

and proof of this important proposition


IS.

Lever-crank Chain.

is

But

straight line.

and d might be any three bodies whatever which have

due

Hence
having

it

may

relative

(The statement

to Prof.

Location of Centres.

Kennedy.)

Fig.

9 shows

chain of four links of unequal length joined to each other

Sj^bd

B/

\\ A

a,

relative

by

MACHINE DESIGN.

i8

In Fig.

suppose the turning pair connecting

lo,

enlarged so that

The

includes be.

it

and d

to

be

now becomes a

link c

ac _,^

Fig. 10.

cylinder, turning in a ring attached to,

becomes a pin made

link d.

he

at the

end of

ment

The

b.

of the pair cd,

fast in c

centros are the

and hence the

and forming part

of, the

and engaging with an eye

same as before the enlarge-

relative

motion

the same.

is

In Fig. II the circular portion immediately surroimding cd


is

attached to

circular slot.

d.

The

This

link c

may

now becomes a

becomes a curved block moving

The

If,
is

of the

is

essentially

in the slider-crank

ab be enlarged

mechanism

is

till

in a

in a limited circular slot in d.

centros remain as before, the relative motion

and the linkage

axis

moving

ring

be simplified as in Fig. 12, whence c

is

the same,

unchanged.

mechanism, the turning pair whose

ad

is

included, as in Fig. 13, the motion

unchanged, but the link a

an eccentric instead of a crank.

now

is

This mechanism

is

called

usually

used to communicate motion from the main shaft of a steam-engine


to the valve.

It is

used because

it

anywhere without interfering with


17. Slotted
is

called the

Cross-head.

The

'^slotted cross-head

may
its

be put on the main shaft

continuity

and

strength.

mechanism shown
mechanism."

be found from principles already given.

Its

in

Fig.

centros

14

may

MOTION
This mechanism
E,

is

IN MECHANISMS.

often used as follows:

19

One end

of

c,

as

attached to a piston working in a cylinder attached to

d.

This piston

is

is

caused to reciprocate

steam or some other

fluid.

The

by the expansive force

other end of c

is

of

attached to

Fig. ii.

^hd
Fig. 12.

attached to d.
another piston, which also works in a cylinder
(for example
gas
This piston may pump water or compress

small

ammonia compressors

crank a
ad.

is

for

refrigerating

plants).

The

attached to a shaft, the projection of whose axis

Thi? shaft also

carries a fly-wheel

mately uniform rotation.

is

which insures approxi-

MACHINE DESIGN.
i8.

Compound Mechanism. It is
the compound linkage, Fig. 15.

Location of Centros in a

required to find the centros of

In any linkage, each link has a centre relatively to every other

Fig. 13.

link;

hence,

m(m i).

if

the

number

of links

But the centro ah

is

the

= w,

the

number

same as

ba;

of centros

i.e.,

each centre

r\

?:\

[Ed

Fig. 14.
is

double.

Hence

n(n i)
linkage =-"

6X5 =

the

number

of centros to be located for

any

In the hnkage Fig. 15, the number of centros

15.*

The
The

and

links are

a, 6, c, d, e,

centros:

ab be cd de
ac bd ce df

ad

be

ae bj
aj

ej

ej

/.

MOTION

The

IN MECHANISMS.

portion above the link

the character of

its

motion

is

On

of the part below d.

in

ti

a slider-crank chain, and

is

no way affected by the attachment

the other hand, the lower part

lever-crank chain, and the character of

its

by

The

its

21

attachment to the upper part.

motion
chain

may

what has preceded.

and twelve would thus be

Each part

will

have

ad, however,

located,

therefore

be treated in two parts, and the centros of each part


located from

is

not affected

is

is

may be

six centros,

common

to

.'y"

} bd
/I
I

\
\

\/\

,,v

/1\
6\

ae^^^rtT"

Fig. 15.

Four

the two parts, and hence only eleven are really found.
centros, therefore, remain
ce.

To

locate

follows that be
sidering

and

de.

methods

b, d,

is

Hence

be located.
three

consider the

be,

and

to

in the line
e, it

be

is

They
links a,

are
b,

he, cf, bf,

and

e,

and

passing through ab and ae;

follows that be

is

in the

at the intersection of

Hue

and
it

con-

through bd

and B.

Similar

locate the other centros.

In general, for finding the centros of a compound linkage of

MACHINE DESIGN.

22

six links, consider the linkage to

be

made up

of

two simple chainS;

Then

find their centres independently of each other.

and

the two links

whose centre

is

take

required, together with one of

The

the links carrying three motion elements (as a, Fig. 15).

centros of these links locate a straight line. A, which contains

Then

the required centro.

take the two links whose centro

required, together with the other link

elements.

straight line, B,

the required centro,


of

and the

is

which

motion

thereby located, which contains

latter is therefore at the intersection

and B.
motion per unit time.

19. Velocity is the rate of motion, or

Linear velocity
it

carries three

is

may

is

linear space

moved through

in unit time;

be expressed in any imits of length and time;

per hour, feet per minute or per second,

Angular velocity

is

moved through

angular space

In machines, angular velocity

is

as,

miles

etc.

in unit time.

usually expressed in revolutions

per minute or per second.

The

linear space described

linear

its

velocity,

is

by a point

in a rotating body, or

directly proportional to its radius,

distance from the axis of rotation.

This

is

or

its

true because arcs

are proportional to radii.


If

A and B are

two points

in a rotating body,

and

if ri

and

^2

are their radii, then the ratio of Unear velocities

This
i.e.,

it

Hence
all

is

is
it

linear veloc.

ri

linear veloc.

rz

true whether the rotation


true either for

is

about a center or a centro;

continuous or instantaneous

applies to all cases of plane motion in machines

plane motion in machines

is

rotation.
;

because

equivalent to either continuous

or instantaneous rotation about some point.

To

find the relation of

member,

therefore,

it

is

Unear velocity of two points in a machine


only necessary to find the relation of

'

MOTION

The

the radii of the points.

when

the center or centra

20.

may

latter relation

23

can easily be found

located.

is

vector quantity possesses magnitude and direction.

be represented by a straight Ime, because the

magnitude

AB, may

some vector

direction

and

length)

(its

straight Hne,

of

IN MECHANISMS.

and

quantity,

by being

it

parallel to

For convenience the

latter

Thus

direction.

represent,

upon some

may

it,

the

latter

It

has

length of a

scale, the

magnitude

represent the vector quantity's

or by being perpendicular to

it.

The vector

plan will here be used.

quantities to be represented are the linear velocities of points

The Hues which

in mechanisms.

represent vector quantities are

called vectors.

line

which

represents the linear velocity of a point will

be called the linear velocity vector


linear velocity will be

the point A.

Also

Thus VIA

VI.

Va

will

The symbol

of the point.
is

of

the linear velocity of

be used as the symbol of angular

velocity.

and radius

If the linear velocity

known, the

of a point are

angular velocity, or the number of revolutions per unit time,

may

be found; since the linear velocity -h length of the circum-

ference in which the point travels = angular velocity.


All points of a rigid
If the radii,

different

and

body have the same angular

machine members are known, the

ratio of the

velocities of the members may be found as follows:


Let ^ be a point in a member M, and B a point

iV.

ri= radius

of

A; ^2 = radius

the Hnear velocities of

Then
Hence

VaA=

and

,^

in a

in

angular

member

VIA and VIB represent

of B.

and B, whose

VIA

velocity.

two points,

ratio of linear velocities of

ratio,

VIA
yj^,

VIB

VaB=--.

VaA VIA 27cr2 VIA r^ ~ VaM


y-^ ^^i^^^VlB' VIB ^ n VaN

is

known.

MACHINE DESIGN.

24

If

VaM
VaN
-,r

ratio

is

21.

If either

M or N rotates about a centro, the

a varying one.

To

same

the

rotate uniformly about fixed centers, the ratio

constant.

is

T,r

and

find the relation of linear velocity of

link,

and the

ties of

the points.

In Fig.

only necessary to measure the radii of the

is

it

points,

two points in

ratio of these radii is the ratio of the linear veloci-

1 6,

let

the smaller circle represent the path of A,

the center of the crank-pin of a slider-crank mechanism;

d being

link

pulley which

Let the larger

fixed.
is

keyed

to

same

the

and the crank are then parts

pulley

of velocity of the crank-pin center

In

same

circle represent the

shaft as the crank.

of the

however,

link.

The

The
ratio

VIA
and the pulley surface =-7^
about a fixed center.

this case the link rotates

relation holds,

same

the

rim of a

when

The

the link rotates about a

centro.

Fig. 16.

22. Velocity

Diagram

of Slider-crank Chain.

Vlab

and

the link d

is

fixed

expression

is

also equal to "ttiT"-

t/vT"

In

Fig.

17,

ah-hd
u _;,

^7

similar triangles this

ab-0
Hence,

if the

radius of the

MOTION
crank

circle he

IN MECHANISMS.

25

taken as the vector of the constant linear velocity

of ah, the distance cut off

on the

vertical

through

by the line of

the connecting-rod (extended if necessary) will be the vector of the


linear velocity of he.

B.

Theij hc-B

is

Project

horizontally

the vector of VI of

the

upon

bc-bd, locating

slider,

Fig. 17.

bd

and may be

26

M/t CHINE DESIGN.

may

of all points of the slider's stroke

The

be read.

scale of

by one inch of

velocities, or the linear velocity represented

nate, equals the constant linear velocity of ah divided

ordi-

by 0-ab

in inches.

Diagram

23. Velocity

18,

d being

two points ah and


points

he

and VI

The

considered

relatively

link

the

in

fixed

the

to

h.

link.

ab-hd

Vlah

mTl^^bd-

For most positions

as

It is required

of ah being constant.

may both be

move about bd

in

fixed,

^^''''^

make

VI of be during a cycle of action of the mechanism shown

to find

in Fig.

AU

of Lever-crank Chain.

it

mechanism hd

of the

MN,

drawn

will

be so located as to

measure these

practically impossible to

parallel to b cuts off

on

are proportional to the radii themselves,

but a

radii,

line,

which

the radii portions

and hence proportional

Hence

to the Vis of the points.

Vlah

ah-M

Vlbc ~ bc-N

The

arc in which he

moves may be divided

parts,

and the corresponding positions

circle

through

constant

M,

radial

velocity of ab.

with ad as center,

ah-M may

distance

Through M\, M2,

corresponding positions of
corresponding line of

Through

of ab

b,

etc.,

and these

may

the

constant

lines will cut off

on the

a distance which represents VI

he for a

found as in Sec.

The

is

complete cycle

of

is

be found.

be.

may

determined.

22.

relation of linear velocity of points not in the

also

lines parallel to the

the points thus determined the velocity diagram

scale of velocities

may

located.

be drawn, and the

draw

The
link

any number of

may be

represent

be drawn, and the VI of

24.

into

same

MOTION
Required

The

centro ab

considered.
of

with

VloiA
yf^f^

IN MECHANISMS.

referred

common

a point in

is

d as the

to

fixed

a and

to

Consider ab as a point in a; and

Draw

as their radii or distances from ad.


its

27

sides parallel to the triangle

link,

b,

its

Fig.

19.

the two links

VI

is

to that

a vector triangle

formed by joining A,

ab,

Fig. 19.

apd

ad.

Then

if

will represent the


its

VI

is

the side

VI of

to that of

of a triangle

Consider ab as a point in

triangle

Bi

VI of

Hence

of

B during

series of points

the vectors

is

ab,

and

Upon

sides are parallel to those


bd,

and B.

Then, from

the vector of B's linear velocity.

vector

may

a complete cycle

may

be laid

off

may

be traced, and the

be found, by the above method

on normals

may

points;

the velocity curve

points becomes known.

all

b,

VloiB^Yector Bi

The path

Sit

whose

formed by joining

similar triangles, the side

VI for a

represent the VI of A, the side aibi

as their radii, or distances to bd.

draw a

the vector ai&i

Ai
ab.

then

to the path through the

be drawn;

and the

velocity of

MACHINE DESIGN.

28

25. Angularity of Connecting-rod.

the

slider-crank

mechanism, Fig.

respect to a vertical axis through

In Fig. 20,

^O

is

through

This

its center.

may be

due

is

to the

explained as follows

one angular position of the crank, and

on the other side

the corresponding angular position

vertical

diagram of VI of

unsymmetrical with

is

17,

angularity of the connecting-rod, and

is

^The

center

the

The corresponding

rotation.

of

But

positions of the slider are as shown.


of the connecting-rod, C, cuts off

for position

on the

vertical

the vector of the slider's velocity

is

unsymmetrical.

Ob and

is

the line

through

vector Oa, which represents the slider's velocity.

BO

of the

For position

the velocity

diagram

Fig. 20.

connecting-rod were parallel to the direction of the

If the
slider's

motion in

mechanism

positions,

all

as

would be the same for position

velocity

the

in

(see Fig. 14), the vector cut off

slotted

on the

cross-head

vertical

and position

through

and the

diagram would be symmetrical.

Since

the velocity diagram


.

is

symmetrical with a parallel

connecting-rod and unsymmetrical with an angular connectingrod, with all other conditions constant,

it

follows that the lack

of

symmetry

is

symmetrical with respect to both vertical and horizontal axes

The
through

is

due

velocity

its

to the angularity of the connecting-rod.

diagram

center.

In

for the slotted cross-head

fact,

if

the crank radius

mechanism

(= length

of

MOTION

IN MECHANISMS.

29

link a) be taken as the vector of the VI of ab, the linear velocity

diagram of the

slider becomes a circle whose radius =the length of


Hence the crank circle itself serves for the linear velocity-

the link a.

diagram, the horizontal diameter representing the path of the


26. Angularity of Connecting-rod, Continued.
tion of the cycle of the slider-crank
is

This

greater that than of ab.

the connecting-rod,

as the crank
position.

A, that the

OB

velocity of both ab

mechanism, the
due

also

slider's

position x,

it

Fig. 21,

will reach

such a

of the connecting-rod extended will

line

in this position

and the

VI

to the angularity of

and may be explained as follows: In

moves up from the

pass through B.

is

slider.

During a por-

slider,

is

the vector of the linear

and hence

their linear velocities

Fig. 21.

are equal.

When

passes through B;
velocities

between

of

ab reaches B, the line of the connecting-rod

and again the vectors

^and

For

ab and the slider are equal.

and

the

and hence the

positions

angularity of the connecting-rod, because


line could never cut

It follows that in the slotted cross-head

OB

linear velocity of the

This

slider will be greater than that of ah.

its

all

line of the connecting-rod will cut

outside of the crank circle;

always horizontal,

hence the linear

if

result

is

due

to the

the latter remained

OB

outside the circle.

mechanism

the

maximum

space BOA,
VI of the slider =the constant VI of ab. The angular
slider is greater than the VI
Fig. 21, throughout which VI of the
angularity of the connecting-rod;
of ab, increases with increase of
i.e., it

increases with the ratio

Length of crank
'

Length

of connecting-rod

MACHINE DESIGN.

Quick-return Mechanisms.

slider

in

often carries a cutting-tool, which cuts during

its

27.

and

direction,

is

be cut, and the cutting occurs while

slider carries the piece to


it

passes under a tool

being

made

fast to the fixed link, the return stroke

idle.

The

velocity of cutting

If the limiting velocity-

limited.

is

be exceeded, the tool becomes so hot that

and

motion in one

Sometimes the

during the return stroke.

idle

a mechanism

becomes

it

The

unfit for cutting.

depends on the nature of the material to be

and the

tool-steel

carbon

tool-steel at 10 to

soft steel at 25 to

may

alloys

scale surface of

30

feet

There

is

no

may

be cut with

20 feet per minute; wrought iron and

feet

may

speeds

With

per minute.

certain

be considerably exceeded.

and

it is

desirable to

make

in order to increase the product of the

and use

Slider-crank

28.

Thus annealed

cut.

iron

cast

limit of this kind, however, to the velocity

the idle stroke

to the design

drawn,

is

per minute; while brass and the softer

be cut at 40 or more

special tool-steels these

temper

its

limit of cutting velocity

of "quick-return"

Quick

Return.

it

during

as great as possible,

machine.

This leads

mechanisms.
If,

in

slider-crank

mechanism, the center of rotation of the crank be moved, so


that the line of the slider's motion does not pass through
slider will

the crank-pin center

the crank-pin center

is

at

is

at C.

in its extreme position at the

is

D.

When

from
If the

moves from

And

over to D.

to B, the crank-pin center

is

to

at

B,

by the

A, the crank-pin

while the slider returns

moves under from

to C.

VI of the crank-pin center be assumed constant, the time

occupied in moving from

to

Hence the time occupied by the


is

the slider

If rotation is as indicated

arrow, then, while the slider moves from


center

the

have a quick-return motion.

In Fig. 22, when the slider


right,

it,

greater than

that occupied in

is less

than that from

slider in

moving from

moving from

to

C to D.
B to A
B.

The

MOTION
mean

IN MECHANISMS.

velocity during the "forward^ stroke

during the return stroke.

Or

31
therefore less than

is

the slider has a "quick-return"

motion.

Fig. 22.

It is required to design

of stroke =.6.4

and

a mechanism of this kind for a length

for a ratio

mean VI forward stroke


mean VI return stroke
The mean

is

proportional to the correspond-

ing angle described by the crank.

Hence

mean velocity forward


mean velocity return
is

angle

/?

angle

therefore necessary to divide 360 into two

are to each other as 5 to


viously

^ = 180 ^5 = 30.

7.

Hence

01

an

be

fulfilled

indefinite

and yet the vertex

number

= 210 and

Place the 30 angle

triangle so that its sides pass through

may

velocity of either stroke is inversely proportional to

the time occupied, and the time

It

of positions.

and A.

of

trial

which

Ob-

drawing

This condition

of the triangle

By

parts

= i5o.

/?

O may

may occupy
be located so

that the crank shall not interfere with the line of the slider.*
* To avoid cramping of the mechanism, the angle

BAD shoidd equal

or exceed

MACHINE DESIGN.

32

being located tentatively,

it is

necessary to find the correspond-

ing lengths of crank a and connecting-rod

pin center

and

BO

at

is

AO=ba; when

D,

When

h.

are measurable values of length; hence a

be found, the crank

may

circle

grams may be constructed as

upon a

distance cut off

connecting-rod,

is

the crank-

BO=b+a. AO

at C,

it is

and

may

be drawn, and the velocity dia-

remembering that the

in Fig. 17;

through O, by the line of the

vertical

the vector of the Yl of the slider for the corre-

sponding position when the Yl of the crank-pin center

is

repre-

sented by the crank radius.

make the maximum velocity


slider = 20 feet per minute, and to

It is required to

stroke of the

of the forward
find the corre-

sponding number of revolutions per minute of the crank.

The
forward stroke = the

maximum
maximum

height of the upper part of the velocity diagram;

Yl\.

Call the linear velocity vector of the crank-pin center

call

it

linear

vector

velocity

F/2= crank radius.


center.
Then

^= linear

Let

20

Yl\

ft.

is

20

is

velocity of

ft.

the

crank-pin

per minute
'

per minute

X YI2
.

yj-^

therefore expressed in

the crank-pin center

the

Yl-T

x=

of

known

terms.

required to

If

now

x, the space

move through per minute,

be divided by the space moved through per revolution, the result


will equal the

number

of revolutions per minute

=iV;

N = 2:tX lengthX of crank*


29.

Lever-crank Quick Return.

mechanism.

and a

The

link d

rotates about

is

Fig.

23 shows a

compound

the supporting frame or fixed link,

ad in the direction indicated, commxmicating

MOTION

IN MECHANISMS.

33

motion

to c through the slider b so that c vibrates about cd.

link

connected to c by a turning pair at

e,

ce,

horizontally on another part of the frame or fixed

center of the crank-pin, ab,

and the

slider,

velocity,

and returns toward

This

is

/,

is

the angle

through the angle

/?.

Imkd.

The

given a constant linear velocity,

has motion toward the

with a certain

left

the right with a greater

true because the slider

moves through

The

causes / to slide

moves toward

a and toward
;

But the motion

mean

the left while a

the right while

of a

is

mean

velocity.

a moves

uniform, and hence

movement a represents more time than the angular


movement P; and /, therefore, has more time to move toward
the left than it has to move through the same space toward the
the angular

right.

It therefore

has a "quick-return" motion.

SL

ndx

Fig. 23.

The machine

is

driven so that the crank-pin center moves


points of

uniformly, and the velocity, at

all

slider carrying a cutting-tool,

required.

is

its

stroke, of the

The problem,

fore, is to find the relation of linear velocities of e}

and ab

there-

for a

series of positions during the cycle; and to draw the diagram

of velocity of

ef.

Solution. ab

has a constant known linear velocity.

The

point in the link c which coincides, for the instant, with ab, receives motion

from

ab, but the direction of

its

motion

is

different

MACHINE DESIGN.

34

from that

of db, because ah rotates about ad, while the coin-

ciding point of c rotates

about

ab-A be

If

cd.

ab-B

senting the linear velocity of ab, then

laid off repre-

will represent the

linear velocity of the coinciding point of the link

Locate
c}

Let the

c.

be called x.

latter point

Now

with the line cd-ad.

at the intersection of e

c/,

and X are both points

in the link

c,

and hence

their linear

velocities, relatively to the fixed link d, are proportional to their

from

distances
directly,

These two distances may be measured

cd.

and with the known value

known

give three

fourth term, the linear velocity of

Or,

the line

if

B-D-ab

is

of linear velocity

BD

c/,

may

be found.

be drawn parallel to cd-ad, the triangle

and from the

similar to the triangle cd-cf-ab,

larity of these triangles

it

follows that

BD

Hence

velocity of x.

the linear velocity of

point of the slider,

of

all

motion

At

of

motion of the

relatively to

mechanism
ties of

is
is

rectilinear

translation,

it

the required linear velocity

having a length equal to

may

be

made

for as

as are necessary to locate

The

curve.

cf is

cf erect a line perpendicular to the direction

slider

This solution

assumed

But since

whose points have the same linear velocity

follows that the linear velocity of cf


of the slider.

for the

cf,

position of the mechanism, becomes kno'wn.

its

simi-

represents the linear

on the same scale that ab-B represents the linear

velocity of cf

because

oix=ab-B

values of a simple proportion, from which the

BD.

many

positions of the

accurately the velocity

ordinates of this curve will, of course, be the veloci-

the slider, and the abscissae the corresponding positions

of the slider.

Having drawn the


to

make

stroke

the

=Q

crank-pin
tion

velocity diagram, suppose that

maximum

feet

linear velocity of the slider

per minute.

center

Then

the

linear

it is

required

on the slow

velocity

ab=y can be determined from

the

of

the

propor-

MOTION

IN MECHANISMS.

Q maximum ordinate
/.

If r

= tlie

A-ah

vector

of velocity diagram'

vector

y=Q maximum

A-ab

ordinate of velocity diagram'

crank radius, the number of revolutions ^


per minute

WTien

this

mechanism

is

embodied

a crank attached to a shaft whose axis


in bearings provided in the

pin whose axis


sliding block

whose axis
b slides.
c

and

bar"

35

is

b.

is at ab,

The

at cd.

The

The

at ad.

shaft turns

The crank

machine frame.

and

y
27rr

a machine, a becomes

in
is

carries

a bearing in the

this pin turns in

link c becomes a lever keyed to a shaft

This lever has a long

slot in

which the block

link e becomes a connecting-rod, connected to both

by pin and bearing.

The

link

becomes the "cutter-

"ram" of a shaper: the part which carries the cuttingThe link d becomes the frame of the machine, which not

or

tool.

only affords support to the shafts at ad and


surfaces for

/,

but also

is

the pieces to be planed,

cd,

so designed as to afford

and the guiding

means

for holding

and supports the feed mechanism.

Fig. 24.

Whitworth Quick Return.Fig. 24 shows another compound linkage, d is fixed, and c rotates uniformly about cd,
30.

MACHINE DESIGN.

36

communicating an irregular rotary motion


a

h.

and moves a

parallel plane),

a link

The
a,

This

e.

point

which

be, at

communicates motion

and

is

a and

maximum when

are vertical

the radius

moves along

to a,

and the angular

the angular velocity

a minimum,

is

and the angular


a

is

varies,

Hence

the radius

do%vnward;

c are vertical

minimum when

maximum,

i.e.,

i.e.,

when

velocity of a

when a and

upward.

31. Problem.

given

of

mechanism."

hence the radius (measured from ad) of the point at which

velocity of a must vary inversely.

is

medium

through the

slider /

called the " Whitworth quick-return

is

a receives a constant linear velocity

of a

a through the slider

to

extended past ad (the part extended being in another

is

To

design a Whitworth Quick Return for a

ratio,

mean VI
mean VI

When

of

forward

of / returning'

the center of the crank-pin, C, reaches A, the point

D will

coincide with B, the link c will occupy the angular position cd-B,

and the sUder

When

the point

E, the link
slider / will

be at

/ will

will

be at

extreme position toward the

reaches F, the point

its

i.e.,

from

will coincide with

extreme position toward the

hnk

right to

left.

right.

moves over from the position


complete

to the position cd-B, the sKder / will

stroke,

left.

occupy the angular position cd-E, and the

Obviously, while the

cd-E

its

While

its

forward

moves under from cd-B

to cd-E, f will complete the return stroke,

i.e.,

from

left

to right.

The hnk c moves with a imiform angular velocity, and hence the
mean velocity of / forward is inversely proportional to the angle
/?

(because the time consumed for the stroke

the angle

moved through by

of / returning

is

the crank

c),

inversely proportional to a.

mean VI of / forward
mean VI of / returning

is

proportional to

and the mean

a
/?'

Or

velocity

MOTION

IN MECHANISMS.

37

For the design the distance cd-ad must be known.

This

may

usually be decided on from the limiting sizes of the journals at cd

and

ad.

and

that the

Suppose that the above ratio=-^=r-, that cd-ad=2)"i

maximum

and measure
thus

locating

point

ef

length of stroke of

vertically

off

Draw

ad.

of the sHder

move along

Locate cd

distance equal to 3",

The

Since

this line.

and a+/? = 36o,

a = 150 and

.*.

= i2".

a horizontal Hne through ad.

/ will

5
g=-,

downward a

/3

= 2io.

a from cd as a center, so that the vertical Une through


Draw a circle through B with cd as a center, B
bisects it.

Lay
cd

off

being the point of intersection of the boimding Une of a with a

The

horizontal through ad.

The
radius

ai-C must equal

radius

is

varied.

length of the link c = cd-B.

made
The connecting-rod,

/^2 = 6". This


may be

the travel of

adjustable, so that the length of stroke


e,

may be made

of

any convenient

length.

32. Problem.
/ of the

To

it

known

direction of motion
to cd.

tion of

velocity

Whitworth Quick Return.

point of c has a
its

draw the

The

diagram of the
point

he, Fig.

slider

25, as

constant linear velocity relative to d,


is

and

always at right angles to a Hne joining

Unk a which coincides in this posiThat


the mechanism with ic, receives motion from hc^ but its
point of the

direction of motion relative to d

is

at right angles to the line be-

bc-A represents the linear velocity of be, its projection


upon be-ad extended will represent the Hnear velocity of the
point x. Locate
point of a which coincides with be. Call this
ad.

If

the centro

af,

draw

dropped from

the line a^-be

to C.

The

and extend

centro a/

it

may

to

meet the

vertical

be considered as a

MACHINE DESIGN.

38
point in

a,

and

its

linear velocity relative to d,

is proportional to its distance

from

ad.

VI of af _ad-af
ad-bc
VI of X

when

so considered,

Hence

'

be

and x<

Fig. 25.

But the

triangles ad-af-bc

and B-C-bc are

Hence

^C

VI of a/ _
F/ of

similar.

X ~ 5-&c'

This means that

BC

same

B-bc represents the linear velocity of

af

is

scale that

a point in

relative to

BC

/,

and

all

points in

d since the motion

represents the

position of the

is

x.

But

have the same Hnear velocity

rectilinear translation;

hnear velocity of the sHder

/ for

hence

the given

may be laid off as an ordinate


This solution may be made for as many

mechanism, and

of the velocity curve.

upon the

represents the linear velocity of af

it

positions as are required to locate accurately the entire velocity

curve for a cycle

of the

mechanism.

CHAPTER

III.

PARALLEL OR STRAIGHT-LINE MOTIONS.


Watt

33.
is

usually obtained by

times

Rectilinear

Parallel Motion.

means

however,

necessary,

motion in machines

of prismatic guides.

It is

accomplish the same

to

some-

result

by

linkages.

The

simplest

rectilinear
is

and most widely known linkage used

motion

to a point without the use of

the so-called Watt Parallel Motion.

inventions of
consists

moving and one


Fig.

26,

is

lab

fixed, all con-

by turning

nected

sliding pairs

three

links,

any

one of the numerous

James Watt and


four

of

It is

for giving

pairs,

the fixed

d,

link,

d about ad;

rotates relative to

Fig. 26.

c rotates relative to

d about

The mechanism

shown

middle of

As

its

is

cd.

in the

position corresponding to the

motion.

the points ab and be swing in the dotted arcs, the point

The whole path

of

will travel in approximately a straight

is

a lemniscate, but the part which

is

line.

ordinarily used approaches

very closely to a straight line.


34. Parallelogram.

Parallelogram which

is

true parallel motion

shown

in Fig. 27.

The

is

given by the

links a,

b, c,

and

are connected to each other by turning pairs, and the linkage

attached to the fixed link


is

also

ad and

d hy

a,

turning pair at ac.

e
is

(This point

cd.)

39

MACHINE DESIGN.

40

The

lengths ac-ah

The

ah-he.

ac,

point

and ce-be are equal, as are


fixed

is

ad and cd

on

Draw

e.

a line

and

also ac-ce

from P

to ac;

it

cuts the link b at P'.

tab

By

similar triangles,

-P

P'-&e

P-&e

ac-ce

P-ce

be
Fig. 27.

:. P' -be

= ac-ce

p-ce

a constant.

Therefore the point P' will he at the same position on b for


positions of the

P-ac

ratio

mechanism.

Likewise, by similar triangles, the

P-ce

= -^-7- = a constant for

Since both

and P'
it is

-^t;^

at every instant,

all

all

rotate relative to

positions of the

mechanism.

d about the point ad

(at ac)

obvious that their motions relative to d will

be similar to each other in every respect and always in the ratio

P-ac
-pr

move
move

It follows that,

if

either of

these points

in

a straight-line path, the other point

in

a similar parallel path.

is

is

guided to

constrained to

Fig. 28.

35. Grasshopper Motion.

^A

device which

may be

used to

change the direction of rectilinear motion through a right angle


is

the linkage

This

is

known

as the Grasshopper Motion,

shown

the ordinary slider-crank chain with crank a

necting-rod b of equal length.

The

linkage

is

in Fig. 28.

and con-

further modified

PARALLEL OR STRAIGHT-LINE MOTIONS.


by extending

beyond ah

to

a point

AI

such that the length

is

P-a& = crank

length.

relative to

in a straight-hne path perpendicular to

t/

It is

obvious that

constrained to

move

d through

ad*
36. General

method

In Fig. 29 d
pair,

The
in

Method

a,

is

b, c,

is

applicable in

the fixed Unk, and a

and

e are

constrainment

any

for Parallel-motion Design.

of design which

direction,

the force producing

its

it.

ce

cases

connected with

^A

is
it

general

as follows.

by a shding

connected by turning pairs, as shown.

not complete because

is

and

is

many

is

move

free to

motion would, therefore, depend upon

It is

required that the point

be

shall

move

Frn. 29.

in a straight line parallel to a.

along the required


describe

some

axis at A,
to

FAE,

line;

curve,

FAE.

and a curved

be attached to

Suppose that

is

caused to move

then any point of the hnk


If a pin

slot fitting the pin,


d, as in Fig. 30,

move in the required straight line.


Tabor Steam-engine Indicator.

c,

be attached to

it

This

with

its

the

c,

with

its

sides parallel

follows that
is

as A, will

can only

mechanism

of the

* This is true because, from the construction of the mechanism, the Une P-bd
must always lie parallel tod. The point P, which rotates about bd as center relatively to d, always has an instantaneous motion perpendicular to P-bd and, consequently, perpendicular to d.

MACHINE DESIGN.

42

The

curve described by

whose center could be

might approximate a circular arc

located, say,

at

O, Fig. 30.

Then

the

Fig. 30.

curved

slot

might be replaced by a link attached

turning pairs at
required

motion.

and A.

This

is

This gives
the

mechanism

to

d and

by

approximately the
of

the

Thompson

Steam-engine Indicator.
If,

while the point

hnc, a point in

b,

is

caused to

move

in the required straight

as P, Fig. 29, were chosen,

it

would be found

Fig. 31.

to

describe a curve which would approximate

whose

center, O,

and

radius,

=r, could be found.

circular arc,

Let the link

PARALLEL OR STRAIGHT-LINE MOTIONS.


whose length = r be attached

axes are at

d and

and P, and the motion

required motion.

the

to

This

is

of

by turning pairs whose

will

be approximately

mechanism

the

43

of

the

Crosby

Steam-engine Indicator.

In

37. Problem.
shaft;

any

is

straight line

arc,

is

the fixed axis of a counter-

the axis of another shaft which

direction.

fixed at

.Fig. 31

It

EF.

required to constrain

is

If

in the link

D
CD

to

will describe

an approximate circular

be found at O.

link whose

to the fixed link,

and

to the link

CD, by means

of turning pairs at

constrained to

move approximately along EF.

and A.

and pin could be used, and the motion would be


* Descriptions of

many

move in
move in the

free to

be moved along EF, a tracing-point

HAK, whose center may


is OA may be connected

length

is

varieties of parallel

motions

will then

curved

be
slot

exact.*

may be found

in Rankine's

"Machinery and Millwork"; Weisbach's "Mechanics of Engineering," Vol. Ill,


"Mechanics of the Machinery of Transmission"; Kennedy's "Mechanics of
Machinery"; and elsewhere.

CHAPTER

IV.

CAMS.

Cams Defined.
A, Fig. 32, may rotate
38,

^A

machine part

of irregular outline, as

cam.

called a

form

in its surface,

and commu-

or vibrate about an axis O,

nicate motion by line contact to another

machine

B.

part,

is

cylinder A, Fig. 33, having a groove of any

may

cate motion to another

rotate about

machine

A, Fig. 34, having a groove in

its axis,

part, B.

its

face,

CD, and communi-

may

is

cam.

a,

rotate about

disk

its axis,

O, and communicate motion to another machine part, B.

only a modification of A, Fig. 32.

In

is

a cam.

In fact

designing cams

it

is

it

is

customary

number

to consider a

taneous positions of the driver and

of simul-

The cam curve

follovirer.

can usually be drawn from data thus obtained.


39. Case

I.

The

the contact of the

The

may

line

tion of the

follower

cam with

O
C,

MN,

cam;

Fig. 35.

as a center,
etc.,

guided in a straight

hence

it is

an

line,

and

always in this

line.

draw a

is

cam

is

point of the

move

constrained to

the center of rotation of the cam.

circle

tangent to

are points in the cam.

MN at

When

Through A, B, C,

is

etc.,

and
draw

so

at

cam must be
;

in the

About

Then A, B,

/.

the point

5 is at J the follower- point must be at B'

entire revolution.

The

a general case.

point of the follower which bears on the

when

is

be in any position relatively to the center of rota-

follower which bears on the


line

is

the follower

the

at A'

on through

lines

tangent
44

CAMS.

With

to the circle.

A'A",

circular arc

Then A"
/,

AA"

will

as a center,

be a point in the cam curve.

will coincide with

JA\ A"

radius,

For,

if

draw a
at

A".

returns to

will coincide with A',

and the

Fig. 33.

Fig. 34.

will

and OA' as a

intersecting the tangent through

Fig. 32.

cam

45

Fig. 35.

hold the follower in the required position.

The same
cam

process for the other positions locates other points of the


curve.

smooth curve drawn through these points

cam

is

the

outline.

Often, to reduce friction, a roller attached

to the follower rests

on the cam, motion being communicated

required

through

it.

The

axis of the roller.

curve found as above wiU be the path of the

The cam

outline will then be a curve

drawn

MACHINE DESIGN.

46

and

inside of,

distance from

equal to the

it

and the cam

the follower

path of the axis of the

parallel to, the

roller's

roller,

Contact between

radius.

not confined to the line

is

at a

MN

if

roller is used.

40. Case II.

and

guided so that

this surface is

The method
is

The cam engages with a surface

given

center

the

due

is

rotation

of

A, B, C,

the

etc., of

It is required to

C.

H. Barr.

cam

The

cam.

the

of

i,

2,

draw the

B, C, D,

and

etc.,

vertical line

OC,

OB',

radii

when

cam

outline of a

surface

the lines

in the points

etc.,

draw

B", C", D",

to

produce the

through O, cutting

the positions of the follower surface in A', B',

as a center

O, Fig. 36,

follower

etc.,

3,

are parallel.

coincide with the vertical line through

Produce the

motion required.

all of its positions

to Professor J.

occupies the successive positions

of the follower,

C,

With

etc.

arcs cutting the lines

Position

etc.

lowest position of the follower surface; therefore

the

i is

must be

in

contact with the follower surface in the vertical hne through O,

because

the tangency be at any other point the motion in one

if

direction or the other will lower the follower,

able.
line

MN

is

therefore one point in the

B"

through

at right angles to

Then

coincides with B'O.

till it

the line

the position of the follower surface 2B'

must be tangent

to this line

therefore the line

MN

tangent.

D",

etc.

tangent.

is

Similar lines

Each

will

Therefore,

these lines,

it

41. Case

will

MN
.

may

is

not allow-

will coincide

with

But the cam curve

coincides with B'O,

a line to which the

be a
if

when

which

cam curve. Draw a


B"0, and rotate B"0

and

cam curve must be

be drawn through the points C",

line to

which the cam curve must be

a smooth curve be drawn -tangent to

all

be the required cam outline.

This

III."

is

the

same as Case

II,

except that the

positions of the follower surface, instead of being parallel, con-

verge to a point, 0, Fig. 37, about which the follower vibrates.

The

solution

is

the

same as

in Fig. 36, except that the angle be-

CAMS.
tween the

47

MN,

lines corresponding to

and the

Fig. 36,

radial

being a right angle, equals the angle between

lines, instead of

the corresponding position of the follower surface and the vertical.

Fig. 37-

Fig. 36.

In these cases the

cam

drives the follower in only one direc-

the force of gravity, the expansive force of a spring, or

tion;

some other

force

must hold

in contact with the

it

drive the follower in both directions, the

double,

cam

cam.

surface

To

must be

takes the form of a groove engaging with a pin or

i.e., it

roller attached to the follower, as in Fig. 34.

This method

method

is

to

is

inclined to produce excessive wear.

have the follower provided with two

designed to give the desired motion to the follower

is

through the

better

on op-

See Fig. 38.

posite sides of the cam-shaft.

Cam A

rollers

medium

of roller

i.

Every position of

this roller

causes roller 2 to occupy a definite position, and the complementary

cam
2.

is

so designed as to correspond to these positions of roller

Cam B

the two

is

rigidly

mounted on

cams have no motion

the

same

relative to

shaft as

each other.

^, so that
If the line

of action of the follower passes through the center of the cam-

MACHINE DESIGN-

48
shown

shaft as

draw

in Fig. 38,

it

cam B;

the outline of

becomes a very simple matter


that

all

is

necessary

to

to keep the

is

Fig. 38.

sum

radial lengths a + b=a. constant

of the

tween the surfaces of


42. Case rV.

A,

cylinder.

ously about

B may

Fig. 39,

is

the

first

CD

2.

a cylinder which

on the surface of a

is

to rotate continu-

can only move parallel to the axis of A.

engage with a groove in the

roller to

the axis of the roller in

is

distance be-

mid-position.

its

During

the development of the surface of the cylinder.

quarter-revolution of A,

inch toward

and

is

have a projecting

EF

and

^To lay out a cam groove

its axis.

surface of A.

is

is

required to

Draw GJ, which

locating J.

required to

Lay
will

off

move one

GH = 1",

be the middle

During the next half-revolution of

the cam-groove.

the roUer

CD

the right with a constant velocity.

HJ =\KF,

line of

rollers i

= the

move two inches toward the left with a


Lay off JL = 2", and LM = \KF.

uniformly accelerated velocity.

Divide

JL

LM

any number of equal

into

into four parts, so that each

by an equal increment.
3-1-4
a,

= 10.

Lay

locating b;

lines;

through

tersections

curve from

off

and so on.
m,

locate d,

This

from J,

to

parts, say four.

e,

and

may

be done as follows:

0.1 J L, locating a;

Through

/.

a, b,

Through

will

Divide

greater than the preceding one


i-f-2-|-

then 0.2 J L from

and

and o draw horizontal

n,

M, which

of the cam-groove.

is

draw

lines.

these points

be the required

vertical

The
draw

middle

in-

the
line

During the remaining quarter-revolution

CAMS.
the

roller

is

required

to

return to

uniformly accelerated velocity.


the same

way

as

JM.

On

The

49
its

starting-point with

curve

each side of the

MN
line

dravm

in

GJMN lay

off

is

Fig. 39.

parallel lines, their distance apart being equal to the diameter of

the roller.

groove

is

Wrap EF upon
located.

the cylinder,

and the required cam-

CHAPTER
ENERGY
The

43.

V.

IN MACHINES.

and

subject of motion

certain simple

in

velocity,

machines, has been treated and illustrated.

remains now to

It

From

consider the passage of energy through similar machines.

problems will follow.

this the solution of force

During the passage


machines, any one, or

The

I.

ergy

energy

end, where

it is

(a)

and

received

Heat energy

tion,

Mechanical

dynamo-electric

Energy

(b)

time.
i.e.,

and a

may

Exam-

energy by the steam-

Mechanical energy into heat by

or

into

energy,

electrical

electrical

as

rate 0} doing work,

and a space

factor.

the product of a

is

space per unit

is

be changed at the expense of the other;

velocity may. be changed,

may

if

accompanied by such a change


Cor-

be changed at the expense of velocity,

energy per unit time being constant.

Example.

mits 6000 foot-pounds per minute to a machine.


ity is

etc.

of force that the energy per unit time remains constant.

respondingly, force

fric-

in

energy into mechanical

velocity factor, since velocity

Either factor

En-

to the other

by a machine.

the product of a force factor

Energy per unit time, or


force factor

utilized

energy

machine;

is

Example.

converted into another form.

energy in the electric motor,


III.

occur.

and transferred

into mechanical

engine machine chain,


(c)

may

be transferred in space.

The energy may be

II.
ples.

may

through a machine, or chain of

of four changes

received at one end of a shaft

is

of energy

all,

120 feet per minute, and the force exerted

A
The

is

belt transbelt veloc-

50 lbs.
50

Fric-

ENERGY
tional

resistance

sistance to cutting

= 120X50 = 6000
= 20X300 = 6000

neglected.

is

does useful work;

IN MACHINES.

its

velocity

is

300

is

S^

roachine

cutting-tool in the

20 feet per minute, and the

re-

Then, energy received per minute

lbs.

foot-pounds; and energy delivered per minute

The

foot-pounds.

But the

equals the energ}' delivered.

.energy received therefore

and force

velocity

factors

are quite different in the two cases.

IV. Energy

may

be transferred in time.

many machines

In

There

the energy received at every instant equals that delivered.


are

many

work,

cases, however,

i.e.,

is

a periodical demand for

a fluctuation in the rate of doing work; while energy

can only be supphed

form

where there

at the average rate.

rate of doing work,

and a

Or

there

may

be a uni-

fluctuating rate of supplying

In such cases means are provided in the machine, or

energy.

chain of machines, for the storing of energy


other words, energy

is

There

effort.

is,

(a)

In

In

a varying rate of supplying energy dur-

ing each stroke, while there

work.

needed.

Examples.

transferred in time.

is

the steam-engine there

till it is

(in general)

is

a uniform rate of doing

therefore, a periodical excess

and

deficiency of

heavy wheel on the main shaft absorbs the excess of

energy with increased velocity, and gives

duced velocity when the

effort

is

deficient.

water into a pipe system under pressure.


hydraulic press, whose action

is

periodic

it

out again with


(&)

A pump

The water

is

re-

delivers

used in a

and beyond the capacity

A hydraulic accumulator is attached to the pipe


of the pump.
system, and while the press is idle the pump slowly raises the
accumulator weight, thereby storing potential energy, which

is

given out rapidly by the descending weight for a short time while
the press acts,
engine,

and the

batteries,

(c)

dynamo-electric machine

electrical

energy

upon which there

as well as in case

(&),

as a transfer in time.

there

is
is

is

delivered

is

run by a steam-

and stored

a periodical demand.

in storage

In this case,

a transformation of energy as well

MACHINE DESIGN.
44. Force Problems.

Suppose the slider-crank mechanism in

Fig. 40 to represent a shaping-machine, the velocity

diagram of

Fig. 40.

The

the slider being drawn.

resistance offered to cutting metal

during the forward stroke must be overcome.

may
is

a continually varying rale of doing work.

rate of doing

work

This product

when

the slider's velocity

maximum

mum

means

continually varying,

is

is

and

because the

velocity (varyis

maximum

slider

must be

The

which energy must be supplied equals the maxi-

rate at

work

maximum

Draw

at the slider.

velocity of slider; *

maximum

of the slider-pin at the base of the


ity

The

maximum.

is

of energy transmitted through the crank a.

rate of doing

the position of

This

resisting force (constant)

ing).

driven by

This resistance

Throughout the cutting stroke there

be assumed constant.

the

i.e.,

mechanism

in

locate the center

ordinate of the veloc-

diagram, and draw b and a in their corresponding positions.

The
pin's

known

slider's

velocity

same

scale.

becomes known by simple proportion.

The

required velocity

Hence the value


rate of doing
friction). t

of a

represented by y, and the crank-

is

is

represented by a on the

work must be

the

Hence Rvi= Fv2,

same

in

at c

which

and

and

at ab (neglecting

vi represent the

* It is customary to assume the slider's position for this condition to be that


corresponding to an angle of 90 between crank and connecting-rod. This is not
exactly true, but is a sufficiently close approximation for the ordinary proportions
,of crank, and connecting-rod lengths.
For method of exact determination of
slider's position see

Appendix.

t The effect of acceleration to redistribute energy is zero in this position, because the acceleration of the slider at maximum velocity is zero, and the angular
acceleration of b can only produce pressure in the journal at ad.

ENERGY
and

force

and

velocity factors at ah.

and V2

= Rvi = force

and V2 represent the force

and vi are known from the condi-

Hence

found as above.

is

F may

maximum

resistance of the machine.

work

other positions of the cutting stroke the rate of doing

all

is less,

and

F would

be

mechanism capable

ing

SS

which, applied tangentially to the crank-

pin center, will overcome the

In

and

velocity factors at c;

tions of the problem,

be found,

IN MACHINES.

when no fly-wheel

is

But

less.

of

used.

it is

necessary to provide driv-

overcoming the

now

If

F be

radius, the product equals the

maximum

required to drive the machine.

If the

maximum

resistance,

multiplied by the crank


torsional

energy

is

moment ( = M)

different radius, as in case of gear or belt transmission, the

mum

driving force

stroke the cutting-tool

anism.

When

is

the

is idle,

the frictional resistance to


the return stroke

-^

new

and

it is

some

received on

maxi-

During the return

radius.

only necessary to overcome

motion of the bearing surfaces.

Hence

not considered ia designing the driving mech-

the method of driving this machine

the capacity of the driving

is

mechanism must be such

decided on,
that

it

shall

be capable of supplying to the crank-shaft the torsional driving

moment M, determined
This method
given.
of the

as above.

applies as well to the quick-return

In each, when the velocity diagram

maximum

is

linear velocity of the slider,

constant linear velocity of the crank-pin center,

and

the velocities corresponding, Vi

the scale of velocities.

The

at the crank-pin center

Hence Rvi=Fv2,

or,

is

rate of

the

and

mechanisms

drawn, the vector

=Zi, and

L2, are

V2, are also

fore

known,

known, from

doing work at the slider and

same, friction being neglected.

since the vector lengths are proportional

RLi

tothe

of the

velocities they represent, 721,1 =i^Zi2;

andF=-^.

There-

the resistance to the slider's motion =i?, on the cutting

M/iCHINE DESIGN.

54

Li
stroke, multiplied

by the

ratio of linear velocity vectors,

-p-,

of

1,2

slider

and crank-pin, equals F, the maximum force that must be

applied tangentially at the crank-pin center to insure motion.

moment
find

required by the crank-shaft.

Where

mum

the

mass

a quick return the

much power
its

maximum, and

solve

considerable the maxi-

is

maximum

at the

effort will

come

at the

planer calls for about twice

beginning of

its

stroke return as

it

does

cutting stroke.

45. Force Problems, Continued.

engine the slider-crank mechanism


the

is

varying and known,

same way as above.

to be accelerated

beginning of the return stroke.

during

R is

torsional driving

be called for at the beginning of each stroke.

effort will

If there is

to

If

where Rv, the rate of doing work,

for that position in the

as

= maximum

multiplied by the crank radius

In the usual type of steamused, but energy

is

is

supplied

(which represents piston, piston-rod, and cross-

slider

head), and the resistance opposes the rotation of the crank and

In any position of the mechanism (Fig. 41),

attached shaft.

force applied to the crank-pin through the connecting-rod

may

be resolved into two components, one radial and one tangential.

The

tangential

component tends

to

produce rotation; the radial

component produces pressure between the surfaces


journal and

mately a

its

bearing.

maximum when

rod equals 90,* and


If there is

it

The

tangential

the angle between crank

becomes zero when

is

is

is

approxi-

and connecting-

reaches
is

supplied at a varying rate,

that during part of the revolution the effort

the effort

a uniform resistance the rate of doing work

Hence, since the energy

resistance;

of the shaft-

component

or B.

constant.
it

follows

greater than the

while during the remaining portion of the revolution


is

less

than the resistance, and the machine will stop

* See foot-note on page 52.

ENERGY
means

unless other

wheel "

SS

are provided to maintain motion.

keyed to the

is

IN MACHINES.

shaft,

and

this wheel,

"fly-

because of slight

Fig. 41.

variations of velocity, alternately stores

and deficiency

and gives out the excess

of energy of the effort, thereby adapting

it

to the

constant work to be done.*


46. Problem.

Given length of stroke

engine slider-crank mechanism,


rate of doing work,
total

mean

Let

and number

the

of the slider of a steam-

required

horse-power,

of revolutions.

or

Required the

pressure that must be applied to the piston.

L = length

of stroke

=1

foot;

HP =horse-power = 20;
= strokes per minute = 200;
i^= required mean force on piston.
Then iVxZ. = 200 feet per minute = mean velocity

Now,
main
hence

the

mean

rate of

of slider

= F.

doing work in the cylinder and at the

shaft during each stroke

is

the

same

(friction

neglected);

i?F=i?PX 33000,

F=

jyP X 33000

47. Solution of

In the

t7

= 20X33000 =3300
^"^
200

,.

lbs.

Force Problem in the Slider-crank Chain.

slider-crank chain the velocity of the slider necessarily


* See Chapter XVI, page 244.

MACHINE DESIGN.

56

from zero

varies

is

The mass

therefore positively

When
when

a mass
it is

ends of

at the

near mid-stroke.

its

slider

negatively accelerated

it

it

the acceleration.
of

its

stroke

The

and gives

slider stores

and

The amount

upon the mass and

energy during the

out during the second part of

it

stroke.

stores energy;

gives out energy.

of this energy, stored or given out, depends

value

and attached parts

and negatively accelerated each

positively accelerated

is

maximum

stroke to a

of the

part

first
its

stroke.

^^'^j:!]],"
Fig. 42.

While, therefore,
it

it

gives out all the energy

out differently distributed.

energy

is

distributed,

is

receives,

it

gives

how

the

necessary to find the acceleration

This may be done as follows:


A, shows the velocity diagram of the slider of a slider-

throughout the
Fig. 42,

it

it

In order to find exactly

slider's

stroke.

crank mechanism for the forward stroke, the ordinates representing velocities, the corresponding abscissae representing the
slider positions.

The

acceleration required at

any point =

Jt

in

which Jv

time

Jt,

is

the increase in velocity during

any

interval of

assuming that the increase in velocity becomes constant

ENERGY
Lay

at that point.

OP

many

into as

IN MACHINES.

S^

OP=MN.

off the horizontal line

Divide

MN.

equal parts as there are unequal parts in

These divisions may each represent

At

Jt.

erect the ordinate

mn=mini, and

at

this construction

throughout OP, and draw a curve through the

ordinate

the

erect

upper extremities of the ordinates.

At

diagram on a "time base."


curve.

interval represented

represented by

mT.

Therefore

diagram

sions of

QR

are the

mT

(Fig. 42C).

is

to the

of velocity

an ordinate of an

laid off as

Thus Qa = mT.

as those of

would be

proportional to the accel-

MN;

This construction

positions of the slider.

OT

were uniform during the time

and may be

same

a velocity

is

draw the tangent

by Om, the increment

eration at the point O,


acceleration

Fig. 42, B,

If the increase in velocity

Continue

op=Oipi.

Thus

i.e.,

may
n

The

divi-

they represent

be repeated for

nTi
and horizontal nq are drawn, and qTi is proportional to the
acceleration at n, and is laid off as an ordinate he of the acthe other divisions of the curve B.

celeration

by

find

read off in

is

ordinates of

of

To

diagram.

mT

of Qa,

the

velocity

at

the value in acceleration units

velocity

=Jv by

units

This value

diagram.

Om.

Av
of this

division

-77

= acceleration

at

At

J/=the time

in

the
is

scale

divided

The

result

acceleration

units.

the time increment corresponding to

At,

the tangent

of one stroke, or of one half revolution of the crank

divided by the

number

of divisions in

OP.

If the linear velocity

of the center of the crank-pin in feet per second,

=v, be repre-

MN =
sented by the length of the crank radius =

a,

then the scale

of velocities, or velocity in feet per second for

inch of ordinate,

= = z
a

is

the

aoo

number

is

the actual diameter of the crank circle,

of revolutions per minute,

measured on the

figure.

and a

is

the crank radius

MACHINE DESIGN.

58

The determination

the acceleration

of

curve,

by means of

tangents drawn to the "time- base" velocity curve, has a serious

drawback.

The tangent lines are

laid

down by inspection, and

inaccuracy in their location and construction

may

slight

lead to consid-

erable errors in the ordinates obtained for the acceleration curve.

The

following

one point

If

instantaneous

method
is

is

therefore suggested as an alternative.

rotating about another point with a given

and a radius = r, the instantaneous

velocity =?/

radial acceleration of either point

toward the other = .

Consider the slider-crank chain in the position at the begin-

ning of the forward stroke as shown in Fig. 43^.


is

to

The problem

determine the acceleration of the point he toward ad.

celerations

toward the right

the left as negative.


ing, relatively to

will

Ac-

be considered as positive, toward

In the position chosen the point ab

both links d and

c,

mov-

is

arrow

in the direction of the

with a velocity = v, the uniform velocity of ah relatively to

The

acceleration of he toward ad

is

always

made up

d.

of

two

components, namely, the acceleration of he toward ah and the


acceleration of ab toward ad.
tion the acceleration of he

In the position under considera-

toward

<ih=-T- in a positive direction.

Similarly the acceleration of ah toward ad =

The

rection.

the

sum

On

total acceleration of he

of these

in

di-

toward ad therefore equals

two components, or = -r--!-

the other hand, at the end of the forward stroke,

in Fig. 435, the acceleration of he

a negative direction.

The

shown

toward ah = -7- in a positive

direction as before, while the acceleration of ab


in

a positive

algebraic

sum

toward

ad=
a

of these two

com-

ENERGY
ponents therefore = -7- -

IN MACHINES.

This quantity

59

will

always have a

negative value, since in the slider-crank mechanism a must

ways be smaller than

To

al-

b.

MN

construct the acceleration curve, lay off a length

Fig. 44.

(Fig.

At
is

43C) proportionate

erect

to the length of the stroke of the slider.

an ordinate,

MP,

whose value equals


-r-f-
^
a

It

best to use for these ordinates a scale on which a (the length

MACHINE DESIGN.

6o

of the crank) represents the value

There

is

a position of the

equals zero.

has

it

original

maximum

velocity

smooth

O, where the acceleration

slider,

This must correspond


its

accuracy, from Curve


a

erect the negative

nP

ip'

the

At

NQ=-r^ b a

ordinate

when

to the position of the slider

which

velocity,

diagram of the

For most purposes

curve.

be taken from

shder, or,

with

greater

POQ

Through

Appendix.

in the

may

draw

curve will be accurate

this

enough.

Where more
Assume

used.
is

points of the curve are desired for the sake of

accuracy the

greater

desired

ac

longed
until

if

illustrated

Fig.

the sHder in the position at which

its

draw a

Locate the centres ad,

parallel to bc-ad until

it

acceleration
b in their

ab, ac,

and

bd.

cuts the crank, pro-

From A draw a parallel to ad-ac


From B draw a perpen-

necessary, at A.

dicular to the connecting-rod until

Then ad-C

necessary, at C.

is

acceleration diagram on the scale

The

proof

is

it

cuts bc-ad, prolonged

the desired

if

the

by which the length a = -

as follows, reference being

this instant

ordinate of

made

to Fig. 44.

every point of h relatively to c

about the centro be with a velocity proportional to

from

may be

44

cuts the connecting-rod at B.

it

At

in

and draw the crank a and connecting-rod

corresponding positions.

From

method

is

its

swinging
distance

be.

vel. of

bd

rel.

to c

bd-bc

ac-ad

vel. of

ab

rel. to c

ab-bc

ac-ab'

But ac-ad represents the


relatively to c)

on the same

velocity of c relatively to
scale that

velocity of the point ab relatively to d.

ad-ab

(or

represents

the

Therefore ac-ab repre-

ENERGY

IN MACHINES.

6i

sents the velocity of ah rotating about he relatively to c on the

same

scale that ad-ab represents the velocity of ah relatively to d.

Hence

the radial acceleration of ah toward he * (or conversely

of he toward ah)

which

represented by the length

is

ah-B, as can be shown as follows:

By

similar triangles

ah-B

ah-A

ah-ac

ab-ae

ab-ad

ah- be'

Uf,_-D

_abae

ah-ac

ab-be

The
value

radial

we

acceleration

ah

represent by the length

acceleration in the direction

is

of

toward
a.

ad

The component

whose
of this

hc-ah=ah-D.

The acceleration of he, relatively to d, along the path hc-ab


made up of two components: ist, the acceleration of he toward

ah(=B-ab)

plus, 2d, the acceleration of ah relatively to d along

the same path

= ah~D).

In the position shown


quantity represented by

acceleration relatively to d
tion in this direction

ponent along ab-hc


If the weight

is

this

B-D.

must

algebraic

sum

is

the negative

But the actual direction

of 6c's

along the line hc-ad.

Its accelera-

therefore be the quantity

whose com-

is

B-D, namely, C-ad.


of parts accelerated

q.e.d.
is

knoVn, the force

necessary to produce the acceleration at any slider position

may

be fotmd from the fundamental formula of mechanics,

The

eration of

acceleration of a point

B is
B is a point.

with respect to another point

with respect to a non-rotating body of which

the accel-

62

M/t CHINE DESIGN.

p being

the acceleration corresponding to the position considered.

If the ordinates of

the acceleration

diagram are taken as repre-

senting the forces which produce the acceleration, the diagram

and space

have force ordinates

will

and areas

abscissae,

will

Thus, Qas, Fig. 42C, represents the work stored

represent work.

during acceleration, and Rsd represents the work given out during
retardation.

Let

MN,

slider's stroke

and

NC the

same

Fig.

force scale as that

Wp
at the

force

per stroke

represent

45,

MBCN.

But during the

must be

acceler-

and the force necessary at the beginning, found as above,

=BD=Qa. The
come

driving-gear must, therefore, be able to over-

resistance equal to

MB + BD.

The

acceleration,

and hence
becoming

the accelerating force, decreases as the slider advances,

From

zero at E.

on the acceleration becomes negative, and

hence the slider gives out energy and helps to overcome the
ance,

the

on the

beginning of the stroke; then energy to do cutting

early part of the stroke the reciprocating parts


ated,

of

by which Qa, Fig. 42 C, represents the

represented by the area

is

length

the

resistance of cutting (uniform)

and the driving-gear has only

by the area

c
^

to furnish

resist-

energy represented

AEFN, though the

work reaUy

done against resistance equals that represented

by the area

CEFN. The

energy

represented by the difference of these areas,


FIG. 45.

slider's

servation
it

of

follows

ADMN.
the

=ACE,

mass during

is

which

that

acceleration.

Since

stored

is

by the law

energy, energy given out per cycle

that

area

4C=area DEB, and

= that
area

in

of

received,

BCMN =

This redistribution of energy would seem to modify

problem on page

52, since

that

problem

is

based on the

assumption of uniform resistance during cutting stroke.


position of

the

con-

m2,ximum

acceleration =0.

The

velocity of slider, however, corresponds to

The maximum

rate

of doing work,

and the

ENERGY

IN MACHINES.

moment

corresponding torsional driving

63

at the crank-shaft

would

probably correspond to the same position, and would not be


In such machines as shapers, the accelera-

materially changed.
tion

and weight

energy

is

of slider are so small that the redistribution of

unimportant.

48. Solution of the Force Problem in the Steam-engine Slider-

crank Mechanism. (Slider represents piston with


cross-head.) ^The

its

rod,

and the

steam acts upon the piston with a pressure

which varies during the

stroke.

The

pressure

is

redistributed

before reaching the cross-head pin, because the reciprocating parts


are accelerated in the

pin;

part of the stroke, with accompanying

first

and reduction

storing of energy

and retarded

in the

of pressure

on the cross-head

second part of the stroke, with accom-

panying giving out of energy and increase of pressure on the


cross-head pin.

OX,

Let the ordinates of the

full line

diagram above

Fig. 46.4, represent the total effective pressure on the piston

throughout a stroke.

Fig.

46^

is

the velocity diagram of slider.

'tl^=^

^=^1:3
Fig. 46.

Find the acceleration throughout

known
Draw diagram

stroke,

and from

value of weight of slider find the force

due

to acceleration,

off this

line.

Fig. 46C,

diagram on

The

this

and the

due to acceleration.

whose ordinates represent the

force

A.

Lay

upon the same

force scale used in

OX as a base line, thereby locating the dotted

vertical ordinates

between

this

dotted line and the

MACHINE DESIGN.

64

upper

line of

represent the pressure applied to the cross-head

The product

giving D.
of

These ordinates may be

pin.

D =the

and

the value of

pin,

work

from a horizontal base

stroke.

Thus

per second

= the

doing work throughout the


of

EF in

feet

in foot-pounds per second

upon the

when the center of the cross-head pin is at E.


work at the crank-pin is the same as at the

rate of doing

Hence dividing

head pin.

line,

of the values of the corresponding ordinates

rate oj

GH in pounds X value

rate of doing

head

laid off

by the constant tangential

this rate of

cross-

The
cross-

=EFxGH,

doing work,

velocity of the crank-pin center, gives

the force acting tangentially on the crank-pin to produce rotation.

The

tangential forces

acting throughout a half revolution of

may be thus
= length of half

the crank

found, and plotted upon a horizontal

base line

the crank circle (Fig. 475).

done upon
is

equal

to

the same.

stroke

The

the piston, cross-head pin,

Hence

The work

and crank during a piston

the areas of

and D, Fig.

46, are

each other, and to the area of the diagram. Fig. 4'jB.

forces

acting

along the

during the piston stroke

may

connecting-rod for

all

positions

be found by drawing force triangles

with one side horizontal, one vertical, and one parallel to position
of connecting-rod axis, the horizontal side being equal to the

corresponding ordinate of Fig. 46D.

The

vertical sides of these

triangles will represent the guide reaction, while the side parallel
to the connecting-rod axis represents the force transmitted

by

the connecting-rod.

The

tangential forces acting on the crank-pin

graphically

by the method shown

in Fig. 47^!.

may
Let

be found

GH

repre-

sent the net effective force acting in a horizontal direction at the

center of the cross-head pin.


It

slider

the

has been shown that

on the same

crank-pin;

made

scale that

EF
EA

represents the velocity of the


represents that of the center of

also that the rate of

doing work, after having

the necessary corrections for acceleration,

is

the

same

at

ENERGY

IN MACHINES.

the center of the crank-pin as at the slider,


gential force at center of crank-pin

force at center of crank-pin

Lay

ofE

AB=GH,

X^.

6S
i.e.,

GHXEF= tan-

Hence the tangential

EF

=G-H'X-^.

and draw JSC

parallel to

EF.

Then, by

similar triangles,

BC EF_
EF
EF_
=
AB EA' ^^-'^^EA~^^EA.

the tangential force acting at the crank-pin center for the assumed
position of the mechanism, on the

same

scale as

GH =net effective

horizontal force on slider.

Lay

off

AD=BC.

Following through this construction for a number of positions


of the mechanisms, a polar diagram

is

determined which shows

very clearly the relation existing between the varying tangential


forces

and the corresponding crank

gram may
Chapter XVI)

positions.

Before this dia-

be used in the solution of the fly-wheel


it

problem

(see

should be transferred to a straight-line base

66

whose length

MACHINE DESIGN.
for one stroke equals the semi-circumference of the

cranlc-pin circle.

That

is,

the abscissae will be the distance

moved

through by the center of the crank-pin and the ordinates will be


the corresponding radial intercepts

tained wiU be identical with that

AD.

shown

The diagram

m Fig. 475.

so ob-

CHAPTER

VI.

PROPORTIONS OF MACHINE PARTS AS DICTATED BY STRESS.


49.
five

The

size

and form

machine parts

of

* are governed

by

accommodated

(as

main considerations:
(i)

The

size

and nature

the swing of engine-lathes,


(2)
(3)

cluding

work

to be

etc.)-

The stresses which they have to endure.


The maintaining of truth and accuracy
all

against wear, in-

questions of lubrication.

(4)

The

(5)

Appearance.

The

of the

cost of production.

first is

a given condition in any problem the second will


;

be discussed here; the third will be treated in the chapters on


Journals and Sliding Surfaces; the fourth
the principles governing the

and

fifth

is

touched upon here;

are treated in Chapter

XIX

here.

It is

assumed

in this

and following chapters that the reader

is

familiar with the properties of the materials employed in machine

construction,! and with the general principles of the science of

mechanics.
50.

The

stresses acting

on machine parts may be constant,

variable, or suddenly applied.

* On this general subject see an excellent article by Prof. Sweet in the Journal of the Franklin Institute, 3d Series, Vol. 125, pp. 278-300. The reader is
also referred to "A Manual of Machine Construction," by Mr. John Richards,

and

to the Introduction of this volume.

t See Smith's "Materials of Machines."

67

MACHINE DESIGN.

68

CONSTANT

DEAD, LOAD.
A VARIABLE

stress is

known

SUDDENLY APPLIED

SI. Constant Stress.

stant stress,

i.e.,

spoken of as a steady, or

stress is frequently

as a live load.

known

stress IS

as a

a machine part

If

shock.

is

subjected to a con-

an unvarying load constantly applied,

becomes a simple matter, as the amount of such a


generally

very

be

culate the area

which

Knowing

estimated.

closely

properties of the materials to be used,

it is

its

design

can

stress

this

and the

only necessary to cal-

the load without excessive

will sustain

deformation.

Thus, in simple tension or compression,

mate strength

of the material in

total constant stress in

is

a.

so-called

we

let

[/

= the

ulti-

the

unknown area

in square

factor of safety, introduced

to reduce

we

A=

pounds,

inches necessary to sustain F,

where

if

pounds per square inch,


the

write

U-^K'

the permitted unit stress to such a point as will limit the deformation (strain) to an allowable
sible

amount, and also to provide for pos-

defects in the material

In exceptional cases where

itself.

the stresses permit of accurate calculation,

and the material

proven high grade and positively known strength,

is

of

has been

given as low a value as i^; but values of 2 and 3 are ordinarily

used for wrought iron and

steel free

from welds

while 4 to 5 are

as small as should be used for cast iron, on account of the uncertainty of

its

composition, the danger of sponginess of structure,

and indeterminate shrinkage

stresses.

The SAFE UNIT STRESS =/=-^


52. Variable Stress.

^We

in

pounds per square inch.

pass next to the consideration of

PROPORTIONS OF MACHINE PARTS AS DICTATED BY STRESS. 69


Here the problem

variable stresses or live loads.

complex than with dead

is

much more

loads.

Experiments by Wohler,* and Bauschinger,f with the work


of

Weyrauch

and others have given us the laws

jected to repeated stresses.


follows

of bodies sub-

In substance Wohler's law

is

as

Material may be broken by repeated applications

OF A force which WOULD BE INSUFFICIENT TO PRODUCE RUPTURE

BY A SINGLE APPLICATION. ThE BREAKING IS A FUNCTION OF


RANGE OF stress; AND AS THE VALUE OF THE RECURRING STRESS
INCREASES, THE RANGE NECESSARY TO PRODUCE RUPTURE DE-

the stress be reversed, the range equals


THE SUM OF THE POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE STRESS.

CREASES.

If

Bauschinger's ponclusions were as follows:


(i)

With repeated

tensile stresses whose lower limit

AND WHOSE UPPER LIMIT WAS NEAR THE ORIGINAL


ELASTIC LIMIT, RUPTURE DID NOT OCCUR WITH FROM 5 TO 1

WAS

ZERO,

MILLION REPETITIONS.
will not hold for

be used for

still

He

cautions the designer (a) that this

defective material,
this reason;

and

i.e.,

a factor of safety must

(&) that the elastic limit of the

material must be carefully determined, because

it

may have been

raised by cold working, in which case

it

does not accur-

artificially

ately represent the material.

The

original elastic limit

may

be de-

termined by testing a piece of the material after careful annealing.


(2)

With often-repeated

stresses varying between zero

and an upper stress which is in the neighborhood of or


above the elastic limit, the latter is raised even above,
often far above, the upper limit of stress, and it is raised
higher as the number of repetitions of stress increases,
* "UeberdieFestigkeitsversuchemitEisen und Stahl," A. Wohler, Berlin, 1870.
)

"Mittheilungen

schinger,

der

Konig. Tech.

Hochschule

zu Miinchen,''

Weyrauch.

Trans, by A.

J.

Bau-

Munich, 1886 and 1897.

% "Structures of Iron

New York,

1877

and Steel," by

J.

J.

DuBois,

MACHINE DESIGN.

70

WITHOUT, HOWEVER, A KNOWN LIMITING VALUE, L, BEING EXCEEDED.


(3) Repeated stresses between zero and an upper limit
below l do not cause rupture; but ip the upper limit is
above l rupture will occur after a limiting number of

repetitions.

From

this

ELASTIC
stress

if

it

LIMIT

be seen that keeping within the original

will

insures

the stress

safety

rupture from

against

not reversed; and that,

is

when

repeated

the stress

is

reversed, the total range should not exceed the original elas-

RANGE

tic

of the material.

Various formulae have been proposed by different authorities

embodying the foregoing

Un win's

Let

is

laws.

here given as being most simple and general:

be the breaking strength of the material in pounds

per square inch for a load once gradually applied.


Let

max. be the breaking strength

in

pounds per square inch

for the same material subjected to a variable load ranging be-

tween the
great

number

kind as

and

it

limits

is

/max. and /min., and repeated an

max., and

is

if

Hence J

ij

is

is

the stress

if

the stress

min.

is

is

is

indefinitely

is

of the opposite kind,

not greater than

max. =

Then

max.

sign being

same kind and the lower

always positive.

same

of the

J = /max. T/min., the upper

the stresses are of the

if

are different.

where

is

supposed that

the range of stress

taken

/min.

of times,

if

The formula *

they

is

+ \/U^-T)JU,

a variable coefficient whose value has been experi-

mentally determined.

For

ductile

iron

and

steel

creasing with hardness of the material to a value of


* Unwin's "Machine Design," Vol.

1,

i?

2.

14th ed., pp. 31-33.

= i.5,

in-


PROPORTIONS OF MACHINE PARTS AS DICTATED BY STRESS.
This formula

71

of general application.

is

Three cases may be considered:


(1)

constant

of stress, J

The

(2)

but

is

stress,

= o, and

stress is variable

and

In

range

this case the

max. = U, as

it

between an upper

should be.
limit

and

zero,

not reversed.

Here J =/ max.,

(3)

or dead load.

consequently

The

stress

since /min.

max. =

reversed, being alternately a compressive

is

same magnitude.

tensile stress of the

/min.= /max.

Here

=0, and consequently

and

/max.=

J = 2/ max.

U.
2-q

In each case

necessary to divide the breaking load,

it is

by a factor of safety in order to get the safe unit stress


f

'-

-^.

max.,

/,

i.e.,

K issL factor of safety whose numerical value depends

upon the material used.


53. Problem.

(See Sec. 51.)

Consider

that

there

are

three

pieces

to

be

designed using machinery steel having an ultimate tensile strength


of 60,000 lbs. per square inch.

The

first

piece

suspended from

The second
nately loaded

The

third

sustains a steady load having a dead weight

it.

piece

is

member

of a structure

which

is

alter-

and imloaded without shock.


piece

subjected to alternate stresses without

is

shock.

In each case the

=F.

maximum

This material

is

factor of safety of 3

load

is

the same, being 30,000 lbs.

generally reliable and uniform in quaUty.


is

common;

.'.

K=^

in each case;

71

= 1.5.

MACHINE DESIGN.

72

Case

I.

max. =

A
and

TT
U

= /"^^^-

U = 60000 =
/=
20,000
,

.".

The

necessary area

to sustain

lbs.

per sq.

in,

30000

20000

determined by the equation


,

= 1?

s<J-

^w.

'^

II.
/

)j

= 1.5

.".

=/

ma.x.

and

J7

= 2{\/ rj^ + 1 Tj)U.


= 60,000

lbs.

max. =.6o54Z7 = 36,324


max.

= 12,108

lbs.

per sq.

lbs.

in.

per sq.

in.

per sq. m.

30000
A=-7 =
^ = 2J
^

Case

F is

A =-r=
Case

sq.

m., nearly.

III.

max. =

/
'

U.
21j

.".

max.

60000

=20,000

= /max. =6667

lbs.

lbs.

per sq. in.

per sq. m.

30000

^=7=666f=4isq.m.
The importance
in

designing

is

of considering the question of range of stress

brought home by

this illustration.

Comparison

PROPORTIONS OF MACHINE PARTS AS DICTATED BY STRESS.


of results

shows that with the same maximum load

case, the second piece

in

must be given nearly twice the area

73

each
of the

first,

while the third must be three times as great in area as the

first,

the only difference in the three cases being the range of

stress.

54. Shock.

Consideration

the design of parts subjected

of

to shocks or suddenly applied loads.


(i)

load

applied on an imstrained

is

member

in a single

instant, but without velocity.

In

this case, if the stress

does not exceed the limit of elasticity

of the material, the stress produced will be just twice that pro-

duced by a gradually applied load of the same magnitude.

F= maximum
stress

= 2F.

total

The

maximum

load as before, then the

design of the

member

is

made

then

If

total

as in Case

II or Case III of the preceding section.


(2)

load

applied on an unstrained

is

member

in a single

instant, but with velocity.

In

this case the stress

on the member

will exceed that

due to

a gradually applied load of the same magnitude by an amount

depending on the energy possessed by the load


of

at the

moment

impingement.

Assume

member is
The unknown

that a

a height h.

allowable strain

/= allowable

(i.e.,

stressed

by a load

area of the

F falling

through

member =^, and the


= A. As before,

extension or compression)

unit stress (determined, by the question of range by

the use of Unwin's formula).

The energy

of the falling load

is

F{h+k).

The work done

maximum

fiber

in straining the

stress / is

member an amount

XA, provided the

elastic

A with a
limit

is

MACHINE DESIGN.

74

Equating these values of energy expended and

not exceeded.

work done and solving

for

2F{h + X)
A=
.

gives

jj^

55.

Form

Dictated by Stress.

Tension.

Suppose that A and

B, Fig. 48, are two surfaces in a machine to be joined by a

member

What is the proper


The stress in aU sec-

subjected to simple tension.

M
^

form

for the

tions of the

member?
member at

right angles to the

of appHcation, ^J5, of the force

Therefore the areas of

The

AB.

on

effect

in the

all

such sections should be equal; hence

members should be

the outlines of the

straight lines parallel to

ability to resist tension.

Therefore there

has no

nothing

The form most cheaply produced,

member.

both in the rolling-mill and the machine-shop,

Economy,

is

form of the

character of the stress that indicates the

cross-section of the

form.

AB

distance of the material from the axis

its

Hne

be the same.

w^ill

therefore, dictates the

the cylindrical

is

circular

cross-section.

After the required area necessary for safely resisting the stress

determined,
eter,

and

member

it

if

is

will

it

only necessary to find the corresponding diam-

be the diameter of

made

they are

more harmonious

member

is

circular.

design,

is

it

all sections

Sometimes

necessary to

of the required

in order to get a

make

just considered of rectangular cross-section,

allowable although

it

almost always costs more.

The

the tension

and

this is

thin,

wide

rectangular section should be avoided, however, because of the


difficulty

stress

might

result

of the material,

the

AVERAGE

from

tension, the

unit

one edge greater than the strength

If

the stress

same considerations

is

might not have exceeded a safe value.

stress

a "short block,"

dimensions

this at

stress.

and the piece would yield by tearing, although

56. Compression.

is

uniform distribution of

of insuring a

i.e.,

such that

be compression instead of

dictate its

form as long as

it

as long as the ratio of length to lateral


it is

sure to yield

by crushing instead

of

PROPORTIONS OF MACHINE PARTS AS DICTATED BY STRESS.

by "buckling."

short block, therefore, should have

tudinal outlines parallel to

axis,

its

and

should be taken, however, that the

member be

the

made

not

dimension of

thereby converted

is

it

be

Care

dictate.

least lateral

so small that

longi-

may

cross-section

its

any form that economy or appearance may

of

its

75

into a "long column."


If the ratio of longitudinal to lateral

member becomes

the

tate the

such that

is

a "long column," the conditions that dic-

form are changed, because

flexure instead of

dimensions

The

crushing.

would

yield

strength

and

it

moment

long column are proportional to the

by buckling or
stiffness

of a

of inertia of the

cross-section about a gravity axis at right angles to the plane


in

which the

flexure occurs.

"rounded" ends has a tendency


equal in
to

be the same about

all

to yield

Therefore the

all directions.

a circular section.

long column with "fixed" or

gravity axes,

Also the

moment

and

The

section is

tension,

this of course points to

and

this points to the

disposition of the metal in a circular hollow

machine

the most economical one for long-column

members with

may

fixed or

rounded ends.

This form,

like that for

be changed to the rectangular hollow section

appearance requires such change.

member be "pin

is

of inertia needs

of inertia should be as large

as possible for a given weight of material,

hollow section.

by buckling which

moment

If the

if

long-column machine

connected," the tendency to buckle

is

greatest

in a plane through the line of direction of the compressive force

and

at right angles to the axis of the pins.

The moment

of iner-

tia of the cross-section should therefore be greatest about a gravity

axis parallel to the axis of the pins.

Example, a steam-engine

connecting-rod.
57. .Flexure.

^When

transverse stress the best


section, a, Fig. 49, in

with economy

the

machine member

form

which a

of material,

is

of cross-section

relatively large

is
is

subjected to

probably the I

moment

of inertia,

obtained by putting the excess of

M/t CHINE DESIGN.

76
the material where
greatest distance
ever,

most

it is

from the given gravity

form

c.

by

away

cutting

the

rolls, it is

cheaper to use the solid rect-

member

subjected to transverse stress

If the

any reason made

for

at the

the machine-shop, instead of producing

d, in

the form directly in the

angular section

i.e.,

Sometimes, how-

axis.

the I section has to be produced

if

material at e and

is

effective to resist flejoire,

of cast material, as

often the case, the

is

h is preferable for the following reasons:

(i)

The

of a casting,

best material

is

and therefore

almost sure to be in the thinnest part

in this case at

and

g,

where

it is

most

effective to resist flexure.


(2)

The

pattern for the form b

maintained than that for


(3)

is

more cheaply produced and

a.

If the surface is left

without finishing from the mold, any

imperfections due to the foundry

work

are

more

easily corrected

in b than in a.

Machine members subjected

to transverse stress,

which pro-

tinually change their position relatively to the force

duces the flexure, should have the same

moment

which con-

of inertia

all gravity axes, as, for instance, rotating shafts that are

transversely

due

by the force due

section in this case

the greatest

circular.

is

economy

The

best

The hollow

for shafts.

The hollow

lightness

58. Torsion.

and

^Torsional

strength

moment

member.

equal to the

is

is

are ex-

almost invais

meeting

on account of the

and

stiffness

are propor-

of inertia of the cross-section of the

sum

of the

moments

about two gravity axes at right angles to each other.


in Fig.

would give

strength.

tional to the polar

This

of cross-

members

circular section

-with increasing use, especially for large shafts,

combined

form

section

of material, but hollow

pensive to produce in wrought material, such as


riably used

strained

to the weight of a fly-wheel, or that

a driving-belt.

to the tension of

about

of

inertia

The forms

49 are therefore not correct forms for the resistance of

PROPORTIONS OP MACHINE PARTS AS DICTATED BY STRESS.

The

torsion.

circular solid

hollow

or

section, or

the

77

rect-

angular solid or hollow section, should be used.

The

I section. Fig. 50,

P, apphed as shown.

CD, and

line

is

a correct form for resisting the stress

Suppose the web

the parts

to

be divided on the

be moved out so that they occupy

to

the positions shown at a and

"box

called a

of inertia about ab

new form
as

it

is

b.
The form thus obtained is
By making this change the moment

section."

has not been changed, and therefore

just as effective to resist flexure

was before the change.

The box

due

section

is

the

to the force

better able to

Fig. 50.

resist torsional stress,

because the change

made

to convert tne

box section has increased the polar moment


The two forms are equally good to resist tensile and

I section into the


of inertia.

compressive force

if

they are sections of short blocks.

But

if

they are both sections of long columns, the box section would be
preferable, becausfe the

same about

the

SQ.

all

moments

Machine Frames.

sustains

combined

of inertia

would be more nearly

gravity axes.

The framing

stresses,

and

if

of

machines almost always

the combination of stresses

include torsion, flexure in different planes, or long-column compression, the


tion

is

frames.

box section

is

the best form.

by far the best form for the


There are other reasons,

stress that favor its use.*


* See Richard's

"Manual

In

fact,

the box sec-

resisting of stress in
too, besides
,

of

machine

the resisting of

Machine Construction.'

My4CHINE DESIGN.

78

appearance

Its

(i)

ness that

is

The

(2)

is

far finer, giving

an idea of complete-

always wanting in the ribbed frames.

box frame are always available for the

faces of a

attachment of auxihary parts without interfering with the perfection of the design.

The

(3)

strength can always be increased by decreasing the

the core, without changing the external appearance of

size of

and therefore without any work whatever on the

the frame,

pattern

itself.

The

cost of patterns for the

two forms

is

probably not very

being more expensive in the ribbed

different, the pattern itself

form, and the necessary core-boxes adding to the expense in the

The

case of the box form.

however,

is

expense of production in the foimdry,

greater for the box form than for the ribbed form,

because core work

is

more expensive than "green-sand " work.

The

balance of advantage

and

this is

now

is

very greatly in favor of box forms,

recognized in the practice of the best designers

of machinery.

To

illustrate

members,
section
is

is

the application of the box form to machine

The

cross-

almost universally of the form shown in Fig. 51.

This

let

the table of a planer be considered.

evidently a form that

would yield

easily to

a force tending to

Fig. si.

twist

it,

or to a force acting in a vertical plane tending to bend

Such forces may be brought upon


or by the support of heavy pieces
the heavy piece

is

it

it.

by "strapping down work,"

upon

centers.

Thus

supported between the centers.

in Fig. 52

For proper

support the centers need to be screwed in with a considerable


force.

to

This causes a rbaction tending to separate the centers and

bend the

table

between

and D. As a

result of this the V's

PROPORTIONS OF MACHINE PARTS AS DICTATED BY STRESS.


on the

no longer have a bearing throughout the

table

79

entire

surface of the guides on the bed, but only touch near the ends,

concentrated upon small surfaces, the lubricant

is

squeezed out, the V's and guides are "cut," and the planer

is

the pressure

is

Fig. s2.

Fig. S3-

Fig. 54.

rendered incapable of doing accurate work.


of the

box form shown

throughout
ing

its

more

length,

its

would be

accuracy of form under

all

far

of a planer

at intervals.
torsion,

This

is

which

usually in the form

is

of maintain-

and would be

stress,
it is

designed.*

shown

members being connected by

in Fig. 54, the side

"cross-girts

it

If the

would

Holes could be

bed were

of

in the

form

box section with cross parti-

sustain greater stress without

left in

"

to both, either

by reason of improper support or because of changes

tions,

in section

evidently not the best form to resist flexure

and a planer-bed may be subjected

of foundation.

made

a table were

more capable

kinds of

satisfactory for the purpose for

The bed

and

it

If

in Fig. 53, with partitions at intervals

undue

yielding.

the top and bottom to admit of supporting

the core in the mold, to serve for the removal of the core sand,

and

to render accessible the gearing

and other mechanism

inside

of the bed.
* Professor Sweet has designed and constructed such a table for a large milling-machine.

So

MACHINE DESIGN.
They

This same reasoning applies to lathe-beds.


transversely

by

force tending to separate the centers, as in the

case of "chucking"; torsionally

by the reaction

the surface of a piece of large diameter;

may

flexure

are strained

result,

of a tool cutting

and both

improperly designed

or yielding

would be the best possible form


culties in adaptation,

foundation.

from an

The box form


some

for a lathe-bed;

however, have prevented

and

torsion

as in the case of the planer-bed,

its

diffi-

extended use

as yet.

These examples

illustrate principles that

are of very broad

application in the designing of machines.


60. Brackets.

Often

in

machines there

jects either vertically or horizontally

is

a part that pro-

and sustains a transverse

Fig. 5S.

a cantilever, in

stress;

it is

tained,

and the thickness

material

is

parabolic.

fact.

is

If only transverse stress is sus-

uniform, the outline for economy of

In such a case, however, the outline curve

from the point of application of the

of the

rnember should

force,

and not from the extreme end

latter case there

Fig. 55,

is

start

of the

member,

would be an excess of material.

as in the

Thus

in

A,

the extreme position at which the force can be ap-

PROPORTIONS OF MACHINE PARTS AS DICTATED BY STRESS.

The

plied.

parabolic curve a

is

drawn from the point

of appli-

The end of the member is supported by the auxiliary curve c. The curve b drawn from the end gives an excess
of material. The curves a and c may be replaced by a single
continuous curve as in C, or a tangent may be drawn to a at its

cation of P-

middle point as in B, and

this straight line

used for the outline,

the excess of material being shght in both cases.

machine members of
other stresses.

and

torsion

members
torsion

Thus

They

of parabolic outline
side flexure, these

parabolic edges by a

web

by an
6i.

to insure the resistance of the

two members are connected

of metal that really converts

ported by a brace, as in D.

and may be

by two

are very often supported

and

Machine members

box form.

of the

the "housings" of planers have to resist

side flexure.

and

Most

however, are subjected also to

this kind,

of this kind

The

brace

stiffened against buckling

is

may

it

into a

also be sup-

a compression

by a "web "

at their

member

as shown, or

auxiliary brace.

Other Considerations Governing Form.

tion governing the

form

of

in the preceding sections.

general principle:

a member

One considera-

machine parts has been touched upon


It

may

be well to state

it

here as a

Other considerations being equal the form of

should be that which can be most cheaply produced

both as regards economy of material and labor

Another element enters into the form


ings, unless of the

of cast

members.

Cast-

most simple form, are almost invariably sub-

jected to indeterminate shrinkage stresses.

Some

of these are

undoubtedly due to faulty work on the part of the molder, others


are induced by the very form which
signer.

They cannot be

is

given the piece by the de-

eliminated entirely, but the danger can

be minimized by paying attention to these general laws


(a) Avoid all sharp comers and re-entrant angles.
(&)

All parts of

all cross-.sections of

the

as nearly of the same thickness as possible.

member

should be

82

MACHINE DESIGN.
(c)

If it is

casting, the

necessary to have thick and thin parts in the same

change of form from one to the other should be as

gradual as possible.
{d)

Castings should be

made

siderations of strength, stiffness,

as thin as

and

is

consistent with con-

resistance to vibration.

CHAPTER

VII.

RIVETED JOINTS.
62.

Methods

of Riveting.

^A rivet is

a fastening used to unite

metal plates or rolled structural forms, as

up machine frames,
straight shank,
either drilled or

It consists of

etc.

B.

It

inserted, usually red-hot, into holes,

is

punched

in the parts to be connected,

projecting end of the shank


lines) either

in boilers, tanks, built-

a head. A, Fig. 56, and a

is

and the

then formed into a head (see dotted

by hand- or machine-riveting.

A rivet is a permanent
off the head.
A

fastening and can only be removed by cutting

row

of rivets joining

SEAM OF RIVETS.
shank

is

two members

is

called a

riveted joint or

In hand-rivcting the projecting end of the

struck a quick succession of blows with hand hanomers

and formed

into a

Fig. 56.

head by the workman.

A helper holds

a sledge

Fig. 58.

In "button-set"
of the rivet.
or "dolly bar" against the head
blows with a
heavy
few
a
struck
is
or "snap" riveting, the rivet
"upset" it. Then a die or "button set," Fig. 57, is
sledge to

B, upon the rivet; the head,


held with the spherical depression,
is thus formed.
A is struck with the sledge, and the rivet head
'

83

MACHINE DESIGN.

84

In machine-riveting a die similar to


chine and a similar die opposite to

is

held firmly in the

a steam, hydraulic, or pneumatic cylinder.


placed in holes in the

and pressure

the dies
is

members
is

ma-

attached to the piston of

it is

properly

rivet,

to be connected, is put

between

The movable

applied to the piston.

die

forced forward and a head formed on the rivet.

The relative merits of machine- and hand-riveting have been


much discussed. Either method carefully carried out will produce a good serviceable

If in hand-riveting the first

joint.

few

blows be hght the rivet will not be properly upset, the shank will
be loose in the hole, and a leaky rivet

If in

results.

machine-

riveting the axis of the rivet does not coincide with the axis of

the dies,

an

off-set

head

in large quantities,

But there are always places inacces-

machines must be used.

machines, where the rivets must be driven by hand.

sible to

63. Perforation of Plates.

Holes

for the reception of rivets

are usually punched, although for thick plates

work they are sometimes


and a

in a plate,

the same
is

similar

annealed

drilled.

row as

it

If

If the holes

as strong as the drilled one.

determined,

punching injures

Second, the injury

is

due

point

to

drilled in

to the strength of

inch to \ inch

the plate would have been

size,

These

be punched

punched plate had been'

had been punched

small in diameter and reamed to

facts,

the

which have been ex-

following

conclusions:

and produces weakness.


caused by the severe action

the material
to stresses

of the punch, since annealing,

which furnishes opportunity for

equalizing of stress, restores the strength.


is

of holes

careful

show that the punched plate

If the

drilled one.

and very

and spacing be

would have been nearly restored

the drilled one.

perimentally

a row

to size

plate, testing to rupture will

weaker than the

First,

In large shops

(See Fig. 58.)

results.

where work must be turned out economically

Third, the injury

only in the immediate vicinity of the punched hole, since ream-

ing out

^ inch or less on a side removes all the injured material.

RIVETED JOINTS.

8S

In ordinary boiler work the plates are simply punched and

riveted.

work is required the plates must be drilled, or punched


small and reamed, or punched and annealed.
Drilling is slow
and therefore expensive; annealing is apt to change the plates,
If better

and requires
ing

B.

probably the best method.

is

Punching small and ream-

large expensive fumaceSi

W. Kennedy

(see Proc. Inst.

called attention to the

In

M.

phenomenon

this connection, Prof.

A.

E., 1888, pp. 546-547) has.

of greater unit tensile strength

of the plate along the perforations than of the original unperforated

Stoney (" Strength and Proportion of Riveted Joints,"

plate.*

London, 1885) has compiled the following


Table

I.

table:

^Relative Percentage of Strength of Steel Plates Perforated


IN Different

Specimens.

Ways.

MACHINE DESIGN.

86

divided by diameter of hole.

No

data exist relative to

iron

plates in this matter.


64.
First,

Kinds of Joints.

Riveted

joints are of

LAP-JOINTS, in which the sheets

each other and joined by a seam of


BUTT-JOINTS, in

to

two general kinds:

be joined are lapped on

rivets, as in Fig. 59a.

Second,

which the edges of the sheets abut against each


Fig. 59.

RIVETED JOINTS.

87

with a single cover-plate has been used somewhat.

shown

It is

in Fig. 59g.

There are two


is

but one row of

chief kinds of riveting:


rivets, as in Fig.

Single, in

which there

59^; and double, where there

arc two rows.

Double

and

riveting

subdivided into "chain-riveting," Fig. $gb,

is

"zigzag " or "staggered " riveting, Fig. 59^.

Lap-joints

may

be

double chain, or double staggered

single,

riveted.

Butt-joints
i.e.,

may have

a single strap as in

an exactly similar one

is

c,

or double strap;

placed on the other side of the joint.

Butt-joints with either single or double strap

double chain, or double staggered riveted.


cover-plates should be nine-eighths

and double

may

be single,

In butt-joints single

the thickness of plates

of

cover-plates five-eighths.

To sum

up, there are:


f

Lap-joints

Single-riveted
Double chain-]
chain-riveted
Double staggered-riveted
Single-riveted
Double chain-riveted
[ Double staggered-riveted
{Single-riveted
Double chain-riveted
Double staggered-riveted
f

Single-strap
Butt-joints.

The demands

of

modem

practice have

ruple joints to the foregoing.


for instance,

common

seam the highly

added

triple

and quad-

In high-pressure cylindrical

practice

efl&cient joint

is

to

employ

shown

boilers,

for the longitudinal

in Fig. 60.

Here we have

a triple- riveted butt-joint with double cover-plates; on each side


of the joint two rows of rivets are in double shear and one row,
the outer,

is

in single shear.

riveted joint may yield in any one of


6s. Failure of Joint. ^A
four ways: First, by the rivet shearing (Fig. 61a); second, by the

plate yielding to tension

on the

line

AB

(Fig. 61b); third,

by the

MACHINE DESIGN.

through the margin, as in

rivet tearing out

and sheet bear upon each other


in compression.

at

If the unit stress

too great, the rivet

weakened

is

and

to resist tension,

and

fourth, the rivet

and are both

in d,

upon these surfaces becomes

to resist shearing, or the plate

may

failure

c;

This pressure of the

occur.

Fig. 6i.

rivet

on the sheet

is

that the strongest or

which

is

called "bearing pressure."

most

efficient joint in

It is

any case

will

obvious

be one

so proportioned that the tendency to fail will be equal

in all of the ways.

66. Strength

of Materials Used.

designing of joints

it

and

^As

necessary to

is

a preliminary to the

know

the strength of the

the plate to resist tension,

rivets to resist shear, of


rivets

plates to resist bearing pressure.

and

of

the

These values must

not be taken from tables of the strength of the materials of which


the plate

and

rivets are

made, but must be derived from experi-

ments upon actual riveted


for this

is

the joint.

joints tested to rupture.

that the conditions of stress are modified

For instance,

joints, the line of stress

in single-strap butt-joints,

to resist tension, the rivets in the

tension as well as shear;

if

somewhat
and

in

in lap-

and the

plate

mean time being

is

weaker

subjected to

the joint yield to this stress in the

slightest degree the

"bearing pressure "

more

The

effect

is

localized

and becomes

between the surfaces


which they are "gripped "

of friction

of the plates

under the pressure

by the

is

rivets

reason

being the center line of plates, and the

plates joined being offset, flexure results

destructive.

The

at

another item of considerable importance.

Ex-

RIVETED JOINTS.
tensive
joints

and accurate experiments have been made upon actual

and the

The
average

89

results

have been published.*

following table has been compiled as representing fair


results,

and the values here given may be used

for ordi-

nary joints
Table

II.

Values of

Kind

of Joint.

/(, /,

and

/c

for Different Kinds of Joints.


Iron.

Lap-joint, single-riveted, punched


holes
Lap-joint, single-riveted, drilled holes
Lap-joint, double-riveted, punched
holes
Lap-joint, double-riveted, drilled holes
Butt-joints, single cover
Use values
given for lap-joints.
Butt-joints, double cover, single-riveted, punched holes
Butt-joints, double cover, single-riveted, drilled holes
Butt-joints, double cover, double-riveted, punched holes
Butt-joints, double cover, double-riveted, drilled holes
t Original plate
t Original bar
.'

40000
45000

Steel.

38000
36000

67000
67000

47500
45000

85000
85000

45000 40000
50000 38000

67000
67000

48000
46000

85000
85000

40000 42500

89000

48000

It will

The
due

than

46000 lOOOOO

45000 38000

47So lOOOOO

50000
50000

45000 lOOOOO

36000
60000

52000

45000

be noted that the values of

tensile strength of steel varies

/(

are not given for steel.

through a considerable range

largely to differences in chemical constitution;

plates

of

the

it

also follows

to the thickness of plates;

show higher

tensile strength

same composition.

Furthermore,

thin plates will be almost sure to

thicker

00000

45000 41000

a rough law of inverse proportion


i.e.,

Tests of Metals,
Stoney's " Strength and

* See Proc. Inst, of Mech. Eng., 1881, 1882, 1885, 1888;

Watertown Arsenal,

1885, 1886, 1887, 1891, 1895, 1896.

Proportions of Riveted Joints," London, 1885.


the values given above should be
t If the original material varies from this,
varied proportionately.

MACHINE DESIGN.

90
the

method

of perforation greatly affects the strength of the plates,

as has been pointed out in

63.

unit tensile strength ranging

55,000

The

for

62,000

lbs. to

For ordinary calculations

square inch.
lbs.

Ordinary boiler-plates have a

from 55,000

/(

punched plates and 60,000

may

per

lbs.

be taken as

for drilled plates.

shearing strength of rivets also varies inversely as their size,

but these differences are


67. Strength,

slight.

and Efficiency

Proportions,

of

Joints.

strength of unperforated plate

of strength of joint to

ratio

No
The

riveted joint can be as strong as the unperforated plate.

is

called the joint efficiency.

As stated in 65 the highest efficiency for a joint is obtained


when the relations between thickness of plate, diameter of rivet,
and margin are such

pitch,

in

that the tendency for the joint to

any one way does not exceed the tendency for

fail in

any other way.

to fail

Formulae can be developed for finding their

proper values for each form of

Let

it

joint.

= diameter of rivet-hole in inches; ^


a = pitch of rivets in inches;
/ = thickness of plates in inches;
/ = tensile strength of plates in pounds per square inch;
/^ = crushing strength of rivets or plates, if rivets are in
(f

single shear,

//= crushing

pounds per square inch;

strength of rivets or plates,

if

rivets are

in

double shear, pounds per square inch

/,= shearing strength of rivets in single shear, pounds per


square inch;
/,'= shearing strength of

rivets

in

double shear, pounds

per square inch.

Each

joint

may

be treated as

if

made up

of similar strips, each unit strip having a

of a successive series

width equal to

distance between centers of two consecutive rivets in the

a,

the

same

RiyETED JOINTS.

row

(see Fig. 62).

If the stresses

91

and proportions

for one such

strip are determined, the results obtained will,


of course, apply

to all of the others,

and consequently

sider such a strip of thickness

to the

and width

whole

joint.

Con-

a.

t=rv=4i=-_-

'"12M/ Pitch VV
1Fig. 62.

Let

P= ultimate tensile strength of unperforated strip, pounds;


T =ultimate tensile strength of net section of strip,

5= ultimate

shearing

resistance

of

all

rivets

pounds;
in

strip,

pounds

C = ultimate
holes,

crushing resistance of

all rivets

or sides of

"

pounds;

=efi&ciency of joint.

To
i.e.,

illustrate

this

method, consider

iirst

the simplest joint,

the single-riveted lap-joint.

The unperforated

has a tensile strength

strip

P=aift.

Along the row


total

width of the

(I)

of rivets the net width of plate


strip

by an amount equal

is less

the rivet, and consequently the net tensile strength of


is

than the

to the diameter of

the strip

expressed by the equation

T = (a-d)tft
In each unit strip there

is

(2)

but a single rivet with but one sur-

face in shear, hence

(3)


MACHINE DESIGN.

92

The

crushing resistance of the

the hole,

may

or of the plate around

rivet,

be written as

C = dtl
For highest efficiency
Equating S and C,

(4)

T =S = C.

(3)

and

(4), .']?>^^(Pf,=dtjc.

d = i.27t^

(5)

This equation gives the proper theoretical value of d for a


given value of

Equating

i,

and

T and

for materials represented

S, (2)

and

by

/<;

and

/,.

(3),

ia-d)tft=.lSs4dVs.

+'i

^7

This gives the proper theoretical pitch.


joint

is

obtained by dividing T, S, or

(6)

The

efficiency of the

by P.

In most cases the values of d and a as determined by (5)


Stock sizes of rivets
and (6) cannot be strictly adhered to.

must be used

in practice,

with the largest sizes

it is

and there are

also limitations connected

convenient to drive.

These equations,

furthermore, do not take into consideration the stresses set


the rivets

when

diameters.

The

due

their shrinkage,

the plates, an item

which

may become

to cooling,

is

up

resisted

in

by

excessive with the smaller

spacing of the rivets must also be modified quite

frequently by the proportions of the parts to be connected, by

allowance for proper space to form the heads, and by provision


for tightness.

In practice

it is

therefore often necessary to depart

from these values.


It

must be borne

the values of

in

mind, however, that any departure from

d and a given

in (5)

and

(6) destroys the equality

RIVETED JOINTS.
between T, S, and C, and
value of T, S, and

REAL

If the

The

efficiency

of the

by P-

efficiency of the joint is desired, the value of

must be obtained by increasing

^ (

2 H

made, the actual

should be determined (by substitution of

the perforation of the plates.

is

be found by dividing whichever has the smallest

value, T, S, or C,

such departure

if

and a decided upon).

the values of d
joint will then

93

by the amount

called for

by

explained in 63 this will

be

}t

As

per cent greater than the

of the original, un-

ft

perforated plate.
68.

Problem.

The

following problem illustrates the method

of using Table II in connection with the formulae (5)

What

and

(6).

should be the dimensions of rivet-hole and pitch for a

single-riveted lap-joint for f-inch iron plates using iron rivets?

Table II gives as values


67,000

of

ft,

and

fc

40,000, 38,000,

per square inch, respectively, for this form of

lbs.

and

joint.

r = -37S"-

Substituting these values, equation (5) becomes

^=

and equation

67000

(6)

TT-Z.

.78i;4X.84

i.27X.375X-^ = .84"

= -i-^^

38000

-t-

.84

=2

.
.

.375X40000

69. Proportions

of

Single-riveted

Lap-joints.

and Table IV have been computed

in this

refers to steel joints, the values of

/ and

and 85,000

24 mches.

lbs.

ft,

way.
fc

Table

III

As Table IV

are 55,000, 47'Soo,

per square inch, respectively.

MACHINE DESIGN.

94

Table

III.

Proportions of Single-riveted Lap-joints, Iron Plates, and


Rivets,

Punched Holes.

RIVETED JOINTS
use and pneumatic tools are used in

95

"hand -work,"

this

dis-

crepancy will tend to disappear.


Table

IV.

Proportions of Single-riveted Lap-joints, Steel Plates, and^


Rivets, Punched Holes.

MACHINE DESIGN.

9^

nd

2nd^

~-U'=dtU';

-U'=tU
2

.:

//

d = .64j-,t

and

(9)

Equating

T and

5, (2)

and

(a-d)//,

..a

(7),

= 1.57(^2//;

= '-^+d

(10)

For Double-riveted Lap-joints the unit strip contains two


each in single shear.

The

rivets,

following equations cover the case

T = ia-d)tft,
Tzd^

= 2 /, = i.s7<i2/
4

C = 2dtjc,
d = i.2jjt

(11)

1-57^,

71. Double-riveted
joints,

Butt-joint.

For

double

riveted

butt-

double cover-plate, either chain or staggered riveting, there

are two rivets in double shear for each unit strip.

T = (a-d)tft,
5 = 4vV =3-14^2//,
4

RiyETED JOINTS.

97

C = 2dtU,
d = .64^t

'^

72. General Formulae.

(13)

^The

following general equations for

riveted joints have been developed

The

\mit strip

is

strip

by Mr. W. N. Barnard:*

of width equal to the pitch, the

pitch being taken unless

The

(^4)

~jr~+'^-

maximum

rows have the same pitch.

all

general expression for the net tensile strength of the unit

is

T = {a-d)tU
The

general expression for resistance to shearing of the rivets

in the unit strip

is

m which

n equals
number

equals the

The
strip

(15)

the

nnd'^

atnnd^,.

^ + -^-/.'
,

number

of

(16)

rivets in single shear

and

of rivets in double shear.

general expression for resistance to crushing of the unit

is

C=ndtf^+mdtf/

The

tensile resistance of the solid strip

(17)
is

P = atft
Equating S and C,

(16)

and

(18)
(17),

and transposing, we

^'-'IJ^-'
* See
Joints,"

article,

get

c^)

" General Formulas for Efficiency and Proportions for Riveted


Journal of Engineering, Oct., 1900.
J. H. Barr in Sibley

by Professor

MACHINE DESIGN.

98

Equating

T and C,

(15)

and

(17),

a={'^^)d+d
Or, equating

T and S,

(15)

and

(16),

a=.7854d^(^

The

(20)

^r

following equation for efficiency has

This equation

get,

is

(21)

been developed

T=S = C.

on the assumption that

S
From =-^ we

d.

by substitution and transposition,

useful in finding the limiting efficiency of

joint for

any form and materials

may give

a lower efficiency, but can never give a higher efficiency.*

73. Other Dimensions.

the actual proportions adopted

The margin

in a riveted Joint

distance from the edge of the sheet to the rivet-hole.

be made

by the

is

the

This must

of such value that there shall be safety against failure

rivet tearing out.

There can be no

determination of this value;

satisfactory theoretical

but practice and experiments with

way if the
The distance

actual joints show that a joint will not yield in this

margin be made

=i=diameter

between the center

may

lines of the

be taken =2.5^, and

be taken =i.88d.
ing equals

3(/,

in

Thus

in

of

the

rivet.

rows in double chain-riveting

double

staggered- riveting

may

the total width of lap for single rivet-

double chain-riveting =5.5^^, and in

double

staggered-riveting 4.88d.
* In the Proceedings of the Inst, of M. E., 1881, there is an article entitled
Riveting, with Special Reference to Ship-work," M. Le Baron Clauze
which enters deeply into the development of general formulas.

"On

'

RIVETED JOINTS.

99

74. Relative Efficiencies of Various

actual efficiencies of joints

from the calculated

when

Kinds

tested

has been compiled from the results of

The

show some departure

The

ideal efficiencies.

of Joints.

following Table (V)

tests to

show roughly the

relative efficiencies of various types of joints

Table V.

Relative Efficiency of Iron Joints.


Efficiency
Per Cent.

Original solid plate


Lap-joint, single-riveted, punched

4S
5
60

drilled
'

double

"

Butt-joint, single cover, single-riveted.


"
"
"
double-riveted,
"
double "
single-riveted.

"

"

"

45-5
60
55

double-riveted

66

Relative Efficiency of Steel Joints.


Efficiency Per Cent.

Thickness of Plates.

Original solid plate


Lap-joint, single-riveted, punched
drilled
'

double-riveted, punched

'

ir-i

i-f

i-J

50
55

45
50
70

40
45

75

80

drilled

Butt-joint, double cover, single-riveted, drilled


"
"
"
double-riveted, punched.

75

75
65
70

80

75

70
.

drilled

65
70
60
65
70

These tables are from Stoney's "Strength and Proportions of Riveted Joints."

Triple and quadruple riveted butt-joints with double coverplates

show

efficiencies

ranging from 80 to 90 per cent.*

about 25 to 35 per cent of


SLIPPAGE takes place in a riveted joint. This
75. Slippage.

^At

its
is

ultimate load

probably due

to the fact that at this load the friction between the plates,
to the pressure exerted

* For

on them by the

rivets, is

details of joints tested, see Tests of Metals,

owing

overcome.

Watertown Arsenal, 1896'

It

MACHINE DESIGN.

loo

has been found the larger the cross-sectional area of the rivet
the greater the percentage of ultimate load which can be with-

stood without slippage.

It

has also been found that large rivet-

heads are better than small ones for the same reason.
76. Necessary

have a shank
filled,

Length

of Rivet.

In general the

rivet

should

the hole to be

inch smaller in diameter than

while the head should have a diameter of from 1.6 to 2

times the diameter of hole, and a height of from

time

.6 to .75

Especial care should be taken in the case

the hole diameter.

of machine-riveting to have just

enough metal projecting beyond

the hole to allow for the necessary upset for the shank to

the hole, with just enough


77. Problem.

left

over to

How far must

fill

fill

the die for the head.

the tail of the rivet project in

order to satisfy the above conditions for the following case:

Two

plates f inch thick each are to be connected, using |-inch rivets

The head

in iS-inch holes.

is

to be cone-shaped, having

an out-

and a height of | inch.


The cubical contents of the cone head = area of baseX^

side diameter of i| inches

altitude

The

= 2.76

square inches X. 25 inch = .69 cubic inch.

difference in cubical contents between a hole if inch in

diameter by | inch long and a shank | inch in diameter and


I inch long = |X.78s4(i|^ |^)=.o67 cubic inch.

The amount
.

69 -F. 067 = .757

The area

required for head and upset therefore equals


cubic inch.

of the |-inch

shank = .60 square inch. .757 cubic inch,

therefore, calls for a length of

757
7
= 1.25

would then be the projection through the

plate.

rivet-shank called for would equal | inch-|-i|

Note.

Had the

This amount

inches.

head been cup-shaped,

The

inches = 2
its

the height

about

.6

is

about

1.7

X diameter

X diameter of hole.

inches.

cubical contents

should have been taken as that of a spherical segment.

shaped heads the diameter

length of

For cup-

of hole,

The volume

and

of the

>

RIVETED JOINTS.
spherical segment

lOl

given by the following rule: Multiply half

is

the height of the segment by the area of the base and the cube
of the height
78.

by .5236 and add the two products.

Countersunk Rivets.

a coimtersimk

and

less

Cdimtersunk

rivet.

shows the proportions for

Fig. 63

rivets

make a much weaker

rehable joint than the ordinary form, and should only

be used where
plate be free

it is

absolutely necessary that the surface of the

from projections.

79. Nickel-steel Rivets.

^Where

pecuUar conditions

great strength of rivet combined with small area,


desirable to use nickel-steel rivets.

Maimsel White

(see

Journal

Am.

an average
values,

it

Soc. of

showed an average shear-

per square inch for single shear, and

by shearing the

The
by

rivets

were | inch in diameter, and

tearing the plates, while others failed

rivets.

80. Construction of
it is,

These

be noted, are nearly double those of the very mild

of the joints failed

plates,

Nav. Eng., 1898) on

of 90,075 lbs. per square inch for double shear.

will

steel ordinarily used.

some

lbs.

may be found

Experiments made by Mr.

riveted joints using nickel-steel rivets

ing resistance of 85,720

it

call for

Tight Joints.

In

pimching holes in

of course, necessary to have the hole in the die-block

larger than the pimch.

The consequence

is

that the holes are

considerably tapered and care should be exercised in joining the


plates that the small ends of the holes be together as

< lj6

shown

in Fig.

MACHINE DESIGN.

102

-will

tend to keep

it

a tight

fit

for the hole in spite of

its

diametral

shrinkage.

obvious that at

It is equally

the pressure on the rivet will

tend to force the plates apart and squeeze metal between them,

and

be away from the

also that all shrinkage of the rivet will

walls of the hole.

In using drilled plates care must be exercised to remove the


sharp burrs

left

by the

has a considerable

Where
joints

drill,

effect

as experience has

on the strength of the

joint.

that this

the plates form the walls of vessels to hold fluids, the

must be designed with a view toward

strength.

shown

For

this

and calked as shown


chisel with a

tightness as well as

purpose the edges are planedat a slight bevel,


in Fig. 65

by a

tool

Pneumatic

round nose.

which resembles a cold-

tools are

used for

this

pur-

pose almost entirely, as they execute more uniform and rapid

work than can be done by hand.

In calking great care should

be exercised not to groove the plates


points for bending,
into a crack.

and an

It is

a,t

A-A,

as these are danger-

incipient groove is very apt to develop

on

largely

this

accoimt

that the rotmd-

nose calking-tool has superseded the square-nose in the best


practice.

81. Materials to be Used.


joints depends, of course,

eral

it

may

The material

to

be used in riveted

on the nature of the work, but in gen-

be said that extremely mild and highly ductile steel

as free from phosphorus

Open-hearth

and sulphur as possible should be used.

steel is greatly to

82. Plates

be preferred to Bessemer.*

with Upset Edges.

Some

boiler-makers

have

adopted, as an expedient for saving material, a nJethod of using


plates with thickened (upset) edges.

If

we

let t

represent the

* Standard specifications can be found in Kent's "Mechanical Eng. Pocket


Book." The U. S. Navy Dept. has adopted standard rules for riveting naval
vessels.
These can be found in Marine Engineering, Jan., 1898.

RiyETED JOINTS.

thickness of the body of the plate and

t'

103

the thickness of the edge,

while a represents the pitch and d the diameter of hole, then,

when

a^d'

the joint will be as strong as any other section of the plate, the
Joint being proportioned, of course, for the thickness

It is

t'.

customary to thicken only the edges which form the longitudinal

This method

seam.

open

is

to

two serious objections.

Unless

the plates are very carefully annealed after being upset they are

almost certain to be weakened by indeterminate working and

Moreover, although the original new joint

cooling stresses.

show

as high

an

efficiency as

if

may

the plates throughout were of the

as corrosion proceeds,

more on

away

thickness

t',

from the

joint than at the joint, because at the latter place the

plate

is

acts

the plate

protected by the cover-plate or rivet-head or both.

result is a shorter life

plates

it

imder

full

pressure for the boiler with thin

and thickened edges.

83. Joints for

The

More than Two

Plates.

^The

joints considered

thus far have dealt with the problem of connecting the edges
of

two plates only.

In tanks and boilers which must have tight

seams we are frequently confronted with the problem of joining


three and even four plates. An instance is where the cross-seam

and

longitudinal

seam

of a boiler meet.

The

joint is

made by

thinning down one or more of the plates.


from Unwin's "Machine Design") show the methods employed.
Fig. 66 shows a junction of three plates, a, b, and c, where both

Figs. 66 to 70 (taken

seams are

comer
under"

shigle-riveted lap-joints.

of a

is

simply drawn

down

It

to

will

be seen that the

an edge and "tucked

c.

Fig. 67

shows a junction of three plates where one seam

single-riveted

before, the

and the

comer

of a

other a
is

double-riveted

lap-joint.

drawn down and tucked under

c.

is

As

MACHINE DESIGH.

I04
Fig. 68

are

shows the junction of three plates where both seams

single -riveted, single

cover-plate

butt-joints.

The

plates

merely abut against each other, but the longitudinal cover

Fig. 66.

thinned

down

Fig. 68.

Fig. 67.

arawn down and tucked under


to

the cross-seam cover

seam
is

is

Fig. 70.

a single-riveted

lap-joint while the

longitudinal joint

a double-riveted butt-joint with double cover-plates.

calked where

method

it

is

planed on the end so that

abuts against the plate

of joining four plates

seams are single-riveted

down

is

shows the junction of three plates; here the cross-

upper cover-plate

is

lap-joints,

it

The

can be tightly

c.

shown
and

in Fig. 70.

Both

are both

drawn

as shown.

84. Junction of Plates


to

which

match.

Fig. 69.

Fig. 69 also

is

Not

in

Same

be joined are in different planes,

one of the rolled structural forms.


of using

it

Plane.
is

Where the plates

customary to use some

Fig. 71

shows the method

an angle iron for plates at a right angle to each other.

RIVETED JOINTS.

Where
method

it is

is

possible to turn a flange

often adopted.

105

on one of the plates

Care should be taken not

Fig. 71.

this

to use too

Fig. 72.

sharp a radius of curvature (the inside radius must be greater

than the thickness of the plate even with the mildest

steel)

the flanged plate should be thoroughly annealed after

it is

shows the method of making flanged

Fig. 72

joints

and

bent.

such as

are frequently used in connecting boiler heads and shells.


85. Problem.

The following problem

the design of riveted joints for boilers.

will serve to illustrate

required to design a

It is

horizontal tubular boiler 48 inches in diameter to carry a work-

ing pressure of 100 pounds per square inch.

boiler of this type consists of a cylindrical shell of wrought

iron or steel plates

made up in length of two or more courses or


is made by rolling a flat sheet into a

Each course

sections.

hollow cyhnder and joining

its

edges by means of a riveted joint,

The

called the longitudinal joint or seam.

each other also by riveted


seams.

joints, called circular joints

or cross-

Circular heads of the same material have a flange turned

around

all

courses are joined to

riveted to

their circumference,

the shell.

determined from

(I)

by means of which they are

The proper
The diameter

working steam-pressure per square

may be
of shell = 48 inches; (II) The
inch = 100 pounds; (III) The
thickness of plate

tensile strength of the material used;

of 60,000

poimds

let

steel plates

be used

specified tensile strength.

Preliminary investigations of the conditions of stress in the


cross-section of material cut by a plane (I)
(II)

At

Through

the axis;

right angles to the axis, of a thin hollow cylinder, the

stress being due to the excess of internal pressure per square inch.

M/ICHINE DESIGN.

io6

Let

Z = the
D = the
/ = the

length of the cyhndrical shell in inches;

diameter of the cylindrical shell in inches

pounds

excess of internal over external pressure in

per square inch;

/i=unit tensile

of the shell

= unit
J2

longitudinal section of material

stress in a

due

to p;

tensile stress in a circular section of material of the

shell

due

to p;

= thickness of plate;
/( = ultimate tensile strength
/

All stresses are in

of plate.

pounds per square

inch.

In a longitudinal section the total stress

and the area

of metal sustaining

= 2/.

it

equal to

is

Then /i=

In a circular section the total stress =

TzD^p

Dp
j.

LDp,

and the area

4
sustaining

it

= 7tDt,

nearly.

Then

Therefore the stress in the


the second;
resist

The

section,

,a

is

twice as strong to

would

Dp
Therefore

must be used.

Its value is small

and the changes

shocks.

due to ^ in a longitudinal

t=~Y,

just yield to the unit pressure p.

factor of safety

resiUent

stress

of the cross-section of plate that sustains

LDp = 2Lilt.

shells to 5 or 6.

no

twice as great as in

is

need be considered in determining the

Equating the

and the strength

we have

that

case

rupture on a circular section as on a longitudinal one.

latter only, therefore,

thickness of plate.

it,

first

and a thin hollow cylinder

It is

the thickness of plate

To get safe

thickness,

usually equal in boiler-

because the material

of pressure are gradual,

This takes no account of the riveted

i.e.,

is

highly

there are

joint,

which


RIP^ETED JOINTS.
is

the weakest longitudinal section,

soUd

plate,

107

times as strong as the

being the joint efficiency =0.75

The formula

double-riveted.

then

becomes

if

the joint be

t=

"

Sub-

2ftE
stituting values,
{

The

6 X48X100
,

mch, say

=0.1.2

2X60000X0.75

J'

'

-^

circular joints will be single-riveted

But the

will =0.50.

and

joint efficiency

one half as great as in the

stress is only

longitudinal joint, and therefore

A mch.

it is

stronger in the proportion

0.50X2 to 0.75, or I to 0.75. From this it is seen that a circular


joint whose efficiency is 0.50 is as strong as the solid plate in a

From

longitudinal section.

the value of

the joints

may now

be

designed.

Consider
joint.

the cross-seam.

first

Assume

Equations

This

a single-riveted lap-

is

drilled holes.

(5),

= 1.27-7-^,

f/

and

a=

(6),

apply, while from Table II

+d,

-,

we

get as values of

45,000, and 85,000 pounds per square inch


plates and rivets.

85000

.*.

ffi

= i.27X^=
'

and

45000

jt,

/s,

fc,

60,000,

respectively for steel

= .75mch
X.3i25
^

.7854X.75 X45000
a = -^-^^
777
.3125X60000

-^

1-

-75
'-^

'^

o
= i-8i

,,

,.

mches, say
iH mches.
'

The margin=c? = .75 inch.


The lap of the cross-seam =3^ = 2.25 inches.
The longitudinal seam will be a double staggered

lap-joint.

Io8

MACHINE DESIGN.
Equations (ii) and (12) apply:

From Table

= ^.2^k,

II,

ft

a=^^^'+d.

and

=60,000,

/,

=46,000, and

/<;

85000
J
d = i.27X^g^X.3i25=.74mch, say
,

.-.

=85,000;

.75,

a=

and

The
inches.

X. 75 X46000

1-57

.3125X60000

+ .75
'-^

distance between the rows

The

total

lap in

= 1.88(^ = 1.41

longitudinal

the

2lf inches.
1/16

=2.02
^^ inches, say

inches, say ii^

joint =4.88/

= 3.66

and a

detail

inches, say 3!^ inches.

The

joints are therefore completely determined,

of each, giving dimensions,

men who make

may

the templets

Having determined

the

be drawn for the use of the work-

and lay out the

sheets.

proportion of the joints,

let

these

dimensions be used to calculate the actual efficiency of the longitudinal seam.

Assume
bar

is

that the natural tensile strength of the unperforated

60,000

The

lbs.

per square inch.

excess of strength of drilled steel plates in net section

over unperforated section (see

63) is

{'''-^){^y' '''''
.

Here

= .3i25in.

.*.

and

''

= T=^ 2.9375

excess due to perforation

=3%,

=3-92;

nearly.

RIVETED JOINTS.

109

6o,oooX 1.03 =61,800 =ji.


},

=46,000 from Table

/,

= 8s,ooo "

II.

"

"

r = (a-<f)//j = (2.937s -.7s)(.3i25X6i,8oo) =42,250 lbs.


5 = i.$'j<Pf, = 1.57 X .75^ X46,ooo = 40,625 lbs.
C = 2J</ = 2 X.75X.3i25X85,ooo = 39,845 lbs.
P = a/< = 2.9375X6o,oooX.3i25 = 55,075 lbs.
Of T,

S,

and C, the

latter

has the smallest value; the actual

may be

efficiency of the joint

taken as

=p=

= '7235

"

or

72-35%-

C are unequal

Since T, S, and

departure from the conditions for

two ways

evident that there has been

it is

maximum efficiency.

There are

of restoring this equality, or at least diminishing the

inequality.

If

a be slightly decreased, Ta,nd

tionately decreased

and S and

will

will

be propor-

have the same values as

before.

Leaving a as before and increasing


square of d and

as d, while

Inspection shows that


fore a
is

may be

and

exceeds

P
C

d,

increases

by

5.7

per cent.

decreased by this percentage, or .17 inch.

approximately

as the

remain as before.

inch and reduces the

There-

This

pitch from 2!! to

af inches.
Using

this value of

a gives as the excess strength due to per-

foration 4.33 per cent.


.'.

=62,600

lbs.,

^ = 39)125

lbs.,

ft

5=40,625

lbs.,

C= 39,845

lbs.,

P = 51,560

lbs.,

^T39i2^
'^

^"

of balancing T, S,

and

P
The second method

51560

would be by

no

MACHINE DESIGN.

increasing

be

first

The

d.

next commercial size above | inch would

Leave a = 2if inches, and increase d

inch.

io

inch,

and

calculate the excess strength due to perforation.

= .3125 mch, r=-r=-~^.


^
^

'

.8125

Using these values, the excess = 4.57 per cent.

= 62,750
= 4i,67o
5 = 47,675
C = 42,i6s
P = 5S>o7S
and, since

/(

lbs.,

T'

lbs.,
lbs.,
lbs.,

lbs.,

is least,

-?-^^
=
P 55075 75-66%.
'^

The

best result

is

that obtained by keeping d = f inch, but

changing a to 2| inches, and

would be advantageous

it

these the proportions of the joints rather than those

to

make

first

de-

termined.

The

next step

is

to

check back, using the proportions de-

cided upon, for the actual factor of safety which should not be
less

than

From

5.

KDp

the equation (p. 107)

= ~^-^ we
,

have

2/i-i-/

..

A=

2X6260OX.7588X.3i25

5
X 100

= 0.10.

48

Attention should be called to the fact that the ordinary and


less correct

method

of calculating efficiencies ignores the excess

RjyETED JOINTS.
strength due to perforation, and the efficiency

is

simply taken

T
as-p-.

With a=2if

inches,

and d = \

E=^^^j = 74-47%.
With a = 2f inches and d = \

inch, this

would give us

instead of 72.35%-

inch,

it

would give us

-E=^^= 72-71%. instead of


With a=2ii inches and d=ii

= ^^^ = 71.97%,

inch,

it

75-88%.

would give

instead of 75.66%.

CHAPTER

VIII.

BOLTS AND SCREWS.


86. Classification
classified as follows:

Tap-bolts;
for

I.

Bolts;

II.

Bolts and screws may be

Studs;

Cap-screws, or

III.

V. Machine screws;

IV. Set-screws;

VI. Screws

power transmission.

A
thread
is

and Definition.

"bolt" consists of a head and round body on which a


cut,

is

and upon which a nut

is

screwed.

When

a bolt

used to connect machine parts, a hole the size of the body of

the bolt

is

drilled entirely

through both parts, the bolt

down

through, and the nut screwed

upon the washer.

is

put
(See

Fig. 73-)

Fig. 74.

Fig. 73.

"stud"

each end.

is

a piece of round metal with a thread cut upon

One end

of a machine,

is

screwed into a tapped hole in some part

and the piece

to

be held against

the size of the body of the stud,

upon the other end


Fig- 74-)

Fig. 75.

is

it,

having a hole

put on and a nut

is

screwed

of the stud against the piece to be held.

(See

BOLTS AND SCREtVS.

"cap-screw"

is

a substitute for a stud, and consists of a

head and body on which a thread


screw

is

is

(See Fig. 75.)

cut.

The

passed through the removable part and screwed into a

tapped hole in the part to which


is

113

it is

attached.

cap-screw

a stud with a head substituted for the nut.

hole should never be tapped into a cast-iron machine

when

part

can be avoided.

it

for the thread of a nut, since

crumble.

In very

many

Cast iron

weak and

it is

cases, however,

sary to tap into cast iron.

It is

not good material

is

brittle

it is

and tends

to

absolutely neces-

then better to use studs

if

the

attached part needs to be removed often, because studs are put

and the

cast-iron thread

in once for

all,

eventually

cap-screws were used.

if

The form
shown

60.
flat

of the United

in Fig. 76.

The

would be worn out

States standard screw-thread

sides of the thread

make an

is

angle of

Instead of coming to a sharp point, the threads have a


at top and bottom whose width is = \p, p being the pitch.

Table VI gives the standard proportions.

When

one machine part surrounds another, as a pulley-hub

surrounds a shaft, relative motion of the two is often prevented


by means of a "set-screw," which is a threaded body with

a small square head (Fig. 77). The end is either pointed as


in Fig. 77, h, or cupped as in Fig. 77, c, and is forced against
in the outer
the inner part by screwing through a tapped hole
part.

Data
foimd in

relative

to

the holding

109, p. 148.

power

of set-screws will be

114

MACHINE DESIGN.

BOLTS AND SCREIVS.

The term "machine screws"

covers

screws, usually with screw-driver heads.


in this classification are

made

IIS

many forms

of small

All of the kinds given

in great variety of size,

forip,

length, etc.

Fig. 77.

Fig. 78.

far American manufacturers have failed to agree

Thus

upon

standard dimensions for set-screws and machine screws.

For consideration

we

of their design,

will divide bolts

and

screws into three classes:


(a)

Those which are put under no

(&)

Those which are put under an

(c)

Those which are used to transmit power.

87. Analysis of Action of Screw.

up

in detail

of screw

and

it

will

nut.

be well to
Reference

of a nut loaded with


to

moving a load

the horizontal

thread a.

is

W
the

lbs.

stress

by screwing up.

initial stress

by tightening.

Before taking these cases

examine into the general action

made
may be

is

to Fig. 79.

The

turning

considered as equivalent

on an inclined plane whose angle with

same as the mean pitch angle

of

the

MACHINE DESIGN.

ii6

Let

= outside radius of thread


^2 = inside radius of thread

ri

= inean

radius of thread, approximately

^= pitch

of thread;

a=mean

pitch angle,

i.e.,

tan

a=

n+r-i

= coefficient of friction between nut and thread;


=
^ angle of friction between nut and thread, i.e., tan ^ = /i.
/i

ist.

To

raise

W.

Consider IF as a free body moving uniformly up the incline

under the system of forces shown in Fig. 80, where

W = axial

Fig. 80.

Fig. 79.

load,

H the

the normal reaction between nut

and thread due

horizontal push forcing the nut up

the incline,

to

W,

and

the friction in direction of incline due to the normal pressure

F
R;

then, by the ordinary laws of mechanics,

R = W-^cosa,

(i)

F = jiW^cos

a,

(2)

+ 4>)

(3)

H=W
The turning moment M

ta.n

{a

= Hr = Wr\.a.n{a-\-(t>)

(4)

BOLTS /IND SCREIVS.


Since tan

a= P

and tan

<i>

27tT
,

tan (a
^

it

,,

^
,

+<i>)

= u,

while

tan a

=
I

117

+ tan S
^,

-tan a tan

9!)'

follows that

2d.

To

lower

M=Hr=Wri^^

(S)

H=W

(6)

W,
ia.n

{a-<f>)

M=Hr=Wr^-^^^The

(7)

foregoing has applied to square threads.

threads with

^=the angle

of the screw.

of

with a plane normal to the axis

The mean

(See Fig. 81.)

Consider

helix angle

= a:

as be-

FlG. 81.

fore,

but

angle

now R

slopes from

W in

two

in the one, as before, but also

T7 in a plane at right angles with the

For raising

i?

= TFsecQ:

i?

= /iTF sec a

directions,

making

first.

sec/?
sec

I?

making the

the angle

/?

with

Hence
(8)

(9)

load,

gr=TF/+^7^^^f
27trpfi sec p

(,,)
^
'

MACHINE DESIGN.

ii8

For lowering

load,

Hr = Wr p

27:r/j.

sec

88. Calculation for Screws

Returning now to
the eye-bolts

(a).

shown

As

,5

(II)

2nr-\-pix sec

/?'

Not Stressed in Screwing Up.

illustrations of

in Fig. 82.

this class consider

customary

It is

to neglect the

influence of the thread on the strength of the bolt,

and

to con-

sider as the effective area, A, to resist stress, only the area of a


circle

whose diameter equals the diameter of the

bottom of the thread.

In both cases considered a torsional

induced by screwing the engaging surfaces together,

stress is

but

these surfaces are a proper

if

bolt at the

particularly since

it

fit,

this stress is negligible,

exists only within the limits of the

engaging

threads where the action of the further working load which the
bolt bears does not

come

into play.

E3

TJ
\

T
Fig. 83.

Fig. 82.

The

the direction of

where

now subjected
axis, we have

eye-bolt being

/ is

its

to the

working load

in

the safe unit working stress for the material and con-

ditions.
If

J7

= ultimate

unit strength of the material, then,

if

the

BOLTS AND SCREIVS.


load

is

a constant, dead load,

good wrought iron or mild

materials.

for
10

may need to be much


The case shown in Fig.

shock

Here

(as will

a tensile stress in

due

If the load is

this.

83 must not be confused with the

by compressing

(&)

the force

B-B by

the other hand,

due

bolt

to the subsequent application of

we have
case

in the part

Combined
due

Fig. 78.

due

stress

to

may

working

The

results

{a).

of the

be not so great as

This

(b).

Screws Stressed in Screwing Up.

(6)

equal, or very greatly exceed, the tensile


forces.

Consider the example shown in

Suppose the nut screwed down so that the parts con-

yet been compressed.

will

=T

to the screwing up, then

nected by the bolt are held close together at

that the

than

tension and torsion are induced in a bolt by tighten-

The

it.

stress

of

of the

a resultant tension greater than T.

would come under

89. Calculation

ing

B-B

the tightening of the nut,

the extension in the part

the original compression of

be

between the

later be greater

below the nut, as in case


if

may

there

B-B

If the extension in the part

to the application of

in all sections of the bolt

for the

these materials, and in cases of

then the shoulder will leave B-B, and simple tension

On

and suddenly applied,

be explained under

the compression caused in

for

a variable one,

should not exceed

smaller than

A .induced

shoulder and the nut.


bolt

taken as great as

If the load is variable

should never exceed

preceding.

may be

steel.

slowly applied and removed,

same

119

E-F

wrench may be given another complete

move along

but have not

Suppose that the proportions are such


turn.

The nut

the direction of axis of the bolt a distance =/>.

parts held between the head and nut will be compressed

and the body

of the bolt will be extended.

MACHINE DESIGN.

120

The

(a distance

point B, or end of the wrench

the

force applied at

the axis) will range

from

beginning of the turn to a value

from a value

at the finish.

value of the turning force will be approximately

of o at the

The average

P
=.

This distance moved through by the point of application of


the force

is

2nl.

Hence

work done

the

in turning the nut a

turn under these conditions will be

full

2nl = Pnl

(12)

The

resistances

three in
ist.

2d.

overcome by

this application of

energy are

number:

The work done in extending the bolt.


The work done in overcoming the frictional

resistance

between nut and thread.


3d.

The work done

in

overcoming the

frictional resistance

between nut and washer.

These
ist.

will

Let

T'

be considered in order.

= the

final

screwing up one turn.


sion

= o. The

pure

tensile stress in the bolt

At the beginning

may be

average value

due

to

of the turn the ten-

considered

=T

for the

turn.

The

distance

moved through by

of this force in the direction of

The work done

its line

the point of application

of action, in one

turn= ^,

in extending the bolt

=7^
2d.

bolt
rials

The

frictional resistance

(^3)

between the threads of nut and

depends upon the form of the thread as well as the mateused and the condition of the surfaces. (See equations (2)

BOLTS AND SCREIVS.


and

V thread

Assuming a

(9), 87.)

121

more commonly

as being

used for fastenings, the average value of the friction

F = a2

sec

"^

a sec B
'

(eq. (9)

The

),

since the average load for the turn

distance

moved through by
on the

for one turn of the nut

work done

overcoming the

in

the one turn =

/j

sec a sec
T
=

3d.

The

ftp sec

T
'

=^

sec

^ cosec a

between nut and washer due to


.

which

between nut and washer.

The

this resistance

may be

(14)

Hence the

between bolt and nut in

in

will be

cosec a.

p cosec a

frictional resistance

a mean force
friction

/?

the point of application of

bolt

friction

u! is

the coefficient of

point of application of
3

taken at a distance of ri from the axis

of the bolt, Ti being the outside radius of bolt-thread.

tance

The

dis-

moved through by the point of application for one turn of


work done in overcoming this frictional

the nut = 2;rfri, and the


resistance

T
^-fi'Snn

Equating

(12) to the

Pt:1=

T
Tp+fip

sum

sec

(15)

of (13), (14),

and

(15), gives

T
sec

/?

cosec a+fj.'^7:ri,

MACHINE DESIGN.
whence
2PtzI

P+

fip

sec

a sec

/9

(i6)

+ //'3;rfi"

cosec a

jt=-j = Mrat stress in bolt due to pure tension.


In addition to this
is

it

must be borne

subjected to a torsional

mind

in

moment whose

in plan

view in Fig.

that the screw

value can be deter-

mined by considering the nut

shown

(17)

as a free

where

84,

body

all

as

of the

producing moments about the

forces capable of

axis of the nut are indicated as they exist at the

end of the turn.

Summing

moments about

the

the axis of the

bolt gives

Hr = Pl-fi'Tpi

Fig. 84.

Hr

is,

of course, the torsional

To

to the bolt.

T found in
The

moment

(18)

transmitted from the nut

find its numerical value substitute the value of

equation (16) and solve (18).

unit stress induced in the outer fibers of a rod of cir-

cular section

and radius

^2

= radius

at

bottom of thread)

is

found by means of the equation

h^-M.
J

is

the polar

moment

(19)

of inertia, in this case

= nr2^

c is

the dis-

tance from neutral axis to most strained fiber, in this case


fa is

the induced unit stress in outer fiber;

this case

= 2?r.

Combining equations

(18)

is

and

the

= ra

moment,

(19)

in

and sub-

stituting these values gives

2{Pl-fi'nri)

Ttti*

(20)

BOLTS AND SCREIVS.

The equivalent
of

and

jt

and

/g is

tensile unit stress

combined action

torsion,

90.
S.

Problem.

= o.35A+o.6sVA2+4/^2

What

is

(21)

the imit fiber stress induced in a

standard ^-inch bolt in screwing up the nut with a pull of

one poimd

at the

of parts as

shown

In this case di
/2

sec

end

of a

wrench 8 inches long ?

= .500

in.,

''i

= -40oin.,

r2

r=.225

in.,

^ = .077

in..

= -25

in.,

= .2 in.,
^ = .126 sq.

a = angle whose

tangent

a = 1.0015,

cosec

= 30,
P = i lb.,
From

Arrangement

in Fig. 78.

is

in.,

P =3

O h'
7

a = i8.39,

sec/? = i.i55,

/?

T=

to the

found from the equation for combined tension

U.

due

123

and

= 8ins.

equation (16)

2XiX7rX8
077 + .077X0.15X1.0015 XI. 155X18.39 + 0.15X3X7^X0.25

= 74.467

From

lbs.

equation (17),
74-467

^'="77^ = 591
From

,,

lbs.

equation (20),

'*

XfXo.25)
~ 2(1 X8-0.15X 74-467
3
.

;rXo.225

= 213

lbs.

MACHINE DESIGN.

124

From equation

(21),

= o-35X 591 +0-65^591^ + 4X213^

= 691.4
incli bolt

tions (16)
pull,

it

lbs.

one pound on an 8-incli wrench applied to a ^-

If a pull of

fiber stress of 691.4 lbs., since

can induce a unit

and

show

(20)

follows that a pull of 30 lbs., such as

by a workman,

equa-

that the stress increases directly as the


is

readily exerted

30X691.4 = 20,742

will induce a stress of

lbs.

per square inch.


91.
bolt

is

either

Wrench

Pull.

turning

If this

up be gradual and the

not subjected to working stresses, this would be safe for

wrought iron or mild

final turning

On

the other hand,

if

the

be done suddenly by means of a jerking motion or

a blow, or a long

wrench be used, or even an extra-strong grad-

ual pull be exerted, there

beyond the

steel.

is

evident danger of

elastic limit of the material,

having a value

even reaching the

ulti-

mate strength.
It will

be noticed also that the torsional action increases the

fiber stress over that

in this

due

tension in the ratio of


to pure
^

problem, an increase of over 17 per cent.

', i.e.,

S91

In general this

increase will be from 15 to 20 per cent, depending chiefly


the relation existing between

[i

and

fi'.

It

that the pure tension, T, induced in the bolt by the

may

moment PI

be taken as the measure of the pressure existing between

the surfaces

P=2,

lbs.,

E-F

(Fig. 78)

In our problem this pressure, for

would become 30X74.467=2234

lbs.

As a general rule the length of wrench used by the


is

upon

should also be noted

fifteen or sixteen times di, the

stated that

T^'j^P

diameter of bolt, and

for U. S. standard threads.

workman
it

may

be

BOLTS AND SCREIVS.


Bolts Subject to Elongation.

92. Calctilation of

sider the case

up with

Suppose that the nut

in Fig. 85.

working force

the bodies

A and B

at

is

What

value

joint

C-Dl

may Q have

Assume that Q
The question is,

without opening the

is

the cross-sectional area of the bolt

is

the original length between bolt-head

and nut when


contact at

C-D

and

Fig. 85.

are just in

but not compressed

due

screwing up;

To

is

the tensile stress in bolt

is

the total elongation of bolt due to To

is

the coeflBicient of elasticity of the bolt material.

screwed

tends to separate

C-D.

acts axially along the bolt.

A
L

Next con-

a resulting tensile stress in the bolt

= T.

shown

125

unit strain

Then, smce

'

;^. <.,^

unit stress

='^>
E'

it

L_

to

follows that

(i)

A
In any given case

this

Let A' be the area of


X' is

is

and

is

X.

compressed by the bolt action;


{i.e.,

shortening) of

and B,

to the tightening of the bolt

the total compressive stress which produces


.'.

E'

the total compression

due

Co

can be solved for

X';

Co = To-

the coefficient of elasticity of the material A, B.

Then

Xf^

Co ^E'A'

''-'

^^J

MACHINE DESIGN.

126

This can be solved for

Now

X'.

when a working force, Q, acts


A and B will just be ready

consider the condition

tending to elongate the bolt so that


to separate at

C-D.

In order that this separation

the bolt, already elongated

further

amount

an amount

X,

may

begin,

must be elongated a

X'.

For incipient separation the

total elongation of the bolt

= X-\-X', and the total stress in the bolt corresponding


= T', can be determined from the equation

then

to this

elongation,

X+X

'

(3)

'

Considering the bolt-head as a free body (Fig. 86),

ffnn

t^^t ^^^ forces acting on

it

any

at

the reaction of the material of

to compression; Q, the

-J.

FiG. 86.

sion in the bolt.

When

the bolt

T = To,

into action,

is

follows

instant will be, C,

due

to its resistance

working force; and T, the ten-

Hence

T=C+Q

and

it

first

(4)

screwed up, and

Q=o, then C = T,
When Q comes

the tension due to screwing up.

is

partly relieved,

and when

reaches such a

C=o and Q =
=
T T. (See equation (3) .)
An examination of these formulae shows certain facts which
may be stated as follows: The tightness of the joint C-D devalue that the surfaces, are about to part, then

pends upon the compressibility of

Anything which increases the


the tightness of the joint.

creasing

A and

B.

total compression,

This

may

or Co, or decreasing A'.

X',

increases

be accomplished by inIt

may

also be increased


BOLTS AND SCREIVS.
by the introduction

A and

of a highly elastic

body

127
{i.e.,

B.

when

It also follows that the tension in the bolt

about to open,

must be greater than

T',

screwing up, Tq, and therefore

if

to or less than To, there will be

general, A'

pared with
to

gasket) between

large

is

A,

the tension

so that T'

not

is

due

is

to

be limited to a value equal

no opening

compared with A, and

much

be sure of a tight joint the

the joint

of the joint.

k'

greater than Tq.

initial tension

In

very small com-

In order

should be taken

^0 = 2^.
93.

Problem

I.

Calculate the bolts for a

"blank" end for

a 6-inch pipe using flanged couplings with ground joints, and

no
is

gaskets, as

shown

in Fig. 87.

The

excess internal pressure

to be 150 lbs. per square inch.

The

area subjected to pressure has a diameter of

hence the total working pressure =150 X

The number

of bolts

is

-j

-=6627

7 J ins.;

lbs.

determined by the distance they

may

be spaced apart without danger of leakage due to the springing


of the flange between the bolts.

equal to four or

problem

five

may

be taken

times the thickness of the flange.

In the

under consideration, the diameter of the bolt circle will

be approximately 9

between

This distance

ins.,

and using

consecutive ones will be

fectly safe.

six bolts, the

about 4^

ins.,

chord length

which

is

per'

MACHINE DESIGN.

128

With

six bolts

^ 6627
^=1105
g=
Take

To

With a
is

direct tension of

also the stress

due

=2^ = 2210
2210

lbs.

to torsion.

lbs.

lbs.

due

screwing up, there

to

As stated

may

in 91, this

increase the fiber stress 20 per cent over that due to direct tension.

To

allow for this the bolts used must be capable of safely

sustaining a stress of 2210X1.20 = 2650 lbs.

The

allowable

irnit

stress here

may be

taken rather high,

since the conditions after once screwing up approximate a steady


load.

Assume

15,000

lbs.

The
be

bolts

steel

with an allowable unit stress

of

area of each bolt at the bottom of the thread will then

15000

=0.177

Select the latter with

a f-inch bolt.
exert an

This value

sq.
^ in.

initial

lies

between a A-inch and

an area of 0.202

sq. in.

tension of 2250 lbs. in a f-inch bolt

quire a pull of about 30 lbs. on a lo-inch wrench.

would
(See

To
re-

91.)

These values just about correspond to actual conditions in practice.

94.

Problem

II.

It

is

required to design the fastenings to

The opening
The maximum steamThe joint must be held

hold on the steam-chest cover of a steam-engine.


to

be covered

pressure

is

steam-tight.
sile

is

100

rectangular,
lbs.

io"Xi2".

per square inch.

Studs of machinery steel having an ultimate ten-

strength of 60,000

lbs.

per square inch will be used.

The total working pressure = loX 12 X 100= 12,000 lbs.


The number of studs to be used will be governed by the distance they may be spaced without springing of the cover. The
thickness of the latter being assumed to be | inch at the edge,
the spacing should not exceed

5"Xf" = \^",

say 4 inches.

BOLTS /IND SCREWS.

The opening

is

io"Xi2",

shown

as

129

in Fig. 88.

There must

be a band about f or f inch wide

around

this
for making the joint,
upon which the studs must not en-

This

croach.

makes

the

between

the

12 inches.

vertical

-M^

14 inches, and

horizontal rows

about

Twelve studs can be used

arranged as shown in the

if

The

_CL

distance

between the centers of the


rows of studs about

greatest distance, that

figure.

between

TT

the studs across the comers, will but

Fig.

slightly exceed the allowable 4 inches.

With

12 studs, the working load on each

To = 2Q = 2000
Allowing 20

2400

=Q=

12000
12

= 1000 lbs.

lbs.

per cent for torsional

stress, increase

this to

lbs.

Allowing a unit

stress of 15,000 lbs., as in

have as the area of the stud

at the

Problem

I,

we

= 0.160.

bottom of thread
15000

This corresponds to a A-inch stud.


readily stress a bolt of this size

ing too great a pull in tightening,

many

these studs to | inch or even f inch.


95.

Design of Bolts for Shock.

with a given total


of

its

stress

least cross-section.

Since a

workman may

beyond the elastic limit by exertdesigners would increase

The

elongation of a bolt

depends upon the length and area


Suppose, to

illustrate, that the bolt,

Fig. 89, has a reduced section over a length

as shown.

This

portion. A, has less cross-sectional area than the rest of the bolt,

and when any


will

tensile force is applied, the resulting

be greater in

tion, will

than elsewhere.

The

unit

stress

unit strain, or elonga-

be proportionately greater up to the

elastic limit;

and

MACHINE DESIGN.

130
if

the elastic limit

is

exceeded in the portion A, the elongation

there will be far greater than elsewhere.

and the

ence of area

bolt

is

elongation will be

the

ture,

If there is

much

differ-

tested to rupchiefly

at

A.

There would be a certain elongation per

INCH

of

Hence the greater

rupture.

at

the length of A, the greater the total elongaIf the

tion of the bolt.

minimum

section

would

be at the root of the screw-threads.

The

reduced at A, the

FiQ. 89.

Fig. go.

axial

length of

section

this

Hence the elongation at rupture would be small.

are two bolts,

B without

with and

are alike in other respects.

They

vided into force

The space
greater in

and space

the reduced section.

They

This energy

by the resistance of the

is

di-

bolts.

This

is

than in B, because of the yielding of the reduced

in both bolts,

=-E;

section

for

is less

breaking

than the

very small.

Suppose there

factor equals the elongation of the bolt.

But the product

section.

factors

is

are subjected to equal tensile

Let the energy of the shock = .

shocks.

had not been

bolt

of force

and space

factors

is

the

same

minimum
in A may be less
stress in B may

hence the resulting stress in the


than for B.
stress,

The

stress

while the greater

it.
The capacity of the bolt to resist shock is
THEREFORE INCREASED BY LENGTHENING ITS MINIMUM SECTION TO INCREASE THE YIELDING AND REDUCE STRESS. This is

break

not only true of bolts, but of all stress

The whole body


shown by

of the bolt might

it

which

to resist torsion
is

moments
is

in machines.

have been reduced, as

the dotted lines in Fig. 89, with resulting increase of

capacity to resist shock.


ens

members

most

and

effective in

Turning down a
flexure,

because

it

bolt,

however, weak-

takes off the material

producing large polar and rectangular

of inertia of cross-section.

If the cross-sectional area

reduced by drilling a hole, as shown in Fig. 90, the torsional

BOLTS AND SCREWS.

and transverse strength

is

131

but slightly decreased, but the elon-

gation will be as great with the same area as

if

the area had

been reduced by turning down.


Professor Sweet had a set of bolts prepared for special

The bolts were ij inches diameter and


They were made of high-grade wrought

test.

about 12 inches long.

and were dupli-

iron,

cates of the bolts used at the crank end of the connecting-rod

of one of the standard sizes of the Straight-line Engine.

of the bolts were


drilled to give

The

tests

left solid,

Half

while the other half were carefully

them uniform

cross-sectional area throughout.

were made under the direction of Professor Carpenter

One

at the Sibley College Laboratory.

by

to rupture

pair of bolts

tensile force gradually applied.

was tested

The

undrilled

bolt broke in the thread with a total elongation of 0.25 inch.

The

drilled bolt

broke between the thread and the bolt-head

with a total elongation of 2.25 inches.


the

mean

force applied

was the same

If

that the total resilience of the drilled bolt

as that of the solid one.


tensile

"Drop

shock to bear upon the

pairs of bolts,

which tended

96. Problem.

It is

tests,"

bolts,

it

be assumed that

in both cases,

it

follows

was nine times

as great

i.e., tests

which brought

were made on other similar

to confirm the general conclusion.

required to design proper fastenings for

holding on the cap of a connecttag-rod like that shown in Fig.


91.

These fastenings are required

tain shocks,

maximum

to sus-

and may be subjected

to a

accidental stress of 20,000 lbs.

There are two

fastenings,

and

therefore

each must be capable of sustaining safely

They should be
much as is consistent

stress of 10,000 lbs.

designed to yield as

*-[TtK

with strength; in other words, they should


^^'

be tensile springs to cushion shocks, and


thereby reduce the resulting force they have to sustain.
'

Bolts

MACHINE DESIGN.

132

should therefore be used, and the weakest section should be

made

tensile strength
is

Wrought

as long as possible.

50,000

is

maximum

the

The

per square inch.

and

is

stress given

four times the working

therefore, necessary to give the bolts great

It is not,

stress.

lbs.

accidental stress,

used whose

iron will be

excess of strength over that necessary to resist actual rupture

by the accidental
keep the

will

Then the
it

fiber

stress

10,000X2=20,000

20,000^50,000 = 0.4

diameter of 0.71 inch, and that

The

be used.

cross-sectional

must now be made


This

thread.

may

97. Jam-nuts.

tion there

ways

is

set

then

up

Two

up against

while this

and

it

is

equal

nearly the diameter of a


;

area of

hence |-inch bolts will


the

body

the bolt

of

bottom of the

be accomplished by drilling.

^When bolts are

subjected to constant vibra-

There are many

a tendency for the nuts to loosen.

is

against

This area

at least as small as that at the

to prevent this, but the

jam-nuts.

is

bottom of the thread

|-inch bolt at the

lbs.

must be such that

This area corresponds to a

in.

sq.

This

2.

within the elastic limit.

cross-sectional area of each bolt

will just sustain

to

Let the factor of safety be

force.

maximum

most common one

is

by the use of

nuts are screwed on the bolt; the under one


the surface of the part to be held in place,

nut

is

held with a wrench the other nut

Suppose that the bolt has

tightly.

that the nuts are screwed on the

its

screwed

axis vertical

The nuts being

upper end.

screwed against each other, the upper one has

is

its

internal screw

surfaces forced against the under screw surfaces of the bolt,


if

there

is

any

lost

and

motion, as there ahnost always

and

there will

is,

be no contact between the upper surfaces of the screw on the


bolt

and the threads

of the nut.

Just the reverse

is

true of the

no contact between the under surfaces


of the threads on the bolt and the threads on the nut.
Therefore no pressure that comes from the under side of the under

under nut;

i.e.,

there

is

nut can be communicated

to the bolt

through the under nut

I33

BOLTS yiND SCREIVS.


but

directly,

it

municated by

it

must be received by the upper nut and comto the bolt, since

it is

the upper nut alone that

has contact with the under surfaces of the thread.


the jam-nut, which

is

usually

made about

Therefore

half as thick as the

other, should always be put on next to the surface of the piece


to

be held in place.
98. Calculation

(c)

Screws for Transmission of Power.

Screws are frequently used

press

same

The
(See

common

is

power.

to transmit

screw-

example, while the action of spiral gears,

worms and

including
the

of

wheels,

that of screws

is

and subject

to

analysis.

general action of screw and nut has already been treated.

87.)

With a square-thread screw

Pl=M,

it

was found

W,

to raise a load
required
^

'

will

that the

moment

h&=Wr2Kr

p/x

(k)
^-^

(page 171).

This will induce a fiber

stress

(see equation (19)

which must be combined with the tension,


get the actual unit stress,

Let

w=number

/,

ft

=-7-, in order to

remembering

= -35h + -6s^+4f^

of

complete

thread

(21)

surfaces

in

between the nut and screw, and the projected area

n- (di^ d^)

),

to bear the load

contact

equals

W.

W=Kn-{dx^-d^),
4

where

is

thread area.

the allowable pressure per square inch of projected

M/ICHINE DESIGN.

134

For nuts and

= 2'^oo

bolts

lbs. for

which are used as fastenings we

may

take

wrought or cast iron running on the same

material or on bronze

K = 2,000 lbs. for steel on steel or bronze.


With good

lubrication,

transmit power,

we may

where the screw and nut are used to

take the values given in the following

table

Table

VII.
Value of K.

Rubbing Speed

in Feet

per Minute.
Iron.

50 or
100
150
25
400

less,

2500

Steel.

BOLTS AND SCREIVS.

Wp^.

which becomes for one tum =

Wp
From

this

W tan a

27rr

2nrH
it

13S

"Pftan

appears that

(ct

tan

becomes

^tan (a + ^)'

^i))

a7v=tan a

tan

Taking the

-,

tan

(a-\-<p)

first differential

cot (a
cos^

tan
sin^

(0:

for

value between

,.

cot (a

+ w.
^

and equating

+ ^)

*-^^^

a=o and

o, for

a =90 ^, and must therefore have a maximum


these limits.
To determine this maximum, write
:

"

to o,

+ ^)

Solving which gives


^

To

find the corresponding value of

tan(45-t)

e,

write (from (22)

_tan(45-f)

max. e =

tan^4S-7+^)

To

lower

^^""(^S^+f)

W with a square-threaded screw,


Pl=Hr=w/-^^-^

[The value of

/,

can be found from

(23)

this, as

section on raising W, and combined with

jt

explained in the

to obtain

/.]

^36

MACHINE DESIGN.
Regarding the

\l

a<
a=

if

if

efficiency in this case,

<j>

the load will not sink of

(j)

we have a

>9!>

the load will sink of itself

For a screw which


the limiting value of

tan
tan

The

(a;

tan

+ (^)

tan

efficiency of

it

becomes evident that

^ and the maximum

is

overhaul).

{i.e.,

will not overhaul

overhaul),

itself {i.e.,

condition of equilibrium,

i tan^

4>

2^

efficiency

24>

a screw which will not overhaul can there-

fore never exceed 0.5 or 50 per cent.

For

threads, with

/?

= angle

of V, with a plane

normal

to

the axis of the screw for raising load,

2iirpii sec

which

is

evidently greater than (5),

tan a

which

is

and

a (i /i tan a

tan

+ fisQC

sec

(9)

'

'

'

evidently less than e for square threads.

'

'

(See equa-

tion (22).)
It is clear, then, that

erence to

V threads

square threads should be used in pref-

for screws for

For lowering the load with

power transmission.

threads

Pl=Hr = Wr ^-Z'"""i
27zr + pij.sec

(26)
^
'

,3

99, Problem.

Design

a screw to raise 20,000

screw must not overhaul.

What moment need be

exerted to

lift

the load ?

lbs.

The

BOLTS AND SCREIVS.

What

be the

will

efficiency of the

I37

screw ?

Select a square-thread screw of machinery steel running in

a bronze nut.

For a screw which

will not overhaul

.'.

To
good

tan

a<

a must be

(j).

ft.

be safe against overhauling with the materials used and

lubrication,

The pure

must not be given a greater value than

fi

a < 5^45'

.-.

tension

= 20,000

and

lbs.

<^

= W.

/=

o.io.

= 545'-

In the preliminary calcu-

lations, to allow for the effect of torsion, this will

so that

than

less

be increased

25000
-J

In this equation

square inch, and

/ is

is

the allowable unit stress in pounds per

the area of the screw at the bottom of the

thread in square inches.

Assume that

screw

this

is

frequently loaded and unloaded,

to shocks nor reversal of stress so that

and not subject

square inch for mild


12,000 lbs. per
^
^

steel.

'

2.08 sq. ins.

This corresponds

Then A =

25000
=
12000

to a diameter of if inches at

bottom of thread.

From

tan a

= P we
,

have

27cr

p = 27:r tan

Remembering

and

that r2

a.

that for square threads the depth of the thread


is

the radius at the bottom of thread, and

r=r2 + ,
4

it

follows that

M/iCHINE DESIGN.

138

P\ tan

p = 27:\r2-\
2;r

a,

tan a

p = 2nr2 tan a,

4
27:^2

p=

tan a
.

tan

.'.

This

is

2X7rXo.8i2SXo.i
77
i-i. 57X0.1

^p =

^ ^
= .606

inch.

not a thread to be easily cut in the lathe.

It

would

be desirable to modify the value of p so that the thread can be


readily cut.

obvious that p cannot be increased without

It is

increasing r proportionately, else

than

The

allowable.

is

It

will

will

have a greater value

be more economical to reduce

p.

nearest even value would be J inch, and this will be selected.

Check

this for strength:

^2 = 1-62 5
<ii = 2.125
= 1.875
4^

inches,

>"2

=0.8125 inch,

inches,

ri

= 1.0625

safe, as

it is

From equation

inch.

inches,

0.5
P

= 0.087,
a=^=
^/
2X71X0.9375
27ir

is

= 0.5

r =0.9375 inch,

inches,

tan

which

j^

less

(5),

^^

than the value of

//

= o.io.

the moment,

2Tzr.pfi

.'.

o. 5

+ 2X 7rXo.9375Xo.io
^

T,i
..
7-
= 2ooooXo.93757
P/

-^

-^

^^'^(2X7:Xo.9375) -(0.5X0.10)

= 3496

in.-lbs.

BOLTS AND SCREWS.

From

equation (19), the fiber stress due to torsion,


2PI

cPl

2X3496
5=4140
h = 77X0.81253
~r.
a
^ ^
,

'

From equation

From

lbs.

/.

Jr-

due

to tension,

per square inch.

lbs.

equation (21), the combined


/=o.35/,

stress,

+ o.6s\//(2 + 4//.

/=o.35X9S97+o.65\/95972+4X4i4o2

= 12,379

per square inch,

lbs.

near enough 12,000 to be considered safe.

is

The

u
per square inch.

lU

(17), the unit stress

20000
vv
f'=A^ = ^^^9597

which

139

efl&ciency,

from equation

(22),

tan a

e=;

tan (a

<f>)'

a = 0.087,
= S=
tan
^=0.10,
/4
^ = 5 45'.

Since tan
Since

.'.

The

a + ^ = io

height of the nut

45',

is

tan 10 45' = 0.1899.

determined from the equation

W=Kn-(di^-d^),

I40
in

M/l CHINE DESIGN.

which

is

the load,

the

the nut, di the outside and

is

<^2

number

of complete threads in

the inside diameter of thread,

the allowable pressure in pounds per square inch,

value depends

upon the

Assuming the screw


50 feet per minute,

speed.
to

have a rubbing velocity of

K = 3000.

20000

3000X0.7854(2.1252-1.6252)

= 4.5,
The

less

Then

n=^2\
^r^2
3000
(ai-^ ^2 }

and

its

See table on page 134.

nearly.

height of nut = ^X = J"X4.5"

= 2j".

than

CHAPTER

IX.

MEANS FOR PREVENTING RELATIVE ROTATION.


100. Classification of Keys.

Keys

are chiefly used to pre-

vent relative rotation between shafts and the pulleys, gears,

Keys may be divided

which they support.

etc.,

into parallel keys,

taper keys, disk keys, and feathers or splines.


loi. Parallel Keys.
in the shaft

For a parallel key the

and the attached

key simply prevents

"seat," both,

and the

part, has parallel sides,

Motion

relative rotary motion.

parallel to

must be prevented by some other means,


by set-screws which bear upon the top surface of the key, as

the axis of the shaft

as

shown
sides

in Fig. 92.

and

parallel key should

loosely at the top

(IX) for dimensions for parallel keys


of

is

accurately on the

fit

The

and bottom.

following table

from Richards's "Manual

Machine Construction."
Table IX.

^i ^f
^iAAiiMMMAH

Diameter of shaft = d = I
=w=
Width of key
=< =
Height of key

ij

li

Excellent parallel keys are

1}

2J

Si

made from

cold-rolled steel with-

out need of any machining.


102.
its

Taper Keys.

A taper

key has

top and bottom surfaces tapered, and

parallel sides

made

is

four surfaces, being driven tightly "home."


tive

It

to

key," because

it

is

shown

in Fig. 93,

it is

fit

on

all

prevents rela-

motion of any kind between the parts connected.

of this kind has a head, as

and has

If a

called a

key

"draw

drawn out when necessary by driving a


141

MACHINE DESIGN.

142

wedge between
key.

When

the

hub

of the attached part

a taper key has no head

it is

and the head

of the

removed by driving

against the point with a "key-drift."

John Richards's
such value that
as

shown by

"Manual

of

Fig. 94.

Fig. 93.

Fig. 92.

rule for keys

a = 30-

is

This rule

the following table

(see Fig. 94)


is

w =-.

has

deviated from somewhat,

(X) taken from Richards's

Machine Construction," page

58:

MEANS FOR PREVENTING RELATIVE ROTATION.


inch,

and

the parts

is

143

Where

the nominal diameter of shaft in inches.

do not have

to

better to use a driving

be taken apart frepuently,

fit, i.e.,

it

is

vastly

hub smaller than

to bore out the

D
+ 0.5
the diameter of the shaft by an

amount

A=

and

1000

to use

parallel keys.

Where a single taper key is used the effect


wheel and shaft eccentric, as can be seen in Fig.
ing

is

limited to two points, A, B,

to

is

95.

and the connection

make the
The bearis

unstable

for the transmission of power.

Fig. 96.

Fig. 95.

If great care

exactly the

is

same

arises in that the


to the shaft-axis.

not exercised in having the taper of keyway


as the taper of the keys, a further difficulty

wheel

will be canted out of a true

This can be seen

normal plane

in Fig. 96.

using two keys, placed a quarter or third of the circumobtained, as it


ference apart, a much more stable connection is

By

will give three points of bearing.

Eccentricity

is

A, B, and C.

<See Fig. 97.)

not avoided by this method.

Another method

is

that

shown

in Fig. 98.

Here the hub

is

a bushing B is
bored out somewhat larger than the shaft and
diameter
outside
its
has
used opposite the key. This bushing
diameter exactly
the diameter of the bore, and its inner
exactly

M/ICHINE DESIGN.

144

the diameter of the shaft,

half the shaft.

When

and

the key

it

surrounds slightly
driven

is

home

less

than

this insures the

Fig. 98.

Fig. 97.

wheel and shaft being concentric, but extra care must be taken
that

key and keyway have precisely the same taper.

Three

keys uniformly spaced around the shaft also give a means of

making

the wheel

and

This method

shaft concentric.

is

rarely

used.
104.
is

Woodruff Keys.

The Woodruff or disk system of keys

used by some manufacturers.

be seen

in Fig. 99.

Under

gitudinally in the shaft

this

by means

The key

is

a half disk, as can

system the keyway

is

ter corresponds in thickness to the key to be inserted,

Fig. 99.

it is

in the hub.

to the length of the key.

sunk into the shaft as far as

sufficient projection of the

keyway

and

is

of

Fig. 100.

a diameter corresponding
being semicircular,

cut lon-

This cut-

of a milling-cutter.

key above the surface

to

The key
will

allow

engage the

MEANS FOR PREVENTING RELATIVE ROTATION.


Owing
so that

to

peculiar shape the key

its

vided the key-seat in the hub

is

be slightly inclined,

wheel on a vertical

will serve to support the

it

may

made

I4S

shaft, pro-

tapering and of the proper

depth.
105. Saddle

keys on

and Flat Keys.

fiats (Fig. 100,

power

the holding

of

Saddle

They have not

sunk keys.

Sunk Keys.

105. Strength of

keys (Fig. 100, A) and

B) are used occasionally.

The strength of the


A

the measure of their holding power.

latter is

key of width =w, thick-

ness =i, length =/, unit shearing strength =/s, and unit crushing
resistance

/<,

ing resistance

will

resist will

a crush-

/cj//.

= radius

If r

= /^w/ and

have a shearing strength

of the shaft, the

moment which

be measuifed by rwljs or

^rtlj^,

the key can

whichever

is

smaller

in value.

All dimensions
in

being expressed in inches and resistance

pounds per square

expressed

inch, the

in inch-pounds.

moments

Lanza

indicate that the ultimate value for

30,000

lbs., for

steel

= 60,000

wrought iron = 40,000

lbs.

factor of

lbs.,

/g

and

course, be

of

will,

Experiments made

by Professor

for cast iron

for

machinery

would be advis-

safety of 2

able with these values.


106. Feathers or Splines are keys that prevent relative rotation,

but purposely allow axial motion.

made

fast in the shaft, as in Fig. loi,

They

and there

in the attached part that slides along the shaft.

feather

is

fastened in the

in Fig. 102,
It is

hub

is

a key

of the attached part, as

slides in a long

keyway

"way"

Sometimes the

shown

in the shaft.

frequently undesirable to have the feather loose.

such cases

The

and

are sometimes

keys

it is

common

may be

to use tit-keys as

fastened to either

hub

In

in Fig. 103.

or shaft.

The

tits

Corresponding holes are drilled

are forged on

the

and countersunk

in the piece to

keys.

shown

which the key

is

to

be fastened.

MACHINE DESIGN.

146

and

key

after the

placed in position the ends of the

is

riveted over to hold

securely in place.

it

Fig. 102.

Fig. ioi.

Machine screws are sometimes used


they suffer

from the disadvantage

satisfactory

are

tits

way

in place of

tits,

but

of jarring loose.

key in a hub

of holding a

is

shown

in

Fig. 104.

Where

the end of a stud

venient form of key

is

The

ing-cutter,
is

and

dovetailed key-seat
is

made

in place the shaft

For

shown

in Fig. 105 in cross-

Fig. 104.

FlG. 103.

section.

to receive change-gears a con-

is

the dovetail

is

a tight

fit

Fig. 105.

generally cut with a mill-

is

After the latter

for the key.

calked against

it

at

A-A.

feathers, Richards gives:

Table XI.
if
w

A
A

2i
f
i

2j
I
i

3}

3
i

4l

MEANS FOR PRESENTING RELATIVE ROTATION.

For

Round Taper Keys.

107.

147

keying hand-wheels and

other parts that are not subjected to very great stress, a cheap

and

satisfactory

method

is

to use a

round taper key driven

into a hole drilled in the joint, as in Fig. 106.

are of different material, one

such case to make the


it

much

method should not be used,

this

as

If the

two parts

harder than the other,

it

is

almost impossible in

follow the joint. For these keys


customary to use Morse standard tapers, as reamers are

is

drill

then readily obtainable.


I

'^

Fig. 106.

108.

Cotter

Fig. 107.

is

a key that

is

used to attach parts that are

subjected to a force of tension or compression tending to sepa-

Thus

rate them.

piston-rods are often connected to both pis-

ton and cross-head in this way.

pump-rods,
Fig. 107
ters.

It is

ter at

AB

etc.

shows machine parts held against tension by cotseen that the joint may yield by shearing the cot-

and CD; or by shearing

ing on the surfaces

MO

and

rod on a horizontal section at

be

may

usually

get

LM

if

and ARS; by shear-

maximum

stress safely.

strong enough in tension;

The
but

be accomplished by making the rod larger

or the cotter thinner and wider.


faces

CPQ

LN; or by tensile rupture of the


LM. AD of these sections should

sufficiently large to resist the

difficulty is usually to

this

Also the sections of long

It

is

found that taper sur-

they be smooth and somewhat oily will just cease to

stick together

when

the taper equals 1.5 inches per foot.

The

^
:

MACHINE DESIGN.

148

taper of the rod in Fig. 107 should be about this value in order
it may be removed
From consideration

conveniently

that

where a taper

cotter

when necessary

of the laws of friction

is

obvious that

it is

used, either alone as in Fig. 108 or in

connection with a gib as in Fig. 109, the angle of taper a must


not exceed the friction angle
friction be

or

then

ji,

/<

= tan

<j>

That

4>.

Since, for oily metallic surfaces,

IX.

as low as 0.08,

it

if

is,

the coefficient of

and tan a must be

follows that

less

than tan

may have

a must not exceed

4^.

<j>

a value
If

both

surfaces of the cotter slope with reference to the line of action


of

the force,

exceed

the total

angle of the sloping sides must

not

9.

Fro. 108.

Fig. 109.

109. Set-screws (see 86, p. 113) are frequently used to pre-

They

vent relative rotation.

are inadvisable for heavy duty.

Experiments made by Professor Lanza* with f-inch wroughtiron set-screws, ten threads to the inch
pull

of

75

lbs.

at

the

end of

and tightened with a

lo-inch

wrench,

gave the

following results

Table XII.
Kind

Holding Power at

End.

Surface of Shaft.

Ends perfectly flat, ^ inch diameter.


Rounded ends, radius J inch diameter.
Rounded ends, radius J inch diameter.
.

Average 2064

Cup-shaped and case hardened


* Trans. A.

S.

M.

E., Vol.

"
"
"
X.

lbs.

2573

"
"

2470

"

2912

MEANS FOR PRE {RENTING


no. Shrink and Force
machine parts

and

force

is

fits.

Fits.

Relative

it

may be

The

coefficient

linear

of

0.0000065

is

key

For proper allowances

addition to this.

Fahrenheit

and the metal surround-

it,

put on the shaft, and on cooling

shrinks and " grips " the shaft.

table.

between

heated, usually to low redness, and because of

is

the expansion

rotation

ako prevented sometimes by means of shrink


In the former the shaft is made larger than

the hole in the part to be held upon

ing the hole

I49

RELATI^'E ROTATION.

Low

0.0000062 for cast iron.

sometimes used in

accompanying

see the

expansion for

wrought

for

is

it

iron

each degree

and

and

steel

redness corresponds to about

600 F. and therefore causes an expansion of the bore of about


0.004 iiich per inch of diameter.

Force

fits

are

made

same way except

in the

that they are

put together cold, either by driving together with a heavy sledge


or by forcing together by hydraulic pressure.

allowance,
the hole,

Mr.

is

i.e.,

The

necessary

excess of shaft diameter over the diameter of

given in the following table (XIII), compiled by

H. Moore.*

S.

Column

I gives

values of "pressure factors" which are

be used in connection with forced

fits

to

to determine the pressure

necessary to force the machinery steel shaft into the cast-iron

The formula

hub.

to be

used

is

Area of
Pressure

""n

surface of

tons =-

difference
fit

dia.

be-

using this table for forced

smooth

in

plug and bore

tween

as possible;

be well lubricated.

if

fits

the surfaces should be as

they are ground

it is

best.

Mr. Moore recommends

They should

linseed-oil for this

purpose.

Compared with average

practice the forcing-fit allowances of

* Trans. A. S.

M.

E., Vol.

XXIV.

15

M/ICHINE DESIGN.
Table

Pressure

XIII.

Data Relative to

Fits

and Fitting.

MEANS FOR PRESENTING RELATIVE ROTATION.


shrinkage or forced

to

lacking.

inner

close

fits,

completely satisfactory data are

approximation to the probable tension

hubthe

layer of

one next the shaftmay be

by considering the hub as a thick cylinder under

/i

=unit

stress in

pounds per square inch

To

inch;

determine the probable value of Pi we

follows:

Knowing

may

between

maximum

the

may

/ area of surface of

fit

X^ X PF\

be presumed to be the resistance offered by friction


the

surfaces.

Assuming the

10, the total pressure

coefficient

between the surfaces

Reducing

great as the forcing pressure.

pressure^per square inch, or the value of


:. pi

112. Problem.

long

is

will

to be forced

made

proceed as

pressure in tons,

is

^A

hub

of

friction

ten times as

this total pressure to

pounds, and dividing by the area of surface of

be

made

internal pres-

in inner layer;

= internal pressure in pounds per square


ri = internal radius of hub in inches;
^2 = external radius of hub in inches.

/i

=0

in the

Then *

sure.

this

151

fit,

gives the

pi.

= io,oooAxPF.
7 J inches in

on a 5-inch

shaft.

diameter and 8 inches

What

in difference of diameter of bore

be the necessary forcing pressure ?

stress in the inner fibers of the

allowance should

and

What

shaft

will

hub ?

* Ewing's "Strength of Materials," p. 210.

What

be the tensile

MACHINE DESIGN.

152

the table the forcing-fit allowance for a 5-ihch nominal

From
diameter

The

is

0.0105"

""^

forcing pressure in tons

(5X;rX8)X(o.oio5)X9i
59-13.

since the table gives us

The

PF = gi

for this case.

internal pressure

;^i

= 10,000X0.0105X91 =9555

lbs.

per square inch,

= -^ii^^^
^Y^-^ =24,811

lbs.

per square inch.

and
/i

This

is

a dangerous value for cast iron and points to a greater

hub or a smaller fit allowance. The rough


to make he outside diameter of hub equal

outside diameter of
rule of practice

twice

the

is

diameter of the shaft for cast-iron

would reduce

/i

to 17,500 lbs., about.

hub but only one


12,405

lbs.

half

he

tabular

hubs.

This

Or, using the original


allowance,

/i

becomes

CHAPTER

X.

SLIDING SURFACES.
General

113.

Discussion.

So

much

of

accuracy

the

motion of machines depends on the sliding surfaces that


design deserves the most careful attention.

The

of

their

perfection of

the cross-sectional outline of the cylindrical or conical forms

produced

in the lathe

spindle.

But the perfection

depends on the perfection of form of the


of the outlines of a section through

the axis depends on the accuracy of the sliding surfaces.


of the surfaces produced

duced by milling-machines, are dependent


sliding surfaces in the

for accuracy

on the

machine.

Fig. 110.

Fig.

by Conditions

114. Proportions Dictated

that the short block A, Fig.


chain,

and

that

it

slides

no,

is

and

and

Wear.

slider

at the

and the guide

extreme positions,

due to the weight of the

Suppose

the slider of a slider-crank

is

as indicated

are the extreme positions of the slider.

between the

of

hi.

on a relatively long guide D.

direction of rotation of the crank a

All

by planers, and most of those pro-

slider.

is

The

by the arrow.

The

pressure

greatest at the mid-position,

and C,

it is

onjy the pressure

Also the velocity

is

maximum
153

M/ICHINE DESIGN.

'54

when

the slider

ends, becoming zero

work

of friction

and decreases towards the

in its mid-position,

is

is

when

the crank a

on

is

its

The

center.

therefore greatest at the middle,

and

is

very

Therefore the wear would be the greatest

small near the ends.

and the guide would wear concave. If now the


a machine's working depends on the perfection

at the middle,

accuracy of

of ^'s rectilinear motion, that accuracy will be destroyed as the

guide
Ill,

and

to

wear

after

when

position

and D.
it

Fig. 1X2.

EFG,

it

If this gib

has occurred,
is

Suppose that

wear.

gib,

to be attached to

A, Fig.

engage with D, as shown, to prevent vertical loose-

ness between
for

Suppose a

wears.

it

be taken up to compensate

will

tight at the ends,

and

Then when A

is

are

be loose in the middle

because of the unequal

made

of equal length, as in

in the mid-position corresponding

WZZTTX..
Fig. 112.

to

maximum

throughout

same

its

entire surface,

in all parts of the surface.

of rectilinear

gib

pressure, velocity,

may

and wear,

it is

and the wear

The

in contact with
is

therefore the

slider retains its

accuracy

motion regardless of the amount of wear;

be set up, and will be equally tight in

sn

IZO,

the

all positions.

Fig. 113.

If

A and

B, Fig. 113, are the extreme positions of a slider,

being the guide, a shoulder would be finally worn at C.

would

be better to cut

away

the material of the guide,

as

It

shown

SLIDING SURFACES.

155

"wipe over" the ends

by the dotted

line.

Slides should always

of the guide

when

it

Sometimes

possible.

is

to vary the length of stroke of a sHder,

position

relatively

of slotting-

the

to

come

the slide

if

design

and guide

such that when

is

of the cutter-bar that


the guide

may

are

it is

its

"Cutter-bars"

wear shoulders
This

itself.

made

in the

difficulty is over-

of equal length,

and the

necessary to change the position

attached to the

is

necessary

In some of these positions

therefore, to

guide and also in the cutter-bar

is

also to change

Examples:

guide.

and shaping-machines.

wiU be a tendency,

there

and

it

slide, the

position of

be also changed so that the relative position of

sUde and guide remains the same.

The

slider surface will then

just completely cover the surface of the guide in the mid-position,

and the

slider will

wipe over each end of the guide whatever

the length of the stroke.

many

In

cases

it is

impossible to

Thus a

of equal length.

make

the slider

and guide

lathe-carriage cannot be as long as the

bed, a planer-table cannot be as long as the planer-bed, nor a

planer-saddle as long as the cross-head.

When

these condi-

tions exist especial care should be given to the following:

The

I.

bearing surface should be

made

so large in

pro-

portion to the pressure to be sustained that the maintenance


of lubrication shall be insured

The

II.

made

imder

all conditions.

parts which carry the wearing surfaces should be

so rigid that there shall be no possibility of the localiza-

tion of pressure
113.

Form

from yielding.

of Guides.

As

to form, guides

angular guides and

may be

guides.

divided

Fig. 114, a,

into two classes:


shows an angular guide, the pressure being applied as shown.
The advantage of this form is, that as the rubbing surfaces

wear, the slide follows

and
sure

lateral wear.
is

The

down and

flat

takes

up both the

objection to this form

is

vertical

that the pres-

not applied at right angles to the wearing surfaces, as

MACHINE DESIGN.

156
it

is

shown

in the flat guide

vided to take

up the

in

But

b.

lateral wear.

in

The

a gib must be pro-

b,

gib

is

either a

Guides

or a strip with parallel sides backed up by screws.

The weight of the

of these forms are used for planer-tables.

table itself holds the surfaces in contact,

the tendency of a "heavy side cut


of the angular surfaces

table

very heavy, however, there

is

and

would

if

the table

is little

the other.

danger of

hence the angular guides of large planers are


than those of smaller ones.
of

a planer-table

is

wear

is

may

A-.

if

If the

this,

much

and

flatter

is

flat.

The

side

then be omitted, as the lateral

taken up by the angular guide.

undoubtedly good

light

In some cases one of the guides

angular and the other

bearings of the flat guide

is

be to force the table

away from

up one

wedge

This arrangement

both guides wear down equally

fast.

is

SLIDING SURFACES.
like the

wedge

one shown.

gib,

This form

as the bearing

is

is

157

not so satisfactory as the

under the points of the

chiefly

screws, the gib being thin and yielding, whereas in the wedge
there

complete contact between the metallic surfaces.

is

The

sliding surfaces thus far considered have to be designed

so that there will be no lost motion while they are moving,

because they are required to move while the machine

The

operation.

gibs have to be carefully designed

moving part

rately set so that the

loose ";

i.e.,

to interfere

so that

it

shall be just

move, without

shall be free to

is

in

and accu-

" tight and


lost

motion

with the accurate action of the machine.

There

however, another class of sliding parts, like the sliding-

is,

head of a

drill-press, or the tailstock of a lathe, that are

required to

move while

the machine

is

in operation.

never

It is

only

required that they shall be capable of being fastened accu-

movement being simply to


work while the machine
necessary and no accuracy of motion

rately in a required position, their

readjust

them

is

at

is

required.

ion
to

rest.

to other conditions of

No
It

accurate

is

gib
is

is

simply necessary to insure that their posi-

when

they are clamped for the special work

be done.
116. Lubrication.

The

question of strength rarely enters

into the determination of the dimensions of sliding surfaces;

these are determined rather by considerations of minimizing

wear and maintaining

lubrication.

separates the surfaces, wear

is

As long

as a film of oil

reduced to a minimum.

The

allowable pressure between the surfaces without destruction


of the

make
of

film

of

this clear,

lubricant varies with several conditions.

suppose a drop of

oil to

an accurately finished surface plate

mation

to a plane surface as

{i.e.,

as close

can be produced)

exactly similar plate to be placed

upon

To

be put into the middle

it

for

an approxi-

suppose another

an instant;

the

oil-drop will be spread out because of the force due to the weight

MACHINE DESIGN.

158

Had

of the upper plate.

been spread out more.


a longer time, the

oil

the plate been heavier

would be

weight and the time were

if its

it

would have

plate were allowed to remain

If the

still

and

further spread out,

would

sufficient, the oil

finally

be squeezed entirely out from between the plates, and the

The squeezing

metal surfaces would come into contact.


of the

oil

is,

therefore, a function of the time as

out

well as of

pressure.
If the surfaces

removal of the

under pressure move over each other, the

oil is

movement the more

facilitated.

rapidly will the

fore the squeezing out of the oil


of the

The

is

rubbing surfaces.

are particularly difficult to

If

be removed, and there-

also a function of the velocity

117. Allowable Bearing Pressure.

and

oil

greater the velocity of

to

make

Flat surfaces

machines

in

perfectly true in the

first

place,

keep true in the course of operation of the machines.

they are distorted ever so slightly the pressure between the

surfaces becomes concentrated at one small area,

pressure per square inch

is

and the actual

vastly in excess of the

nominal

pressure.

In consequence of this and the differences in original truth

and
in

finish of the surfaces, there is

no matter in machine design

which practice varies more than in the nominal pressure

allowed per square inch of bearing area of

Unwin*

flat

sliding surfaces.

gives the following:

Table XIV.
Slipper slide-blocks, marine engines

100

lbs.

Stationary-engine slide-blocks

25 to 125

"

Stationary-engine slide-blocks usually. ...

30 to 60

"

per square
"
"
'

'

incli

"

Professor Barr f found American practice to vary as follows


*

"Machine Design," 14th

t Trans. A. S.

M.

E., Vol.

ed., Vol. I, p. 198.

XVIII,

p. 753.

I59

SLIDING SURFACES.
Cross-head shoes of high-speed engines:

Minimum pressure per square inch


Maximum pressure per square inch
Mean pressure per square inch

10.5

27

Cross-head shoes of low-speed engines:


Minimum pressure per square inch

29

Maximum pressure per square inch


Mean pressure per square inch
In

all

cases the

mean

neighborhood of 600
at the

58

40

per minute with a

feet

" low-speed " engines the

maximum

lbs.

"
"

was probably in the

sliding velocity

middle of the stroke of about 950

lbs.

"
"

38

maximum

velocity

In

feet per minute.

velocity

only reached

is

"
about one third as many times per minute as in " high-speed
engines, although they

may have

same mean

the

it is

and

For well-made surfaces

for the former than for the latter.

the

velocity,

therefore proper to allow a higher imit value of pressure

maximum

values given by Professor Barr

may

be safely

used.

For lower mean speeds than 600

feet per

minute they

may

be increased, and for higher speeds decreased, according to some

law such as
i-F

in

which formula

^= pressure

= 36,000,
per square inch, and

F = velocity

of rubbing in feet per minute.


118.

Maintenance of Lubrication.

Regarding the materials

to be used, brass, bronze, or babbitt metal will run well with

iron or steel.

To

maintain lubrication a constant flow of

desirable.

nels cut in
all

The moving
its

surface should,

face to conduct the oil

if

oil

from a cup

have chan-

possible,

from the central

parts of the surface, as shown in Fig. 116,

is

The

oil-hole to
oil

should

be forced in where the pressures are heavy.


Oil-pads

may

be used as shown in Fig. 117.

The shaded

i6o

MACHINE DESIGN.

areas represent porous pads whose lower surfaces just touch the
surface to be lubricated,

and which are kept soaked with

oil.

CHAPTER
AXLES, SHAFTS,
119.

By

when

it is

members

stress, or

Axle

pairs.

we denote

those rotating

machines whose motion


the

is

torsional stress

rotating

name

is

constrained

given to such a

is

members

member

that

due

to friction.

are subjected chiefly to torsional

combined torsion and bending, they are

or spindles
its

of

subjected to a load which produces a bending moment,

and the only

When

AND SPINDLES.

Axles, Shafts, or Spindles

or oscillating

by turning

XI.

The former term

is

called shafts

used where the part has as

function the transmission of energy of rotation from one

Examples are

point to another.

line-shafts

and crank-shafts.

The term spindle, on the other hand, is restricted to those


members which are directly connected with the tool or
work and give it an accurate rotative motion. They generally
rotating

form the main axis of the machine.

Examples are the lathe and

drill-spindles.

120. Axle Design.

The question of axle design wiU be taken

Fig. 119.

up

first,

and the

torsional

moment due

to friction will be neg-

in Fig. 119.

Here the two ends are

lected.

typical case

is

shown

161

MACHINE DESIGN.

l62

is first

made

Given the loads

purposely not symmetrical.

for the reactions

and 5

and Q, solution

by the ordinary methods

of mechanics, graphical or analytical.

The
equals
of

graphical

sections.

all

I'

+ 1 + 1",

and

5 by

5.

a, b, c,

method

Lay

off

is

best since

the line

M-N,

it

gives the

Fig.

120,

moments

at

whose length

the distance between the points of application

Denote the points of application

and

d, respectively.

At

of R, P,

Q, and

6 erect a perpendicular

and

Fig. 120.

lay off

on

a vector representing the value of

a perpendicular and lay

c erect

it

on the same

off

on

it

where

pounds.

At d drop a perpendicular and lay

scale.

At

a vector representing

de equal to vector Q, and e/ equal to vector

point

in

Select

off

any

and draw Od, Oe, and Oj. Denote by g the point


intersects a perpendicular dropped from c, and draw

as pole,

Od

Oe until it intersects a perpendicular dropped


from b at h. From h draw a parallel to Of until it intersects a
perpendicular dropped from a at j. Draw jd, and parallel to jd

from g a parallel

to

draw a line through O.


from d
the
of

at the point

same

scale as

and S

area dghjd

This hne cuts the perpendicular dropped


k.

was

Then

vector

fk=R, and kd=S, on

originally used for

P and

in

pounds are therefore determined.

is

the

moment diagram.

The

Q.

Values

The shaded

vertical

ordinates

/IXLEi>,

included between

moments

The

its

bounding

by solving

lines are

moment
The moment Mb is

in

for

one section.

is

mh inches

is

the bending

Select the sec-

mh

represented by

For a circular section we have the

the

I'

and has a

in inches; the

inch-pounds can be determined at any

point, since the scale used

jt is

proportional to

being expressed in pounds and

moment

value of the

is

163

moment, diagram can be readily determined

for the actual

value =i?/',

Mft

SPINDLES.

at the corresponding points.

scale of the

tion at

AND

SHAFTS,

moment

equals Rl' inch-pounds.

elastic

moment

in

inch-pounds

the unit stress in outer fiber in pounds per square inch ;

moment

the plane

of inertia of the section in biquad-

ratic inches;
c is the distance

from neutral

axis to outermost fiber in

inches.

Equating

this to the various selected values of

Mh and

solv-

ing for r gives the radius of the axle at any point.

In designing axles, great care must be taken that


acting are being considered, and that the

each

is

it

tion caused

has been found that the force due to vertical

by jar

in

load for car-axles.

running

The

axles

is

in car-axles a

and wind-pressures.

oscilla-

about 40 per cent of the

would therefore have

signed for a load 1.4 times the static load.


is

value of

selected.*

Thus

there

maximum

forces

all

static

to be de-

In addition to this

bending moment due to curves, switches,


This

may amount

as a

maximum

to the

equivalent of a horizontal force If, equal to 40 per cent of the


static load, applied at

a height of 6 feet from the

rail.

* See further Proc. Master Car-Builders' Assn., 1896; Report of Committee


on Axles, etc. Also Strength of Railway-Car Axles, Trans. A. S. M. E., 1895.
Reuleaux, "The Constructor," trans, by H. H. Supplee, Philadelphia, 1893.

MACHINE DESIGN.

164

When
/(

such a careful analysis of the forces has been made,

may be taken

for

good material, equal

one fourth of the

to

ultimate strength, this being a safe value for cases like this,

where the

are subjected to alternate tension

fibers

pression as determined by

Had
/t

Wohler and

and com-

others.

the static load alone been considered in the calculations,

should not have been taken greater than one tenth of the

ultimate strength.

Subject to Simple Torsion.

121. Shafting
is

subjected

mined

very

to simple

readily

torsion,

by

its

diameter

If

a short shaft

may

formula

simple

the

for

be

deter-

torsional

moment,

Mt=PR = '
Here

Mt=PR is

the torsional

to twist the piece

in

moment,

pounds and

being the force tending

being the lever-arm of

about the axis of the piece in inches.

is

moment

the polar

member
c is the

of inertia of the cross-section of

distance from the neutral axis to the outermost fiber

in inches;
/ is

the allowable unit stress in pounds per square inch.

For a

and

the

in biquadratic inches;

solid circular section

nr^

Mt=

which can be solved readily for

For a hollow circular

{i.e.,

r,

the radius of the shaft.

ring-shaped) section.

AXLES, SH/IFTS,

AND

SPINDLES.

i6S

2^1

Mr

and

2ri

Here

ri is

the radius of the outside of the shaft and rz

is

the

radius of the bore, both in inches.

The way
Thus,
for

let

r2

to solve this is to take ^2 as

= bri.

It

a decimal part of

rj.

then becomes an easy matter to solve

rj,.

122. Shafting Subject to

Combined Torsion and Bending.

In most cases shafts are subjected to combined torsion and


bending.

Consider the crank-shaft shown in Fig. 121 in side

and end view.

'

MACHINE DESIGN.

66

Meb =

Also,

(2)

For a circular section

(2)

becomes

M
Met =^
^
and substitution

in (i) gives

....

'--=o.3sM,+o.6sVM,^+Mt^

(3)

which can readily be solved for

maximum

to the

r, }

being given a value equal

allowable unit tensile stress for the material

and conditions.
For a hollow

circular section

...

= o.35M,+o.6sVM/+M<2.
4ri

To

solve this express r2 as a decimal part of

solve for

Substitute

ri.

is

as follows:

forces combined.

combined.
(i),

(3),

First,

find

Second, find

from

(3)

Mb due

Mt due

Third, use these values of

and

Among

(4).

Comparison

and

(4)

of Solid

apt to be, the

to all the

bending

to all the twisting forces

Mb and Mt

the forces acting

to include the weight of the shaft

123.

and

ri.

If there are several forces acting, as there are

method

(4)

and attached

in equations

we must not
parts.

and Hollow Shafts.

It is

that the dimensions of a solid shaft

hollow shaft of equal strength will have the relationship


3lri*-r2*

fail

evident

and a

AXLES, SHAFTS,
If ^2

= 0.6^1, we

AND

167

SPINDLES.

have

'=o-955'"i-

Hence a hollow

shaft

whose internal bore

ternal diameter, in order to have the

must have

shaft

its

The weight

may

siderable saving in weight

bined

if

the hollow section

this angle

It is

is

twisted

adopted.

is

By

often an important matter.

is

Let

Then

M,i8o

in inch-poimds

i= length of shaft in inches;


/= polar moment of inertia in
G = modulus of

torsion

biquadratic inches;

modulus of

elasticity

2.6

Combined Thrust and Torsion.

jected to

using nickel

can get com-

of torsion in degrees

Mt = twisting moment

125.

obvious that a con-

^The angle by which a shaft sub-

be represented by ^.

5 = angle

diameter

strength and lightness.*

Angular Distortion.

jected to torsion

ex-

be effected without appreciable

connection with the hollow section we

maximum

124.

its

as a solid

of the hollow shaft will be 70

per cent of that of the solid shaft.

steel in

0.6 of

external diameter 1.047 times the

of the solid shaft.

increase in size

is

same strength

combined thrust and

When

a shaft

torsion, the following

is

sub-

formula

has been developed by Prof. A. G. Greenhillif


* See "Nickel Steel," a paper by D. H.

A.

I.

M.

Browne

E.

t See Proc. of Inst, of

M.

E., 1883, p. 182.

in Vol. 29 of the Trans.

"

MACHINE DESIGN.

68

EI

'

42/2-

Z=the length of shaft between bearings in inches;

P = the end thrust in pounds;


= modulus of elasticity;
/= plane moment

biquadratic

of inertia of the section in

inches

Mt = twisting moment
This formula

in inch-pounds.

is strictly

only applicable to vertical shafts, as

it

ignores the important item of bending due to the weight of the


shaft

and attached

parts.

126. Line-shafts.

mit power.

They

Line-shafts are

are

made

long shafts used to trans-

of lengths coupled together

supported by bearings at suitable intervals.

and

Pulleys or gears

are keyed to them, and should always be placed as close to the

supporting bearings as possible.

Consider

first

pure torsion only,

Because of

its

a length of such a shaft which

no pulleys being mounted on

When

subjected to

weight, the length of shaft between a pair of

bearings will sag so that

it

is

it.

its

axis will not be a straight line.

a shaft revolves at a high speed,

its

own

inertia gives

a tendency to instability independent of the torsion to which

the shaft

is

This

subjected.

is

due

to the action of centrifugal

force.

The "sag"

of the shaft causes the center of

the axis of rotation.


just sufficient to

mass

to lie off

At a certain speed the centrifugal force

keep the shaft bent.

As

this critical

speed

is
is

passed the rapidly increasing centrifugal force exceeds the elastic


forces of the material

shaft

is

The

and the bending becomes

large.

The

then said to "whirl.


relation existing

between the speed,

size of

shaft,

and

AND

AXLES, SHAFTS,

SPINDLES.

169

distance between bearings which gives rise to whirling in wrought


iron or steel shafts

is

as follows

17
= 400\.|

This applies to an unloaded shaft with bearings which do not


the direction of the ends.

fix

i= distance
r= radius

between bearings in inches;

of shaft in inches;

= revolutions

of shaft per second.

This becomes a matter of importance

When

in rapidly rotating shafts.

there are pulleys on the shaft the value of

L naturally

becomes smaller.*
If line-shafts are designed wholly for strength,

determined by means of equation


there

is

(3),

owing

apt to be an excessive angular

therefore customary to design

them

i.e.,

if

is

to their length,

distortion

^.

It

and check

for stiffness

is

for

strength afterwards.

^ should

not exceed 0.075 P^r foot of shaft.

Combining

this rule

with the formula

(5)

for angular dis-

tortion,

MtLiSo

for

a round wrought-iron or

steel solid shaft

.=4.8

when

d= diameter

get

'"'''

'

of shaft in inches;

H.P.= horse-power

to

be transmitted;

iV = revolutions per minute of

see

we

shaft.

* For a very complete discussion of " Whirling and Vibration of Shafting,"


an article by Professor Dunkerly in the Phil. Trans, of the Roy. Soc. of

London, Vol. 185^, Part

I,

p. 279.

MACHINE DESIGN.

170

Having determined
against

stiffness

the

torsion

diameter which will give sufficient

the allowable distance

The

porting bearings must be calculated.


to limit the deflection to

Consider

first

Both ends

2d.

One end

3d.

Both ends are

rule of practice

There are three cases

of the shaft are free to take

is

and one

free

is

i/ioo of an inch to a foot of length.

a bare shaft.

ist.

between sup-

any

direction.

fixed.

fixed.

In each case

L = length of span in inches


w = weight of shaft per inch;
y = maximum deflection;
jT-

= average

= 1/100

deflection per foot of length

inch;

L
2400

Each

case

y=

For case

I,

the deflection

For case

II,

the deflection y

For case

III, the deflection

y=

Since

TtCP

.28

that of a uniformly loaded

is

,
,

while

(Case

I)

(Case II)

(Casein^

and

for

= 30,000,000,

a load = wZ,.

^^.

77EI

y=

beam with

j^r.

ig2EI

t-t -

roimd shafting I=-r-

it

Z=

follows that

75-?^;

L=ioo'V'^;

1 = 130"^^.

and Zf=

AXLES, SHAFTS,

When

AND

there are loads due to belt pull,

must be determined

in

i?!

SPINDLES.
etc.,

the deflection

For ordinary purposes,

each case.

with the average number of pulleys and amount of belt


it is

safe to take for loaded shafts

mined

for bare shafting for the

-^

same

of the value of

conditions.

pull,

deter-

CHAPTER

XII.

JOURNALS, BEARINGS, AND LUBRICATION.


and Bearings.

127. General Discussion of Journals

Jour-

and the bearings or boxes with which they engage are

nals

the elements used to constrain

about axes

may

be

conical, or, in

journals, as

more

machines.

in

far as size

motion of rotation or vibration

Journals are usually cylindrical, but


rare
is

The

cases, spherical.

concerned,

is

dictated

design of

by one or

of the four following considerations;

(i)

To

provide for safety against rupture or excessive yield-

ing under the applied forces.

(4)

To provide for maintenance of form.


To provide against the squeezing out
To provide against overheating.

To

illustrate

(2)

(3)

(i),

let

Fig.

122

represent

end of an overhanging shaft driven by a


tion

is

as indicated by the arrow,

and T2.

The

The

and the

journal, J, engages with a

of the lubricant.

belt,

pulley on the

ABC.

Rota-

belt tensions are

Ti

box or bearing, D.

following stresses are induced in the journal: Torsion,

measured

by

measured by

the
the

moment {T\ T2)r. Flexure.


bending moment (Ti + T^a. This assumes
torsional

a rigid shaft or a self-adjusting box.


the force

T^

that rupture

+ T2.
or

Shear, resulting from

This journal must therefore be so designed

undue yielding

shall

not result from these

stresses.

To

illustrate (2),

ing- lathe.

The

consider the spindle journals of

forces applied are

a grind-

very small, but the


172

porm

JOURNALS, BEARINGS, AND LUBRICATION.


of the journals

must be maintained

product of the machine.

173

to insure accuracy in the

relatively large

wearing surface

*T,

Fig. 122.

is

to exclude dust and

To

lubricant.

would

faces

grit.

illustrate (3), the pressure

the applied forces

its

and careful provision must be made

therefore necessary,

may

upon a journal

resulting from

be sufficiently great to squeeze out the

Metallic contact, heating, and abrasion of the sur-

In what follows, the area of a journal means

result.

PROJECTED area;
128. Allowable

i.e., its

length multiplied by

Bearing Pressure.

The

its

diameter.

allowable pressure

per square inch of area of a journal varies with several conditions.

The

illustration

of the drop of oil between two sur-

face plates, given in the discussion of sliding surfaces (p. 157),

applies here also.


the

The squeezing

out of the

rubbing surfaces of a journal and

a function
faces

of

the

time as well as

under pressure move over

the oil is facilitated.

The

its

oil

from between

box

of pressure.

is,

therefore,

If

the sur-

each other, the removal of

greater the velocity of movement,

MACHINE DESIGN.

174

more

the

rapidly will the

squeezing out of the

be removed, and therefore the

oil

velocity of

also a ifunction of the

oil is

RUBBING SURFACES.

When

a journal

subjected to continuous pressure in one

is

direction, as, for instance, in a shaft with a constant belt pull,

or with a heavy fly-wheel

time to act, and

But

if

is

upon

it,

this pressure

has

sufficient

therefore effective for the removal of

the direction of the pressure

is

oil.

periodically reversed, as

in the crank-pin of a steam-engine, the time of action is less, the

tendency to remove the


nity to return

oil is

reduced, and the

between the surfaces.

has opportu-

oil

Hence a higher

pres-

sure per square inch of journal would be allowable in the second


case than in the

first.

If the direction of

motion

is

also reversed, as in the cross-

head pin of a steam-engine, the

oil

has not only an opportu-

nity to return between the surfaces, but


so

by the reversed motion.

per square inch of

Therefore a

journal

is

is

assisted in doing

still

allowable.

higher pressure
Practical experi-

ence bears out these conclusions.

The
as

allowable pressure depends also upon the workmanship

shown

in the

fit

bearing surfaces.

of journal

The

and box and the condition

value to be used in each case

decided by the judgment of the designer.

based upon practice

may

Table XV.
Kind

Allowable Journal Pressures.


Pressure in Lbs.
per Sq. In. of
Projected Area.
intermittent load, such as

of Bearing.

crank-pins of shearing-machines
journals, center-crank high-speed engines
journals, side-crank low-speed engines

Crank -pins

of high-speed engines

Crank-pins of low-speed engines


Cross-head pins of high-speed engines
Cross-head pins of low-speed engines
Car-axle journals

must be

following table

be taken as a guide:

Bearings for slow speed and

Main
Main

The

of the

2000-3000
180- 240
160- 220

250- 600
,

870-1550
910-1675
1000 1860
300- 600

JOURNALS, BEARINGS, AND LUBRICATION.


129. Heating of

Journals.

To

illustrate

conditions are such that the lubricant

may

rubbing surfaces, heating

There

be reduced

(a)

by insuring accuracy

tion of surface in the journal

that the journal


fihn of

and

and

its

this resistance

bearings; (6)

by insuring

bearings are in contact, except for the

its

throughout their entire surface, by means of rigidity

oil,

by selecting a suitable lubricant

maintaining the

means

fric-

form and perfec-

of

may demand;

of framing or self-adjusting boxes, as the case


(c)

the

if

always a

is

tional resistance at the surface of the journal;

may

even

(4),

retained between the

is

occur.

I7S

supply to the

the friction

may

to

meet the conditions and

bearing

By

surfaces.

these

be reduced to a very low value, but

it

cannot be reduced to zero.

There must be some

frictional resistance,

temperature of the journal and


generated
ated, the

is

its

the temperature of the box rises

till its

always

raises the

fast as

it is

at a constant low temperature.

ever, the heat is generated faster than

is

is

it

If the heat thus

bearing.

conducted and radiated away as

box remains

and

This heat

converting mechanical energy into heat.

gener-

If,

how-

can be disposed

it

of,

capacity to radiate heat

increased by the increased difference of temperature of the

box and the surrounding


the heat as fast as

it is

air,

so that

generated.

it

is

able to dispose of

This temperature, necessary

to establish the equilibrium of heat generation

may under

enough

certain conditions be high

and

disposal,

to destroy the

lubricant or even to melt out a babbitt-metal box-lining.

pose

now

that a journal

of pressure
cool.

and surface

Suppose next

is

running under certain conditions

velocity,

and

that

it

remains entirely

that, while all other conditions are kept

exactly the same, the velocity

ments on the

Sup-

is

increased.

friction in journals

show

All

modem

experi-

that the coefficient of

friction increases with the increase of velocity of rubbing sur-

face (at speeds above 100 feet per minute).

Therefore the

in-

MACHINE DESIGN.

176

crease in velocity would increase the frictional resistance at the


surface of the journal,

and the space through which

this resist-

ance acts would be greater in proportion to the increase in

The work

velocity.
is

of the friction at the surface of the journal

therefore increased

because both the force and the space

factors are increased.

It

is

work

this

which has

of friction

been so increased, that produces the heat which tends to raise


the temperature of the journal

and

its

The

box.

eration of heat has therefore been increased

but the box has not been changed in any way, and

velocity,

therefore

was

capacity for disposing of heat

its

before,

ing to heat

same as

the

is

and hence the tendency of the journal and


greater than

is

Some change
in order to

the

by

rate of gen-

the increase in

it

was before

the increase

in the proportions of the journal

keep the tendency to heat the same

increase in velocity.

If the

its

bear-

velocity.

must be made

as.it

was before

diameter of the journal be

increased, the radiating surface of the


ately increased.

in.

it

box

But the space factor

will

be proportion-

of the friction will be

increased in the same proportion, and therefore

it

be appar-

will

ent that this change has not affected the relation of the rate
of generation of heat to the disposal of
of the journal be increased, the

as before

work

and the radiating surface

the tendency of the

box

But

it.

of friction

of the

box

to heat is reduced.

the length

if

the

is

same

is

increased and

If,

therefore, the

conditions are such that the tendency to heat in a journal,

because of the work of the friction at


point in design,
is

dictated by

it,

it

its

surface,

is

the vital

will be clear that the length of the journal

but not the diameter.

The

reason

why

high-

speed journals have greater length in proportion to their diameter than low-speed journals will

The

lost

by PfiizdN,

work per minute due


in

^ = coefficient of

which
friction,

P=mean
(f

now

be apparent.

to friction
total

may

be expressed

pressure on

journal,

=diameter of journal, and iV=revo-

JOURNALS, BEARINGS, AND LUBRICATION.

177

lutions per minute.

This energy is all converted into heat


which should be dissipated through a surface which is proportional to the projected area of the journal,
that, other conditions

dl.

It follows

remaining constant, the projected area

should be proportional to the heat generated, and we

PfindN

may

write

= K.

dl
1

= PfmN

must be experimentally determined

tions.

Sufficient data are not available to

of values of

may

form a general table

K.

130. Journal Proportions.

nals *

for a given set of condi-

The proportions

be seen in the following table


Table XVI.

Kind

of Journal.

of engine-jour-

MACHINE DESIGN.

178

The

well at almost any speed on babbitt metal.

pressure per

square inch which an ordinary babbitt bearing will stand when

running cool
out,

at very slow speed), before

{i.e.,

has been found

to

being squeezed

be something over 2000 lbs.*

Cast iron, wrought iron,

soft steel,

and hard

steel will all

run well on brass and bronze.

Brass and bronze of ordinary

compositions will carry 5000

per square inch without suffer-

lbs.

Bronze, however,

ing destruction.

is

much

better than brass.

Cast iron will run on cast iron where, owing to large bearing surfaces, the unit pressure

Where

is light.

the pressure

and

speed are high, as in engine-journals, this will not work.f


In the same
if

the pressure

way

run on cast iron

Wrought

steel will

is light.

run on cast iron even at high speeds

has been found that

It

steel will

not

in engine-journals.

iron, soft steel,

and hard

steel will all

run on hard

steel.

Steel

under

steel if

hardened and polished

high a pre'ssure as 50,000

lbs.

form parts of axles on

run under as

per square inch.

132. Calculation of Journals for Strength.


ally

will

shafts,

Journals gener-

and the calculation of

their

diameter for strength becomes part of the calculation of the


shaft.

The

principles have been developed at length in the

preceding chapter and need not be repeated here.


If the journal is so held that

it

may

be considered as sub-

jected to pure shearing stress, like the crank-pin of a center-

crank engine, then


fsA
in

which

=P,

P = total maximum load


A = total area subjected to
= safe

/s

stress;

shearing stress for the conditions.

* C. F. Porter, Trans. A. S.
t Trans. A. S.
tibid.

M.

M.

E., Vol. Ill, p. 227.

E., Vol. VI, pp. 853-854.

JOURNALS, BEARINGS, AND LUBRICATION.

For a journal subjected

which becomes PI =--

moment,

= safe

ri

pure bending moment,

for a solid circular shaft.

unit stress, and

readily be solved for


If the journal

to a

179

r= radius

P/ =bendin<T
o

of shaft.

This can

r.

be hollow,

being the external and

^2 the internal diameter.

For combined bending and twisting such as the main journal


of a side-crank engine

journal

is

subjected

to,

the expression for a solid

is

^f^

}-o.ssM,+o.6sVM,^+Mp.
For a hollow circular section

^^^^^^^ =o.3SM, +o.65\/M/TM?'


M^

being the bending

moment and Mt

In general

be found that journals proportioned for

it

will

the twisting

moment.

strength merely will not have sufficient area to prevent heating,

so this item must not be overlooked.


133. Problem.

Design

the

main journal

of

side-crank

low-speed engine.

Diameter of cylinder = 16

ins.

=36

ins.

Length

of stroke

Net forward pressure = 100

lbs.

per square inch of piston area.

Suppose the engine capable of carrying


stroke.

full

pressure to half-

MACHINE DESIGN.

i8o

The
.'.

area of piston =201.06 square inches.

total net

At point

of

the position of

forward pressure

maximum
maximum

= 20,106

lbs.

which corresponds to

torsional effect,

velocity of piston,

in accelerating reciprocating parts,

no energy

is

used

and

FpVp = FcVc;

Fp =net forward force on


Vp = velocity of piston
i^c = force on crank;
Vc = velocity of crank.
Since v^

is

piston;

than Vp for this position, F^

less

is

greater than

FV

Fp, since

F^=^^.

Assuming a connecting-rod length equal


crank lengths gives (Appendix)
Since the crank length

crank and

is

is

= 20,500

a twisting

moment

M( = 20, 500X18 = 369,000


There

is

also a

and a

half

lbs.

18 inches, and at this position the


are nearly at a

connecting-rod

each other, there

jFc

to five

right angle with

at the journal equal to

inch-lbs.

bending moment equal

to 20,500

the dis-

tance from center of crank-pin to center of main journal.

most cases
assumed;

this distance

for,

and the thickness

may be known,

the

length of the

main journal

im-

known, since

this length

of the

journal
Fig. 123.

must be

although the length

of the crank-pin

In

crank

diameter

are

is

and the
the

very

dimensions sought.

Assume then

that the crank-pin

6 inches long,

the crank 3 inches thick, ajid the middle of

is

main journal 6

JOURNALS, BEARINGS,

AND

LUBRICATION.

i8l

inches from the inner face of crank as shown in


Fig. 123.
This wiU give 12 inches as the lever-arm; .-. the bending
moment,

=20,500X12 = 246,000

3^fcj

The

inch- lbs.

equivalent bending

moment

the combined actual

to

bending and twisting moments

=M,b

= 0-35 X 246,000 o.65\/246ooo2


= 374,375 inch-lbs.
-I-

-I-

3690002

M, = ^;

But

r^_

4X374375
nj

For a main shaft


per square inch for

like

this

may be

taken = 12,000

lbs.

steel.

...

;_

4X374375

3/

^ 7rXi20OO

=3.41 inches;
.*.

The

diameter of joumal= 2X3.41 =6.82, say 7 inches.


length according to practice would be about twice this

diameter,* or 14 inches.

This would give a projected area of

98 square inches and a pressure of something over 200

lbs.

per square inch of bearing due to steam-pressure alone.

To

get the actual

maximum
know

would be necessary

to

and other attached

parts,

due

due

to the steam.

rough rule of practice for Corliss engines

the diameter of

it

and properly combine the pressure

to these with the pressure

The

pressure on the journal

the weight of the shaft, flywheel,

main journal equal

to

is

to

make

one half the diameter

of the cylinder.
* See Table XVI, p. 177.

M/I CHINE

82
134. Problem.

It will

Design

DESIGN.

the crank-pin for the

same engine.

be found that the crank-pin must be designed with

ence to maintaining lubrication, and that

it

will

refer-

have an excess

of strength.

Allowing

1200

lbs.

per square inch of

from the table that the average practice


is

for this type of engine

the length of the pin = i.iXthe diameter,t

make

to

area,* and noting

it

fol-

lows that

1200

l=i.id;

but

1200

d = 4. inches, nearly;

and
.'.

Checking
to a

/= 1.1X4 = 4^

for strength,

this

inches, say.

considering the pin subjected

bending moment P-, we write

'

P = 20500
-=
2

=
2'^
2.2t;

r=2

/=
,

is,

'

in outer fiber

4X20500X2.25
TT

which

inches;

inches,

/ = stress

..

lbs.,

X OQ

=7300 lbs. per square

of course, a perfectly safe value for

inch;

wrought iron or

steel.

* See Table XV,

p. 174.

f See Table XVI, p. 177.

JOURNALS, BEARINGS, AND LUBRICATION.


135-

engine.

Problem.

Design

This pin

also

the

cross-head pin

183
the

for

same

should be designed for maintaining

lubrication.

Allowing 1400

may be taken

as 1.3 times the diameter

lbs. per square inch as the permissible pressure on the journal,* and noting that the
length

from average practice f

^ives

dl=

20500
1400

l^i.^d,

20500
'

1400

and

d=T,^ inches;
.'.

Checking

= 4^

this for strength

it

inches.
is

evident that the only

way

Fig. 124.

this pin can fail

by shearing on two

is

surfaces,

A-B

and

D-E

(see Fig. 124).

P-

/2;rr2;

20500
'

2X71X2.2,4.'

11

50

lbs.

per square inch.

This leaves so great a margin of safety that some manuiacturers

make

the cross-head pin of two parts, an inner pin

of soft, resilient material, sufficiently large to resist the shear-

ing stress, and an outer hard-steel bushing which


.the

soft pin, but

is

* See Table, XV,

not allowed to turn on

p. i74-

it.

t See Table

surrounds

The nature
XVI,

p. 177.

of

MACHINE DESIGN.

84

the forces acting on a cross-head pin tend to

wear

it

to

an oval

As such wear takes place the bushing can readily

cross-section.

be given a quarter turn and clamped

in

new

the

position.

(See Fig. 124.)


136.

Maintenance of Form.

of form

dent,

of chief importance

is

or

Journals

according

theory can

lead

correct

to

must be designed from prece-

the judgment

to

maintenance

whose

No

designer.

of the

In fact these pro-

proportions.

portions are eventually determined by the process of

Machine

Evolution.
137. Thrust-journals.

When

rotating-machine

part

subjected to pressure parallel to the axis of rotation,

must be provided for the safe resistance


the case of vertical shafts the pressure

and

of the shaft

its

attached parts,

due

is

due

to the

working

to the

In other cases

peller-wheels, the spindles of a chucking-lathe, etc.

of the shaft.

This

"bush," which embraces


Fig.

125.

may be

If the pressure

it

is

to

weight

as the shafts of pro-

force,

thrusts of vertical shafts are very often resisted

up " end

In

as the shafts of turbine

water-wheels that rotate about vertical axes.


the pressure

means

of that pressure.
is

is

The end-

by the " squat ed-

inserted in a bronze or

brass

prevent lateral motion, as in

be too great, the end of the shaft

enlarged so as to increase the bearing surface, thereby

reducing

the

pressure

per

square

inch.

This

enlargement

Si

Fig. 126.

Fig. 125.

must be within narrow


the axis of rotation,

limits,

and

however.

ACD

is

(See Fig. 126.)

the rotating part,

its

AB

is

bear-

JOURNALS, BEARINGS, AND LUBRICATION.


ing being enlarged at

The

sidered.

CD.

velocity

at the axis to a

of

maximum

i8S

Let the conditions of wear be con-

rubbing surface varies from zero


at

and D.

It

has been seen that

the increase of the velocity of rubbing surface increases both

the force of

the friction and the space through which that

force acts;

therefore increases the

therefore

it

the

tendency to wear.

that the tendency to

work

From

of the friction,

this

and

be seen

will

it

wear increases from the center

to

the

"radial bearing," and that, after the

circumference of this

bearing has rim for a while, the pressure will be localized near
the

center,

and heating and abrasion may

For

result.

severe stress to be resisted, the bearing

is

what

is

reason where there

is

usually divided up

into several parts, the result being

known

as

this

thrust-bearing," as

"collar

shown

in Fig.

127.

Fig. 127.

By the
may be
is

number

of collars, the bearing surface

increased without increasing the tendency to unequal

The

wear.
as

increase in the

radial

dimension of the bearing

is

kept

consistent with the other considerations of

as small

the design.

found that the " tractrix," the curve of constant tangent,


gives the same work of friction, and hence the same tendency

It is

to

wear

in the direction of the axis

the wearing surface.

of rotation, for all parts of

(See " Church's Mechanics," page 181.)

This has been very incorrectly termed the "anti-friction"


This is far from being the case. The friction
thrust-bearing.

work

for this

and

all

conical thrust-bearings can

be shown

1 86

MACHINE DESIGN.

Their one advantage

readily to be excessive.

that they are

In general they are to be avoided.

easily adjustable.

The

is

pressure that

is

allowable per square inch of projected

area of bearing surface varies in thrust-bearings with several


conditions, as

does in journals subjected to pressure at right

it

Thus, in the pivots of turntables, swing-

angles to the axis.*

and the

bridges, cranes,

movement

like the

and

continuous, often being reversed;

such that "bath lubrication"


unit pressure

and

inch,

very high

is

some

in

wrought iron or

(babbitt metal

i.e.,

in a bath of

oil.

is

steel,

The

1500

lbs.

per square

The
in the

material of the thrust-journal

and the bearing

seldom used for

is

used,

tion

to

exceeding that value.

be used as an approximate guide

designing of thrust-bearings.
is

also the conditions are

be used, and the allowable

equal often

cases greatly

may

following table

may

slow and never

is

is

of bronze or brass

this purpose).

Bath lubrica-

the running surfaces are submerged constantly

Table XVII.
Allowable Unit
Pressure,

Pounds per

Mean

Velocity of Rubbing Surface, Feet per Minute.

Square Inch of
Projected Area
of the

Rubbing

Surface.

Slow and intermittent

1500
200

50
50 to 100
100

loo

150
150 to 200
to-

75

60

Above 200
If

the journal

50
is

of cast iron

and runs on bronze or brass,

the values of allowable pressure given should be divided by


two.

The most

efficient

forms of thrust-bearings are those f em-

ploying the principles shown in Fig. 128.


* See Proc. Inst.

M.

E.,

1888 and 1891, for reports on experiments with thrust-

bearings.

t See Trans. A. S.

M.

E., Vol. VI, p. 852,

and Proc.

Inst.

M.

E., 1888, p. 184.

JOURNALS, BEARINGS, AND LUBRICATION.

Between the end

of the shaft

and the bottom

187

of the step a

The

series of accurately finished disks are introduced.

are alternately hard steel and bronze, the top one

is

fastened to

As

the shaft, the lower to the step, and the rest are free.
cated, each disk has a hole through the middle

and

disks

indi-

radial grooves

Fig. 128.

to permit the lubricant to have access between the disks.


effect of centrifugal force

when

the shaft

is

rotating

is

The

to force

outward from between the plates and upward. It is


the
collected in the annular chamber a-a and flows from there down
oil

the drilled passages back to the bottom of the bearing.


is

action supplying

of bearing reduces the relative

motion between

equivalent to a continuous automatic

oil to

This

pump

the surfaces.

This form

minimum, thereby allowing much higher

successive surfaces to a

pressures to be carried.

similar arrangement of loose disks can be used to great

advantage on small propeller shafts and on worm shafts.


When bearings have to be used where corrosion or electrowork, glass and the
lytic action is to be feared, as in turbine

end grain

of very

hard woods have been used successfully as

bearing materials.
138. Problem.

journal that

is

It

is

required to design the collar thrust-

to receive the propelling pressure

from the screw

88

of

M/ICHINE DESIGN.

The

a small yacht.

maximum power
screw

is

delivered to the shaft

screw

slip of

feet;

times per minute

a distance = 4 feet

may

be resolved into

and the propelling force

is

pitch of

moves forward

and the speed

feet,

of

= 250X3.2 =800.

= 7oX33,ooo = 2, 310,000

This work

4 inches.

is

20 per cent = 3.2

less

70 H.P.

is

20 per cent; shaft revolves 250

of the screw the yacht

the yacht in feet per minute

70 H.P.

is

diameter of shaft

For every revolution

The

necessary data are as follows:

per minute.

ft.-lbs.

its

factors of force

and space,

equal to 2,310,0004-800 = 2900

lbs.,

nearly.

The
beyond

shaft

is

4 inches in diameter, and the collars must project


Estimate that the mean diameter of the

surface.

its

rubbing surface

4.5 inches, then the

is

surface would equal 4.5X

mean

X 250 = 294

feet

velocity of rubbing

The

per minute.

allowable value of pressure per square inch of journal surface for a

The

necessary area

therefore = 2900 -^50 = 58

square inches.

velocity above 200 feet per minute


of the journal surface
It

is

has been seen that

it is

is

50

lbs.

desirable to keep the radial dimen-

sion of the collar surface as small as possible in order to have


as nearly the
as possible.

0.75 inch;

the

velocity at all parts of the rubbing surface

^^Xn

5.52 X:?r

number

of

collars

23.7-12.5 = 11.2

equals

the

139. Bearings

and Boxes.

^The function

to insure that the journal with

which

sq.

total

divided by the area of each collar =58^- 11.2

is

be assumed =

of collar in this case will

then the bearing surface in each collar

=
Then

same

The width

it

m.

required area

= 5.18,

say

6.

of a bearing or

engages shall have

an accurate motion of rotation or vibration about the given


It

must therefore

fit

the journal without

box

lost

motion;

axis.

must

JOURNALS, BEARINGS, AND LUBRICATION.


afford

means

sarily

from wear

up the

of taking

must

motion that

lost

the forces that

resist

through the journal, without imdue yielding


wearing surface of such material as

results neces-

come upon

it

must have the

run in contact with

the journal with the least possible friction and

the material of
least

will

189

tendency to heating and abrasion;

and must usually

include some device for the maintenance of the lubrication.

and the providing

selection of the materials

The

of sufficient strength

and

stiffness

so

remains to discuss the means for the taking up of necessary

it

depends upon principles already considered, and

wear and for providing

lubrication.

Boxes are sometimes made solid rings or


In

being inserted endwise.

the journal

shells,

case the wear can only be

this

taken up by making the engaging surfaces of the box and journal


conical,

box

and providing

itself

for endwise adjustment either of the

Thus, in Fig.

or of the part carrying the journal.

129,

the collars for the preventing of end motion while running are

jam-nuts, and looseness between the journal and box

taken up by moving the journal axially toward the

By

far the greater

sections

and the

lost

number

motion

is

axis O,

and

all

direction shown.

the box.

It will

in

is

it

The tendency

to

wear

sufficient to divide the

is

box

Fig. 130.

130, the journal rotates about

Thus, in Fig.
the wear

made

taken up by moving one or more

Fig. 129.

into halves.

be

left.

of boxes, however, are

sections toward the axis of rotation.

usually in one direction, and

may

is

due

The wear

to the pressure

will

the

acting in the

therefore be at the bottom of

suffice for the taking

up

of

wear

to dress off

ipo

MACHINE DESIGN.
and thus the box-cap may be drawn further

the surfaces at aa,

down by

the bolts, and the lost motion

reduced to an admis-

is

sible value.

"Liners," or "shims," which are thin pieces of

sheet metal,

may be

of the

box

at aa,

inserted between the surfaces of division

and may be removed successively

ing of the box-cap as the wear renders

it

for the lowerIf the axis

necessary.

kept in a constant position, the lower

of the journal

must be

half of the box

must be capable of being

raised.

Sometimes, as in the case of the box for the main journal of


a steam-engine shaft, the direction of wear

Thus,

in Fig. 131,

There

is

represents the

an engine.

a tendency to wear in the direction B, because of the

weight of the shaft and

dency

main

not constant.

is

shaft of

to

wear because

its

attached parts;

there

of the pressure that

connecting-rod and crank.

The

is

also a ten-

comes through the

direction of this pressure is

continually varying, but the average directions on forward

and

>c

Fig. 132.

return stroke
to

may

be represented by

and D.

Provision needs

be made, therefore, for the taking up of wear in these twa

directions.

If the

box be divided on the

line

EF, wear

will

be

taken up vertically and horizontally by reducing the Uners.


Usually, however, in the larger engines the box

four sections. A, B, C, and

(Fig.

132),

and

is

divided into

and

are

capable of being moved toward the shaft by means of screws


or wedges, while

may

be raised by means of the insertion

of " shims."

The

lost

motion between a journal and

its

box

is

sometimes

JOURNALS, BEARINGS, AND LUBRICATION.

191

taken up by making the box as shown in Fig. 133.


nal surface of the box

parallel to the axis,


of the

is

conical

The box

the machine frame.

is

and

fits

and partly through

at

through at A,

and

is

screwed up,

further

of lost motion, the nut

the

effect

being to

into the conical hole in the

The ends

and C.

are screwed on.

After the journal has run long enough so that there

lowable amount

exter-

in a conical hole in

split entirely

box are threaded, and the nuts

The

is

is

an unal-

loosened and

draw the conical box

machine frame; the hole

Fig. 133.

through the box


After
if

is

thereby closed up and

this operation the hole

lost

motion

is

reduced.

cannot be truly cylindrical, and

the cylindrical form of the journal has been maintained,

will not have a bearing throughout

its

entire surface.

This

it

is

not usually of very great importance, however, and the form of

box has the advantage that it holds the axis of the journal in
a constant position. As far as is possible the box should be
so designed as to exclude all dust and grit from the bearing
surfaces.

All boxes in self-contained machines, like engines or machine


tools,

need

to

be rigidly supported to prevent the localization

of pressure, since the parts that carry the journals are

when
some

yielding

rigid,

as

In line shafts and other parts carrying journals,

rigid as possible.

the length

made

is

great in comparison to the lateral dimensions,

must necessarily occur, and if the boxes were


Hence "selflocalization of pressure would result.

192

M/ICHINE DESIGN.

adjusting" boxes are used.

the center of the length of the

box

free to

is

shown

move

in

in Fig. 134.

is

any way about

any yielding of the

itself to

point in the axis of rotation at

box

held immovable, but the

this point,

and thus adjusts

This result

shaft.

is

attained as

the center of the motion of the box;

is

Fig. 134.

and

are spherical surfaces formed on the box, their center

being at O.

The

support for the box contains internal spherical

surfaces which engage with

A and B. Thus the point O is always

held in a constant position, but the

any way about

a center.

as

box

itself is free to

move

in

Therefore the box adjusts

within limits to any position of the shaft and hence the

itself

localization of pressure

is

impossible.

In thrust-bearings for vertical shafts the weight of the shaft

and

attached parts serves to hold the rubbing surfaces in

its

contact and the lost motion

down

as

wear occurs.

shafts the design

is

taken up by the shaft following

In collar thrust-bearings for horizontal

such that the bearing for each collar

separate and adjustable.

may

is

The

is

pressure on the different collars

thus be equalized.*

140. Lubrication of Journals.

The best method

of lubrica-

which the rubbing surfaces are constantly submerged in a bath of lubricating fluid. This method should be

tion

is

that in

* For complete and varied details of marine thrust-bearings see


ern Practice in Marine Engineering."

"Maw's Mod-

JOURNALS, BEARINGS, AND LUBRICATION.

employed wherever possible


are high.
cases.

Unfortunately

It

merged.

is

If

it

if

the pressure

'^9Z

and surface

velocity

cannot be used in the majority of

not necessary that the whole surface be suba part of the moving surface runs in the oil-bath it'

is sufficient.*

Let J, Fig. 135, represent a journal with its box, and let A,
B, and C be oil-holes.
If oil is introduced into the hole A, it

MM W,

Fig. 135.

will tend to flow out

shortest way,

i.e.,

it

from between the rubbing surfaces by the


will come out at D.
A small amount

probably go toward the other end of the box because of


capillary attraction, but usually none of it will reach the middle
will

of the box.

If oil

be introduced at C,

it

will

come out

constant feed, therefore, might be maintained


yet the middle of the box might run dry.
at B, however,

it

the entire journal


oil

ought,

when

at

at E.

If the oil be introduced

tends to flow equally in both directions, and


is

The

lubricated.

conclusion follows that

possible, to be introduced at the middle of the

length of a cylindrical journal.

It

should be introduced as far

as possible from the side where the forces press the journal

box

and C, and

closest together.*

If

and

a conical journal runs at a high velocity,

the oil under the influence of centrifugal force tends to go to


the large end of the cone,

duced

at the small

end

and therefore the

oil

should be intro-

to insure its distribution over the entire

journal surface.
* Tower's experiments, Proc. Inst.

M.

E., 1883

and

18

MACHINE DESIGN.

194

the end of a vertical thrust-journal

If

whose outline

cone or

tractrix, as in Fig. 136, dips into a

oil will

be carried by

up between

high,

into the groove

return the

centrifugal force,

the rubbing surfaces,

A A.

oil to

its

137, the

If holes connect

is

B, the

the velocity be

will be delivered

and B, gravity

will

has simply a

flat

end, as in Fig.

should be supplied at the center of the bearing;

oil

centrifugal force will then distribute


If the oil is forced in

over the entire surface.

it

under a pressure

may

"float" the

sufficient to

shaft the friction will be greatly reduced.

journals

if

and

oil,

B, and a constant circulation will be main-

If the thrust-journal

tained.

bath of

Vertical shaft thrust-

Marine

usually be arranged to run in an oil-bath.

collar thrust-journals are always arranged to run in an oil-bath.

Fig 137,

Fig. 136.

Sometimes a journal
about
is

it,

introduced

is

stationary,

into a tube, as
it

away from

often

is

done,

its

the rubbing surface.

rotates

If the oil

centrifugal

But

if

drilled in the axis of the journal, the lubricant intro-

duced into

it

If a journal

will be carried to the


is

rubbing surfaces as required.

carried in a rotating part at a considerable dis-

tance from the axis of rotation, and


in

and the box

as in the case of a loose pulley. Fig. 138.

force will carry

hole

is

Fig. 138.

motion, a channel

may

it

requires to be oiled while

be provided from the axis of rota-

JOURNALS, BEARINGS, AND LUBRICATION-

19s

where oil may be introduced conveniently, to the rubbing surfaces, and the oil will be carried out by centrifugal

tion,

force.
is

Thus

Fig. 139

introduced at

b,

shows an engine-crank

and

the channel provided to

centrifugal

a,

where

it

force

it

Fig. 140.

bing surfaces of the crank-pin and

its

box.

If a journal

the best.

"wick -and -wiper" method

An

(See Fig. 140.)


is

mounted

is

projects from

its

delivery-tube.

hangs suspended

at

the reciprocating

part,

and

its

delivery-tube from

lubricated.

When

the

ordinary oil-cup with an adjust-

end.

which

drop of

Another
carries a

oil

oil

runs

cup

is

flat

wick

down and

attached to

hooked "wiper," C.

leads to the rubbing surfaces to be

reciprocating pait reaches the end

stroke the wiper picks off the drop of


it

one of

a proper position opposite the end of

in

the stroke of the reciprocating part, and a piece of

its

is

a reciprocating machine part, and requires to be

in

oiled while in motion, the

The

through

serves to lubricate the rub-

Fig. 139.

able feed

carries

Oil

&

:)

carried

in section.

oil

of

from the wick

runs dovra into the oil-cup C, and thence to the sur-

faces to be lubricated.

the cross-head

pin of

sometimes applied

This method applies


a steam-engine.

to the oiling of

The same method

to the crank-pin, but here,

is

through a part

MACHINE DESIGN.

196

of the revolution, the tendency of the centrifugal force

and therefore the plan of

force the oil out of the cup,

from the axis

When

is

to

oiling

probably preferable.

journals are lubricated by feed-oilers, and are

located as not to attract attention


for

is

so

the lubrication should fail

if

any reason, " tallow-boxes " or " grease-cups " are used.

These are

cup-like

depressions usually cast in the box-cap

and communicating by means


surface.

These cups are

an

of

filled

the ordinary temperature of the box, but


in

rise

if

there

temperature because of the failure of the

the grease melts

and runs

to the

rubbing

oil-hole with the

with grease that

solid

is

is

at

the least

oil- supply,

rubbing surfaces, and sup-

plies the lubrication temporarily.

This safety device

commonly on line-shaft journals.


The most common forms of feed-oilers

is

used

very

are:

I.

The

with an adjustable valve that controls the rate of flow.


oil-cup with a wick feed (Fig. 141).

The

oil-cup

II.

The

delivery has a tube

Y""'J/'("'"-

fi ).^

it

^^^

'l^'iViSJ

Fig. 142.

Fig. 143.

which projects nearly

to the top of the cup.

Fig. 141.

inserted in

this tube a piece of

wicking

the oil in the cup.

The

the oil slowly

is

inserted,

and

its

In

end dips into

wick, by capillary attraction, carries

and continuously over through the tube

to the

JOURNALS, BEARINGS, AND LUBRICATION.


rubbing surfaces.

The

oil-cup

III.

is filled

The cup with

and

into the delivery-tube


slight

the rod

down

it

a small copper rod dropped

is

resting on the surface of the journal.

between the ;K)d and the journal warms

friction

and

a copper rod (Fig. 142;.

with grease that melts with a very slight

elevation of temperature, and

The

melts the grease in contact with

the rod to the rubbing surface.

bath.

pad

is

inserted, its

bottom being

oil,

Ring-and- chain lubrication

forms of bath lubrication.

cut

loose ring rests

away

is

cut

away and

in contact with

Fig. 143

an

oil-

all oil

to the reservoir.

lubrication.

be considered as

shows a ring

the ring surrounds

the shaft carries the ring with

catch

and maintains

may

into a reservoir filled with

constant supply of

it

box

special

oiling bearing.

on top of the journal, the upper box being

to permit this;

and extends

A-A

which runs

This pad rubs against the surface of the journal, is

kept constantly soaked with

it,

IV. Sometimes a part

of the surface of the bottom half of the


felt

197

oil

from the

it,

oil.

the lower

The

box

rotation of

which, in turn, brings up a

reservoir.

The annular spaces

which works out along the shaft and return

CHAPTER

XIII.

ROLLER- AND BALL-BEARINGS.


141. General Considerations.

By substituting

rolling

in bearings in place of relative sliding, friction losses

In the design

reduced.

greatly

of

motion
can be

such bearings there are

four points to be borne in mind:


I.

The arrangement

the parts

of

such that their relative motion


possible
II.

amount

The form

is

and

their

form must be

true rolling v^ith the least

of sliding.
of the constraining surfaces

must be such that

the rolling parts will not have any effective tendency to leave
their proper guides or "races."
III.

The

rollers

and

balls

IV. Provision must be

exclude

all

dust and

These points
142.

I.

must not be unduly loaded.

made

to

admit the lubricant, and to

grit.

will be considered in the order given.

Rolling, Sliding,

and Spinning.

(See Fig. 144.)

At

is

shown

the longitudinal section of a cylindrical ball-bearing

of the simplest form stripped

of all auxiliary

parts.

At
198

ROLLERis

shown the same

AND

BALL-BEARINGS.

At

for a roller-bearing.

of either, showing but one ball or roller R.

and

the box.

contact of

Consider

R and S

were

a cross-section

is

sufl&cient there

the journal

is

as stationary, then the point of

would have the same motion

whether considered as a point


friction

199

of

or of S, and

relative to
if

would be no reason

the surface

for slippage.

As a matter of fact, in the actual bearing there will be a slight


amount of sHpping .at both of the points of contact. This form
of bearing

two points
this

is

called the " two-point bearing," because there are

of contact.

All cylindrical roller-bearings are of

fundamental form.

In order to have them of practical use

the rollers must be held in a case or "cage" so that their axes


will always remain parallel with the axis of the shaft.

shows such a "cage" with

Fig. 145

rollers in place.

Fig. 145.

Since the rollers are generally of hardened and ground steel

the best service with the least wear will be given when the

engaging surfaces are of the same material.


the shaft

and

is

of soft steel, say,

groimd-steel ring

is

and the box

fitted

To meet

this

when

of cast iron, a hardened

over the shaft as a shell and

another inside the box as a bushing, and the

rollers

run between

the outer surface of the former and the inner surface of the
latter.

Ball-bearings are subject to an action

To

illustrate this,

known

as "spinning."

consider the three-point ball-bearing

shown

MACHINE DESIGN.
in Fig. 146.

Here the centres are as shown

in B,

and the con-

ditions are correct for theoretical rolling as long as point contact


is

maintained and axis

when

the bearing

of R, with

is

C-D

become small

the relative motion

remains parallel

to axis

in use the points of contact,

of R

and

areas, as

shown

in B.

any instant

at

it

E-F.

But

on each side

will

Considering
be seen that

m
Fig. 147.

Fig. 146.

there

is

an action on each side of the ball akin to that of a small

The rubbing produced

thrust-bearing.

causes undesirable friction.


ning."

is

in this

the action

manner naturally
known as "spin-

,.-

Obviously

is

it

point bearing, as

'even

shown

Here, also, there


tact

This

is

more marked

in Fig. 147.

pure rolling motion as long as point con-

maintained, and the axes

is

G-H;

to axis

contact

C-D

areas,

E~F

and

but as soon as the load

become

in the case of a four-

and "spinning"

is

remain parallel

applied the points of

results at four surfaces.

Experiments bear out the conclusion that a properly designed


than a three-point, and

two-point bearing will have

less friction

a three-point will bave

than a four-point.

less

In a "race " whose radius of curvature


of the ball the friction

never be used.

A
it

becomes

excessive.

is

just equal to that

Such races should

(See Fig. 148.)

force acting at the surface of a ball will tend to rotate

about an axis parallel to the tangent plane in which the actu-

ROLLER.
ating force

lies

AND

20I

BALL-BEARINGS.

furthermore, this axis will be at a right angle

with the direction of the force.

This

true because

is

it is

merely

a special application of the general law that a force applied to

a body will tend to move

it

in the direction of action of the force.

^
it

Fig. 148.

The
stated

mz

Fig. 149.

general law for the form of rolling bearings

may now

be

asfoUows

For true

and box

rolling,

the constraining surfaces of the journal

the "races") must be so formed that the axes of

(i.e.,

rotation of the rollers or balls will all intersect the

main

axis

of the bearing at a fixed point throughout the complete revolution of the journal.

This

may

be made clear by examples.

shows a ball or roller R held between two similar


T and S. The upper plate, T, presses down on R with
force P which is transmitted through R to S.
Fig. 149

plates

By

r
,

on

the

principles

roll

on S,

so-called "rolling friction," to roll

require a force

i? will

overcome the
o

of

resistance.

to

which

}P

(i.e.,

The motion

rolling there is

proportional
of

on

i?

to

P)

causes

to

induced a resistance also

equal to fP, but in the opposite direction as regards R.

These

two forces being equal, opposite, and applied at the same distance from the center of R, form a couple whose effect would
be to give
center,

a motion of rotation about an axis through

and perpendicular

This case

is

to the plane in

similar to those

shown

which they both

its
lie.

in Fig. 144, except that

M/iCHlNE DESIGN.
in the cases there

ball in case

shown S and

and each

Each

are not plane surfaces.

roller in case

tends to rotate about an

axis (relatively to the " cage," not shown) as indicated

dotted

main

the

In both cases the individual axes

lines.

axis of the journal at a fixed point, namely, at infinity,

The

throughout the revolution.


is

by the

intersect

all

general law for true rolling

therefore fulfilled.

In

the

shown

cases

same conditions hold.


Next consider the

Figs. 146

in

thrust- bearings

and

147, obviously

shown

rotation of

first.'

the

is

one of

The

OY, and

A and B

are termed

inclosing cage (not shown)

OY

O.

at

be a right angle;

it

is

It is

OF

its

As

OX

more, since
of the load,

"spinning."

it

and
is

is

at

of

any

Relatively to the

OX

about the axis

which

not essential that the angle


Joining

XOY

and

R and be perpendicular to OX.

completes one revolution about

the axis

is

obvious that the conditions for true rolling are

rotate about its axis

sta-

points of contact with

essential that a line

should pass through the center of


It is

and

the

parts of the ball in obedience

to the acting force tend to rotate

always cuts

center of the ball

respectively.

all

is

moving member,

the balls,

relatively to T.

distance r from the axis

and

Fig. 150:

|c

--^^Hun
Take case A
tionary member,

in

the

A-B relative to both 5


B become small areas

OY

fulfilled.

the ball will

and T.

Further-

under the action

impossible to avoid the undesirable effect of

ROLLER-

AND

In case B, as S rotates
to

and S

similarly,

AD

203

relative to T, the point

common

have a linear velocity proportional to

will

r2

C's linear velocity will be proportional to

BC

and

BALL-BEARINGS.

If

ri.

were two equal, independent circular disks, each

would have true


tions, while

and,

rolling motion,

AD

would make

BC

and

r2.

But

would make

BC

AD

and

revolu-

ri

are both

disks of the same roller, R, and cannot rotate relative to each


other;
lutions,

the

hence they must each make the same number of revo-

and points

same

velocity,

motions of

and

which

and
is

of the disks

would have

have

to

inconsistent with the conditions of

as points of 5.

be correctly used for a thrust-bearing.

Hence a

cannot

roller

Short rollers securely

held in cages are used in practice, but experiments show that

they are not as efficient as properly designed forms.*

Consider case C.

will

have a

and

BC

to ^2

linear velocity proportional to

Consider

ri.

independent disks so proportioned that


linear velocity proportional

AD

about

its

axis

to

OX

r2,

will

Similarly, the angular velocity of

proportional to

_ _.

then the

be

BC

will

AD
j-^ =

and

have a linear velocity proportional

of

Relative to T, the double point

\i

as

has a

angular velocity

proportional to

about axis

OX

-Xnwill

be

MACHINE DESIGN.

204

This

be true of any pair of disks of the cone

will

frustrum of a cone whose apex

lies

anywhere on the axis

will therefore fulfill the conditions for true rolling


tively to

T when

Any

OBC.
motion

OY

rela-

actuated by S.

In each of the foregoing cases the rolling members must be


held in suitable " cages," or they will yield to the tendency to
displace them.

In ball thrust-bearings
in the cage that

it is

desirable to so arrange the balls

each one will have a separate path, as this

minimizes wear.

For a three-point thrust ball-bearing the form of the races


to

permit true rolling must be as shown in Fig. 151 to be in

accordance with the principles just demonstrated.


angle should be as

flat

The

groove-

as possible to reduce the friction effect

of " spinning."

About 120

The

becomes akin

ball

with which

be found a good practicable value.

will

it

to

a cone as far as

has two points of contact,

as a ball as far as

its

relation with

its

relation with T,

concerned.

is

is

concerned.

case the motion imparted to the ball tends to rotate

OX

correct axis
isfied.
is

The

and the conditions

It

it

In each

about the

for true rolling are sat-

sides of the race are tangent to the ball

cut by any line

A-B

remains

where

it

which passes through O.

Fig. 151.

Fig. 152.

four-point ball-bearing

the principles indicated in

As

far as its

ball

must be designed according

Fig.

motion relations with

becomes akin

to

a cone.

to

152 for true rolling motion.

T and 5

are concerned, the

ROLLER- /tND BALL-BEARINGS.

205

and cone three-point bearing should have

Similarly a cup

the form shown in Fig. 153.

Fig. 153.

143. II.

The form

of the constraining surfaces

in ball-bearings that the balls will not have

The

to leave their proper paths.

any

must be such

effective

tendency

use of cages for this purpose

has already been mentioned.


If

two-point bearings without cages are desired, the sectipn

of each race should be the arc of a circle whose radius


to f of the diameter of the ball.

is

j\
In two-point bearings the

points of pressure must always be diametrically opposite.

In three- and four-point bearings where the races are properly

formed for true

rolling, as explained in the

tendency for the balls to leave the races

One

reduced to a minimum.

point, however, needs further consideration.

and cone-bearings

it

is

least play

In cup-

impossible to

keep a tight adjustment at

and the

is

preceding section, the

all

will allow

times,

some

of

the balls on the unloaded side of the

bearing to get out of place.


154 shows

Fig.

such

bearing

loosely adjusted.

The
that

loaded cup

its

the cone.

axis

lies

The

is

forced

down

so
Fig. 154.

below the axis of

top

ball

is

held correctly in place for true

MACHINE DESIGN.

2o6

lower ball

the

rolling;

Investigation has

is

shown

free

to roll

to

one side as seen.

a and

that the angles

should each

/?

be at least as great as 25 in order to return the displaced ball


easily to

proper path by the time

its

the load.

If the angles are too

wedge

the balls to

it

becomes subjected to

acute there

is

a tendency for

in their incorrect positions, causing rapid

wear or even crushing.*


Allowable Loading.

III.

144.

that for high efficiency


rollers

as far as their strength

is

less

Then

and

balls

than they could be with safety

concerned.

Let Pq equal the load in pounds which


ball or roller.

show

experiments

and durability the loads on

much

should be very

Careful

is

allowable for a single

for balls

Po^Kd^,
<i

K=i 500

K=

for

= diameter

hardened

steel

of ball in inches.

balls

and

races, two-point bearing,

750 for hardened steel balls and races, three- and

four-

point bearing.

For cast-iron
For

balls

and

races use two-fifths of these values.

rollers

Po = Kdl.

= diameter of roller in inches = mean


/ = length of roller in inches,
if = 400 for cast iron,
<f

K=ioot>

for

hardened

In thrust-bearings,
balls

=, we have

if

diameter of cone,

steel.

the total

load=P and

the

number

of

for either balls or rollers

n
* See article by R. Janney in American Machinist, Jan.
t See excellent article
.1901.

by Professor Stribeck

5,

in Z. d. V. d.

1899.
I.,

Jan. 19 and 26,

ROLLER-

^ND

BALL-BEARINGS.

In cylindrical bearings the load

207

always greatest at one

is

side of the bearing, the balls or rollers on the opposite side

being entirely unloaded.

It

has been found that the load on

the heaviest loaded ball or roller =Po=-P, where n

number

of Bearing.

and

the

{i.e.

" race "

number

given the

r= radius

^To

of ball.

of

i?

= radius

AB = 2r.

by the chord

one to

mid-point of A-B.

of

ball

two consec-

From

draw two

the center of the ball circle, O,


radii,

balls

(See Fig. 155.)

Join the centers of

utive balls

determine the size of the ball

middle diameter of the

their diameter d.

circle.

the

of balls.

145. Size
circle

is

and the other

to

^^' ^^5-

the

Call the angle included between the radii a.

Then
r

= i? sin

a, and,

180

smce

n
r

R=

180

sm
This

is

the radius of a circle on which the centers of the

balls will lie

when

their surfaces are all in contact.

able to allow some clearance between the balls.

be as

much

This

may

as 0.005 inch between each pair of balls provided

the total allowance does not exceed

ance has been decided upon,

it

When

the total clear-

4
may be allowed for by making

the actual radius of the ball circle larger

one

It is desir-

sixth of the total clearance desired.

than

by an amount

MACHINE DESIGN.

2o8

146. IV. Lubrication

ning,"

faulty

and Sealing.

adjustment,

On

account of " spin-

and unavoidable slippage,

As they are extremely

bearings should be properly lubricated.


sensitive to the presence of dust

and

rolling

grit,

care must be exer-

cised that the lubricant be admitted without

any danger of

the entrance of these.

Sealed oil-holes, dust-caps, and

felt

washers are commonly

used both to retain the lubricant for bath lubrication and for

keeping out

all dirt.

CHAPTER

XIV.

COUPLINGS AND CLUTCHES.


and Clutches Defined.

147. Couplings

machine parts which are used

Couplings

to connect the

are those

ends of two shafts

or spindles in such a manner that rotation of the one will pro-

duce an identical rotation of the


in the nature of fastenings,

nent or disengaging.
148.

Permanent

manent coupling

is

The

They

other.

and may be

are therefore

perma-

classified as

latter are frequently called clutches.

Couplings.

shown

The

simplest

in Fig. 156,

" sleeve " or " muff " coupling.

Each

and

is

form

of

known

shaft has a

per-

as the

keyway cut

Fig. 156.

at the end.

The

bored an exact
length.

the key

When
is

for the shafts

the sleeve

driven

The key may be


in

cast-iron sleeve of the proportions indicated

fit

is

home and

and has a keyway cut

slipped over the ends of the shafts,


all

relative rotation is prevented.

proportioned according to the rules kid

the chapter on

Means

is

entire

its

for Preventing Relative

down

Rotation.
209

My4CHINE DESIGN.
149. Flange couplings are
illustrates

the

frequently

used,

and

Approximate proportions are

type.

Fig.

157

indicated.

OJS-H|

Fig. 157.

The number
diameter

d'

a torsional

of bolts

n may be from ^+o.$d

must be such that

moment about

to

3+d.

combined strength

their

Their

to resist

the axis of the shaft will be equal

to the torsional strength of the shaft,

nd^

nd'^,.

16'

/= allowable

stress

in

outer

fiber

of shaft,

pounds per

square inch;

= diameter of shaft, inches;


=
R radius of bolt circle, inches
n = number of bolts
<i

<;^'=

diameter of bolts, inches;

//= allowable

shearing stress in bolts, pounds per square inch.

This equation

will

approximately give

d'

150,

Compression

Figs. 158, 159,

and

couplings of three forms are


160.

The

first

is

shown

in

similar to the ordinary

211

COUPLINGS /IND CLUTCHES.


sleeve coupling except that the sleeve

and

tudinally

two

rings

is

is split

in halves longi-

The

tapered toward each end on the outside.

shown are driven or shrunk on

these tapers.

Fig. 158.

Instead of being held by rings the half sleeves are some-

times bolted together as shown in Fig. 159.

lit

Key

Fig. 159.

151.

The "

outer sleeve

bushing

is

Sellers

" coupling

shown

is

in

160.

split

cone

left for

three

bored tapering from each end.

is

Openings are

inserted at each end.

An

Fig.

Section o-b

Fig. 160.

tolts

by means

and thus
is

of

closed

also provided.

which

down on

and

are

drawn toward each other

the shaft with great force.

key

MACHINE DESIGN.

212
132.

For

Oldham's Coupling.^

lings the axes of the

two shafts must be


axes are

Rl

Where

identical.

parallel,

the

coupUng

Oldham's

may

be used.

shown

in Fig.

161,

and

consists of three parts.

Each

shaft

It is

end has keyed

L^

foregoing coup-

the

of

all

to

a flange or disk

it

which has a diametral groove cut across

Fig. 161.

Between these two disks

face.

its

a third which has a tongue on each face.


just

fit

and are
153.

the grooves

Hooke's

Coupling.

couphng or " universal


outline in Fig. 162.

each other.

For axes which

joint "

Each

is

tongues, which

diametrically across the disk

run

freely,

at a right angle with

The

may be

intersect,

used.

It is

Hooke's

shown

shaft has a stirrup keyed to

its

in

end.

Fig. 162.

Each

stirrup

is

connected by turning pairs to a cross-shaped

intermediate member,
at a right angle.

the reader

is

the

axes

of

whose turning

For a mathematical analysis

of this

referred to Professor Kennedy's

pairs

are

mechanism

"Mechanics of

Machinery."
154. Flexible Couplings.

may become
some form

Where

slightly out of

in Fig.

163.

which are or which

alignment are

of flexible coupling

is illustrated

shafts

Each

is

advisable.

to

be connected,
Their principle

shaft has keyed to

its

end a

COUPLINGS AND CLUTCHES.


disk

which has

setin its face a

number

213

The

of pins.

pins are

so placed that those in the one circle will not strike those in
the other

if

either shaft

When

rest.

one shaft

is
is

rotated while the other remains at


short belts are

to drive the other,

placed on the pins as shown in B, Fig. 163.

Fig. 163.

155. Disengaging

positive drive

commonly
of two

and

called

couplings

or

of

two

general

Positive-drive

friction drive.

toothed

members having

in Fig. 164,

are

classes:

couplings are

They

claw couplings.

projections on their faces, as

which interlock when

in action.

is

consist

shown

keyed rigidly

Fig. 164.

to

its

shaft.

B can slide along its

shaft guided by the feather,

but cannot rotate except with the shaft.

When B

is

jF,

moved

214

M/iCHINE DESIGN.

in the direction of the arrow, its teeth

and

D
is

the

engage with those of A,

two shafts must have the same motion of rotation.

The

shows the end of the lever which moves B.


bolted around

in the groove ,

times short blocks which


ring.

and

may

equals the

following equations

may

and

In the
is

opposed

Some-

are used in place of the entire

first

be used.*

mean

If

w equals the number

radius of the clutch tooth the

be written

/"~a"

shaft,

split ring

freely.

it fits

shows an end view of the half clutch.

Various forms of teeth


of teeth

fit

which

^ ^"^ /'

equation, /.-t", the torsional strength of the

equated to the crushing resistance of


to

the

torsional

A'

stress.

gaging face of one tooth and

all

the teeth

the area of the

is

en-

/^

the allowable unit crushing

stress.

In the second equation


tooth subjected to shear

and

is
/,'

the area of
is

the

root of the

the allowable unit shearing

stress.

156. Friction

couplings generally consist of two parts, a

hollow cone, A, keyed rigidly to one shaft, and a sliding cone,


B, held by a feather on the second shaft as seen in Fig. 165.

By means
siderable

of a lever,

axial

conical surfaces,

which

can be forced against

pressure.

This induces

friction

resists

friction

relative

with a con-

between the
rotation.

To

analyze the forces, consider Fig. 166 which shows two conical

* See

article in

American Machinist, July

9,

1903.

COUPLINGS AND CLUTCHES.


surfaces pressed together by an axial force P.
vertex of the cone

is

2a.

rK

tS

The

angle at the

2i6

MACHINE DESIGN.
Table XVIII.

157.

Weston

ciple of the

^=o.io

to 0.15 for cast iron

= 0.15

to 0.20 for cast iron

=0.20

to 0.30 for cast

= 0.20

to 0.50 for cast

Friction Coupling.

Weston

on cast iron
on paper
iron on leather
iron on wood.

For heavy

friction coupling, as

shown

duty the prinin Fig. 167,

may

Section ILB

Fig. 167.

be used.

The

of iron rings

sleeve

of the

wooden

is

sleeve

carries

two feathers on which a number

can slide but not rotate.

Similarly the hollow

provided with feathers which prevent the rotation


rings

D, while not interfering with

their sliding.

Fig. 168.

Let there be n iron


A, there

will

rings.

Then, when

is

pressed toward

be friction induced on 2M + 1 surfaces.

the axial pressure and

/x

If

the coefi&cient of friction, the

is

total

COUPLINGS AND CLUTCHES.

217

F = fiP{2n + i), and if r = the mean radius


moment which can be transmitted =M = Fr.

friction

the

158.

Fig. 168.

combination friction- and claw-clutch

To

start the driven shaft,

is

left,

thus

its

proper speed,

is

is

shown

in

forced to the right,

thus bringing the friction cones into action.


shaft has attained

of the rings,

When

the driven

suddenly shifted to the

causing the claw-clutch to engage, which gives the

advantage of positive driving.

CHAPTER

XV.

BELTS.

Motion by

159. Transmission of

and
let

Belts.

In

Fig. 169, let

be two cylindrical surfaces, free to rotate about their axes;

CD

be their

tensible

common

connection

between

inextensible, the points

and

tangent,

let it

represent an inex-

two cylinders.

the

Since

and C, and hence the surfaces

it

is

of the

Fig. 169.

cylinders,

must have the same

Two

as indicated by the arrow.


velocity,

and

linear velocity

different radii,

the cylinders have the

same

velocities

which are

Hence, since the surfaces

linear velocity, their

velocities are inversely proportional to their radii.

belt.

Let

become

CD'

pulleys,

be drawn;

together with the portions

and the tangent

this

is

The

belt will

true

Suppose

line to

become

becomes a part of the

BED' and CFC, making

and rotation may be continuous.

angular

This

of all cylinders connected by inextensible connectors.

the cylinders to

rotated

is

points having the same linear

have angular

inversely proportional to their radii.


of

when

it

belt

endless,

remain always

tangent to the pulleys, and will transmit such rotation that the
2l8

BELTS.

219

angular velocity ratio will constantly be the inverse ratio of the


radii of the pulleys.

The

case considered corresponds to a crossed belt, but the

same reasoning applies

are two pulleys,

points

and

to

an open

(See Fig. 170.)

belt.

and CDD'C'C

an open

is

are connected by a belt that

tensible, the linear velocity of

and

is

and

Since the

belt.

practically inex-

the same;

is

therefore

the angular velocities of the pulleys are to each other inversely

of gears the condition of velocity


first

in

were pitch cylinders

If the pulleys in either case

as their radii.

would be the same.

case, however, the direction of

the second case

it

is

not.

motion

Hence the

In the

is

reversed, while

first

corresponds to

gears meshing directly with each other, while the second corre-

sponds to the case of gears connected by an


of

an annular gear and pinion.

driving-gears are indispensable,

While
it is

in

idler,

many

or to the case

places positive

frequently the case that the

relative position of the axes to be connected is such as

demand

gears

belts are

used with the

Of course
ness;
is

would

of inconvenient or impossible proportions,

it is

and

sacrifice of positive driving.

necessary that a belt should have some thick-

and, since the center of pull

is

the center of the belt,

it

necessary to add to the radius of the pulley half the thickness

of the belt.

The motion communicated by means

of belting,

however, does not need to be absolutely correct, and therefore


in practice

it is

usually customary to neglect the thickness of the

20

MACHINE DESIGN.

The proportioning

belt.

required velocity ratio


i6o. Illustration.

and

ute,

is

of pulleys for the transmission of any-

now

is

a very simple matter.

line-shaft runs 150 revolutions per

required to transmit motion from this shaft to a

1800 revolutions per minute.


can

that

be

conveniently used

X = the diameter

with

16-inch

of required pulley for the

But a pulley

used on a dynamo.*

less

dynamo

30-inch pulley

It is

to run

the largest

is

hangers.

dynamo

what has preceded x-^ 30 = 150 -^1800, and


inches.

min-

supported by hangers with 16 inches "drop."

Let

then from

therefore

^ = 2.5

than 4 inches diameter should not be

Suppose

in this case that

it

is

6 inches.

then impossible to obtain the required velocity ratio with one

It is

change of speed,

i.e.,

with one

belt.

Two

changes of speed

Fig. 171.

may
this
it is

be obtained by the introduction of a counter-shaft.

means

the velocity ratio

is

divided into two factors.

wished to have the same change of speed from the

to the counter as

velocity ratio

from the counter

to the

would be \/(i8oo-^i5o)

By
If

line shaft

dynamo, then each

=Vi2

=3.46.

But

this

gives an inconvenient fraction, and the factors do not need to be


'

This

limitirig size is

detennined mainly by considerations of thickness of

belt required to transmit the energy, its durability,

and

its efficiency.

(See 171.)

221

BELTS.

Let the factors be

equal.

sents the line-shaft,

The

and

(See Fig. 171.)

4.

the counter, and

pulley on the line-shaft

is

the

dynamo-shaft.

and the speed

30 inches,

repre-

is

to

be

three times as great at the counter, therefore the pulley on the

counter connected with the line-shaft pulley must have a diam-

one third as great as that on the line-shaft = 10 inches.

eter

The

pulley on the

shaft

is

to run

dynamo is 6 inches in diameter and

one fourth as

fast as the

the counter-

dynamo, and therefore

the pulley on the counter opposite the dynamo-pulley

four times as large as the dynamo-pulley


161.

may

belt

= 24

must be

inches.

be shifted from one part of a pulley to

another by means of pressure against the side which advances

towards the

the rotation be as

and

Thus

pulley.

if,

in Fig.

172,

indicated by the arrow,

side pressure be applied at A, the belt

pushed

will be

to one side, as

will consequently be

is

shown, and

some new

carried into

position on the pulley further to the

Hence,

advances.

maintain

its

left

in order that a belt

position on a pulley,

as

it

may

the cen-

TER LINE OF THE ADVANCING SIDE OF THE


BELT MUST BE PERPENDICULAR TO THE AXIS OF ROTATION.

When

this condition is fulfilled

the belt will run

and

trans-

mit the required motion, regardless of the relative position of


the shafts.
162. Twist

Belts.

In

Fig. 173 the axes

AB

and

parallel to each other, the above stated condition

and the

belt will

run correctly; but

if

the axis

CD

is

CD

are

fulfilled,

were turned

some new position, as CD', the side of the belt that advances
toward the pulley E from F cannot have its center line in a

into

plane perpendicular to the axis, AB, and therefore

But

if

a plane be passed through the line

the plane of the paper, then the axis

may

CD,

it

will

run

off.

perpendicular to

be swung in this plane

M/tCHINE DESIGN.

22

in

way

such a

that the necessary condition shall be fulfilled,

This gives what

the belt will run properly.

is

known

and

as

"twist" belt, and when the angle between the shaft becomes
90,

it

Rotation

Fig. 174.

and

it is

To make

a "quarter-twist" belt.

is

is

transmitted from

required to turn the axis of

io

this

clearer, see

B\>y an open

belt,

out of parallelism with

/
I
/

/
I
I
/
)

^'

^+-7
c
2 ^/(^

-.D'

Fig. 173.

that of A.

arrows.
to pass

The

Draw

Fig. 174.

direction of rotation

the line

CD.

If

now

is

as indicated by the

the line

through the center of the belt at

become an

and the pulley

axis,

may

be turned about

belt

ED

it,

the pulley

B when

During

CF, which

is

rotation occurs,

to the axis of

A.

its

this

is

A and

it

belt

may

FC

the part of the

motion the center

line

always in a plane perpen-

The

part

ED,

since

it

has

center line in a plane perpendicular

Therefore the pulley

any angular position about

supposed

the part that advances toward

dicular to the axis of the pulley B.

not been moved, has also

is

and D,

and the part of the

while the pulley

remain stationary.

of the part of the belt

CD

CD

B may

as an axis,

be swung into

and the condition

of proper belt transmission will not be interfered with.


163. If the

axes intersect the motion can be transmitted

BELTS.

223

between them by belting only by the use of "guide" or "idler"


pulleys.
let it

of

AB

and CD,

Fig. 175, be intersecting axes,

be required to transmit motion from one

means
lines

Let

and F.

through the pulleys.

Draw

of a belt ruiming

EK

and

FH

any convenient

size,

the axis of the circle, G,

on the pulleys

tangent to the lines


let

and

to the other

EK

Draw

by

center

the circle, G,

and

FH.

In

a shaft be placed on which are two

pulleys, their diameters being equal to that of the circle, G.

/^

MACHINE DESIGN.

224

Crowning Pulleys.

164.

Ac

15

'^/'Y

have

AE

its

If

as in Fig.

pulley,

flat belt is

put on a "crowning "

176, the tension

CD.

greater than on
jj

The

on

AB

belt lying fiat at

will be

AC

approaching portion bent out as indicated by

and CF, and as

rotation goes on the belt will

be carried toward the high part of the pulley,


it

tend

will

to

run in the middle

SJ

Fig ^176

will

'^^^^ ^^ ^^^ reason

why

nearly

i.e.,

pulley.

the

of

all belt pulleys,

except

those on which the belt has to be shifted into different


positions, are turned

165.

"crowning."

Cone Pulleys.

In performing different operations on a

machine or the same operations on materials

of different degrees

The simplest way


One pulley has a

of hardness, different speeds are required.


.of

obtaining them

series of steps,

is

By

series of steps.

the velocity ratio


all

by use of cone

is

shifting the belt

the pairs of steps, these

tight

must be

to another
is

used on

so proportioned that the

be the same

otherwise the belt

on some of the steps and too loose on others.

Let the case of a crossed belt be


of a crossed belt

from one pair

Since the same belt

changed.

belt length for all the pairs shall

would be too

pulleys.

and the opposing pulley has a corresponding

may

first

considered.

The

length

be expressed by the following formula:

Let i=length of the belt; c?=distance between centers of rota-

i?=radius of the larger pulley; r=radius of the smaller

tion;

Then

(See Fig. 177.)

pulley.

L^2Vd^-{R + r)^ + (R + r)(7c + 2


In the case of a crossed
that the

sum

of

will

be constant.

and

r,

R+r

and

is

is

belt, if the size of steps is

their radii

For

arc whose sine

(R + r)-^d).

changed

so

remains constant, the belt length

in the

formula the only variables are

these terms only appear in the formula as

by hypothesis constant.

R + r;

but

Therefore any change that

is

225

BELTS.

made

in the variables

and

r,

so long as their

will not affect the value of the equation,

length will be constant.

It will

now

transmit a certain velocity ratio.

of belt being the

given steps

R'+r'^a;

same

in

belt

be easy to design cone

velocity ratio, the length

Let

both cases.

to

required to find a pair

It is

some other

/ = radii

R' and

constant,

is

and hence the

Suppose a pair of steps given

pulleys for a crossed belt.

of steps that will transmit

sum

and

radii of the

of the required steps

the velocity ratio of R' to

r'

=b.

R+r=

There are two

Fig. 177.

equations between R' and


bining and solving,

For an open

it is

belt the

as for crossed belt,

+ r' =a. Comthat r' =a-^{i+b), and R' =a r'.

R' ^r' =b, and R'

r',

found

formula for length, using same symbols

is

L=2V(P-{R-rf + n{R + r)
+ 2{R r)
If

and

(arc

whose sine

changed as before

r are

Rr

constant), the term

would

{i.e.,

is

{R r)-^

d).

R + r = R' + r'=a.

of course not be constant,

and

two of the terms of the equation would vary in value; therefore


the length of the belt would vary.
steps for

open

belts

The determination

therefore becomes a more

difficult

of cone

matter,

and approximate methods are almost invariably used.


166. Graphical

Method

for

Cone-pulley Design.

lowing graphical approximate method

and

is

is

due

to

The

fol-

Mr. C. A. Smith,

given, with full discussion of the subject, in "Transactions

226

MACHINE DESIGN.
American Society

of the

Suppose

p. 269.

of

X,

Mechanical Engineers," Vol.

that the diameters of a pair of cone steps

first

that transmit a certain velocity ratio are given, and that the

diameters of another pair that shall serve to transmit some

The

other velocity ratio are required.


of axes

is

given.

distance between centers

Locate the pulley centers

(See Fig. 178.)

Fig. 178.

and O'

at the given distance apart;

about these centers draw

circles

whose diameters equal the diameters

steps;

draw a

straight line

GH

of the given pair of

tangent to these circles;

at J,

the middle point of the line of centers, erect a perpendicular,

and lay

off

a distance

JK equal

to the distance

between centers,

C, multiplied by the experimentally determined constant 0.314;

about the point

gent to the line

GH.

common

the

so determined,

Any

line

draw a

OD

is

AB

tan-

to this arc will

be

tangent to a pair of cone steps giving the same

belt length as that of the given pair.

that

circular arc

drawn tangent

For example, suppose

the radius of one step of the required pair; about O,

with a radius equal to

OD, draw

a circle

tangent to this circle

AB draw a straight line DE; about O' and tangent


DE draw a circle its diameter will equal that of the required

and the arc


to

step.

But suppose

that, instead of

having one step of the required

pair given, to find the other corresponding as above, a pair of

BELTS.

227

Steps are required that shall transmit a certain velocity ratio,

= r,

with the same length of belt as the given pair.

OD and O'E to represent the unknown steps.


ratio

equals

Also, '

r.

Ob^O'E^FO^FO'.
and FO'=x.
r

and C

steps

r=

Therefore

from

if

to

it

The

FO=C + x,

but

C-\-x

and x

ri

triangles

Hence with

AB,

will give the velocity ratio,

any pair

of cones

located,

the cone

and a

r,

determined by a

AB. The point F often falls at an inconvenient


The radii of the required steps may then be found
Place a straight-edge tangent

as follows:

measure

velocity

x may be found, and a point F

belt length equal to that of

distance.

r=^,-

a line be drawn tangent to

drawn tangent

tangent to

The given

But from similar

Therefore

given, the distance

such that

= Q7g-

Suppose

perpendicular

the

may

straight-edge

to

distances from

the arc
it

to

AB

and

and O'.

be shifted until these distances bear

the required relation to each other.


167. Design

of

connected by a

produce rotation
practically

Belts.

belt.

Fig.

this tension

equal.

Let

in the

the belt

and

is

is

applied tending to

represent

this

tension.

is

now

If

Rl, be applied to

the

to increase the tension in the lower side of

to decrease the tension in the

upper

equal to P, the force with which rotation

Then

rotation begins *

this equality continues;

i.e.,

is resisted

With

side.

the increase of Rl this difference of tension increases

of the pulley.

pulleys

two sides of the belt

Tz
an increasing moment, represented by
driver, its effect

two

represents

179

When no moment

till

it

is

at the surface

and continues as long as

as long as Ti

T2=P,

in

which

T'i= tension in the driving side and T'2= tension in the slack
* While the moving parts are being brought up to speed the difference
tension

must equal

plus force necessary to produce the acceleration.

of

228

M/ICHINE DESIGN.

The

tension in the driving side

side.

(See Fig. i8o.)

at the

expense of that in the slack side.

T
To

The

find the value of ^^r.

increased

is

= T3.

Therefore

increase in tension from the

I 2

slack side to the driving side


resistance between the belt

is

possible because of the frictional

and pulley

surface.

Consider any

Fig. 179.

Fig. 180.

element of the

belt,

ds,

Fig.

181.

It

is

in

equilibrium under

the action of the following forces:

T, the value of the varying tension at one end of ds;

T + dT,

the value of the varying tension at the other

end

of ds:

cds, the centrifugal force;

pds, the pressure

dF = fipds,

the

between the face

friction

of the pulley

pulley face.

Let the value of cds be

Let

and

ds;

between the element of belt and

first

determined.

A = sectional area of belt in square inches;


7 = total tension at any section in pounds;

BELTS.

t=aUowable working

229

tension in

pounds per square inch

of cross-section of belt, so that

4=;
t

w= weight

of belt per cubic inch;


belt in feet per minute;

'7= velocity of

7;= velocity of belt in feet per second;

= radius of pulley in feet;


r= radius of pulley in inches;

22

^= acceleration

due

to gravity

= 32.2

feet per

second per

second

C= centrifugal force per cubic inch


c= centrifugal

of belt in pounds;

force per linear inch of belt in pounds.

M/tCHINE DESIGN.

230

mass X velocity^

Centrifugal
force

= j--

radius of curvature

ifl

C= -^

in foot-pounds-second system.

As an abbreviation

T w

v^

let z

v^

12'wv^

cds

= Tds.

12'WV'^

gi

:.c = T,

and

T
Now,

to find the value of -7^:


J 2

Since

dT

is

small compared with T, no appreciable error

introduced by considering

-pds

and we may write the equation (sum

of ^5,

is

as acting normally to the chord


of vert.

comp. =0,

in Fig. 181)

pds + cds^T

a = total
d

is

dQ\

arc of contact in degrees.

the total arc of contact in radians =0.01 75a.


.

dd

dd

/
sm~^{T + dT)U,-s^.\.

is

radians.

so small that sin

Also

dT and

their product

pds^cds^Tdd.
pds

= Tde-cds = Tdd-Tds.
r

But

ds^rdd.
pds

in

dd both being very small compared to

Therefore

:.

dJd

be considered equal to

any terms containing

the other quantities,

dropped.

dd

may

= Tdd - TzdO = T(i-z) dd.

may

be

BELTS.

Summing

the

moments about o

231
(Fig. 181) gives

T + dT = T+p.pds.
dT =tipds=}iT{i-z)dd.

:.

dT

= fiii-z)dd,

-Y=^fi(^-z}J^dd.

log,yi = //(i-z)5

common

and

log

T
=
^
J-

The

.4343//(i-z)/?.

following equations are

now

established:

Ti-Tz-'P,

(i)

Ti + T2 = 2T3,

(2)

T
jr = 4343/^(1 -z)^

log

When
of z

is

the belt speed

so small that

it

under 2000

is

^3)

feet per

minute the value

may be neglected, and equation


log

(3)

becomes

= .4343/^jr
J
2

The

right-hand

members

mined; hence the value

may
If

of (i)

of

and

(the

(3)

can usually be deter-

maximum stress in the


may be given to the

be found, and proper proportions

belt.

foot-pounds per minute are to be transmitted, and the

velocity of the rim of the pulley transmitting this

per minute equals V, then the force

by the

belt)

velocity, or

P=

W
y-.

The

power

in feet

equals the work divided

value of

is

found from the

diameters of the pulleys and their distance between centers,

MACHINE DESIGN.

232

The

and may usually be estimated accurately enough.


of

fi,

value

the coefficient of friction, varies with the kind of belting,

the material

and with

of surface of the pulley,

and character

the rate of slip of the belt on the pulley.

Experiments made

at the laboratory of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology,

under the direction

of Professor

Lanza, indicate that for leather

on turned cast-iron pulleys, the rate of slip for

belting running

efficient driving is

about 3

to

4 feet per minute; and also that

the coefficient of friction corresponding to this rate of slip


about 0.27. The value 0.3 may be used. If this value of

be used, the sUp

above hmits,

will be kept within the

be put on with a proper

initial tension,

= r3^

T1

if

+ T2
-,

is
//

the belt

and the

driving of the belt so designed will be satisfactory.

The weight
= w = 0.035 lb.
The

of leather belting

on the average per cubic inch

value of the allowable tension varies with the quality of

the belt, the nature of the splice,

per square inch

This
belt.

is

is

and v

and
is

/.

...

= 300

lbs.

per inch of width of single

is

has been computed

the velocity of the belt in

the velocity in feet per second.

Table XIX.

lbs.

following table of values of

with these values of


feet per minute,

a good safe value for ordinary conditions.

about equivalent to 70

The

and other items.

Values of

z.

BELTS.

9000

feet-

i z

This would make the term

per minute.

reduce

In other words the belt can transmit no power at this

to zero.

speed because the centrifugal force

is

so great that

no pressure

between the belt and the face of the pulley and hence

exists

there

233

is

no

friction.

168. Problem.

= 0.667

^A single-acting

connected

has a plunger 8 inches

whose stroke has a constant length

foot in diameter,

The number

10 inches =0.833 ^oot.

The plunger

pump

of strokes per

minute

is

50.

actuated by a crank, and the crank-shaft

is

by spur-gears

to a pulley-shaft, the ratio of

of

is

gears

being such that the pulley-shaft runs 300 revolutions per minute.

The

pulley which receives the

The
The

inches in diameter.

per

square

minute, and

inch.
its

axis

is

power from

the line-shaft

pressure in the delivery-pipe


line-shaft

runs

is

is

100

18

lbs.

150 revolutions per

at a distance of 12 feet

from the axis of

the pulley-shaft.

Since the line-shaft runs half as fast as the pulley-shaft, the

diameter of the pulley on the line-shaft must be twice as great

The work

as that on the pulley-shaft, or 36 inches.

per minute, neglecting the friction in the machine,


the

number

by the head

of

to be
is

done

equal to

pounds of water pumped per minute multiplied

in feet against

which

it

is

The number

pumped.

of cubic feet of water per minute, neglecting "slip," equals the

displacement of the plunger in cubic feet multiplied by the

number

of

mmute =

strokes per

water corresponds

to

and therefore 100

lbs.

of

100^0.433=231

One

The

foot

Xo.833X5o = i4.55,

pumped per minute

vertical height

a pressure of 0.433

lb.

or

"head"

of

per square inch,

per square inch corresponds to a "head"

feet.

ing the water therefore


ft.-lbs.

4
of pounds of water

and therefore the number

= 14.55X62.4 = 908.

0.6672x7:

velocity of

is

pump-

The work done per minute

in

equal to 908 lbs.X23i feet

= 209,748

the rim of the belt-pulley

is

equal to

MACHINE DESIGN.

234

300 Xi.5X;r = i4i4 feet per minute.

Pa = 209,748
148

P = Ti
=

Therefore the force

per minute -H1414 feet

ft. -lbs.

minute

per

lbs.

Fig. 182.

To

find

R-r

Fig.

(see

n measure

T
log Tpr

= r =

a = i8o-2^ = i8o-7

Therefore ^ = 3 35';
in

sin/?

182)

io'

g"
^7=0.0625.

= i72'^

50';

= 172! X 0.0175 =3.025 =d.

= 0.4343 X/zX^ =0.4343X0.3X3.025 =0.3941.

i 2

^=2.48; P = ri-r2 = i48.

.-.

Combining these equations Ti

maximum

the

The

is

found to be equal to 248

lbs.,

stress in the belt.

cross-sectional area of belt should be equal to

= ^t

300

0.83 square inch.


Single-thickness belting varies from 0.2 to 0.25 of an inch in
thickness, hence the width called for

0.83
0.2

= 4 mches,

say.

169. Problem.

sixty -horse-power

revolutions per minute

Power

suppUed by a

is

minute.

The
is

by our problem would be

10 to

dynamo

is

to

and has a 15-inch pulley on


line-shaft

suitable belt connection

run 1500
its shaft.

running 150 revolutions per


is

to be designed.

angular velocities of dynamo-shaft to line-shaft


hence the diameter of the pulley on the line-shaft

ratio of
I

would have

to

be ten times as great as that of the one on the

BELTS.

dynamo, =12.5

feet,

if

235

This

the connections were direct.

inadmissible, and therefore the increase in speed must

tained by

means

of an intermediate or counter shaft.

is

be ob-

Suppose

that the diameter of the largest pulley that can be used on the

counter-shaft

=48

counter-shaft

inches.

Then

necessary speed of the

the

500 X -5 =470, nearly.

The

of the required pulleys for connecting the

counter-shaft

= 3-i3-

be used on the

line-shaft, then the

the belt to connect the

dynamo

The work = 60X33,000 = 1,980,000


of the

ft. -lbs.

inches, nearly.

Ti-T2 = ^^ T^ =336
5890

lbs.

Con-

to the counter-shaft.

per minute; the rim

X 1500 = 5890

dynamo-pulley moves

Therefore

and the

diameter of the required

=19

first

line-shaft

Suppose that a 60-inch pulley can

pulley for the coimter-shaft will=


sider

ratio of diameters

The

feet

per minute.

axis of the

coun ter-

"^"^

shaft

is

ID feet from the axis of the dynamo, and, as before,

Rr 24-7.5

sm/? = -y- = -^^^=o.i37S.

= 7 54'.
=
a 180- 2/? = 164 12',
6 = i64.2 X0.0175 =2.874.

Therefore

The
to

5890

/?

nearest value of V, in the table for values of z


is

6000, and the corresponding value of z

is

i'-z = o.56s.

Hence

log

-^ =0-4343X0.3X0.565X2.874 =0.2111;
.:

1^=1.626.
-t

ri=i.626r2.

(p. 232),

0.435.

MACHINE DESIGN.

236

Ti- 72 = 336

But

0.62672 = 336

.'.

.-.

The

double belt

slips at

72 = 537

lbs.

71=873

lbs.

a double

it

1X2.9=8

belt

Driving

of

This

The

{i.e.,

velocity

therefore,

ratio,

then,

From

is

when ^
of

the

equation

7
, when
is

belt

(3),

the belt

constant), de-

remains

also

independent of the

initial

hence "taking up " a belt does not change

T^;

tension,

Our problem,

inches, say, wide.

follows that the ratio of tensions,

pends only upon a.

square inches.

300

Capacity.

a certain allowable rate

constant.

= 873 =2.9

about | inch thick.

is

170. Variation

231,

lbs.

cross-sectional area of the belt

calls for

p.

lbs.

72

The
on

tension, 7i

difference of

Because

T3.

pulley,

follows that

dT

is,

however, dependent

normal pressure between

the

p,

as

directly

varies

72=7,
then,

73,

varies with T3,

since

and

belt

dF = fipds = dT

it

and hence

fdT^Ti
This

varies with 73.

equivalent to saying that "taking

up "

belt increases its driving capacity.

This result
problem.

and
of

is

If

is

73

modified because another variable enters the


is

changed, the amount of slipping changes,

the coefficient of friction varies directly with the


slipping.

and decrease
is also true.

Therefore
fi

an increase of

in the expression

-This

is

T^ would

amount

increase

fipds=dT, and the converse

probably of no practical importance.

BELTS.

The

P may

value of

237

by increasing

also be increased

the coefficient of friction, or

6,

either

fi,

the arc of contact, since increase

T
of

either

increases

the

and

ratio Tfr,
-t

Increasing Tz decreases

the

therefore

increases

life

the

of

belt.

It

also

in-

creases the pressure on the bearings in which the pulley-shaft

and therefore increases

runs,

greater
lost to

or 6

is

amount

frictional

of the energy supplied

any useful purpose.

But

increased, the driving

power

if

Tz

P by

When

increase of

AppHcation
crease
If,

possible, therefore,
fi

or

d,

is

kept constant, and

//

pressure

remains

preferable to increase

is

it

= 2 Ts

rather than by increase of Tz.

may

belt-dressing

of

hence a

increased without increase

is

of pressure in the bearings, because this

constant.

resistance;

converted into heat and

is

serve

sometimes

to

in-

11.

as in Fig. 181, the arrangement

side of the belt

is

is

such that the upper

the slack side, the "sag " of the belt tends to

increase the arc of contact,

and therefore

T
to increase t^t-t

the lower side

is

the slack side, the belt sags

away from

If

the pulleys

T
and

and

-7^ are decreased,


-t

Fig

An

idler-pulley, C,

may

183.

be used, as in Fig. 183.

against the belt by some means.

Its

purpose

by increasing the

tension,

Ts =

pressed

be to increase

rp

rp

may

It is

In this case friction

MACHINE DESIGN.

238

in the bearings is increased,

Or

it

may

T
-

value as

method should be avoided.

and therefore P, the driving

is

In

force.

value of

this case the

may be

this

be used on a slack belt to increase the angle of con-

the ratio -=-,

tact, a,

and

T3,

consistent with driving,

may

be

made

as small a

and hence the journal

friction

small.

Tighteners are sometimes used with slack belts for dis-

engaging gear, the driving-pulley being vertically below the


follower.

In the use of any device to increase

remembered that Ti

is

/i

greater than the value for which the belt

may

should be

was designed.

This

upon

to

is

above the larger one,

it

Fig. 185.

sooner than upon B.

The weight

ever, tends to increase the pressure

and

it

may become

has a smaller arc of contact, and hence the belt would

Fig. 184.

slip

a,

result in injury to the belt.

In Fig. 184, the smaller pulley. A,


B.

and

thereby increased, and

of the belt,

decrease the pressure between the belt and B.

driving capacity of

diminished;

is

or, in other

how-

between the belt and A,

thereby increased, while that of

The

is

words, the weight of the belt tends to

equalize the inequality of driving power.

If the larger pulley

had been above, there would have been a tendency for the
belt weight to increase the inequaHty of driving capacity of the

BELTS.

The

pulleys.
is

conclusion from

this,

239
as to arrangement of pulleys,

obvious.
171. Proper Size

tends to bend

around a

belt

of Ptilleys.

Work must

it.

it

bent the more work

is

required and the more rapidly the belt

AB,

Fig. 185, to represent a belt which

B.

If

by the

therefore, to

belt,

it

The work done

useless heat

why
The

runs upon

it

upon D.

friction

do as

little

which

belt resists a force

be done, therefore, in bending a

The more

pulley.

is

worn

is

Suppose

out.

moves from

toward

must be bent more than

if

it

in

bending the

between the

It is desirable,

belt fibers.

bending as possible.

large pulleys in general are

more

runs

belt is converted into

This

efficient

is

than

one reason
little

ones.

resistance to bending increases with the thickness of the

and hence double

belts should not be

used on small pulleys

can be avoided.

if it

belts

may

Triple

"

Quadruple

"

"
"

Double

be used on pulleys 12" and over.

"
"

172. Distance Desirable

"
"

"

"

20"

"

"

"

30"

"

between Shafts.

make

belting care should be taken not to

In

the design of

the distance between

the shafts carrying the pulleys too small, especially


possibility of

and the

sudden changes of load.

total yielding

Belts have

under any given

if

there

some

may

the

elasticity,

stress is proportional to

There-

the length, the area of cross-section being the same.


fore a long belt

is

becomes a yielding part, or spring, and

its

yielding

reduce the stress due to a suddenly applied load to a safe

value ; whereas in the case of a short belt, with other conditions


exactly the same, the stress due to

much

weaken the

joint.

sufficient to rupture or

173. Rope-drives.

The

less yielding

might be

formulae which have been derived

for belts also apply to rope-drives.

For good durability the

allowable tension in a rope-drive should be about 2Qod^

where d

is

the diameter of the rope in inches.

lbs.

Experiments

MACHINE DESIGN.

240

vary greatly in the value of the coefficient of friction for a welllubricated rope on a flat-surfaced smooth metal pulley.

on
of

fiat

pulleys;

The

(3J,

following table gives the values of

Table XX.
Angle of groove in degrees

made

for

[i

in the

angle of groove

not 0.12 but o.i2Xcosec

of grooves.

IJ-

may

instead of this they run in grooves on the faces

sheave wheels, and substitution must be

formula

It

But ropes are not commonly used

be taken equal to 0.12.*

30

p.

for different angles

BELTS.

The

very rapidly.

241.

following table gives the

minimum

values,

being the diameter of the wheel and d that of the rope


Table XXIII.

d..

I"

D.

24

li"
48

36

li"
60

72

D =40(i.

It is still better to

make

Two

rope-driving are in use, the

systems of

EngHsh and
of ropes

the American.

are used

single continuous rope

As long

tightener.

In the former a number

by

side

side.

In the latter a

used with a guide and

is

as all

the

grooves

each

in

sheave are ahke, each rope will tend to carry


proportionate

share

system,

provided

original

tension,

of

all

the

ropes

the

its

load in the English

same

had. the

and have stretched

same

the

amount.

For the American system the grooves


sheave

larger

those in the

should have

a greater angle than

smaller sheave or the

unequally divided

among

in the

load will be

the various wraps of the

rope.*

The tension in each wrap of the rope will be the


same, when running, if the friction on each sheave
wheel is the same.
The friction on each pulley
will

of

be

the

contact

same
by

the

if

the

products of

respective

the arcs

coefficients

are

equal.

Let //= coefficient of larger sheave =0.12 cosec -

Fig. 186.

7-= angle of groove of larger sheave;

Q:=arc of contact of larger sheave;


* See further Proc.
Rope-driving.

Am. Soc

C. E., Vol. XXIII.

Mr. Spencer Miller on

'

MACHINE DESIGN.

242

u'
'^

= coefficient

of smaller sheave

=0.12 cosec

= angle of groove of smaller sheave


a' = arc of contact of smaller sheave.
y'

Then

fta

should =fi'a'.
: . cosec

r
-fa'
= cosec
X.
2

The
hesion

following table gives the proper values for equal ad-

Table XXIV.

Angle of Groove for EqrAL Adhesion.

Arc of contact on small pulley a'


Arc of contact on large pulley a
Angle of groove in large pulley when
'

'

groove in small pulley = 35

Angle of groove in large pulley when


groove in small pulley =40

Angle of groove in large pulley when


groove in small pulley = 45

u.Q

243

BELTS.

For durability a few turns of a larger rope are preferable

more turns

to

of a smaller rope.

The most economical


wear into consideration,

is

speed, taking

first

cost

and

about 4500 feet per minute.

relative

CHAPTER

XVI.

FLY-WHEELS.
Theory

174.

Fly-wheel.

of

Often

in

machines there

In

capacity for uniform effort, but the resistance fluctuates.


other cases a fluctuating effort

and yet

resistance,

applied to overcome a uniform

is

both cases a more or

in

is

less

uniform rate

When this occurs, as has been


of motion must be maintained.
explained,* a moving body of considerable weight is interposed
between

and

effort

resistance,

which, because of

weight,

its

absorbs and stores up energy with increase of velocity


the effort

when

is

in excess,

the resistance

and gives

This moving body

in excess.

is

when

out with decrease of velocity

it

usually

is

a rotating body called a fly-wheel.

To

fulfill

velocity,

to

store

its

because

office
it

is

a fly-wheel

by reason

of this variation that

and give out energy.

body whose weight

is

must have a variation

W, moving

The

it

kinetic energy,

with a velocity

is

of

able

E, of a

v, is

expressed

The

allowable

by the equation

E=
To change

E, with

constant, v

variation of velocity depends

Thus

must

vary.

upon the work

to be accomplished.

the variation in an engine running electric lights or spin-

ning-machinery

should

be

very small, probably not

greater

* See 43.

244

FLY-IVHBELS.

than a half of

245

one per cent, while a

pump

or a punching-

machine may have a much greater variation without interfering


with the desired result.
fly-wheel rim

mum

If the

velocity, vi, of the

and the allowable variation are known, the minibecomes known and the energy that can be

velocity, V2,

stored

maximum
;

and given out with the allowable change

of velocity

is

equal to the difference of kinetic energy at the two velocities.

175.

Wv2^

W^

2g

2g

2g^

The general method

Find the
during

Wvi^

maximum

a cycle of

^.

for fly-wheel design

is

as follows:

energy due to excess or deficiency of effort


action,

=.

Use the foot-pound-second

Assume a convenient mean diameter of flyFrom this and the given maximum rotative speed

system of units.

wheel rim.

of the fly-wheel shaft find Vi.

Solve the above equation for

W thus:
2gE
W = V-^V:^'
Substitute the values of , V\, V2, and ^ = 32.2 feet per second,

whence

becomes known, = weight

of

fly-wheel rim.

The

weight of rim only will be considered; the other parts of the


wheel, beiag nearer the axis, have less velocity and less capacity

per pound for storing energy.

Their

effect is to

reduce slightly

the allowable variation of velocity.*


176. Problem,

In

a punching-machine the belt

of applying a uniform torsional effort to the shaft;

is

capable

but most

* Numerical examples taken from ordinary medium-sized steam-engine flywheels show that while the combined weight of arms and hub equals about one
third of the total weight of the wheel, che energy stored in them for a given variation of velocity is only about 10 per cent of that stored in the rim for the same
variation.

MACHINE DESIGN.

246
of the time

it

machine against

frictional resistance.

At

punch must be forced through metal

the

resistance to

parts of the

however,

intervals,

shearing

vs^hich offers

Either the belt or fly-wheel, or the two

action.

its

moving

only required to drive the

is

combined, must be capable of overcoming

this resistance.

punch makes 30 strokes per minute, and


is required to punch f-inch holes in steel plates ^ inch

enters the die ^ inch.

The

shearing strength of the steel

When

inch.

punch

the

is

about 50,000

lbs.

It

thick.

per square

which

just touches the plate the surface

offers shearing resistance to its action equals the surface of the

= diam-

hole which results from the punching, =ndt, in which J

punch, / = thickness

eter of hole or

The maximum

of plate.

shearing resistance, therefore, equals 711x^X50,000

As the

punch advances through the

= 58,900

lbs.

plate the resistance decreases

because the surface in shear decreases, and when the punch


just passes

the

through the plate the resistance becomes zero.

change of resistance be assumed uniform (which would

probably be approximately true) the mean resistance

would equal the maximum resistance 4-minimum

=
the

If

The

=29,450.

punch =2

travel of the punch.


is

punching

resistance, -^2,

radius of the crank which actuates

In Fig. 187 the circle represents the path of

in.

the crank-pin center.

cross-head, as

to

Its vertical
If the

usual,

it is

diameter then represents the

actuating

mechanism be a

be assumed that while the punch travels vertically from


the crank-pin center travels in the semicircle

and

DE

each = J

inch.

Then when

just touches the plate to be

when

it

reaches

horizontal lines

it

EF

the

punched, which

DG and

moves from

to G, or

it

is

may

to B,

Let

punch reaches

BD
E

it

^ inch thick, and

the radial lines

Then, while the punch passes through the


center

ACB.

has just passed through the plate.

and

slotted

a case of harmonic motion, and

OG

Draw the
and OF.

plate, the crank-pin

through an angle

(in this case)

FLY-IVHEELS.
of

247,

Therefore the crank-shaft A, Fig. 188, and attached

19.

gear rotate through 19 during the action of the punch.

and the

ratio of angular velocity of the pinion

ratio

of pitch diameters

inverse

rotates

60

5.

Hence

The

gear = the

the shaft

through an angle =i9X5 =95 during the action of the punch.


If there
to

were no fly-wheel the belt would need

maximum

overcome the

instant

when

the

punch

is

resistance;

i.e.,

to

be designed

the resistance at the

just beginning to act.

This would

Tl:
Crank

lilt

Dl
Fig. 18S.

Fig. 187.

give for this case a double belt about 20 inches wide.

The need

Assume that the flywheel may be conveniently 36 inches mean diameter, and that
a single belt 5 inches wide is to be used. The allowable maxi-

for a

mum

fly-wheel

tension

is

of single belting

is

therefore apparent.

then =5Xallowable tension per inch of width

= 5 X 70 = 350

Since the pulley-shaft

= Ti

makes 150

the diameter of the pulley

150X2X^ = 942

lbs.

is

revolutions per minute

and

2 feet, the velocity of the belt

feet per minute.

At

this

slow speed the simple


T"

form

of the belt formula

may

be used,

i.e.,

log

;u^.
^=0.4343
i

Assume an angle

of contact of 180.

Then

a48

MACHINE DESIGN.
^=3.1416,

log T^r =0.4081


T.2

and

T
=
^

.-.

2.56.

i 2

^^=$ = ^36.7
Ti

lbs.

7^2 = 213.3 lbs. =the driving force at the surface of the pulley.
Assume

that

equivalent to 25

the

or to do the

acts,

shaft

moves during

X0.5" = 14725

moved through during


ft.

the belt

accelerate the fly-wheel

variation of velocity

=1225

in. -lbs.

=P = 188.3

lbs.,

the punching

=312
X-^
360 ^

95,

does

= 188.3

pulley-

and the

driv-

work=Pxspace
95

lbs.

The work

ft.-lbs.

The

ft.-lbs.

X 7^(^-7 = 188.3

left

for

the

wheel to give out with a reduction of velocity of 10 per

= 1225312=913 ft.-lbs.
wheel rim; 7^2= minimum
of the fly-wheel rim.

while

its

velocity

the value of

equal 913

is

Let

T/i

= maximum

The energy

it

is

fly^

cent

velocity of

velocity of fly-wheel rim;

reduced from Vi to

W must

ft.-lbs.

=10

punch

the space through which the

punching through

the

ing tension of the belt,

=P, to
Assume

is

punching = the mean resistance offered

of

punch multiplied by

lbs.X7!:X2

lbs.

work of punching.

The work

percent.
to the

= 188.3

machine

Then

applied at the pulley-rim.

lbs.

can exert 213.3 25

of the

resistance

frictional

fly-

IF = weight

capable of giving out,


V2,

and

be such that this energy given out shall

Hence the following equation may be written:


=913.
2g

FLY-iyHEELS.

249

w = ^-^^^^^.

Therefore

The punch-shaft makes 30 revolutions per minute and the pulleyshaft 3oXS = iso=iV" revolutions per minute.
Hence Vi in
seconds

feet per

i? being fly-wheel

diameter in feet

=3

feet.

150X3W

^i=6^

^23.56;

=21.2;

Z'2=o.90'z;i

^1^

= 555;

^'2^=449;

913X2X32.2
^

^
Hence
To
0.26

^^^

proportion the rim:

lb.;

hence there must be

contents of the

A =2135

rim=mean

cu, ins.;

=555

lbs.

cubic inch of cast iron weighs

=
T
0.26

2i'?i;

The

cu. ins.

^-^

cubic

diameter X w X its cross-sectional area

hence

._

2135

36"X;r
If

vi^-V2^ = io6.

the cross-section were

= 18.45

sq. ins.

made square

its

would =\/ 18.45

side

= 4-3-

Pump

177.

Fly-wheel.

The

designed for the average work.

belt for the

pump,

fly-wheel

is

necessary to

adapt the varying resistance to the capacity of the


rate of

p. 233, is

The

belt.

doing work on the return stroke (supposing no resistance

due to suction)

is

only equal to the frictional resistance of the

During the working stroke the

machine.

rate of doing

work

varies because the velocity of the plunger varies, although the

pressure

when
is

the

is

constant.

The

rate of doing

the velocity of the plunger


velocity

diagram,

is

is

the

work

greatest.

force

is

maximum

In Fig. 189,

diagram,

is

A
the

MACHINE DESIGN.

2SO
tangential diagram
belt,

draiATi

4 inches wide,

is

capable of applying a tangential force

The

of 148 lbs. to the 18-inch pulley-rim.

rim

= ;n. 5X300 =1414'.

The

=n-Xo.833X5o = i3o.9'.

velocity of the pulley-

of

velocity

=i48x

the tangential

This

applied tangentially at the craiik-pin axis.

upon

crank-pin

the

Therefore the force of 148

the pulley-rim corresponds to a force

as an ordinate

The

indicated on pp. 64-66.

as

axis

= ^599

may

at

lbs.

lbs.

be plotted

diagram C, from the base

Fig. 189.

line

XXi, using

the same force scale.

extremity of this ordinate

between

area

DE

and

draw

XXi

Through the upper

the horizontal line

represents the

capable of doing during the working stroke.

work

DE.

The

the belt

is

During the return

it is capable of doing
the same amount of work.
But
work must now be absorbed in accelerating the fly-wheel.
Suppose the plunger to be moving in the direction shown by

stroke
this

the arrow.
is

From Eto F
From

storing energy.

the fly-wheel

is

the effort

to

giving out energy.

is in

excess and the fly-wheel

the resistance

The work

is in

excess and

the fly-wheel

must

be capable of giving out with the allowable reduction of velocity


is

that represented

FG.
belt

From G
is

to

by the area under the curve above the

D, and during the

line

entire return stroke, the

doing work to accelerate the fly-wheel.

This work

FLY-JVHEELS.

becomes stored

left-hand

member

may

be written

XiEF+XGD+XHKXi=GMF.

"

done by the

Obviously the

kinetic energy in the fly-wheel.

following equation of areas

The

251

member

of

this

equation represents the work

belt in accelerating the fly-wheel;

represents the

work given out by

the right-hand

fly-wheel to help

the

the belt.

The work

may

in

represented by

foot-pounds

the

maximum and minimum


One

value of this work:


represents 8520 lbs.

To

velocities.

= 3825.48

ft.-lbs.

inch of ordinate on the force diagram

The

GMF =0.4.

area

work = 3825.48Xo.4 = i530

kinetic

the

mean

=.

=5

of fly-wheel
variation of

The

lbs.

X0.449'

Therefore

difference

of

equals the weight of

530 X 32.2X2

V-^V:^

fly-wheel

diameter

keyed to the pulley-shaft, and


minute,

ins.

sq.

foot.

Hence

w=Assume

ft.-lbs.

W
energy =~ {v)i^V2^) =iS^o; W

the fly-wheel rim.

the

find the

one inch of abscissa represents 0.449

Therefore one square inch of area represents 8520

37.3;

GMF

be equated with the difference of kinetic energy of

fly-wheel at

the

area

will

= 2.5

run

feet.

It

will

be

300 revolutions per

The maximum velocity


run=;:X2. 5X5 =39.27=7^1. Assume an allowable
Then 7^2=37-27X0.95 =
velocity, =5 per cent.
revolutions per second.

7^12=1542.3;

7;2

= i39i.3;

7/12-7/22=151.

X530X32.2X2

^^

Hence

^^^^

151

There must be 651 -^0.26

cu. in. in the rim,

circumference =30" Xjt = 94.2".

Hence the

=2504.

The mean

cross-sectional area

M/ICHINE DESIGN.

252

rim =2504-4-94.2 =26.6 sq.

of

4.5"

The rim may be made

ins.

6".

The

the machine

of

resistance

frictional

neglected.

is

It

might have been estimated and introduced into the problem as a


constant resistance.
178. Steam-engine Fly-wheel.

From

given data

draw

the

indicator-card as modified by the acceleration of reciprocating

From

See page 63 and Fig. 46.

parts.

and the

this

diagram construct the diagram of tangential


Fig. 47.

lent rectangle

on the same base.

driving force,

draw

Measure the area of this diagram and

the equiva-

This rectangle represents the

energy of the uniform resistance during one stroke;


tangential diagram represents the
the

The area

crank-pin.

of

velocity

work done by

the

while the

upon

the steam

diagram which

tangential

extends above the rectangle represents the work to be absorbed

Find

by the fly-wheel with the allowable variation of velocity.*


the value of this in foot-pounds,
for

difference

of

Solve for

velocity.

W,

and equate

energy at

kinetic

to the expression

the weight of fly-wheel.

Stresses in Fly-wheel Rims.

179.

it

maximum and minimum

Mathematical

of the stresses in fly-wheel rims are unsatisfactory.


place,

analyses

In the

order to get solutions of reasonable simplicity

in

customi^ry

to

make assumptions which

actual conditions;

and

the

in

are

first
it

is

contrary to the

second place, no satisfactory

data exist concerning the strength of cast iron in such heavy


sections as are

used in large engine fly-wheels.

An examination

of the nature of the stresses, however, will indicate the points


to

be looked out for in design.

Considering a ring of hollow cylindrical form, comparatively


* For

compound engines and

for varying resistances the diagrairs should

constructed for the complete cycle.

For

full

treatment

wheels for engines driving alternators the reader

.M.

E., Vol.

XXII,

p.

955, and Vol.

XXIV,

p. 98.

is

of.

the

problem

be

of fly

referred to the Trans. A. S.

FLY-IVHEELS.
thin radially,

it

can be shown

axis, tension is set

the material used

tension

is

due

up

that,

253

when

it is

rotated about

in the ring proportional to the

and the square

its

weight of

This

of the linear velocity.

solely to the action of "centrifugal force"

and

is

termed "centrifugal tension."


Consider the half-riag shown

in Fig. 190:

7;= the velocity of the rim in feet per second,


c

= " centrifugal

i?= radius

A =area

in feet;

of rim in square inches;

P= total tension
/(

=unit

force" per foot of rim;

w= weight

of material

square and

g =32.2

2P=sum

rim in pounds;

in

tensile stress in

feet

rim

in

pounds;

as represented

by a piece

inch

foot long;

per second per second;

of horizontal

components

of all the small centri-

fugal forces cds;

Each horizontal component =cds cos d, which may be


cR cos d dd, because ds =Rdd.
7Z

2P=

f\r COS Odd = 2cR;


:.

But

c-

"

P = cR.

Mv^_Wv^
R ~ gR'

W being the weieht of one linear foot of rim =wA.

written

MACHINE DESIGN.

2 54

P=ftA;

Also,

W
}tA=v2 =

/.

wAv^
;

For

cast iron, putting

w = o. 26X12

and

lbs.,

it

ft

=20,000

the ultimate strength,

lbs.

follows that 2^=454 feet per second.

In other words a cast-iron ring will burst at a speed of 454 feet


per

Furthermore,

second.

shows that for a ring


on the

size or

an

examination

the

of

formula

depends not

this bursting velocity

at all

shape of the cross-section but only on the material

used as represented by

/(

and

ui.

This centrifugal tension causes a corresponding elongation


of the material
ring.

the

new

and therefore an increase

free ring of

in the radius of the

whatever cross-section can and does take

radius and the tension on

all sections

=/(

pounds per

square inch.

With the introduction

new and
same

vital

of the

rim when

its

inner end will also

an elongation due to centrifugal action.

The amount of this


no

radial elongation will vary with the


practical case will

it

amount

to as

form

To accommodate
hub and

of the arm, but in

much

radial increase of the ring rotating at the

to

An arm

original length as the original radius of the

rotated about an axis perpendicular to


suffer

arms a number of

of rigidly fastened

elements enter into the problem.

this difference the

as one third of the

same speed.
arm,

rim, will be extended lengthwise

rim will be drawn

in,

out of

its

if

rigidly fastened

by the rim and the

regular circular form, by the

The relation between the amount the arm is drawn out


and the amount the rim is drawn in is governed by the proporarm.

tions of these parts.


FLY-IVHEELS.

The
and

rim tends

result is that the

become akin

really

to

255

bow

out between the arms

to a uniformly loaded continuous

beam

with the dangerous sections midway between the arms and at


the points of junction of arms and rim.

The

fallacy of applying

the ring theory solely to the fly-wheel rim becomes evident at

In a free ring the form of cross-section

once.

the section

subjected only to tension.

is

immaterial, as

is

In the rim with arms

the form of cross-section becomes a vital point, as the rim

is

subjected to flexure as well as tension, and the strength of a

member

to resist flexure

depends directly upon the modulus

of the section.

In addition to the foregoing

under

all conditions,

the wheel

when

is

which are induced

stresses,

even under the extreme supposition that

rotating at a perfectly uniform rate, there are others

the rim

considered as performing

is

its

functions

i.e.,

by changes

in a balance-wheel, absorbing or giving out energy

of velocity and, in a band-wheel, transmitting the power.

This
relation

may

be seen by reference to Fig. 191.

between rim, arm, and hub when the wheel

shows the
is

at rest

or rotating uniformly and not transmitting

any power.

work

is

encastre

shows the relation when

The arm becomes an

being done.

beam and corresponding

are induced in
ing of the

it.

stresses

Furthermore, the bend-

arm tends

to shorten

it

radially, thus

drawing

outer end, which increases the flexure in the rim.


to the foregoing there are stresses in the rim

of the wheel, shrinkage,


180. Stresses in

etc.,

Arms

the bending

of velocity of the wheel or to the

greatest

pounds

to the

weight

which cannot be eliminated.

of Pulleys or Fly-wheels.

are principally stressed by

Let T = the

due

in the

In addition

turning

moment due

The

arms

to variations

power transmitted.

moment

transmitted in inch-

MACHINE DESIGN.

85

n = number

of arms;

/(=safe unit stress in outer fiber of arm, in pounds per

square inch;

=modulus of

section of arm, dimensions in inches.

Then

T=nft may be

written

and solved for.

Having determined upon the form

of cross-section the dimensions

can be determined from this value of.


c

If

unknown

is

arms can be made as strong as the shaft

the

by equating the twisting strength of the shaft

to the

bending

strength of the arms, thus

nr^

/s= allowable shearing stress in outer fiber of shaft, pounds per


square inch;
r

= radius

of shaft in inches;

#,/(, and

as before.

Consider junction of arm and hub next.


Fig.

Fig. 192.

1 02.)

The tendency
flexure on the section

for the bolts 2

Let

and

A = combined
/a

(See

= allowable

3 to shear

the

for

A-A may

arm

through

to fail

be equated to the tendency

off,

using

shearing areas of

as a pivot.

and

3,

square inches;

shearing stress of 2 and 3 in pounds per

square inch;
/

= distance between
inches;

centers

and

2,

and

and

3,

in

FLY-1VHEELS.

257

/t= allowable stress in outer fiber of arm

in

pounds per

square inch;

= modulus of arm section, dimensions in inches.


c

Then
Afsl

= h^,

which can be solved for A, the desired

arm is bolted to
make the bolts

If the

employed

to

area.

the rim a similar

method may be

as strong as the arm.

181. Construction of Fly-wheels.

has been

Since

weight

common

is

so great

make

a factor

in

them of

that material which combines greatest weight with

least

cost,

fly-wheels

it

namely, cast iron.

That

this

practice to

hot always safe

is

practice has been conclusively demonstrated by

many

serious

accidents.

Up

10 feet in diameter the wheels are generally cast

to

Occasionally the hub

in a single piece.

the stresses due to cooling.


to

have

six arms, the

hub

is

is

divided to relieve

In such cases, supposing the wheel

made

in three sections,

a pair of arms running to the rim.

each having

Since the sections are inde-

pendent, any pair of arms can adjust

itself to

the conditions of

shrinkage without subjecting the other arms to indeterminate


stresses.

The hub

sections

are separated

a space of half an inch or less

babbitt metal.

Then

the sections together.

and

from each other by

this is filled

with lead or

shrink-rings or bolts are used to

hold

hub

two

Sometimes the

is

only

split into

parts.

For reasons connected

from 10

to

chiefly with

transportation, wheels

15 feet in diameter are cast in two halves which

are afterwards joined together by flanges and bolts at the rim,

and shrink-rings or

bolts at the hub.

MACHINE

258

In

still

larger

DESIGN.

and heavier wheels the hub

The rim

entirely separate from the arms.

is

Sometimes the

segments as there are arms.

generally made
made in as many
arm is cast with

is

the segment and sometimes the amis and segments are cast
separately.
The hub is commonly made in the form of a pair

them

of disks having a space between

are fastend to

them by means

Unless the wheel

is

to

to receive the

of accurately fitted through bolts.

te a forced

fit

on

its

have three equally spaced keyways, so that

to

arms which

shaft
it

is

it

may

best

be kept

accurately centered with the shaft.

In these large wheels the joints of the segments of the rim


are usually

r'^dZr"^

V-

~J

midway between

the

arms and

^^

^^^

steel straps or links

shown

fT^nP^?

^^^^

V----^^-~-J

heated and dropped

^^- ^93-

Fig.

in

into

viously fitted to receive them.

draws the joint together.

cool, their contraction

193

are

recesses pre-

As they

They should

not, however, be subjected to a very great initial tension of this

most commonly used.

The

are

The form shown


made of high-grade

sile

strength equals that of the reduced section of the rim.

sort.

at

steel

is

and

their area

is

links

such that their ten-

The

areas subjected to shear and compression must also have this


strength.

Taking the nature

of the stresses into consideration

it is

clear

that the rim should always be as deep radially as possible to


resist the flexure action, also that the

arms should be near together.

Many arms

few and a disk or web

are

much

better than a

is still

better.*

The

strongest wheel having

cast in a single piece, while the


piece.

On

arms

will

be one whose rim

aims and hubs are

is

cast as a second

the inside of the rim there are lugs between

which

* Disk wheels have the further advantage of offering less resistance to the
air.

761.

This may be a considerable item.

See Cassier's Mag., Vol. 23, pp. 577 and

FLY-IVHEELS.
the ends of

fourth inch
filled

with

arms

the
all

fit

around.

oakum

so that there

(See

and

is

a space of about one

This space

Fig. 194.)

well driven in.

case acts as a free ring

259

It is clear that the

may

be

rim in this

subjected solely to centrifugal

is

tension.*

must always be a source

Joints in the rim

of

weakness whether

midway between arms.

located at the end of the arms or

^^^^^
Tension

Rod
Fig. 194.

If
is

Fig. 195.

a flanged joint midway between the arms

shown

wheels of

in Fig. 195,

medium

well braced by
as possible,

size,

is

common

is

used, such as

practice for split band-

the flanges should be deep radially

The

ribs.

and a

which

and

bolts should be as close to the rim

tension rod should carry the extra stress (due

to the weight of the

heavy

joint

and

its

velocity)

hub.

to the

Experiments made by Prof. C. H. Benjamin f show that the use


of such tie-rods increases the strength of the wheel 100 per cent
over that of a similar wheel without tie-rods.

He

found

also

that jointed rims are only one fourth as strong as solid rims.

Probably as strong a form of cast-iron built-up wheel for

heavy duty as any yet designed


Fritz,J

for such tensile

and

duty fly-wheel, and


steel.

is

it is

wiser to

built-up wheel having a

riveted, is so

* See Trans. A.

S.

XX

arms.

an uncertain material

to use

flexure stresses as are induced in a heavy-

a rim of the same material,

and strongly

one described by Mr. John

many

having a hollow rim and

But, at the best, cast iron

is

M.

make such wheels of structural


disk or web of steel plates and

all joints

much

E., Vol.

and XXIII.
t Ibid., Vols.
J Ibid., Vol. XXI.

being carefully "broken

better than

XX,

p. 944,

any built-up

and Vol. XXI,

p. 322.

"

cast-

MACHINE DESIGN.

26o
iron

wheel that the

latter are

passing out of use.

The

steel

wheels can have at least twice the rim velocity of the cast wheels
with greater safety and

same duty.

may

therefore be

Their lesser weight makes

bearings and consequently

XVII, Trans. A.
Jan. 1896, and Nov. 1897.
referred to Vol.

less

Hghter for the

pressure

on the

less friction loss.*

* For drawings and descriptions of wheels


is

much

S.

M.

E.,

made

of forged materials the reader

and Power, April 1894, Nov. 1895

CHAPTER

XVII.

TOOTHED WHEELS OR
182.

Fundamental Theory

of

GEARS.

Gear

^When

Transmission.

toothed wheels are used to communicate motion, the motion

elements are the tooth surfaces.


with each other

contact.

is line

The

contact of these surfaces

Such pairs

which are

of motion elements

them from lower

are called higher pairs, to distinguish

in contact throughout their entire surface.

shows the simplest toothed-wheel mechanism.


links, a, b,

and

c,

and

therefore three centros, ab,

pairs,

Fig. ig6

There are three


be,

and

These

ac.

centros must, as heretofore explained. He in the same straight

ac and ab are the centers of the turning pairs connecting

line,

and

b to a.

When

It is

required to locate be on the Une of centers.

the gear c

angular velocity,

caused to rotate uniformly with a certain

is

i.e.,

at the rate of

revolutions per minute,

it

is

required to cause the gear b to rotate uniformly at a rate

of

revolutions per minute.

fore constant

and

=m

centers which has the

The angular

The

same

sidered as a point in i or

c.

centro be

is

velocity ratio is there-

a point on the line of

linear velocity

The Unear

in

b=2nRin; and the

linear velocity of the

in

which Ri =radius

of be in

b,

whether

must be the same

above expressions

may

in

is

con-

velocity of this point be

same point

and i?2= radius of

this linear velocity

it

in c

= 2itR2m

be in

e.

But

both cases, and hence the

be equated thus

2KRin = 2i:R^n,
261

262

MACHINE DESIGN.

Hence

Ri

whence

be is located

by dividing the

line of centers into parts

which

are to each other inversely as the angular velocities of the gears.

Thus,

ab and

let

whose angular
divide

it

into

be the centers of a pair of gears

ac, Fig. 197,

=.

velocity, ratio

m+n

right, or

n from

through

be,

equal parts;

ac toward the

Draw

left,

of these

These

circles.

centrodes of that motion upon

It

In

fact,

ratio

is

allowable.

cyUnders

themselves

used for transmitting motion of

are,

Slipping, however,

pitch

these

is

"friction-gears" cannot be used


velocity

same as that which would

the

is

rolling together of the pitch circles (or cylinders)

sHpping.

might be, and sometimes


rotation.

has been already

Fig. 197.

Therefore the motion of gears

from the

circles

each other without slipping.

Fig. 196.

result

Draw

circles are the

any motion may be reproduced by rolHng the

explained that

without

centers;

from ab toward the

will locate be.

with ab and ac as centers.

centrodes of be and are called pitch

the line of

apt to occur, and hence these


if

no

Hence

variation

teeth

are

from the given


formed on the

wheels which engage with each other, to prevent slipping.


183. Definitions.

If the pitch circle

be divided into as

many

equal parts as there are teeth in the gear, the arc included between

TOOTHED WHEELS OR
two

of these divisions

pitch

may

is

the circular pitch * of the gear.

or, otherwise,

it is

the distance

the pitch circle from any point of a tooth to the corresponding

point in the next tooth.

divisible

is

Z?= pitch diameter

any one

by

is

AT'

= number

P=-r7.

that the pitch


in inches;

then

of teeth;

From

relations

these

D, and N, may be found

of the three values, P,

and

impossible,

P= circular pitch

Let

it.

inches;

in

D=

N=-fr:
P

NP=^r,D;

fractional tooth

must be such a value

therefore the circular pitch

circumference
let

Circular

also be defined as the distance on the pitch circle

occupied by a tooth and a space;

on

263

GEARS.

if

the

other two are given.

Diametral pitch

Thus

diameter.

if

is

number

the

^ = diametral

kD

N
p=j^-

pitch,

two expressions, P=~f;f and p =


,

teeth per

of

Multiplying the
TzD

inch of pitch

together gives

Or, the product of diametral and circular pitch =-.


pitch

is

Pp =j;t -j^=n.
Circular

usually used for large cast gears, and for mortise-gears

(gears with

wooden

teeth inserted)

Diametral pitch

is

usually

used for small cut gears.


In Fig. 198,

hk

is

of the tooth
the tooth;
is

&, c,

and k are pitch points

the circular pitch; ab


;

the whole curve

AD

is

ance

through
is

is

the

AB

of the teeth; the arc

the face of the tooth; bm,

ahm

is

is

AC

circle.

Clear-

the excess of total depth over working

depth,

=CD.

minus

the width of the tooth on the

is

the ]lank

the addendum; a

addendum

Backlash

is

the profile of

the total depth of the tooth;

the working depth;

circle

is

^'^'

'^

the width of space on the pitch line

-whose tooth surfaces are not

same

line.

In cast gears

"tooled," backlash needs to

* Sometimes called circumferential

pitch.

be

MACHINE DESIGN.

264
allowed, because

of unavoidable imperfections in the surfaces.

In cut gears, however,

may

it

be reduced almost to zero, and the

tooth and space, measured on the pitch circle,

may be

considered

equal.
184. Conditions

any form may


But

if

Governing Forms of Teeth.

Teeth of almost

be used, and the average velocity will be right.

the forms are not correct there will be continual variations

of velocity ratio between a

many

It is

and

These

value.

in all cases

unde-

necessary therefore to study tooth outlines

which

variations are in
sirable.

minimum and maximum

cases unallowable,

shall serve for the transmission of a constant velocity ratio.

The
in

a constant position in order that the velocity ratio shall be

constant.

The

essential condition jar constant velocity ratio

therefore, that the position of the centro of relative

gears shall remain unchanged.


surfaces in contact at

The

If

is

motion of the

afid B, Fig. 199, are tooth

shpping motion along the tangent

centro of this motion must be in

surfaces at the point of contact.


teeth of a pair of gears, h

known, and whose

is,

their only possible relative motion, if

a,

they remain in contact,

is

must remain

centro of relative motion of the two gears

and

centro,

c,

he,

EF, a normal

If these

to the tooth

be supposed to be

whose required velocity


is

CD,

ratio>

therefore located, then

in

order that the motion communicated from one gear to the other

through the point of contact,


is

a, shall

be the required motion,

it

necessary that the centro of the relative motion of the teeth

shall coincide with he.

185. Illustration.

and

rotation of bodies h
that the centro of b
is at p.

main

The

In

Fig. 200, let ac

c,

and

and ah be centers of

and the required

c falls at he.

only possible relative motion

in contact is slipping along

CD;

velocity ratio

is

such

Contact between b and c


if

these surfaces re-

hence the centro of this

motion must be on EF, the normal to the tooth surfaces at the


point of contact.

But

it

must

also be on the

same

straight line

TOOTHED IVHEELS OR GEARS.


with ac and ah; hence

it is

centre

and the motion transmitted

for

the required motion, because

its

at he,

the instant, at the point p,

is

But the curves touching

is at he.

common normal

form that

their

centers at

some other

point,

265

p might be

at

of such

p would intersect the line of


as K, which would then become the
at

centro of the motion of h and c for the instant, and would corre-

spond to the transmission of a

different motion.

The

essential

condition to be fulfilled by tooth outlines, in order that a constant velocity ratio

as follows:

The

may

may

be maintained,

must

tooth outlines

therefore be stated

he sueh that their

normal at

the point of contact shall always pass through the centro corre-

sponding

to the

required velocity ratio.


Fig. 199.

Fig. 200.

186. Given

^Ha\Tng
in

Tooth Outline

to

Find

Form

of

Engaging Tooth.

given any curve that will serve for a tooth outline

one gear, the corresponding curve

may

be found in the other

gear, which will engage with the given curve and transmit a

constant velocity ratio.

Let

be the

given

velocity

ratio.

ft

m + n^the
of centers

sum of the radii of the two


AB, Fig. 201. Let P be the

Draw

gears.

the line

"pitch point,"

point of contact of the pitch circles or the centro of

motion of the

PB=m;

from

two gears.

To

toward the

the right from


left

lay off

i.e.,

the

relative

lay off a distance

PA =n.

and

will

then be the required centers of the wheels, and the pitch circles

266

MACHINE DESIGN.

may

be drawn through P.

wheel A.

Let abc be any given curve on the

It is required to find the

B which shall engage


velocity ratio required.
A

curve in

with abc to transmit the constant

normal
If,

to the point of contact

therefore,

normal

any

point, as a, be taken in the given curve,

normal

to the curve at

will coincide

c,

then y will coincide with

the point of contact between the gears;


line, it will itself

coincide with

and a

drawn, as aa, then when a

to the curve at that point be

the point of contact,

is

must pass through the centro.

when

with P.

and
it is

Also,

since 6

if cj- is

P when

is in

c is

the pitch

the point of contact.

Fig. 20I.

Fig. 202.

Since the two pitch circles must roll upon each other without
slipping,

and arc

it

Pa' = arc Pa, arc P6'=arc Pb,

follows that the arc

Pf = arc

Py.

Rotate the point a, about A, through the angle

same time a'

and a and
of the

rotates

backward

6.

At the

through the angle

6'

Pa" represents the rotated position


Rotate Pa" about B through the angle 6';

a' coincide at

normal aa.

aboxit

will coincide with a' and a" will locate the point a' of the desired

tooth outline of gear B.


readily located
c'

a' .

is

located

This

The

by merely laying

point
off

b'

of the desired outline is

arc Pb'

=arc Pb.

by the same method we employed

will give three points in the required curve,

to

determine

and through

TOOTHED iVHEELS OR GEARS.


these the curve

more

may

The curve

be drawn.

more

accurately determined by using

Many

any curve that

but, given

may

infinite

could, of course, be

points.

curves could be drawn that would not serve for tooth

outlines;
<;urve

267

number

would

of curves that

But

correct tooth outlines.

corresponding

will serve, the

There would be,

be found.

the requirements of

fulfill

in practice

almost an

therefore,

two kinds of curves are

found so convenient that they are most commonly, though not

They

exclusively, used.

are cycloidal

Tooth Outlines.

187. Cycloidal

and involute

It is

curves.

assumed that the char-

and method of drawing them

acter of cycloidal curves

is

under-

stood.

In Fig. 202,

let

and

always in contact at

be the pitch
Also,

he.

let

contact with both at the same point.


^^Tien one curve rolls

motion

circles of

be the describing

is

circle in

the describing point.

upon another, the centro

always their point of contact.

is

a pair of wheels,

of their relative

For, since the motion

of rolling excludes slipping, the two bodies must be stationaiy,


relative to

move

each other, at their point of contact; and bodies that

common

point in

or upon h or
tact.

can have but one such stationary

relative to each other

The

c, its

point

direction at

their

centro.

M,

any point

therefore,

in contact at he;

therefore,

and

vt

rolls

line joining that

the pitch circles.

Suppose

about their centers, being always

to rotate at the

same time about

center, the three circles being always in contact at one point

having no

slip.

The. point

a curve, V, on the plane of


Since

M
b,

its

and

will then describe simultaneously

and a curve,

e',

describes the curves simultaneously,

on the plane of
it

will

the point of contact between them in any position.

the point

in

their point of con-

must describe curves whose

m with

c to revolve

suppose

is

at right angles to

is

point to the point of contact of


the two circles h

When,

centro relatively to either

M moves always at right angles to a

line

e.

always be

And

since

which joins

it

MACHINE DESIGN.

2 68

to he, therefore the

normal

to the tooth surfaces at their point

of contact will always pass through

be,

and the condition for


But these curves

constant velocity ratio transmission is fulfilled.


are precisely the epicycloid

by the point

and

side of h

and hypocycloid that would be drawn

in the generating circle,

inside of

by

rolling

on the out-

Obviously, then, the epicycloids and

c.

hypocycloids generated in this way, used as tooth profiles, will


transmit a constant velocity ratio.

This proof

and

its

is

diameter

independent of the

may

size of the

therefore equal the radius of

hypocycloids generated by rolling within


coinciding with the radius of

lines

become

of the teeth of c

if

and therefore the teeth are

radial lines,

for this reason they

a smaller generating circle had been used.

the pitch being the same.

to use the

same generating

the

straight

In this case the flanks

c.

tooth curves generated with the same generating


together,

Then

c.

would be

thinner at the base than at the pitch line;


are weaker than

generating circle,

circle for

It

is

circle will

All

work

therefore necessary

set of gears

which need

to interchange.*

The

describing circle

may

be

made

still

case the curves described have their convexity in the

they

i.e.,

lie

on the same side of a

diameter of the describing


c,

As

the describing circle

convexity

in

equality with

opposite
e,

same direction,

When

tangent.

the

equal to the radius

becomes

still

directions.

the describing circle equals

this point could

larger, the curves

As

the

circle

c,

which

is

have their

approximates

the hypocycloid in c grows shorter,

the generating point in

it

first

one curve becomes a straight-line tangent to the other curve.

of

when

circle

common
is made

In the

larger.

and

finally

becomes a point which

c, it

now

the generating circle.

is

If

be replaced by a pin having no sensible diameter,

would engage with the epicycloid generated by

gear to transmit a constant velocity


* See 192.

ratio.

it

in the other

But a pin without

TOOTHED IVHEELS OR GEARS.

269

sensible diameter will not serve as a wheel-tooth, and a proper

diameter must be assumed, and a new curve


with

it

In Fig. 203,

in the other gear.

AB

is

laid off to

engage

the epicycloid gener-

ated by a point in the circumference of the


other pitch

CD is the new curve drawn

circle.

tangent to a series of positions of the pin as

The

shown.

CD, and

^^'

pin will engage with this curve,

'

transmit the constant velocity ratio

Fig. 202, let

be supposed that when the three

it

circles rotate con-

stantly tangent to each other at the pitch point be, a pencil

ened
If

at the point

planes of

an

M in the

pencil be

this

h,

paper an

and that

c,

epicycloid,

arc

on

of the

to

mark

of the paper,

describing

it

will

them simultaneously),

describe

and on the plane

hypocycloid,

circle.

simultaneously upon the

circle.

Since

the point of contact of the cycloidal curves


erates

is fast-

circumference of the describing

supposed

In

as required.

is

(loecause

upon

of the

always
it

gen-

therefore, in cycloidal gear-teeth,

the locus or path of the point of contact is an arc of the describ-

ing

by

circle.

The

ends of this path in any given case are located

the points at which the

addendum

circles cut

the describing

circles.

In the cases already considered, where an epicycloid in one

wheel engages with a hypocycloid


the teeth with each other

Thus,

in Fig. 202,

in contact until

if

is all

in the other, the contact of

on one side of the

line of centers.

the motion be reversed, the curves will be

M returns to be along the arc MD-bc;

passes be contact will cease.

If c

point of contact would approach the

but after

were the driving-wheel, the


line of centers;

if

b were the

driving-wheel the point of contact would recede from the line of


centers.

Experience shows that the

latter gives

because of better conditions as regards friction


surfaces.

It

would be

smoother nmning

between the tooth

desirable, therefore, that the

wheel with

the epicycloidal curves should always be the driver.

But

it

MACHINE DESIGN.

70

should be possible to use either wheel as driver to meet the varyingconditions in practice.

Another reason why contact should not be


the line of centers

may

teeth
is

on one side of

be explained as follows.

i88. Definitions: Pitch-arc,

^The

all

Arc of Action, Line of Pressure.

angle through which a gear-wheel turns while one of

its-

in contact with the corresponding tooth in the other gear

is

called the angle 0} action.

from the center of the pitch

of action

The

circle to the

two ends of the path of

arc of the pitch circle corresponding to the angle

The

action.

found by drawing radial lines

It is

called the arc 0} action.

is

must be greater than the "pitch arc" (the

arc of action

and one

arc of the pitch circle that includes one tooth

between one pair of teeth before

else contact will cease

between the next

space),
it

or

begins

Constrainment would therefore not be

pair.

complete, and irregular velocity ratio with noisy action would


result.

In Fig. 204,
gears

let

AB

CD

and

be the pitch

the describing circle.

on each of the

ofE
e,

and

circles

from P, as Pa, Pc, and Pe.

about the center O, draw an addendum

which

circles of

a pair of

Let an arc of action be laid

limits the points of the teeth.

circle;

i.e.,

Since the circle

Through.
the circle

is

path of the point of contact, and since the addendum


limits the points of the teeth, their intersection,

which contact

ceases, rotation being as indicated

If the pitch arc just

will be just

equals

beginning at

the

P when

arc be greater than the arc of

till

AB

after

will

it

has ceased at

not drive

CD.

the distance of e from


circle.

The

e,

e,

The

P on

assumed arc
it

the point at

by the arrowt

e;

of action, contac^

but

if

the pitch

action, contact will not begin at

and there

will

be an interval

when

greater the arc of action the greater


the circumference of the describino^

direction of pressure

a normal to the tooth

ceases at

is

the

circle-

surface,

between the teeth

and

this

is

always

always passes throuo^h


TOOTHED
the pitch point;

H'HEELS

OR GEARS.

therefore the greater the arc of

the greater the distance of e from

The

of the line of pressure.

Pthe

pressure

it.

action

i.e.,

greater the obhquity

may

components, one at right angles to the


other parallel to

271

be resolved into two


centers

line of

The first is resisted by the

and the

teeth of the follower-

wheel, and therefore produces pressure with resulting friction.

Hence
will

it

follows that the greater the arc

be the average obliquity of the

fore the greater the

component

of

of action

line of

greater

the

pressure,

and

there-

the pressure that produces

Fig. 205.

If

wasteful friction.

shall be partly

may

it

on each

can be arranged so that the arc of action

side of the line of centers, the arc of action

be made greater than the pitch arc (usually equal to about

I J times the pitch arc)

then the obliquity of the pressure- line

may

be kept within reasonable

will

be insured in

driver.

This

in Fig. 205.

is

and

either wheel

circles

will describe

and a hypocycloid on

A, B, a, and ^ to

correctly.

epicycloid on A, and a hypocycloid on B.

engage, also, to drive correctly.

/?

roll

con-

will describe

These curves

If the epicycloid

will

circles as

These curves

drawn through the same point on

a double curve tooth outline

be the

an epicycloid on the plane

the plane of A.

engage with each other to drive

in each gear be

may

accompHshed by using two describing

Suppose the four

stantly tangent at P.
of B,

between the teeth

limits, contact

all positions,

will

an
will

and hypocycloid
the pitch circle,

be located, and one curve will

M/iCHINE DESIGN.

272

engage on one side of the


other side.

If

centers

line of

and the other on the

by the arrow, contact

drives as indicated

begin at D, and the point of contact will follow an arc of

and then an arc

of

189. Involute

/?

to P,

to C.

Tooth Outlines.

If

a string

cyHnder and a pencil-point attached to


trace

will

wound around

is

end, this

its

point will

an involute on a plane normal to the axis of the cylinder

as the string

unwound from

is

the cyHnder.

Or,

if

the point

be constrained to follow a tangent to the cylinder, and the string


be unwound by rotating the cylinder about
will trace

axis,

its

the point

an involute on a plane that rotates with the cylinder.

wood
cardboard made

Illustration.Ijit a, Fig. 206, be a circular piece of


to rotate about

AB

to a;

IS

C;

/?

is

a circular piece

straight-edge

a.

As

having a pencil-point at B.
io A,
/?,

a and

/?

rotate about C,

"of

if

B moves along the straight-edge


B traces an involute DB upon

and

will trace the involute

centro of the tracing point

ders;

is

the string with the cylinder;


is

always the point of tantherefore the string, or

always at right angles to the direc-

motion of the tracing point, and hence

to the involute curve.


let

AB be

a cord

fixed.

Fig. 207.

straight-edge, in Fig. 208,


tion of

being just the

BD in a reverse direction.

Fig. 206.

The

/?

caused to return along the straight-edge

If the tracing point is

gency of

and

had been simply unwound from a

the string

fast

circumference of a,

the

the relative motion of the tracing point

same as

it

held on

free

Let

a and

8,

is

always a normal

Fig. 207, be

two base

cylin-

wound upon a and ^ and passing through

TOOTHED IVHEELS OR GEARS.


the centra P, which

Let a and

P upon

corresponds to the required velocity ratio.

Then any

B, and,

if it

is wound from
move from A toward

be supposed to rotate so that the cord

/?

a.

plane of

273

point in the cord will

be a tracing-point,

will trace

an involute of a on the

(extended beyond the base cyhnder) , and will also trace

an involute

of

/?

upon the plane

serve for tooth profiles

of

These two involutes

^S.

stant velocity ratio, because

curves at their point of

AB

is

the constant

and

contact,

normal

and O'P

The

is fulfilled.

Hence the

pitch circles will have

AB

describes the two involute curves

simultaneously, the point of contact of the curves

And hence

AB.

AB

addendum

circles

with

is

always

in

the path of the point of contact.

is

In any given case the two ends of the path


of the

OP

as their respective radii.

Since a point in the line

the line

to both

passes through P, the

it

centro corresponding to the required velocity ratio.

necessary condition

will

for the transmission of the required con-

AB.

The

lie

at the intersections

angle of action and the

arc of action are found by drawing radial Hnes from the center

of the pitch circle to the ends of the path of contact.

One
is

of the advantages of involute curves for tooth profiles

that a change

ia distance

between centers of the gears does

not interfere with the transmission of a constant velocity ratio.


This may be proved as follows: In Fig. 207, from similar triangles

OH = OP
;
A KJ ST

that

is,

the ratio of the radii of the base circles

{i.e.,

\J

sections of the base cyb'nders)

the pitch circles.

This

velocities of the gears.

nearer together;
of their radii

ratio equals the inverse ratio of angular

Suppose

now

that

and O' be moved

the pitch circles will be smaller, but the ratio

must be equal

radii of the base circles,

unchanged.

equal to the ratio of the radii of

is

to

the

unchanged

and therefore the

ratio

of

the

velocity ratio remains

Also the involute curves, since they are generated

from the same base

cylinders, will be the

same as before, and

MACHINE DESIGN.

274

same tooth

therefore, with the

same constant velocity

be transmitted as before.

ratio will

190. Racks.
its

outlines, the

A rack

is

a wheel whose pitch radius

pitch circle, therefore, becomes a straight line,

and

infinite

is

tangent

is

to the pitch circle of the wheel, or pinion,* with which the rack

The

engages.

line of centers is

a normal to the pitch line of the

The

rack, through the center of the pitch circle of the pinion.

pitch of the rack

is

determined by laying

the circular pitch

off

The curves

of the engaging wheel on the pitch line of the rack.

of the cycloidal rack-teeth, like those of wheels of finite radius,

may

be generated by a point in the circumference of a circle which

rolls

on the

Since, however, the pitch circle

pitcla circle.

is

now

a straight line, the tooth curves will be cycloids, both for flanks

and

CD

In Fig. 208,

faces.
is

AB

is

the pitch circle of the pinion

the pitch line of the rack;

Suppose, as before, that


stantly tangent at P.

all

a and b are describing

move without

within

point in the circumference of a will then

Fig. 209.

simultaneously a cycloid on

AB.

These

CD, and a hypocycloid

will be correct tooth outlines.

in the circumference of b will describe a cycloid

epicycloid on

AB.

These

will

pinion,

* Pinion

one

is

draw

and the addendum hne

the pinion turns clockwise

engaging gears.

the

GH of

CD

number

and an

outlines.

addendum
the rack.

and drives the rack, contact

a word to denote a gear having a low

of a pair of

Also, a point

on

be correct tooth

find the path of the point of contact,

EF of the

circles.

and are con-

slipping

Fig. 208.

describe

and

will

To
circle

When
begin

of teeth, or the smaller

TOOTHED WHEELS OR GEARS.


at e and

K.
is

It

follow arcs

the

of

describing

circles

275

through

to

obvious that a rack cannot be used where rotation

is

continuous

one

in

but

direction,

only

where

motion

is

reversed.

may

Involute curves

is

CD

Let

teeth.

also be used for the outUnes of

and CD',

rack

When

Fig. 209, be the pitch lines.

it

required to generate involute curves for tooth outlines, for a

pair of gears of

finite radius,

line is

drawn through

the pitch

point at a given angle to the line of centers (usually 75)


line is the

this

path of the point which generates two involutes simul-

taneously, and therefore the path of the point of contact between


It is also the common tangent to the two base
may now be drawn and used for the describing of
To apply this to the case of a rack and pinion,

the tooth curves.


circles,

which

the involutes.

draw EF,
centers,

Hne;

Fig. 209,

The base

OP-

AB

making

will therefore

the desired angle with the line of

must be drawn tangent

circles

be the base

circle for th:;

to

this

But

pinion.

the base circle in the rack has an infinite radius, and a circle of
infinite

radius

drawn tangent

EF.

coincident with

But an involute
line

normal

EF
EF is

to

Therefore

would be a straight

the base line of the rack.

to a base circle of infinite radius

to the circumference

pendicular to EF.

line

is

a straight

in this case a straight line per-

Therefore the tooth profiles of a rack

in

the

involute system will always be straight lines perpendicular to the

path of the describing point, and passing through the pitch points.
If,

in Fig. 209, the pinion

move

contact will begin at E, the


of the rack

GH, and

will follow the line

addendum
191.

circle

on the same

EF through P to

LM of the

side
is

intersection of the

addendum hne
EF, and

the path of the point of contact

Annular Gears.

sponds to what

clockwise and drive the rack, the

the point where

EF cuts

pinion.

Both centers of a pair of gears

of the pitch point.

known

the

may be

This arrangement corre-

as an annular gear and pinion.

Thus,

MACHINE DESIGN.

276
in Fig. 210,

AB

CD are

and

the pitch circles,

Teeth

both above the pitch point Ptransmit rotation between

AB

obvious that

with teeth on the inside,

a and

/?

may

in the circumference of

on the planes oi
of

/?

i.e., it is

be describing

AB

CD

These

an.

an annular gear.

of metal

In this case

circles for cycloidal teeth,

and a point

will describe hypocycloids simultaneously

and CD; and a point

will

an ordinary

becomes a ring

will describe epicycloids simultaneously

and CD.

constructed to

will be

Fig.

is

it

their centers are

may be

AB

and CD.

Fig. 210.

spur pinion, but

and

circumference

in the

on the planes of

AB

engage to transmit a constant velocity

Obviously the space inside of an annular gear corresponds

ratio.

to a spur-gear of the

same pitch and pitch diameter, with tooth

curves dravm with the same describing


Fig. 212, be the

addendum

circles.

circle.

If the

Let

pinion

EF and GH,

move clockwise

driving the annular gear, the path of the point of contact will be

from

along the circumference of

circumference of

The

/?

to

to P,

and from

along the

K.

construction of involute teeth for an annular gear

and

pinion involves exactly the same principles as in the case of a


pair of spur-gears.

describing point

is

The

only difference of detail

is

that the

in the tangent to the base circles

produced

instead of being between the points of tangency.

Let

and

O',

TOOTHED

and

Fig. 211, be the centers,

annular gear and pinion.

draw

the pitch circles,

tVHEELS

AB

OR GEARS.

277

and IJ the pitch

Through

the path of the point of contact at the given

With

angle with the line of centers.

tangent circles to this

These

line.

and O' as centers draw

will

be the involute base

Let the tangent be replaced by a cord, made

circles,.

at K', winding on the circumference of the base circle

and then around the base

FE in

circle

toward

These

move

the pinion

will

NQ

When

in line

to

D,

to

with PB.

circles

always

be the correct involute tooth

and LM, the addendum

circles.

clockwise, driving the annular gear,

the point of contact starts from e and

through

an involute on the plane //, and another

Draw

profiles required.
if

CK'

without slipping, any point in the cord beyond

will describe

on the plane of AB.

Then

it

be supposed to occur with the two pitch

tangent at

fast, say,

the direction of the arrow,

and passing over the pulley G, which holds


If rotation

an

circles of

P, the point of tangency of

moves along the

line

GH

K.

a pair of spur-gears mesh with each other, the direction

of rotation

is

But an annular gear and pinion meshing

reversed.

together rotate in the same direction.


192. Interchangeable Sets of Gears.
to

have "interchangeable

In practice

sets " of gears;

i.e.,

it is

sets in

desirable

which any

gear will "mesh " correctly with any other, from the smallest
pinion to the rack, and in which, except for limiting conditions
of size,

any spur-gear

changeable
system.

sets

may

will

be

mesh with any annular

made

gear.

Inter-

in either the cycloidal or involute

necessary condition in any set

is

that the pitch shall

be constant, because the thickness of tooth on the pitch line

always equal the width of the


condition

is

space

(less

backlash).

must

If

unfulfilled they cannot engage, whatever the

this

form

of the tooth outlines.

The second
'cvcloidal system

condition
is

for

an interchangeable

set

in

the

that the size of the describing circle shall be

MACHINE DESIGN.

278
constant.

diameter of the describing

If the

circle

equal the radius

of the smallest pinion's pitch circle, the flanks of this pinion's

and the tooth

teeth will be radial lines,

at the base than at the pitch line.

As

with this constant size of describing

circle, the teeth

at the base;

be thinner

will therefore

the gears increase in size

grow thicker

hence the weakest teeth are those of the smallest

pinion.

found unadvisable to make a pinion with

It is

If the radius of a fifteen-tooth pinion

teeth.

diameter of the describing

circle, the flanks

less

than twelve

be selected for the

which bound a space

and may

in a twelve-tooth pinion will be very nearly parallel,

therefore be cut with a milhng-cutter.


ble

to

if

the describing circle were

become wider

maximum

fore the

made

bottom than

at the

This would not be possilarger,

causing the space

at the pitch circle.

describing circle for milled gears

is

There-

one whose

diameter equals the pitch radius of a fifteen-tooth pinion


it

is

Each change

the one usually selected.

and

number

in the

of

teeth with constant pitch causes a change in the size of the pitch
circle.

Hence the form

of

tooth outhne, generated by a

the

describing circle of constant diameter, also changes.


pitch, therefore, a separate cutter
to every
cally,

number

in the

number

is

would be required corresponding

of teeth, to insure absolute accuracy.

however, this

of tooth outline

is

not necessary.

much

The change

Practi-

in the

form

greater in a small gear, for any increase

of teeth, than in a large one.

twenty-four cutters will cut

all

It

is

possible gears of the

with sufficient practical accuracy.


is

For any

found that

same

pitch

The range of these cutters


from Brown and Sharpe's

indicated in the following table, taken

"Treatise on Gearing."

These same principles of interchangeable

sets of gears

cycloidal tooth outlines apply not only to small

with

milled gears as

above, but also to large cast gears, with tooled or untooled tooth
surfaces.

TOOTHED IVHEELS OR GEARS

279

MACHINE DESIGN.
if

the pitch

is

constant, any pair of gears that have the base circles

tangent to the line

CD

will

mesh

As. in the

together properly.

cycloidal gears, the involute tooth curves vary with a variation


in the

of teeth, and, for absolute theoretical accuracy,

would be required for each pitch as many

there

are

number

gears with

least at the pitch line,

The

numbers

cutters as there

The

variation

is

and increases with the distance from

it.

different

of teeth.

involute teeth are usually used for the finer pitches

cycloidal teeth for the coarser pitches

and

since the

and the

amount

that

the tooth surface extends beyond the pitch line increases with the
pitch,

it

follows that the variation in

form of tooth curves

is

greater in the coarse pitch cycloidal gears than in the fine pitch

involute gears.

For

this reason,

with involute gears,

in the following table,

it

is

only

The range is shown


which is also taken from Brown and Sharpe's

necessary to use eight cutters for each pitch.

"Treatise on Gearing":

TOOTHED iVHEELS OR
Place

over the drawn pitch circle so that

it

P as

latter at

GEARS.

shown

AB is an

in Fig. 213.

Insert a needle point at P,

and using

it

is

281

tangent to the

arc of the pitch circle.

as a pivot swing the


tracing-cloth in the direction of the
arrow a very short distance,
so that the generating circle cuts
the pitch circle at a new point

g, as shown exaggeratedly

in Fig. 214.

it

should be taken very close

Epicycloid

Fig. 213.

to p.

Fig. 214.

Fig. 215.

Fig. 216.

Insert a needle point at Q, remove the one at P,

the cloth, about

the two circles are tangent at Q.


of the tracing-cloth

now

drawing-paper.

two

circles

with

its

until

as a pivot rotate the

and remove the one

becomes the point

and then prick the new position

paper.

point

present position through to the

circles intersect at a point

Insert needle at
cloth about

Now

The

(See Fig. 215.)

Ues off the pitch circle a short distance.

With a needle point prick


until the

and swing

as a pivot, in the direction of the arrow until

of

R
at

tracing-cloth

shghtly beyond Q.

Q.

Swing tracing-

of tangency of

the

two

P through to the drawing-

Taking points very near together and

repeating

the

operation gives a close approximation to true rolling of the generating circle on the pitch circle and therefore the path of the

point

as

epicycloid

marked on

the drawing-paper by pricked points

and may be used

Next place the tracing-cloth on the


as shown

described to prevent slipping,

inside of the pitch circle,

P-

roll the

Usiag the method just


generating

direction of the arrow, on the pitch circle

an

in Fig. 216, with the generating circle tangent to the

pitch circle at the original point

by

is

for the face of the tooth.

circle,

in the

and the path traced

as marked by pricked points on the drawing-paper will be

a hypocycloid for the flank of the tooth.

MACHINE DESIGN.

The compound curve aPb,

Fig.

AB
O

an arc of the pitch

is

center, swing in

as

depth

EF, according

circle

With a radius equal


cd tangent to

EF

to

yV
and aPb.

traced,

outline.

whose center

circle

addendum

the

now been

217, has

which forms the basis of the completed tooth

is

CD

circle

With

O.

at

and the

the proportions given in

to

draw

of the circular pitch

The completed

full

195.

the

tooth profile

fillet

is

the

curve cdPe.

Cut a wooden template


fast to

a wooden

arm

to

fit

the template coincide with cdPe.


sively to the other pitch points,

by the template edge.

may

it

about O, making the edge of

It

may now be

and the tooth

svrang succes-

outline

This gives one side of

The arm may now be turned over and


teeth

and make

the tooth curve,

free to rotate

may

all of

be drawn
the teeth.

the other sides of the

be drawn similarly.

Fig. 217.

It

is

given.

diameter, and angle

Draw

centers 00'.

the pitch circle

Through

tangent to the base


centers.

On

The

required to lay out exact involute teeth.

pitch-circle

Draw

of

AB,

the

Fig., 218,

the pitch point

circles,

making

the base circle

EF

a piece of flat tracing-cloth

common

and the

P draw CD,

the angle

about

draw a

/?

CD.

Take

the

line

are
of

common

with the line of

tangent to

CD.

fine, clear, straight line

and lay the tracing-cloth over the drawing so that


cides with

pitch,

tangent

a needle point and insert

this line coinit

at the point

TOOTHED IVHEELS OR
With another

of tangency Q.

needle,

Now, employing a

tracing-cloth.

283

GEARS.

mark

the point

on the

pair of needle points to pre-

vent slipping, roll the traced line on the base circle EF, pricking the path, aPh, of the point

of the tracing-cloth through to

the drawing-paper.

is

the involute of the base circle

and

the basis of the involute tooth outline.

is

latter

This path

Draw

proceed as follows:

JK.

the full-depth circle

base circle

EF and

inward beyond

a.

it

will

the

In general

To

addendum

JK

will

complete the

GH

and

inside of

the

circle

lie

be necessary to extend the tooth outline

About

swing a

circle

whose diameter equals

one half the circular pitch and draw ac tangent

to

radius equal to -fV of the circular pitch swing in the

gent to

JK

and

ac.

deaPf

gear has 20 teeth or

less ac

EF Ues inside

of

JK we

draw

195. Gear Proportions.

is

The

fillet

the completed outline.

should be
the

fillet

made

a radial

tangent to

With a

it.

de tanIf

the

line.

If

JK and aP*

following formulas and table

are given to assist in the practical proportioning of gears

Let

= pitch diameter;
Di = outside diameter;
D2 = diameter of a circle through the bottom of spaces;
P = circular pitch = space on the pitch circle occupied by
a tooth and a space;

p = diametral
circle

pitch

=number

of teeth per inch of pitch-

diameter;

=numbcr of teeth;
t = thickness of tooth on
a = addendum;

* Approximate tooth outlines

may

pitch line;

be drawn by the use of instruments, such

as the Willis odontograph, which locates the centers of approximate circular arcs;
the templet odontograph, invented by Prof. S. W. Robinson; or by some geomet-

method for the location of the centers of approximate circular


For descriptions, see "Elements of Mechanism," Willis; "Kinematics,"'
McCord; "Teeth of Gears," George B. Grant; "Treatise on Gearing," published by Brown and Sharpe.
rical or tabular

arcs.

MACHINE DESIGN.

284
c

= clearance;
= working depth

of spaces;

di =full depth of spaces.

Then

N+
N-

Dn
"

D2=D-2(a+c);

N' D=

'

P- D

It

'

PN N=Dp;

"

Pp^n;

P'

= 2p

P-=-

no backlash;

P^

-_

20

p20

10

The

20;

di

=2a-+c;

inches.

may be
=
face
about 3P;

following dimensions are given as a guide;

varied as conditions of design require:


thickness

of

rim =1.25^;

Width

thickness of arms

of

they

= i.25i, no

taper.

Diam-

The rim may be reinforced by a rib, as shown in Fig. 219.


hub =2 X diameter of shaft. Length of hub = width of
face + J"; width of arm at junction with hub=J circumference
Make arms taper about -J" per foot on
of the hub for six arms.
eter of

each

side.

Table XXVIII.
Diametral
Pitch.

TOOTHED IVHEELS OR GEARS.


196. Strength of

Gear-teeth.The

285

maximum work

trans-

mitted by a shaft per unit time may usually be accurately estimated


and, if the rate of rotation is known, the torsional moment may

be found.

Let O, Fig. 220, represent the axis of a shaft perpenLet A ^maximum work
iV= revolutions per minute;

dicular to the paper.

per minute;

let

to be transmitted
let

i?r= torsional

moment. Then F is the force factor of the work transmitted,


and 27trN is the space factor of the work transmitted. Hence

2FnrN=A,
If the

work

is to

and

whose radius

is

is r^, i.e., it is

to another shaft

r^.

by means of

then for equihbrium FiVi =Fr,

the force to be sustained

Hence, in general, the

teeth.

equals the torsional

r^,

2nN

the force at the pitch surface of the gear

is

i^i

= torsional moment =

be transmitted

a spur-gear whose radius

Fr
and Fi =

i<'r

by the gear-

force sustained by the teeth of a gear

moment divided by

the pitch radius of the gear.

When the maximum force to be sustained iS known the teeth


may be given proper proportions. The dimensions upon which
the tooth depends for strength are

Thickness of tooth = t, width

= &, and depth of space between teeth =/. These


become known when the pitch is known, because t is fixed for

of face of gear
all

and

any

pitch,

The

value of b

and

may

have values dictated by good practice.

be varied through quite a range to meet the

requirements of any special case.

In the design the tooth will be treated as a cantilever with

load appUed at

the entire load;


of teeth.

of teeth

its

i.e.,

end.

assumed that one tooth sustains

It is

that there

is

contact only between one pair

This would be nearly true for gears with low numbers


but in high-numbered gears the force would be distributed

over several pairs, and hence they would have an excess of strength.
It is also

assumed that the load

the face of the tooth.

This

is

is

uniformly distributed across

a safe assumption

if

the width of

MACHWE

286
face, h,
if

DESIGN.

does not exceed three times the circular pitch,

the gears are well

ahgned and

rigidly supported.

i.e., 2,P,

and

All teeth of

the same pitch have not the same form, as was explained in the

discussion of interchangeable gears,

The fewer

strength.

and

therefore they vary in

teeth the thinner they will be at their base

and consequently the weaker they

will

be when acting as canti-

levers.

<ii^

Fig. 219.

Fig

Fig. 220.

Mr. Wilfred Lewis * has drawn a number

of figures

large scale to represent very accurately the teeth cut


sets of cutters of the 15 involute, the 20 involute,

systems.

In the

latter

he used a rolhng

used in his investigation are

and the cycloidal

The

proportions

slightly different

those given above which correspond to the

on a

by complete

having a diameter

circle

equal to the radius of the 12-tooth pinion.


of the teeth

221.

from

Brown and Sharpe

system, but no serious errors will result from applying the formulas

His reasoning was as follows (see Fig. 221):

derived by him.

The
at

greatest stress in the tooth occurs

the end

of the tooth as indicated

of action being

normal

this force,

which

called the

and

is

This load
the tooth.
is

is

To

is

working
at b

the load

by the arrow at

to the profile at a.

effective to

apphed

when

is

applied

a, its direction

The component

of

produce rotation of the gear, equals


force.

and induces a transverse

determine where the tooth

is

stress in

weakest advantage

taken of the fact that any parabola in the axis he and tangent to
* Proc. Phila. Eng. Club', 1893, and Amer. Mach.,

May

4 and June 22, 1893.

TOOTHED IVHEELS OR GE^RS.

bF

incloses, a

that

may

beam

of uniform strength.

all the

parabolas-

thus be drawn one only will be tangent to the tooth form

shown by the dotted

(as

Of

287

line in the figure)

and the weakest

sec-

tion of the tooth will be that through the points of tangency


c

and

d.

Having determined

the weakest section in each case,

Mr,

Lewis developed the following general formulae from the data


obtained

so-

For 15 involute and the cycloidal system, using a rolling


circle whose diameter equals the radius of the 12-tooth pinion^

i^

= /P^(o.r.4-^).

For the 20 involute system

i^

= /P&(o.r54--^^).*

P= working force in

pounds;

/=safe allowable unit

stress in

pounds per square inch;

P=circular pitch in inches;

6= width

of face of gear in inches;

N =number of teeth

in the gear.

Experimental data fixing the value of

and

velocities is lacking.

The

Table XXIX.

/ for cast iron.


/ for steel

for different materials;

following table

by Mr. Lewis

Velocity of pitch line


100 or
in feet per minute

is

recommended

288

MACHINE DESIGN.
In these formulae, for a given gear the whole right side of

known and

the equation becomes


readily determined.

where the force

value of

more

is

The

In such a case the

given.

is

is

to apply the formulas

trial.

Design a pair

of 15 involute gears to transmit

distance between

velocity ratio of the shafts

the allowable value of

difficult

to be transmitted

determined by

is

197. Problem.

6 H.P.

It

is

centers

to be |.

and the

10 inches

is

The

pinion shaft

makes

150 revolutions per minute.

The
ration

= 10

distance between centers being 10 inches


the radii will be to each other as 3:2

|,

and the
and

velocity

sum

their

inches, hence the radius of the pinion will be 4 inches, while

that of the gear will be 6 inches.

both gears are of the same

If

made

putations will therefore be


will be

for the pinion because the gear

The

stronger and, consequently, safe.

of the pinion

=8

inches,

its

Com-

the weaker.

material the teeth of the smaller will be

velocity

pitch diameter

= i5oX^Xy5- =3 ^4- 2

feet

per

minute.
6 H.P.

=6X33,000 = 198,000

F = ~

108000

ft. -lbs.

per minute;

=632

lbs.

314.2

Assuming
be taken

cast-iron gears at 314.2

=4800

first trial let

b =i

The maximum

lbs.

inch.

feet

per minute,

value of

For the 15 involute system, then,


o.684\

632

Substituting

=48ooXPXi(o.i24-^^'^j
,^

25.13

iv=-p=-y^.

But

this,

transposing,

and clearing

P2_4.56P-f 4.84=0,

b=^P, but

of fractions,

may
for


TOOTHED IVHEELS OR GEARS.

289

P-2.28 = o.6.

from which

Choosing the smaller value,

P = i.68

inches.

pitch of 1.68 inches with a width of face of

inch

is

bad pro-

portion.

For our second

632

trial let &

=2

inches,

o .684P\

=4800X2 XP(o.i24-^^

25-13

Solving this gives

P=o.62
This corresponds

inch.

practically to a diametral pitch of

5,

giving

5X8=40 teeth for the pinion. The engaging gear will have
5 X 1 2 = 60 teeth.
When the solution of the quadratic equation leads to an
imaginary quantity

it

will

be necessary to increase

greatest allowable value of b

value

must be increased

or by cutting

down

still

h.

If the

leaves the imaginary, then the

either

by using a stronger material

the factor of safety.

Another way of solving the problem would have been


b in terms of P. thus b

=KP

{K being

less

than

3),

to

assume

thus giving

o.684P\
'^fKP-^C0.124-^p-;.

In this substitute
satisfies the

trial

values for

until one

is

found which

equation.

198. Non-circular Wheels.

Only

circular centrodes or pitch

curves correspond to a constant velocity ratio;

and by making

the pitch curves of proper form, almost any variation in the velocity

MACHINE DESIGN.

ratio

may

Thus a gear whose

be produced.

about one of

ellipse, rotating

elliptical gear,

and

if

its foci,

may

pitch curve

is

an

engage with another

the driver has a constant angular velocity

have a continually varying angular velocity.

the follower will

crank of a slider-crank

If the follower is rigidly attached to the

This

chain, the slider will have a quick return motion.

some-

is

times used for shapers and slotting-machines. When more than


one fluctuation of velocity per revolution is required, it may be

obtained by means of "lobed gears";


curvature of the pitch curve

is

i.e.,

gears in which the

several times

reversed.

If

on these non-circular pitch curves, the

describing circle be rolled

hence in order to cut

tooth outlines will varj' in different parts;

such gears,

many

tically this

would be too expensive; and when such gears are

used the pattern

cutters

would be required

for each gear.

Prac-

accurately made, and the cast gears are used

is

without "tooling" the tooth surfaces.


199. Bevel-gears.

the same, and

All

transverse sections of spur-gears arc

Spur-gears serve

their axes intersect at infinity.

to transmit motion between parallel shafts.

It is

necessary also

to transmit motion between shafts whose axes intersect.

become pitch cones; the

case the pitch cylinders


j^

upon
ing

To

teeth are formed

these conical surfaces, the result-

gears

being

illustrate, let

the axes between


to

called

a and

a line

CD

This

ratio is

at a distance

the

point

from

it

Also draw the line

to that of B.

from

it

equal to

CE parallel

equal to the length of the line B.

of intersection

is

equal to the ratio

parallel to a, at a distance

bevel-gears.
Fig. 222, be

which the motion

of the length of the line

the length of the line

h,

be transmitted with a given velocity

ratio.

Draw

In this

of these

intersection of the given axes.

lines

to

the

This locates the

point
line

to

h,

Join

O, the

OF, which

TOOTHED IVHEELS OR GEARS.


is

291

the line of contact of two pitch cones which will roll together

to transmit the required velocity ratio.

For

^r^=

and

if

it

be supposed that there are frusta of cones so thin that they

may

MC and

NC,

be considered cylinders, their radii being equal to


it

follows that they would roll together,

slipping be prevented,

if

But

to transmit the required velocity ratio.

same

of these pitch cones have the

any pair

MC
ratio, =^rrp:

may

of frusta of the pitch cones

all pairs

and

be used to

roll

together
insure

shpping must be prevented, and hence teeth are

result,

formed upon the selected frusta of the pitch cones.


retical determination of these

200.

therefore

To

for the transmission of the required velocity ratio.


this

of radii

Cycloidal Teeth.

ist.

may

If

The

theo-

be explained as follows:

a cone,

(Fig. 223),

be rolled

upon another cone, B, their apexes coinciding, an element he of


the cone

will generate

tion of this surface, adh,


if

a cone,

a conical surface, and a spherical sec-

is

called a spherical epicycloid.

(Fig. 224), roll

their apexes coinciding,

on the inside of another cone, C,

an element

he of

will generate a conical

surface, a spherical section of which, hda,

hypocycloid.

If

now

Also

is

called a spherical

the three cones, B, C, and A, with apexes

coinciding, roll together, always tangent to each other on one


line, as the cylinders

were in the case of spur-gears, there will

be two conical surfaces generated by an element of


the cone B and another upon the cone C. These
for tooth

.surfaces

to

transmit the

required

A one upon
may be used
:

constant

velocity

MACHINE DESIGN.

292

Because, since the line of contact of the cones

ratio.

of the relative

motion of the cones,

it

the axo

is

follows that a plane

normal

to the motion of the describing element of the generating cone


at

any time

will pass

describing element

is

erated tooth surfaces,

And

through this axo.

always the

between the gen-

line of contact

the normal plane

since the

also,

to the line of contact of

and the condi-

the tooth surfaces always passes through the axo,

tion of rotation with a constant velocity ratio is fulfilled.

201. 2d. Involute Teeth.

Tangent

two pitch cones are

If

may

along an element, a plane

making an angle

off

contact

be passed through this element

(say 75) with the plane of the axes of the cones.

to this plane there

may

be two cones whose axes coin-

cide with the axes of the pitch cones.

wind

in

a plane

If

from one base cone upon the other, the

of the plane with one cone will leave the cone

supposed to

is

line of

tangency

and advance

in the

plane toward the other cone, and will generate simultaneously

upon

and spherical

the pitch cones' conical surfaces,

sections of

may

These surfaces

these surfaces will be spherical involutes.

be used for tooth surfaces, and will transmit the required constant velocity ratio, because the tangent plane

normal

the constant

is

to the tooth surfaces at their line of contact,

and

this

plane passes through the axo of the pitch cones.


202. Determination of Bevel-gear Teeth.

tooth surfaces with perfect accuracy,

draw

it

To

determine the

would be necessary to

the required curves on a spherical surface,

and then to

join all points of these curves to the point of intersection of the

axes of the pitch cones.

Practically this

and an approximate method

is

If the frusta of pitch cones

be given,

points in the base circles of the cones, as L,

always

in the surface of

An axo

is

would be impossible,

used.

and C,

Fig. 225, then

M, and K,

a sphere whose projection

an instantaneous

axis, of

which a centro

is

is

will

move

the circle

a projection.

TOOTHED IVHEELS OR GEARS.

293

LAKM.

Properly, the tooth curv'es should be laid out on the


surface of this sphere and joined to the center of the
sphere to
generate the tooth surfaces. Draw cones
and
tangent to the sphere on circles represented in projection by lines

MHK

LGM

LM

and

MK. They

tooth curves

are

called

drawn on

are

the

"back cones."

these cones, with

If

the base

of the cones as pitch circles, they will approximate

now
circle

the tooth

curves that should be drawn on the spherical surface. But a


cone may be cut along one of its elements and rolled out, or developed, upon a plane. Let
be a part of the cone
developed, and

let

MDH
MNG be a part of the cone MGL,

Fig. 225.

The

circular arcs

exactly the

Fig. 226.

MD and MN may be used

are in the case of spur-gears,

and the

teeth

same way, the curves being

volute, as required.

Then

MHK,

developed.

just as pitch circles

may

the developed cones

back and the curves drawn may

be laid out in

either cycloidal or in-

may

be wrapped

serve as directrices for the

tooth surfaces, all of whose elements converge to the center of

the sphere of motion.


203. Cutting Bevel-gear Teeth.

be cut

by means

The teeth of spur-gears may

of milling-cutters, because all transverse sections

are alike, but with bevel-gears the conditions are different.

tooth surfaces are conical surfaces,


varies constantly

The

and therefore the curvature

from one end of the tooth

to the other.

Also the

M/ICHINE DESIGN.

2 94

thickness of the tooth and the width of space vary constantly

from one end

But the curvature and thickness

to the other.

of a milling-cutter cannot vary, and therefore a milling-cutter

cannot

an

cut

accurate

Small

bevel-gear.

cut with milling-cutters with

liowever,

practical purposes.

The

cutter

is

made

Two

curvature

its

made

is

made

for each

Let Fig. 226 represent a section of the cutter.

For the

that of the middle of the tooth.

cut

first

are,

accuracy for

as thick as the narrowest

part of the space between the teeth, and

space.

bevel-gears

sufficient

it

is

set relatively to the

cuts are

gear blank, so that the pitch

point a of the cutter travels toward the apex of the pitch cone,

and

for the second cut so that the pitch point b travels

the apex of the pitch cone.

Gears cut

to the required form.

to be filed slightly before they

in

work

with absolutely correct tooth surfaces

Suppose a planer
line
is

this

manner usually need


Bevel-gears

satisfactorily.

may

be

made by

which the tool point travels always

planing
in

some

through the apex of the pitch cone. Then suppose that as

slowly fed

tooth curve
it

in

toward

This method gives an approximation

will

be clear that the tooth so formed will be correct.

embodying

by Mr.

it

down the tooth surface, it is guided along the required


by means of a templet. From what has preceded

these principles have been designed

Corliss of Providence,

Planers

and constructed

and Mr. Gleason

of Rochester,

with the most satisfactory results.


204. Design of Bevel-gears.

Given energy to be

rate of rotation of one shaft, velocity ratio,

axes;

to design a pair of bevel-gears.

of axes, 0, Fig. 227.

Draw

the axes

required angle with each other.

Locate the intersection

OA

frusta of the pitch cones

selection

may

and OB, making the

Locate OC, the

of the pitch cones, by the method given on

the teeth.

transmitted,

and angle between

line of

p. 290.

tangency

Any

pair of

be selected upon which to form

Special conditions of the problem usually dictate this

approximately.

Suppose that the inner

limit

of the

TOOTHED WHEELS OR GEARS.


teeth

may

be conveniently at D.

=D0-i-2.

of face,

tion, lay off

Or,

if

is

Now

are defined tentatively.

Then make DP,


some

located by

^ either case

PD=P0^2>-

295
the width

limiting condi-

the limits of the teeth

from the energy and the number

may be used) the moment


The mean force at the pitch surface
= this torsional moment the mean radius of the gear; i.e.,
the radius of the point M, Fig. 227, midway between P and D.
The pitch corresponding to this force may be found.

of revolutions of one shaft (either shaft

may

of torsion

be found.

-J-

In order to compute

it

consider the teeth of the pinion

the smaller gear), as they will be the weaker.


the force, F, which

is

to be transmitted

required to carry i^ by

and whose width


used

we determine

the pitch

a spur-gear, whose pitch radius

of face,

h,

PD.

equals

to govern the shape of the tooth

(The radius

and not

{i.e.,

Having found

MR,

=MiV

MN

is

because the

teeth are laid off on the developed back cones and not on the

pitch circles, as has been explained.


is

MN
The

sometimes called the formative

is

tinguish

The

it

from the pitch

circle in

large end,

from O.

the pitch of bevel-gears

and diametral

mean

5 is to 6.

is

pitch of the

measured

at the

pitch varies inversely as the distance

In this case the distances of

each other as

X| = the

But

order to dis-

circle.)

pitch of such a spur-gear would be the

bevel-gears.

whose radius

circle

Hence

M and

from

are to

the value of diametral pitch found

diametral pitch of the bevel-gear.

If this value

does

not correspond with any of the usual values of diametral pitch,


the next smaller value may be used. This would result in a
slightly increased factor of safety.

found, multipUed by the diameter

If the

diametral pitch thus

2PQ, does not

give an integer

number of teeth, the point P may be moved outward


along the line OC, until the number of teeth becomes an integer.
This also would result in slight increase of the factor of safety. The

for the

point

P is thus finally located, the corrected width of face =P0^^,

MACHINE DESIGN.

296

and the pitch

pleted as follows

as centers,

The drawing

known.

is

draw

Draw

of the gears

be com-

AB perpendicular to PO. With A and


PE and PP. Use these as pitch arcs,

the arcs

outlines of two or three teeth

and draw the

may

upon them, with

Fig. 227.

cycloidal or involute curves as required.

These will serve

From P each way along


addendum and the clearance. From the

the form of tooth outlines.


lay off the

thus located

The
Lay

draw

tops of teeth
off

upon

AB

lines

toward

to

show

the line

terminating in the line

and the bottoms

AB

four points

DG.

of spaces are thus defined.

below the bottoms of the spaces a space

HJ

about equal to f the thickness of the tooth on the pitch circle.


This gives a ring of metal to support the teeth. From J draw

JK toward

The web L should have about the same thickness


as the ring has at K. Join this web to a properly proportioned
hub as shown. The plan and elevation of each gear may now
O.

be drawn by the ordinary methods of projection.


fillets.

Use large

TOOTHED IVHEELS OR GEARS.


20s.

Skew

Bevel-gears.

Spur-gears

297

serve to

communicate

motion between parallel axes, and bevel-gears between axes that

But

intersect.

it is

sometimes necessary to communicate motion

between axes that are neither parallel nor


parallel axes are

axes are

moved

into different planes, so that they

sect, the pitch surfaces

intersecting

if

no longer

become hyperbolic paraboloids

with each other along a straight

which

line,

is

rolled

each other, circumferential slipping being prevented,


mit motion with a constant velocity

There

ratio.

inter-

in contact

the generatrix of

These hyperbolic paraboloids

the pitch surfaces.

If the

intersecting.

turned out of parallelism, or

upon

will trans-

however,

is,

necessarily a slipping of the elements of the surfaces

upon each

may be formed on

these pitch

Teeth

other parallel to themselves.


surfaces,

and they may be used

for the transmission of

between shafts that are not parallel nor


gears are called
struction

elements

"Skew

Bevel-gears."

and the additional

make them

friction

in the

The

same plane.
difficulties

motion

Such
of con-

due to slipping along the

undesirable in practice, and there

is

seldom

a place where they cannot be replaced by some other form of


connection.

A very complete discussion


may

of the subject of

Skew Bevel-gears

be found in Professor McCord's "Kinematics."

206 Spiral Gearing.

much

If line contact is

not essential there

wider range of choice of gears to connect shafts

neither parallel nor intersecting.

in different

planes, both

parallel to the paper.

Let EF. and

rotation

and B,

is

which are

Fig. 228, are axes of

planes being

GH

be cylin-

"\

ders on these axes, tangent to each other at the


point 5.

Any

S either between
of them.

This

line

may now

B or

and

line,

be drawn through

coinciding with either

say DS,

may

be taken as the

gent to helical or screw lines drawn on the cylinders

or helical surfaces

may

common

tan-

EF and GH,
DS being

be formed on both cylinders,

MACHINE DESIGN.

298
their

common

Each one

Spiral gears are thus produced.

tangent at S.

The

a portion of a many-threaded screw.

is

in these gears

contact

in practice the point of contact

point contact;

is

becomes a very hmited area.*


207. Womi-gearing.

made equal
threads,

to 90,

Worm- gearing.
is

the angle between the shafts

known

as

In this special case the gear with a few threads

worm, while the other

called the

gearing

special case of spiral

is

three, or four

and one gear has only one, two,

becomes a

it

When

threaded screw,

is

gear,

called the worm-wheel.

which

is

still

a many-

If a section of a

worm

and worm-wheel be made on a plane passing through the axis


of the

worm, and normal

of the teeth will be the


fact the

worm,

motion

to

parallel to

follows that

it

worm-teeth

will

worm-wheel, the form

of a rack

its axis,

From

the worm-wheel.

and pinions
of the

moved

if

to the axis of the

same as that

be straight

would transmit rotary

without special methods.

same pitch and diameter.


greater thickness,

and

like those of

if

there

is

worm-wheel

to be contact

where except

CD

different

between the

in the plane

EF,

involve great difficulty, but

follows

it

and AB,

it

Worm

is

Fig. 229,

show a

necessary to

make

from those of a spur-gear,

worm and worm-wheel

Fig. 229.

any-

This would seem to

accomplished in practice as
made of tool steel, and " flutes "

parallel to the axis, thus

* See further "


Science Series.

it

is

A duplicate of the worm is

are cut in

a spur-gear of the

But since the worm-wheel must have

form and location of tooth,

the teeth of the

of being sharpened

since all other sections parallel to that

through the axis of the worm, as


different

used, the sides

worm-wheel were only a thin

If the

would be formed

is

This simplifies the cutting

lines.

of the worm, because a tool may be used capable

plate the teeth

in

the consideration of racks

the involute system

if

and pinion;

making

it

into a cutter.

and Spiral Gearing," by F. A. Halsey.

Van Nostrand

TOOTHED IVHEELS OR GEARS.


which

is

tempered.

and

are finished

is

gradually reduced.

cutter or

somewhat

worm

"

is

greater,

The

and

have when they

to

is

distance between

capable of being

is

Both are then rotated with the required

by means

"hob

that the

in position for working.

centers, however,

velocity ratio

then mounted in a frame in the same

It is

worm-wheel

relation to the

299

of gearing properly arranged,

fed against the worm-wheel

between centers becomes the required value.

till

The

and the

the distance
teeth of the

Fig. 229

worm-wheel

"roughed out" before they are "hobbed."

are

above method the

the

worm

is

made

to

cut

its

By
own worm-

wheel.*
Fig. 230 represents the half section of a
single

worm

twice aroimd to C, and so on.

mediate thread, B.

worm

will

centers.

it

it

push two teeth

The

worm,

a double

if

worm

the single

it

is

to B',

the thread

an

inter-

worm

turns

push one tooth of the worm-wheel

will

engages past the

single

it is

If

comes

to C, while there is

It follows that

through one revolution


with which

If

comes

in going once around,

A,

worm.

the thread A, in going once around,

line of centers;

the

of

while the double

worm-wheel past the

therefore,

line

of

must make as many revolu-

tions as there are teeth in the worm-wheel, in order to cause

one revolution of the worm-wheel;


the double

worm

* This subject

and

in

is

only needs to

fully treated in

make

while for the same result


half as

many

revolutions

Unwin's "Elements of Machine Design,''

Brown and Sharpe's "Treatise on Gearing."

MACHINE DESIGN.

300

The

ratio of the angular velocity of

worm

a single

is=

the

worm-wheel with which

it

the

number

worm-wheel.

in

which n equals

For the double worm

ratio

this

of teeth in the

engages

to that of

is

Worm-gearing
is

where

particularly well adapted for use

is

it

necessary to get a high velocity ratio in limited space.

The pitch of a worm is measured parallel to the axis of rotation.


The pitch of a single worm is P, Fig. 230. It is equal
to the circular pitch of the worm-wheel.
The pitch of a double
worm is Pi =2P=2Xcircular pitch of the worm-wheel.
208. Design of Worm-gears.

All

spiral gears are

screw transmission and the formulag for

under

c,

p. 133, in the

Three points are

efficiency, etc.,

forms

of

developed

chapter on Screws, apply to them directly.

to be carefuUy considered in the design of

worms and wheels:


1.

Speed

This

of rubbing.

is

the velocity in feet per minute

of a point on the pitch line of the

when

are obtained
it

exceeds 300 feet there

feet

best efficiencies

per minute.

When

increasing danger of cutting, and

on the teeth must be correspondingly reduced.

pressure

the

is

The

worm.

about 200

this is

At high speeds

(say 1000 feet) only very light pressure can be

sustained without abrasion.


2.

Pressure on

This depends on the speed and on the

teeth.

angle of helix.
3.

Angle

it

From the formula for screw efficiency we


made as great as convenient provided

of helix.

have seen that

this

should be

does not exceed 45-

should never be

less

make it impossible
but 20 gives very excellent results. It

Practical .conditions

to use the highest values,

than 15 for

fair efficiency.

Oil -bath lubrication should be used wherever possible; faiUng


this,

a heavy mixture of graphite and

oil

has been found

satis-

TOOTHED IVHEELS OR GEARS.


The

factory.

following

experiments * applies

using

cation,

table

based

301

on Professor Stribeck's

to a 20 angle of helix and oil-bath lubri-

worm and

hardened-steel

phosphor-bronze

wheel.

Table XXX.

Rubbing

velocity in feet per minute


maximum efficiency

300

400

500

2700

1850

1250

600

Allowable pressure for


in

pounds

This

3500

may be

taken as a guide.

than 20 the values of the pressure

When

the angle

is less

When the angle


may be slightly

is

greater

increased.

than 20 they should be rapidly diminished;

thus for 10 use only one half the value given.


209. Problem.

Two

shafts about 10 inches apart

right angle with one another are to

The worm-shaft makes 300


Since the velocity ratio
20, 40, or

have a

and

at a

velocity ratio of 20 to

i.

revolutions per minute.

is

20 to

1,

the wheel will have to have

worm

60 teeth, depending upon whether the

is

single-,

double-, or triple-threaded.
If the shafts are 10 inches apart the greatest allowable pitch

radius of the wheel will not be far from 8 inches

50 inches

may

be taken as a trial pitch circumference of the wheel.


With a single-thread worm this will give a circular pitch of
=
f^ 2| inches. With a double thread the circular pitch would
DC

^-^

-i\ inches.

In any case the

rise of

the pitch helix of the

worm

will

be

2^ inches for one revolution.

This value must always be such that the thread

an ordinary

lathe.

Zeitschrift d. Vereins deutscher Ingenieure.

may be

cut in

MACHINE DESIGN.

30 2
If

required that the helix angle, a, be 20, then the

is

it

pitch circumference of the

worm must be such

^^^ ' 20

2.5

worm =

7- =6.87 inches.

6.87
=2.2 mches.
worm =
,

Pitch diameter of

Pitch diameter of wheel =

= it;.88 inches.
^

Actual distance between shafts =

The

question

now

whether

arises

worm.

pitch diameter for the

= 2.5

Twice

this

dedendum = i.84

worm.

It is

would not sustain the

thread

= 9.04

a great enough

is

is

inches,

inches.

single the pitch

inch.

which subtracted from

solid core of 0.36 inch

diam-

obvious without computation that this

moment.

torsional

were used the central core

For each revolution

+ 2.2

dedendum=o.92

would only leave a central

eter for the'

15.88

2.2 inches

If the

inches and the corresponding

2.2 inches

worm;

pitch circumference of

pitch circumference of

.".

that

If the

double thread

would have a diameter of 1.28 inches.

of the

worm

the length of the path of

the point of contact or the distance rubbed over equals the

length on the pitch

line.

This

is

hehx

the hypothenuse of a right-

angle triangle whose base =6.87 inches and whose altitude

2.5 inches, or 7.3 inches.

At 300 revolutions per minute the distance rubbed through


feet

per minute

pressure,

=300 X

W, between

bath lubrication, a

7.3

182

the teeth

steel

feet.

may

At 182

in

feet the allowable

equal 3500

lbs.,

assimiing

worm, and a bronze wheel. This

is

the


TOOTHED IVHEELS OR

GEARS.

303.

pressure applied at the circumference of the worm-wheel in the


direction of the axis of the

The

worm.

total

work done on the

worm-wheel

in foot-pounds per

by the pitch

velocity of the wheel in feet per minute.

W"=

This wheel makes

minute

revolutions

^5

pitch circumference =|-- feet, hence

= 62.5

feet

its

multiplied

per minute and

pitch

its

velocity = 15X1^

per minute.

3500X62.5 =218,750
This same amount of energy

The

will equal

moment on

twisting

radius of the worm.

is

ft.-lbs.

=6.63 H.P.

transmitted through the worm..

the shaft =i<'r, where r equals the pitch

i^= energy transmitted

-f-

the

velocity

of

the point of application of the force.

^=

218750

^87300 X

= ^^74

,,

lbs.;

12

i?f

To

= 1274X1.1 =1401

in.-lbs.

this there is a circular section

resist

whose strength

is.

represented by /^.

fj

= radius

of core of

worm =0.64

inch;

/s=unit stress in outer fiber;


,

.',

/s=

Fr 1401
1=
=3400
KYi

.412

'^

lbs.

This

worm

is

will

a safe value for

steel.

be used and the wheel

circular pitch.

Therefore the double-threaded


will

have 40 teeth of i^ inches

MACHINE DESIGN.

304

For the strength of the worm-wheel teeth Professor Stribeck


gives

TF=35oP& for cast-iron wheels;


pr = 55oPfc for bronze wheels;
IF = pressure in direction of worm

P= circular pitch in
i=arc EF,
It will

in the
*

if

pounds;

inches;

Fig. 231, in inches.

make b as great as
TF=35oo and P = ii inches.

be impossible to

problem

Had

axis in

this

would

call for

the distance between the shafts been fixed at 10 inches

the helix angle could not have been

assumed but must have been

calculated.

The

pitch radius of

worm would have


10"

been

-^^^=2.02".
2

Pitch circumference =12.69 inches.

Tangent

of

hehx angle =

.'.

r
2.5

=0.1955.

a = ii +

When the worm and worm-wheel are determined, a working


may be made as follows: Draw AB, Fig. 231, the axis

drawing

of the worm-wheel,

the

worm, and P,

pitch, full depth,

the arcs

CD

and

locate O, the projection of the axis of

the pitch point.

and addendum

With

circles,

as a center

G,

H, and K;

also

and EF, bounding the tops of the teeth and the

bottoms of the spaces of the worm-wheel.

= 90.

Below

the teeth

and

/?

draw the

EF lay

join this

tooth outhnes in

the

off

Make

the

angle

a proper thickness of metal to support

by the web

LM

other sectional

as for an involute rack and pinion.

to the

hub N.

The

view are drawn exactly

Full views might be drawn,

TOOTHED IVHEELS OR GEARS.


but they involve

difficulties of construction,

2IO.

Compound Spur-gear
i.e.,

two elements.
three elements.

they

Thus

may

and

c.

h and

Chains.

Spur-gear

contain links

in Fig.

may

chains

carry

vi^hich

more than

234 the links a and d each carry

In the latter case the teeth of d must be counted

as two elements, because by


h

and do not give any

workman.

additional information to the

be compound,

35

means

of

them d

is

paired with both

In the case of the three-link spur-gear chain the wheels


are

meshed with each

other,

and a point

in the pitch circle

Fig. 231

of c

moved with

circle of h,
all
is

same

linear velocity as a point in the pitch

but in the opposite direction.

the pitch circles

have the same linear

In Fig. 232 points in

velocity, since the

motion

equivalent to rolling together of the pitch circles without slip-

ping;
is

the

but c and b

now

rotate in the

same

direction.

Hence

it

seen that the introduction of the wheel d has reversed the

direction of rotation, without changing the velocity ratio.

The

3o6

MACHINE DESIGN.
wheel, d, which

size of the

the motion of

and

simply receives upon

a certain linear velocity from


to

Hence the

h.

insertion

any number of

of

the direction of the motion.

and

idlers, c

b,

pitch circle

it

unchanged

idlers

does not

but each added idler reverses

same

direction;

and with an

b will rotate in opposite directions.

be drawn through the centers of rotation of

If parallel lines

and

a pair of gears,

and

upon

Thus, with an odd number of

i will rotate in the


c

effect

its

and transmits

c,

affect the velocity ratio of c to

even number of idlers

an "idler," has no

called

is

It

h.

distances be laid off from the centers

if

on

these lines inversely proportional to the angular velocities of the


gears, then a line joining the points so determined will cut the

which

line of centers in a point

232, since the rotation

is

the centro of the gears.

is

in the

same

on the same side

laid off

have to

Fig. 233.

Fig. 232.

be

In Fig.

direction, the lines

The

of the line of centers.

pitch

radii are inversely proportional to the angular velocities of the

gears,

and hence

circles of b

centers
Ci

and

is

61.

only necessary to draw a tangent to the pitch

and the
be,

this four-link

The

intersection of this

of c

and

in

be,

hne with the

four link

Ci is

line of

centrodes of c and b are

about the centers of

mechanism may be replaced by a

which

and

b.

three-

an annular wheel meshing with a

mechanism

and usually more convenient

The

The

h.

through the point

mechanism,

pinion

it is

c,

the centro,

61, circles

Obviously
link

and

is

more compact, however,

in practice.

other principal form of

spur-gear chain

is

shown

in

TOOTHED IVHEELS OR
Fig. 233.

The wheel d

now

307

has two sets of teeth of different pitch

diameter, one pairing with

bd

GE/tRS.

and the other with

has a different Hnear velocity from

may be

obtained as follows:

angular velocity d

_ C

angular velocity c

angular velocity b

angular velocity d

B
C

angular velocity

of the last

radii of the "followers,"

cd

cd'

bd

.bd'

angular velocity b
Multiplyi:

The numerator

point

The angular

proportion to the ratio of the radii of those points.


velocity ratio

The

h.

cd, greater or less in

cdxD
cdxB

.bd

.bd'

term consists of the product of the

and the denominator

product of the radii of the "drivers."

The

consists of the

diameters or numbers

of teeth could be substituted for the radii.

In general, the angular velocity of the


angular velocity of the

last

of teeth of the followers


of the drivers.
trains that

is

first

driver

is to

the

follower as the product of the nxmiber


to the

product of the number of teeth

This applies equally well to compound spur-gear

have more than three axes.*

Therefore, in any spur-

gear chain the velocity ratio equals the product of the number of
teeth in the followers divided by the product of the
teeth in the drivers.

number
number

The

direction of rotation

of intermediate axes
is

odd.

is

even,

and

If the train includes

is

number

of

reversed

if

the

not reversed

if

the

is

annular gears their axes

would be omitted from the number, because annular gears do


not reverse the direction of rotation.
* Epicyclic trains excepted.

CHAPTER

XVIII.

SPRINGS.
211. Springs Defined.

Usually machine members are required

to sustain the applied forces without appreciable yielding

and are

designed accordingly; but certain machine members are useful

They are generally called springs.


The spring of a safety-valve on a steamdown imtil the steam-pressure reaches the

because of considerable yielding.


212. Illustrations.
boiler holds the valve

maximum

(a)

allowable value;

escape until the pressure


(6)

The

springs

is

then

it

reduced,

yields

when

and allows steam


it

closes the valve.

upon which a locomotive-engine

prevent the transmission of the

to

full effect of

is

supported

the shocks, due to

running, to the working parts of the engine, thereby reducing the


resulting

stresses.

Car-springs

in

a similar manner protect

passengers and freight.


(c)

tents

"Bumper"

due

(d)

springs reduce stresses in cars

and

their con-

to axial shocks.

The

springs in certain steam-engine governors yield under

the increased centrifugal force of the governor weights, due to

increased rotative speeds, and allow the adjustment of the valve-

gear to the changes of effort and load.

Heavy reciprocating parts are often brought to rest without


shock and are then helped to start on their return travel by the
(e)

expanding spring.
(/)

A power-hammer strikes a

action of a spring.
(g)

This spring

"cushioned blow" because of the

may be

of steel, rubber, or steam.

Belt connections are really yielding

members and tend


308

SPRINGS.

39

to reduce shocks transmitted through them;

while gears (except

rawhide or "hard-fiber ") yield ahnost imperceptibly and transmit shocks almost unchanged.

Long

(h)

stress

due

may become

bolts

springs for the

reduction

of

to shock.

may serve for the storiag of energy which is


given out slowly to actuate light-running mechanisms, like clocks.
(i)

Springs

Many

213. Cantilever Springs.

with end loads.

springs are simple cantilevers

(See Fig. 234.)

Fig. 234.

The

Fig. 235.

rectangular spring of constant width b and height (or

thickness) h, with a load

applied at a distance

from the sup-

port gives, from the laws of beams.

^ fbh^
F=-^

and

4FP
,
J=^^,.

the unit stress in the outer fiber in pounds per square inch,

f is

all forces

being expressed in pounds and

all

dimensions in inches

is

the total deflection in inches due to the apphcation of F;

is

the

modulus

For a

flat

of elasticity of the material used.

spring of uniform breadth

such as

is

shown

b,

rectangular cross-

and lower surface a parabola

section, top surface flat

in Fig. 235,

ibh^

'

and
6/

6FP
J=,

Ebh^'

in outline,

3IO

The same

MACHINE DESIGN.
equations hold approximately for the cantilever

spring shown in Fig. 236.

They

also hold for the triangular

spring of constant depth h shown in Fig. 237.

SPRINGS.
of

Divide

AB

GFHBi
larly

and

into equal parts,

an inconvenient width.

is

say

Conceive

six.

cut off and placed in the position

conceive that

EDKAi

the

portion

BiLKiEi, and

ADE

moved

to

AiDiEi, and

simi-

AiMKiEi,

occupies the position

the two parts are rigidly joined along the line KiEi.

conceive the portion


to

AB

load and yielding.

ditions

311

BFG

Also

moved

BiDiEi, and that they are rigidly joined along the line DyEi.
The amount of material is unchanged. The bending force is

applied in nearly the same

The

changed.

leaf

way

spring

to the triangular spring

to the portions

therefore

is

from which

214. Springs for Axial Loads.


to axial loads;

it is

whose

practically

position

is

equivalent

made.

Many

springs are subjected

form as shown

in

they are usually helical

in

Fig. 239.

Fig. 239.

F may

act to stretch or compress the spring.

Consider the cross-section of the rod to be circular.

Let i^=load

in

pounds;

<^= diameter of rod in inches;

a=mean radius of coil


iV= number of coils;

in inches;

/=developed length of spring

in inches =2;raA'';

stress in outer fiber in

/g= allowable unit shearing


per square inch

, =modulus of shearing

elasticity

J = extension or compression

Then

the following equations

may

i2FaH
-

-<Jf-"

,.

=f;

in inches.

be developed

and

^_

Mm,

iV=^-^n,

pounds

MACHINE DESIGN.

312

In a helical spring for an axial load using a rectangular crosssection of wire the axial height of wire

the equations

It will

radial breadth

= h,

become

l^h

/.

= h and

Fan &2+F

-^

take one and a half times as

of this type as

it

would

to

make

JE.

fc^F

much material to make

a spring

a round-wire helical spring of

equal strength.

Movements.

215. Springs for Torsional

Many springs come

Fig. 240.

under

class (i) as

in Fig. 240.

The

mentioned above.
spring

is

The

a spiral of

general case

is

shown

wire with an axial

flat

height h and radial depth h.

= turning force in pounds;


R = lever-arm in inches
i<'

/=unit

stress in outer fiber,

/= developed

pounds per square inch;

length of spring;

^ = angular

deflection

J = distance

in inches

moved through by

the point of appli-

cation of F.

Then

F=

~
oR

and

J=R^=

For further information the reader


"Constructor" and Trans. A.

S.

M.

is

_,,

Ebh^
referred

E., Vols.

to

Reuleaux's

and XVI.

CHAPTER

XIX.

MACHINE SUPPORTS.
2i6. General

support

pillar

is

Laws
best

for

Machine Supports.

and simplest

When

for

^The

single-box

machines whose

size

and

form admit

of

member,

design should be governed by the following principles

its

The amount

I.

by the
II.

use.

a support

amount

The

is

a single continuous

of material in the cross-section

of material

vertical center

the vertical line

is

determined

If vibrations are also to

intensity of the load.

tained, the

with

its

must be

Une

be sus-

increased for this purpose.

of the support should coincide

through the center of gravity of the part

supported.
III.

The

vertical outhnes of the support should taper sHghtly

and uniformly on

all sides.

If

they were parallel they would

appear nearer together at the bottom.


IV.

The

external dimensions of the support must be such

that the machine has the appearance of being in stable equilibrium.

The

outline of all heavy

members

of the

machine supported must

be either carried without break to the foundation, or

if

they

overhang, must be joined to the support by me'ans of parabohc


outlines, or

by the straight

217. Illustration.

be

fulfilled,

In

but there

lines of the

Fig. 241 the


is

brace form.
first

an appearance

three principles
of

instabihty.

because the outline of the "housing" overhangs.

It

may
It

is

should be

carried to the foundation without break in the continuity of the

metal, as in Fig. 242.


313

MACHINE DESIGN.

3^4

2 1 8. Divided Supports.

"When the support

is

divided

up

into

several parts, modification of these principles

becomes necessary,

as the divisions require separate treatment.

This question

Fig. 242.

Fig. 241.

be

illustrated

In Fig. 243 are shown three

by lathe supports.

forms of support for a lathe, seen from the end.


the base needs to be broader than the bed.

base necessary

The

is

determined and

unnecessary material

is

cut

In

For

brace

is

left to

workmen

away on

the width of

the inside, leaving legs

check any tendency to buckle.


it is

desirable to

Fig

without narrowing the base.

compression

member

into

narrow

this

The

shows a

and the

For convenience

243.

The

cross-brace converts the single

two compression members.

It is allow-

This

straight lines are blended into each other

common

incorrect

cross

support somewhat

able to give these different angles with the vertical.


in

stability

the outlines are straight lines.

which are compression members of correct form.

to the

may

is

done

by a curve.

form of lathe support, the compres-

members from the cross-brace downward being curved.


There is no reason for this curved form. It is less capable of
sion

MACHINE SUPPORTS.
bearing

more

its

compressive load than

if

it

315

were

straight,

and

is

no

stable than the form B, the width of base being the same.

'wyjL

Fig. 244.

Consider the lathe supports from the front.

shown

in Fig. 244.

If there

were any force tending to move the

bed of the lathe endwise the forms


But there
one shown

no

is

in

force of this kind,

D.

Four forms are

and

would be allowable.

and the

Carrying the foot out

a.s

form

is

the

A, B, and

ia-

correct

creases the distance between supports (the bed being a

with end supports and the load between)


flection

stress is

and the

fiber stress

beam

this increases the de-

due to the load.

This increase

in

probably not of any serious importance, but the prinbe regarded or the appearance of the machine will

ciple should

not be right.

If the supports

were joined by a cross-member,

Fig

245.

as in Fig. 245, they would be virtually converted into a single

support, and should then taper from

pillar,

a machine be supported on
change in the form of the foundation cannot

219. Three-point Support.

a single -box

all sides.

If

induce stress in the machine frame tending to change


If,

however, the machine

is

its

form.

supported on four or more legs the

3i6

MACHINE DESIGN.

foundation might sink away from one or more of them and leave
a part unsupported.
in

This might cause torsional or flexure

some part of the machine, which might change

its

stress

form and

interfere with the accuracy of its action.

But

if

the machine is supported on three points this cannot

occur, because

if

the foundation should sink under

still

When

on three points.

rest

any one

of

would follow and the machine would

the supports the support

possible, therefore, a

is

it

ma-

chine which cannnot be carried on a single pillar should be sup-

Many

ported on three points.

machines are too large for three-

point support, and the resource


ported, of

box

should be

left

and

section

to

is

make

the bed, or part sup-

so rigid that even

if

some

of the legs

without foundation the part supported would

More

still

supports are often used than are necessary.

maintain

its

Thus,

a lathe has two pairs of legs like those shown in B,

if

form.

and these are bolted firmly

Fig. 243,

four points of support.

But

if,

to the bed, there will

be

as suggested by Professor Sweet,

one of these pairs be connected to the bed by a pin so that the


support and the bed are free to

move

about the pin, as in Fig. 246, then


support,

maintaia

This

upon

is

and the bed


its

will

relatively to

each other

this is equivalent to

a single

have three points of support, and will

form independently of any change

of special importance

when

in the foimdation.

the machines are to be placed

yielding floors.

220. Reducing

Number

Fig. 247 shows another

of Supports.

^yy)'/y/////yy^^//>''^^/^^^^^-'''.'^A

Fig. 246.

case in which the


sacrifice.

In

number

Fig. 247.

of supports

may

three pairs of legs are used.

be reduced without

There are therefore

MACHINE SUPPORTS.
six points of support.

may

In

two pairs

be connected by a pin, and there

support.

The chance

of the

in

and one

of legs are used

will

be but three points of

bed being strained from changing

foundation has been reduced from 6 in


length of bed

317

il to

in

The

5.

and the unsupported length

is

12 feet,

221. Further

Correct

is

total

6 feet

both cases.

correct

methods

of

Methods.Figs. 248 and 249 show


support for small lathes and planers, due to

gj

[I

^
^

J^fe

Fig. 248.

Professor Sweet.

Fig. 249.

In Fig. 248 the lathe "head -stock" has

outlines carried to the foundation

by the box

pillar;

its

a represents

a pair of legs connected to the bed by a pin connection, and


instead of being placed at the end of the bed

what, the end of the bed being carried

paraboUc

outline.

The unsupported

decreased, the stress on the bed


its

is less,

down

it is

moved

length of bed

and the bed

form regardless of any yielding of the

in

some-

to the support
is

will

by a

thereby

maintain

floor or foundation.

In Fig. 249 the housings, instead of resting on the bed as

is

usual

in small planers, are carried to the foundation, forming two of

the supports; the other

is

at

a and has a pin connection with the

bed, which being thus supported on three points cannot be twisted


or flexed by a yielding foundation.

CHAPTER

XX.

MACHINE FRAMES.
222. Open-side Frame.

such as

is

used for punching and shearing machines.

action of the

punch or shear a

to separate the jaws.

direction,

Fig. 250 shows an open

and hne

force

This force
of action

is

may

apphed

to the

-side frame,

During the

frame tending

be represented in magnitude,

by P.

It is

resulting stresses in the three sections

required to find the

AB, CD, and EF.

Con-

AB. Let the portion above this section be taken as a free


body. The force P, Fig. 251, and the opposing resistances to
sider

Fig. 250.

deformation of the material at the section

Let

AB,

are in equilibrium.

be the projection of the gravity axis of the section AB,

perpendicular to the paper.

and P2, may be applied

at

Two

equal and opposite forces,

Let Pi and P2 be each equal to P, and


parallel to that of P.

Pi

H without disturbing the equilibrium.

The

free

action of an external couple, PI,

body

Hne

let their
is

now

of action be

subjected to the

and an external

force. Pi.
3'8

The

MACHINE FRAMES.

319

H, and the force Pi produces tensile


The flexure results in a tensile stress

couple produces flexure about


stress in the section

at

H, and
JK.

stress

The

due

to

to zero at

H.

This

maximum

This

LM

square inch at

and

NO

latter diminishes the

compressive stress at B, and increases the tensile

where

in the

represent the varying

between

flexure; while ordinates

tensile stress per

to zero

may be shown graphically

LM

ordinates of the hne

represent the uniform tensile stress.

The

value in the outer fiber at

a compressive stress varying from a

outer fiber at
at

AB.

maximum

varying from a

stress at

A.

therefore equals /+/i;

equals the unit fiber stress due to flexure at 4, and

/i

|e-r;i-i-8^-^

Fig. 251.

Fig. 252.

Flc

equals the unit tensile stress due to Pi.


in

which

=the distance from the gravity

AH, and I = the moment of inertia


A =area of the cross-section AB.
223. Problem.

machine

to

Let

it

pimch |-inch

from the edge.

The

and

h=^\

axis to the outer fiber

of the section

be required

about

to design the

H, and

frame of a

holes in |-inch steel plates, 18 inches

surface resisting the shearing action of the

punch = 7!:Xf"xy =i-i8 square


strength of the material
total force

Now / =^)

is

inch.

say 50,000

lbs.

The

ultimate shearing

per square inch.

The

P, which must be resisted by the punch frame = 50,000

X I -18 = 59,000 lbs.

'

MACHINE DESIGN.

320

The material and form for the frame must first be selected.
The form is such that forged material is excluded, and difficulties
of casting and high cost exclude steel casting.
The material,
must be

therefore,

Often the same pattern

cast iron.

both for the frame of a punch and shear.

when

the shear blade begins

and ends

In the

is

used

latter case,

cut, the force is not

its

applied in the middle plane of the frame, but considerably to one


side,

and

and a

torsional stress results in the frame.

flexure are best resisted

will therefore

sion

be made of cast iron and of box section.

AB may

of the

be assumed so that

punch appears

section

may

Combined

right;

The dimen-

proportion to the "reach"

the width and thickness of the cross-

also be assumed.

stress in the outer fiber

its

torsion

The frame

by members of box form.

may

From

these data the

be determined.

maximiun

If this is

a safe

value for the material used the design wiU be right.

Let the assumed dimensions be as shown in Fig. 252.

=bidi

&2^2 =78

Then

square inches.

12

= 3002

bi-quadratic inches.

c=di^2=g"; /=thereachof the punch -fc= 27"; P=59,ooolbs.,


as determined above.

Then

59000

/i=J=^8- = 756,
,

/i

The
castings,

Pic

59000X27X9

3002

+/ = 5532 =maximum

stress in the section.

average strength of cast iron such as


is

about 20,000

.safety in the case

too small.

lbs.

'

is

used for machinery

per square inch.

The

assumed equals 20,000-^5532=3.65.

factor of

This

is

There are two reasons why a large factor of safety

MACHINE FRAMES.
should be used in

this design:

the plate the yielding


stress has to
is

made

is

When

the punch goes through

sudden and a severe

This

stress results.

be sustained by the frame, which for other reasons

of imresiHent material.

iron, there will necessarily

must

I.

321

II.

Since the frame

be shrinkage

sustain in addition to the stress

These shrinkage

due

is

of cast

which the frame

stresses

to external forceis.

be calculated and therefore can

stresses cannot

only be provided against by a large factor of safety.

Cast iron
tension,

is

strong to resist compression and

and the maximum

The metal can

side.

fiber stress

therefore be

more

is

weak

satisfactorily distributed

than in the assumed section, by being thickened where


tension, as at A, Fig. 253.

body of metal at
result.

The form

for proper cooling

Fig. 253.

If,

to resist

tension on the inner

however, there

is

it

sustains

a very thick

a,

sponginess and excessive shrinkage would

would be

and

better, the

metal being arranged

for the resisting of flexure stress.

Fig- ^54.

may be assigned to a section Uke B and the


may be checked for strength as before. See Fig. 254.

Dimensions
cross-section

GG, a

line

through the center of gravity of the section,

is

found

be at a distance of 7.05 inches from the tension side.*


*

to

The

simple and satisfactory method for obtaining a dose approximation to


MACHINE DESIGN-

32 2

required

are as follows:

values

= 7.o5

inches;

punch + = 18 + 7.05=25.05 inches; 4 =156.25


7 = 5032.5 bi-quadratic inches; ^ = 59,000 lbs.

Then

/,

l
'

/i+/ = 2448

=^.5922^
A 156.25

^6
^"

Pic

SQoooX 2 5.05X7.05
^^ ^

5032-5

= -r =

lbs.

factor of safety

=niaxununx

fiber

The

spots.

little

may

gravity axis

Let the section


left

CD,
of

and P4, equal

in

,,

lbs.

the

This section, therefore,

shrinkage,

one P3J,

at

shows

the projection of the gra\'ity

before, put in

and

Fig. 255

to P,

two opposite

and having

P3 must be resolved

into

forces,

Ps

their common
h from it. P

and P4now form a couple, whose moment =Pl\, tending


about K.

well

and without spongy-

line of action parallel to that of P, at a distance

flexure

is

See Hoskins's "Graphic Statics." f

CD free. K is

to each other

The

section.

and the material

Fig. 250, be considered.

As

axis of the section.

of

be located, and the value of I deter-

mined by graphic methods.


the part at the

= 2070.4

= 20,000^-2448=8.17.*

arranged for cooling with

= reach

lbs.;

stress

the requirement for strength,

fulfills

square inches;

to

produce

two components,

right angles to the section considered, tending to

produce

tensile stress;

tending

to

and the other JK,

produce shearing

stress.

the true gravity axis of irregular figures

is

parallel to the section,

The

as follows:

greatest

unit tensile

On a piece of

thin but uni-

form cardboard lay out the figure to scale. Cut it out carefully with a sharp
Balance the figure exactly, by trial, on a knife-edge. The line of contact
knife.
with the knife-edge is the gravity axis. Its position may be marked and its location

measured to

scale.

* This discussion neglects the action of gravity which would exert a counter-

maximum tensile fiber stress below the value


This makes the actual factor of safety greater than the apparent factor

balancing moment, reducing the


found-

of safety.

t
tion

The

student will be familiar with analytical methods for their determina

from his study

of the

''Mechanics of Materials."

MACHINE FRAMES.

323

sum

of that due to flexure

stress in this section will equal the

and that due

The

to tension

JK
greatest unit shear

=fs=~7

In the section FE, Fig. 250, which

and opposite

action of P, equal

duced, as P5 and Pq.

and Pe

is

forces,

parallel to the line of

each=P, may be

will then

intro-

form a couple with an

-/

V.

Fig. 256.

arm h, and P5
The maximum

will

be wholly applied to produce shearing

stress.

unit tensile stress in this section will be that due

to flexure,

j=Phc-^I, and the maximum unit shear

j^=P-T-A.

Any

section

may

be thus checked.

will

be

MACHINE DESIGN.

324

The dimensions of several sections being found, the outline


curve bounding them should be drawn carefully, to give good

The

appearance.

necessary modifications of the frame to pro-

and

vide for support,

mechanism,

may

for the constrainment of the actuating

be worked out as in Fig. 256.

is

the pinion

is received; B is the
G are parts of the frame added
E furnishes the guiding surfaces

on the pulley shaft from which the power


gear on the main shaft

C, D, and

to supply bearings for the shafts

for the

punch

"slide."

The method

of supporting the frame is

sho^^'n, the

support being cut under at

workman.

The

the

mechanism

parts C,

train has

D, E, and

for convenience to the

can only be located after

been designed.

Fig. 257.

224. Slotting-machine Frame.

See

Fig. 257.

that the slotter shall cut at a certain distance

any

piece,

table

RK

and the dimension

must be held

must provide

under
line as

is

from the edge of

It is

The

thus determined.

at a convenient height

above the

for the required range of "feed."

for convenience of the

shown.

AH

If is specified

workman, and carried

floor,

is

and
cut

to the floor

required to "slot " a piece of given vertical

dimension, and the distance from the surface of the table to


is

thus determined.

Let the dimension

LM

be assumed so that

MACHINE FRAMES.
it

be in proper proportion to the necessary length and height

shall

The

of the machine.

bounding

lines of

LS and

curves

of the part

MT

may

be drawn for

a box frame to support the mechanism.

should be carried to the floor

None

325

DNE,

line as

nor that which serves to support the

cone and gears on the other side of the frame, shoiild be

LSTM,

flush with the surface

shown, and not cut under

made

because nothing should interfere

with the continuity of the curves

LS and TM.

The supporting

frame of a machine should be clearly outlined, and other parts should

The member

appear as attachments.
that

inner outline

its

is

and should be joined

pulley,

VW

should be designed so

nearly parallel to the outline of the cone


to the

shghtly from

to

V-.

frame by a curved
as

XX,

the

amount

by the

trolled

which the

and should

outline.

of

core.

metal and

its

its

It is dictated

arrangement

stroke.

may

by the maximum

tool can be required to sustain.

maximum

from a

also be joined to the

The

tool

carried

is

The

belt

which actuates the mechanism runs

is set

at a constant velocity.

(accidentally) so that

it

strikes the

table just before the slider has reached the lower end of
resistance, R, offered

its

by

near mid-stroke, to zero at the upper and lower

Suppose that the tool

by

be con-

force, P,.

Its velocity varies, therefore,,

on one side of the steps of the cone pulley,

The

main

In any cross-section of the frame,

the sUder of a slider-crank chain.

ends of

The
member increases

main frame by a curve.

outer outline should be such that the width of the

by the

its

stroke.

tool to being stopped, multiplied

(very small) velocity, equals the difference of belt tension

multiplied by the belt velocity (friction and inertia neglected).*

R, therefore, would vary inversely as the

slider velocity,

and hence

may be very great. Its maximum value is indeterminate.


"breaking piece " may be put in between the tool and the crank.
Then when

reaches a certain value, the breaking piece

* See Chapter V.

fails.

MACHINE DESIGN.

326

The

stress in the stress- members of the

From

to a certain definite value.

Let

designed.

P= up ward

ing piece fails.*


action

XX

Let

machine

force against the tool

= the

to the gravity axis of the section

by

The maximum
^

thereby limited

may

frame

when

be

the break-

horizontal distance from the line of

sustains flexure stress caused

stress equal to P.

is

this value the

the

section
tensile

unit stress in the section

Pic

XX. Then the


moment PI, and

= / + /i = ^+T-

section may be assumed and checked for


punching-machine in 223.

225. Stresses in the


Fig. 258

Frame

safety, as for the

of a Side-crank Steam-engine.

a sketch in plan of a side-crank engine of the "girder

is

Fig. 258.

bed " type.

The

supports are under the cylinder C, the

bearing E, and the out-board bearing D.


in the center line of the cylinder,

right

and toward the

the cylinder

and main

left.

In the

shaft;

bring them nearer together.

and

and

force

acts alternately

first

case

it

applied

toward the

tends to separate

in the second case

The frame

is

main

it

tends to

resists these tendencies

with resulting internal stresses.

Let the
ths

frame

piston
*
tool.

is

is

stresses in the section

is

shown enlarged

toward the

AB

be considered.

in Fig. 259.

right, the stresses in

limited to the friction due to screwing

up

The end

If the pressure

AB

will be:

I.

of

from the
Flexure

the four bolts which hold the

MACHINE FRAMES.
due

to the

N,

moment,?/, resulting

327

in tensile stress

below the gravity

maximum value at h, and a compressive stress


above
with a maximum value at a. II. A direct tensile stress,
= P, distributed over the entire section, resulting in a unit stress =
axis,

with a

P^A=fi

lbs.

Fig. 259.

aibi

are laid

off

per square inch.


is

This

shown

is

graphically at n>

a datum line whose length equals

Tensions

ab.

toward the right and compressions toward the

left.

dze^ki

Aieiai

S
k.
(m)

(n)

Fig. 259.

The

stress

due

neutral axis

to flexure varies directly as the distance

Ni, being zero at Ni.

the tensile stress in the outer


will

fiber,

If,

from the

therefore, bici represents

then ciki drawn through

be the locus of the ends of horizontal

Ni

drawn through

lines,

all points of ai^i, representing the intensity of stress in all parts

of the section, due to flexure.

due

If cidi represent the imit stress

to direct tension, then, since this

the section,

tween the

it

will

is

same

the

parallel lines

ciki

and

diCi.

This uniform tension

increases the tension b^ci due to flexure, causing

and reduces

in all parts of

be represented by the horizontal distance be-

the compression ^1^1, causing

it

it

become

bidi

become

eiOi.

to

to

The maximum

stress in the section is therefore tensile stress in

the lower outer

fiber,

When

the force

and

is

is

stresses in the section are as

due

equal to bidi.
acting toward the

reversed,

shown

at

left,

the

m, Fig. 259: compression

to flexure in the lower outer fiber equal to C2&2;

to flexure in the upper outer fiber equal to 02^2;

compression over the entire surface equal

to ^2^2-

tension due

and uniform
This

latter

increases the compression in the lower outer fiber from 62^2 to


b2d2,

and decreases the tension

in the

upper outer

fiber

from 03^2

MACHINE DESIGN.

328

The maximum

to 0262-

stress in the section ia therefore

sion in the lower outer fiber equal to


therefore,

is

compres-

The maximum

&2<^2-

stress,

always in the side of the frame next to the connecting-

rod.
If the gravity axis of the cross-section

be moved toward the

connecting-rod, the stress in the upper outer fiber will be increased,

and

that in the lower outer fiber will be proportionately decreased.

The

gravity axis

increasing the

The

stress in

same

duce flexure
less

amount

and decreasing

section

to the

may

and the

be moved toward the connecting-rod by


of material in the lower part of the crossin the

it

upper

any other section nearer the cylinder

force, P, as before;
will

be

less,

is

be due

because the

force constant.

be of the type which

shown

will

moment tending to prolever arm of the moment is

but the

226. Heavy-duty Engine Frame.


to

part.

in Fig. 260.

is

Suppose the engine frame

continuous with the supporting part as

Let Fig. 261 be a cross-section, say at AB.

the center of the cylinder.

The

force

is

applied at this

Fig. 260.

Fig. 261.

point perpendicular to the paper.

is

the center of gravity of

the section (the intersection of two gravity axes perpendicular


to

each other, found graphically).

Join

and O, and through

'

MACHINE FRAMES.

XX

draw

about which flexure

axis

be at F, and the value of

to

XX

c will

XX

is

the gravity

The dangerous

will occur.*

XX. The moment


may be found, =7;

stress will

be the perpendicular distance from

of inertia of the cross-section about

=0C.

The

known

terms.

in

known

terms.

262 shows a closed frame.

The

the lever-arm of P,

/,

F, f+}i must be of safe value.

stress at

/i
'

227. Closed Frames.

members
to

Then

perpendicular to CO.

329

Pic

=j-,

-.

area 01 section

Fig.

G and H are bolted rigidly to a cylinder C at the top, and


DD, at the bottom. A force P may act in the center

a bedplate,

line, either to

separate

The problem

is

D and C, or to bring them nearer together.


H, and D for strength. If the three

to design G,

members were "pin connected" (see Fig. 263), the reactions of


C upon A and B at the pins would act in the lines EF and GH.
Then if P acts to bring D and C nearer together, compression
results in

A, the

line of action

in B, the line of action being

being

GH.

EF; compression

results

These compressions being

in

may be found by
From these values A and B may be designed,
beam whose length is /, supported at both

equilibrium with the force P, their magnitude


.the triangle of forces.

is

equivalent to a

* This

is

not

strictly true.

If

OC

is

a diameter of the "ellipse of inertia,"

flexure will occur about its conjugate diameter.

If the section of the engine

frame

symmetrical with respect to a vertical axis, OC is vertical, and its conjugate


Flexure would occur about XX, and the angle beis horizontal.
diameter
is

XX

OC

XX

would equal 90. As the section departs from symmetry


and
about a vertical, XX, at right angles to OC, departs from OC's conjugate, and
hence does not represent the axis about which flexure occurs. In sections hke
When the departure
Fig. 259, the error from making fi =go is unimportant.
from sjmunetry is very great, however, OC's conjugate should be located and
used as the axis about which flexure occurs. For method of drawing " ellipse of
inertia" see Hoskins's " Graphic Statics.''
tween

MACHINE DESIGN.

33

ends, sustaining a transverse load P,

component

horizontal
for

its

tion of

and tension equal

design would therefore be available.

P reverses

of the compression in

or B.

Reversing the direc-

the stresses; the compression in

tension; the flexure

moment

tends to bend

instead of upvi^ard, and the tension in

But when the members are bolted

to the

The data

and

becomes

convex downvi'ard

becomes compression.
rigidly

together,

as in

Fig. 262.

Fig. 263.

Fig. 262, the lines of the reactions are indeterminate.


tions

by

must

bolts at

loose,

and A.

and that

and

if

to concentrate

pass through

A and

Suppose that

Suppose the bolts

tends to bring

would be a tendency,
at

made.

therefore be

C and D

at

^.

The

is

attached to

have worked

slightly

nearer together.

There

to

the frame yields at


it

Assump-

all,

to relieve pressure

line of the reaction

would

might be assumed to be perpendicular to

MACHINE FRAMES.

is

reversed and that the bolts

are loosened, while those at

are tight.

AE.

the surface

at

Suppose that

perpendicular to
reaction,
let

The hne

MN

EA.

and the

intensity

is

therefore the

R=P ^2.

K' be the projection

K' two equal and opposite

assumed

forces equal to

ure stress due to the flexure


the

component

the

maximum

and with

of i?2 perpendicular to the section,

their lines

there

is

stress

due to

flex-

Then

=i?3.

=/+/i.

_Rlc
^1- J-

,_Rz

^"T'

the

be

Introduce at

Then in the section


moment Rl, and tensile

stress in the section

to

line of the

In any section of G, as

of the gravity axis.

of action parallel to that of R.

of the

would pass through E, and might be assumed

reaction

XX,

331

may be assumed, and A, I, and c become known;


maximum stress also becomes known, and may be compared
section

with the ultimate strength of the material used.

Obviously this resulting


line of the reaction is

when

MN

perpendicular to

is

toward the center

steam hammer,

The

part

EA

KL would

beam

KL.

if

built in at the

to

were inclined more

frame

is

due

section will be

PI

stress

= / = -5^-

Then

F,=li.

beam equal

section,

and

values c and /

becomes known.

may

it

the

may

the hori-

the stress in the

moment ^, and

beam

but more

ends with central load, and

to the flexure

The

therefore

not equivalent to a
like C, Fig. 263,

Pli

the

greater

could only act downward, as in a

be so considered, letting the length of the

when

it is

be used as the line of the reaction.

in the bolted

zontal distance from

it

Also

The assumptions

with end supports and a central load


nearly a

stress is greater

it is

than

line of the frame.

If the force

give safety.

maximum

MN than when

mid-

maximum

be foimd for an assiimed

MACHINE DESIGN.

332

Steam-hammer Frames.

228.

Steam-hammers are made both


They may

with "open-side " and "closed " frames.


designed by methods already given,

The problem

known.

is

maximum

of

is

head with attached parts

The energy

the height of

by gravity

The energy

hammer-

to its original position.

and

the falling weight

is

fall.

Double-acting.

2.

then exhausted and the

is

falls

to

by steam admitted

its

lighter

hammer-head

attached piston, and during

admitted above the piston to help gravity to force


of the

blow = W^/

(as before) plus the

from the expansion of the steam

or,

if

is lifted

its fall

pressure per square inch and

by

steam

downward.

it

energy received

the steam acts throughout

\Ao^ = 'Wl-VpAl, where p

the entire stroke, the energy of

mean

force applied

heavy hammer-head attached

blow = Wl, where

of the

steam acting under


is

raised to a certain height

The steam

under the piston.

Type

maximum

steam-hammers:

Single-acting.

I.

a steam-piston

/ is

the

therefore, to find the value of this

is,

force.

There are two types

Type

if

therefore be

is

the

the area of the upper

is

side of the piston.

229. Stresses in Single-acting Frames.


action

is

as described, a force acts

the lifting of the

mean
and

and no
from

hammer

force

is

is

type

downward upon

The

i,

=^.4 =the

by area

of piston,

During the

and frame act simply as a guide,

applied to the frame except such as

frictional resistance.

the

the frame during

the axis of the piston-rod.

the cylinder

when

intensity of this force

pressure of steam admitted multiplied

the line of action

fall of the

is

hammer.

In

The hammer

strikes

may

result

an anvil which

not attached to the frame, but rests upon a separate foundation.

may
may be

But a greater force than pA


In order that a cushioned blow
that steam
its

may

be applied to the frame.


struck, the design

is

such

be introduced under the piston at any time during

downward movement, and

this

steam

is

compressed by the

MACHINE FRAMES.

advancing piston.
is

used for

part of the energy of the falling

The

this compression.

ing from this compression

head and through

it

333

is

communicated

to the frame.

Under

to the lower cylinder-

certain conditions steam

might be admitted at such a point of the stroke that


energy of the falling

steam to the end of

hammer

pressure in the cylinder result-

all of

the

hammer might be used in compressing the


the stroke.
The hammer would then just

reach the anvil, but would not strike a blow.


Fig. 264, a

shows by diagram a hammer of type

admitted, the piston

is

i.

Steam

raised, the exhaust-valve is opened,

'bt

is

and

MACHINE DESIGN.

334

The compression
Fig. 264,

is

sho-wn upon a pressure-volume diagram,

Progress along the vertical axis from

b.

toward

corresponds to the do-noiward movement of the hammer.

Vertical

moved through by the

ordinates therefore represent space, S,

hammer;

SA = volume displaced by the piston, the


may also represent volumes. EF represents

since

or,

vertical ordinates

V2
V2 of the clearance space, or -r, the piston movement

the volume

which corresponds to the clearance.

BF

ured from

Horizontal ordinates meas-

absolute pressures per square

represent

Let pi represent the absolute boiler pressure represented by

TN

is

the upper surface of the piston

pressure and the lower surface

hammer,

cient to raise the

by the area
the

NTHG.

hammer must

When

again.

may

be

W
=-t-.

below

RKMN.

The work
If the

is

exposed to atmospheric

exposed to pressure just

suffi-

The work of lifting is represented

some way before reaching the anvil

the pistoa has fallen to

let in

DK.

This work equals the energy, Wl, which

give out in

it

some

at boiler pressure,

piston will compress this steam,

curve.*

is

inch.

During the Hfting of the

the line of atmospheric pressure.

hammer

and

is

D, steam

The advancing

KM will be the compression

of compression

compression

point, as

DK.

is

represented by the area

to absorb all the energy

Wl, the

area which represents the work of compression must equal the


area

which represents Wl.

RKMN: or,
RTHL must
pression

by

trial.

since the area

equal the area

must begin

The

NTHG

common

LKMG. The

EM.

is

The

point at which com-

* Assuming

NM,

may

be found

by compression

greatest pressure, p2,

represented by

must equal

to both, the area

in order to cause this equality

greatest unit pressure reached

represented by

cylinder-head

Hence area

RLGN is

upon

is

the lower

since atmospheric pressure

pK = constant.

MACHINE FRAMES.
acts

The
=p2A =P.*

on the outside.
frame

to the
If

335

corresponding total force communicated

compression had begun earlier the energy would have been

hammer

absorbed before the

reached the anvU, the piston would

have stopped short of the end of the stroke, the compression curve

would have been incomplete, and the


been

less

EM.

than

Obviously

if

greatest pressure

would have

compression had begun later

the greatest pressure would have been less than

=^2^, with the cyhnder's


the greatest force that can be apphed

the force P,

axis for

is

to the

EM.

Therefore

its line

of action,

frame in the regular

working of the hammer.

greater force might be accidentally applied.

that water

is

the piston reaches


all

it

before the

hammer

reaches the anvil, then

the energy will be given out to overcome the resistance of the

The

water.

resulting force

is

indeterminate, because the space

through which the resistance acts

be very

The

great.

by the use

is

Thus

of a "breaking-piece."

may be

break under a force KP, in which


the force found above.

Then

under the maximxmi working


dental force equals

imknown.

force applied to the frame

on the lower cyHnder-head

is

For, suppose

introduced into the cylinder in such quantity that

KP,

This force

may

may

be Hmited

the studs which hold

drilled f so that they will


is

a,

factor of safety

and

the breaking-piece will be safe

when an acciThe frame may

force, but will yield

thus limiting

its

value.

be designed for a maximimi force KP.


Let W, weight of hammer and
230. Problem, Type i.

=2000

attached parts.

maximum length of stroke, =24


= 50 square inches clearance
Steam is
pressure = 85 lbs, by gauge.
lbs.;

/,

inches; yl, effective area of piston,

= 15

per cent;

admitted to
* In

which

the

lift

boiler

is

area of the rod.


t See page 130.

hammer, pressure being controlled by throttling.

the effective area of the piston,

i.e..

area of the piston less

MACHINE DESIGN.

336

The

pressure per square inch that will just

2000

lbs.

sents

40

=40

-^50 square inches

and

lbs.,

NT represents

work

of hfting the
as the

just

accomplish

hammer, or the energy

hammer
this,

NM,

pressure acting

downward on

breaking-piece =iiCP

mum

equals 258

lbs.

resulting pressure,

The total
=p2A =258X50 = 12,900

per square inch.

the frame

the factor of safety,

If

must be absorbed

Trial shows that to

The maximum

represented by

=P.

that

compression must begin at just about 6 inches

from the end of the stroke.

lbs.

repre-

by the

NTHG represents the

the anvil.

reaches

NG

In Fig. 264,

lbs.

hammer =

the

the volume displaced

Hence

piston during a complete stroke.

lift

K,

is

5,

the strength of the

= 5X12,900 =64,500 lbs. This is the maximay be used as a basis of the frame design.

force, and hence

231. Stresses

in

maximum working
Fig. 265,

NG

Double-acting Frames.

force

may

type

the

In

represents the pressure per square inch of piston

necessary to raise the

hammer.

the energy stored in the

represents the

In

be found by a similar method.

The

hammer by

work done by steam

area

NTHG

lifting.

The

is

HSJL

at boiler pressure acting

the upper piston face while the piston descends to

point steam

represents

area

exhausted above the piston and

D.
below

let in

this

it,

and

compression takes place during the remainder of the stroke.


absorb

all

hammer by

the energy of the

on

At

To

compression, the areas

and RKMN must be equal. The area NRLG is


common to both; hence the area LKMG must equal the area
RTSJ. The point at which compression must begin in order
to cause this equality may be found by trial.
Let W, weight of hammer and
232. Problem, Type 2.
maximum length of stroke, =24
attached parts, =600 lbs.;

NTSJLG

/,

inches;

A,

effective

inches; clearance

The
at

= 15

area

of

piston (both faces),

per cent; boiler pressure

= 85

=50 square

lbs.

by gauge.

construction in Fig. 265 shows that compression, beginning

9I inches before the end of the piston's stroke, absorbs

all

MACHINE FRAMES.
the energy of the

hammer, and

pressure per square inch.

maximum
maximum working force

gives 325 lbs. as a

Then

= 325 X 50 = 16,250. If Z = 5,
= 16,250X5 =81,250 lbs.

337

the

the strength of the breaking-piece

rn

Fig. 265.

Hammer

233. Other Stresses in

acting

upward may be applied

pressure
lift

the

inch

is

is

Frames.

to the

Thus

85 lbs. per square inch.

hammer, but the

If the throttle-valve

and held open during the movement


energy stored in the

hammer when

would equal the product of

* So that

it

may

of the
it

40

is

The

per square

lbs.

boiler pressure

is

were opened wide

hammer upward,

reaches

in.-lbs.

boiler

necessary to

its

the

upper position

boiler pressure, piston area,

=85X50X24 = 106,000

lower in the boiler.

which

in 230 a pressure of

sufl&cient to hft the

of stroke,

hammer frame.

necessarily greater than that

hammer.*

^An accidental force

and length

The energy

necessary

be possible to work the h amm er when the steam-pressure

is

MACHINE DESIGN.

338
just

to

hammer

the

lift

is

40X50X24=48,000

two amounts of energy, =58,000

difference between these

in.-lbs.,

energy of the moving hammer; and

will exist as kinetic

hammer can be brought

be absorbed before the

The

in. -lbs.

it

must

to rest in its

The force which would result from stopping


hammer would be dependent upon the space through which
Springs are often provided
the motion of the hammer is resisted.
to resist the motion of the hammer when near its upper position.
upper position.
the

factor of the energy to be given

These springs increase the space


and thereby reduce

out

the

resulting

force.

An

automatic

device for closing the throttle-valve before the end of the stroke

and introducing steam

The steam

be used.

is

then a fluid spring.

234. Design of Crane Frames.

A crane

signed from the following specifications

= 10,000 lbs.;
to the

travel

Maximimi

is

be de-

to

load, 5 tons

radius

Fig. 266

floor line.

center lines of

shows the crane indicated by the

members.

its

The external forces

acting on the crane

load of 10,000

in

equihbrium by three reactions

the

frame

= maximum distance from the line of lifting


axis of the mast, = 18 feet; height of mast = 20 feet
radial
of hook in its highest position = 5 feet; axis of jib to be 15

above

feet

may

above the piston

for compression

left

lbs. acts

downward
:

may

be considered

in the line ab.

This

first.

is

held

one acting horizontally toward

through the upper support,

i.e.,

along the line be; another

acting horizontally toward the right through the lower support,


i.e.,

One

a third acting vertically upward at the lower

in the line ad;

support,

i.e.,

force,

in the

AB,

is

hne

cd.

The

crane

is

a "four-force piece."

completely known, the other three are

only in line of action.

known

Produce ab and be to their intersection at

The line of action of the resultant of ab and be must pass


through M. The resultant of ed and da must be equal and

M.

opposite to the resultant of ab and


line of action.

But the

be,

and must have the same

line of action of the resultant of cd

and

MACHINE FRAMES.
da must pass through N.

Hence

MN

339

common

line of

action of the resultants of ah and he and of cd and da.

Draw

is

the

AB * representing 10,000 lbs. upon some assumed


scale from B draw BC parallel to he, and from A draw AC parallel
to MN.
The intersection of these two Hnes locates C and determines the magnitude of BC. Now AC h the resultant oi AB
and BC, and CA, equal and opposite, is the resultant of CD
the vertical hne
;

MACHINE DESIGN.

34

from the brace


of the

brace;*

joins the mast,

at

H, whose Hne

third, a

whose

of action coincides with the axis

downward

reaction at

line of action

of action of the resultant of

AB

where the

jib

must coincide with the hne

and the brace

LK

reaction.

is

therefore this line of action.


Fig. 267.

Fig. 268.

BE parallel to the center line of the


draw EA parallel to LK. Then BE will represent the

In the force diagram draw


brace,

and

brace reaction,
ae.

and

EA

will represent the reaction at

Let RQ, Fig. 267, represent the

jib isolated,

are the hnes of action of the three forces acting


vertical
to
in

components of these forces are

produce flexure

in the jib.

equiHbrium and tend

to

The

in the

ae, be,

upon

in equilibrium,

hne

and ab

it.

The

and tend

horizontal components are

produce tension in the

* Considering the joint between the brace


nection.

and

jib.

The

jib equivalent to

vertical

a pin con-

MACHINE FRAMES.
force acting at

is

FA*

is

FB, =15,000

= 10,000

341

lbs.,

=5000 lbs., the vertical force


and the vertical force acting at

acting at

is

AB,

lbs.

Flexure

produced

also

is

in the jib

by

own weight

its

acting as

a uniformly distributed load.


In order to design the

which

selected

Two

riage.

may

standard rolled forms

be

channels located as shown in Fig. 268 will serve for

For

this crane.

jib,

will afford convenient support for the sheave car-

12-inch heavy channels are chosen.

trial

Carnegie's Hand-book, the

moment

From

of inertia for each channel

about an axis perpendicular to the web at the center = 7 = 248;

=6
= 81

lbs.

The
1800

the weight, w, of two channels per inch of length

inches;

total

weight of the two channels

The

lbs.

vertical reaction, Pi, at R, Fig. 267,

^'
I

due to the weight of

Pi =450

values.

450=4550

T=Pli-\

at

PI3+

due to

this

h, from the equation of moments,

Introducing numerical

total reaction at

diagram of moments

jib, Fig. 267.

is

therefore 5000

of flexure

may now

be

Considering the portion TQ, the

741,600

Divide

in. -lbs.

At the division nearest

three equal parts.


7

The

-^

about the point T.

jib

lbs.

lbs.

drawn under the

moment

=w/ = 8^ XiSX 12 =

the

TQ

into

moment =

in

which ^3= the distance from

Qto

the section con-

sidered.

by

The moment

other two points

may

be found

similar method.

The moment
in

at the

which

at

any pomt

at the left of

wU^
^
r=455oX/4H
,

U is the distance from R to the section considered. From

the values thus found the diagram of flexure


* See force diagram,

Fig. 266.

moments may be

MACHINE DESIGN.

342

drawn.

The

The maximum

value

=/

resulting fiber stress

force

due

must

act at T.

to the forces

where

M = 741,600

Mc _
"' 741600X6

horizontal component acting at

gram, Fig. 266) =12,000

at T,

is

An

lbs.

Between

24<SX2
is

equal to

= 8971

FE

in.-lbs.

lbs.

The

(see force dia-

equal and opposite horizontal

and

there

is

no

tensile stress

AB, BE, and AE.


Fig. 269.

Another force which modifies

this result

needs to be considered.

Let AB, Fig. 269, be the upper surface of the


supported as shown.

The

chain which

over the right-hand carriage sheave,


sheave,

up and over

is

jib.

The

fastened at

down and under

load

is

passes

the

hook

the left-hand carriage sheave, horizontally

to the sheave at

A, and thence to the winding drum.

of 10,000 lbs.

supported by the hook there will be, neglecting

friction,

is

a tension of 5000

lbs.

If a load

throughout the entire length of the

MACHINE FRAMES.
chain from

of

5000

tending to bring

to

produce compression

tween

lbs.

there

and
is

to the

is

winding drum.

and

There

in the jib.*

12,000-5000 = 7000

a compression of 5000

343
therefore a force

is

nearer together, and hence

The

resultant tension be-

while between

lbs.,

The

lbs.

and

cross-sectional area

two channels selected =30 square inches. Hence the unit


= /i =7000-^30 = 233 lbs. The maximum unit ten-

of the

tensile stress
sile stress in

the jib =/-f-/i =-8971-^233

=9204

per square inch.

lbs.

If the channels are of steel, their unit tensile


strength will

probably equal 60,000

lbs.

per square inch.

The

factor of

=60,000 -J- 9204 =6.5. In a crane a load may drop through


a certain space by reason of the slipping of a hnk that has been
safety

caught up, or the failure of the support under the load while the
chain is slack. When this occurs a blow is sustained by the stress

members

The energy

of the crane.

multipHed by the height of

crane are long, and the yielding

which the blow

is

blow equals the load

stress

Hence

large.

is

resisted is large

than with small yielding.

of this

But the

fall.

jib

force

is less

In other words, the stress members act

and

resilient

shock, and a factor of safety =6.5

The

of the

the space through

and the resulting

as a spring, reducing the force due to shock.


of this type, the ductile

members

is

material

Hence, in a crane
is liable

to modified

large enough.

might also be checked for shear, but

in general

it

will

be found to have large excess of strength.


236. Mast.

Fig.

270 shows the mast by

the lines of action of the forces acting


to a

beam supported

of flexure at

by the distance
* There

is

at

C and D

upon

its

CA

also flexure

in inches,

due

and may be neglected.

The

force

It is

with a load at A.

equivalent

The moment

equals the force acting in the line &cf multiplied

=9000

lbs.

to this force multiplied

X 60

BC in

Fig. 266.

inches

= 540,000

by the distance from the


jib.
This is smay

centre hne of the horizontal chain to the gravity axis of the

center line with

it.

MACHINE

344

=M.

in.-lbs.

The

flexure

DESIGN.-

moment

maximum

is

The moment diagram

and decreases uniformly toward both ends.


is

The maximum

therefore as shown.

flexure

moment = j=Mc -^7.

7 = 176;
'

c=6

inches;

'

The

'

'

455 by the

effect of the

2X176
X^- =
540000

0200

lbs.

ae,* = 5ooo

The compression

jib.)

and the point

drum

of support of the winding

the mast
is

lbs.,t

and the

is

9200

^The

The

factor of safety

length, 19 feet,

is

such that

" straight -line

the

formula

of the

is

is

intermediate between a

In the treatment of long

formula"

will

be

used.t

the force that

wiU destroy the colunm;

area of the column; p

force

This

the total force that will cause incipient buckling,

The

19,000

form

is

needs to be treated

Because of the yielding of joints and of

should be considered as hinged.

is

is

with "hinged ends" and "flat ends"; therefore for safety

colunans,

may be checked for shear.

This also

the other stress members, the brace

it

tension

= 60000 -^9200

compression stress in the brace

as a "long column."

member

between

The

Hence the maximum unit

small.

is

lbs.

safe as before.

237. Brace.

lbs.

B.

in

therefore neutrahze each other, except below B,

where the flexure moment

=6.5, which

of the

(Actually reduced to

lbs.

weight of the

component

the mast due to the tension in the chain

stress in

this

Selecting two light 12-inch channels,

= 5000

and compression

due to

fiber stress

tension in the mast equals the vertical

force acting in the line

at this point,

AE in Fig.

is

is

and hence

the cross-sectional

the unit stress that will cause buckling;

266.

t See force diagram, Fig. 266.


J For discussion of long-column formulae see

"Theory and

Practice of

Mod-

ern Framed Structures," by Johnson, Bryan, and Turneaure, page 143. Published

by John Wiley

& Sons.

M/tCHINE FR/tMES.

and

C are

345

constants derived fronx experiments on .ong columns

(the values of

and

C vary with the method 6i attachment

of the

and with the material of the column)

ends of the column,

the length of the column in inches

and

is

is

the radius of gyration

=\^I-i-A, I being the

of the cross-section,

moment

of inertia of

the cross-section referred to the axis about which buckling takes


place.

Values of

and

are as follows:

For wrought

"
'
'

"

The

"

"

mild

steel,

"

"

hinged ends, -7=42000 157

iron,

flat

"

-7=42000-128-

hinged

"

-j

flat

"

= 52 500 - 2 20 -.
I

-7

= 52500-179-.

brace will be of mild steel channels, and the ends will be

The formula

considered as hinged.

P=

-1

to

be used

therefore

is

52500-220-,

from which
'

= (52500-220 -j^

Channel bars may be


known from tables. For

selected

and values

trial 5-inch light

of r

and

become

channels are chosen.

A^

r = 3.8

inches, and
Carnegie's tables give for 2 channels,
above equation,
square inches. Introducing these values in the
3.9

with

mum

= i9'Xi2=228",

gives

P = i53,27o

lbs.

Since the maxi-

compression force sustained by the brace

= 19,000

lbs.,

MACHINE DESIGN.

346
the

factor

of

safety

= 153,270-^-19000 = 8 +

value than those for the jib and mast, but


to use smaller channels because of

it is

This

is

a larger

probably inadvisable

convenience in making the

connection with the jib and mast.

But the brace must be made


two channels

may

be considered as acting as a single

The lateral bracing will be determined


moment of inertia about the axis X for

they are braced laterally.


later.

In Fig. 271 the


Y

<a-

The
member if

safe against side buckling.

MACHINE FRAMES.

347

undoubtedly dictate a greater distance, and hence greater safety


against side buckling.

The

position of these

two channels

relative to

each other must

be insured by some such means as diagonal bracing.

The

distance,

I,

must be such that the channels

separately under half the total load.

See Fig. 272.

shall not buckle

Solving the long-column

formula gives
/

= (s25oo-5)

220'

= 19000-^2 =
9500 lbs.) multiplied by the factor of safety, say 6. The radius of
gyration, r, is about a gravity axis parallel to the web, =\/l -^-A =

in

which

the load sustained by each channel

is

^0.466 -7-1.95= 0.488.


,

9500X6X0.488

= ( 52500-^^
^
\''

The
but

value of
it

may

/,

be

-^

must not be greater than 51.8 inches

therefore,

less if

^' = 51.8.

/ 220

1.95

convenience, or the use of standard braces

requires.

238. Crane

Frame with Tension Rods.

crane just considered


in Fig. 273.

may

This allows the load

out the entire length of the

shows tension equal

steel

factor

brace in the

to

be moved radially through-

The

jib.

force polygon. Fig. 274,

to 37,000 lbs. in the tension rods,

pression in the jib = 35,800

mild

The

be replaced by tension rods, as shown

lbs.

If the tension rods are

with an ultimate tensile strength of 60,000


of

safety

= 6,

the

37,000X6^60,000 = 3.7 square

cross-sectional
inches.

minimum diameter of each = 1.535


The mast is a flexure member

say,

area

and com-

made
lbs.,

of

and

must equal

If

two rods are used the

lA

inches.

20 feet long supported at the

ends, and sustaining a transverse force of 35,800 lbs. at a distance


of 5 feet from the upper end. The upper end reaction is there-

MACHINE DESIGN.

348
fore

flexure

at

11

= 26,850 lbs., and the maximum moment of


iV = 26,85oX6o = i,6ii,ooo in.-lbs. Selecting two

35,800X^1^

5-incn heavy eye-beams, 7

= 8055

lbs.

= maximum

= 750X2;

= 7^;

/. /

unit stress in the mast.

-^
= 1611000X7.5
750X2

The

factor of

60000

safety

= -^;;;:;7- = 7.4,

safe.

8055

Fig. 273.

35800*

Fig. 274.

The moment

maximum

load

moment due

is

of flexure in the jib

suspended at

to the load

its

is

maximum when the


The maximimi flexure

center.

and the weight of the

jib=M= +
4

in which

'

P=load = 10,000 lbs.; w=weightof two channels per


=100 lbs. if 12-inch heavy channels are chosen.

foot of length,

Substituting numerical values,

The

resulting

588600

X6=

2X248

maximum

7120

lbs.

M =49,050

fiber stress

ft.-lbs.

due

to

= 588,600,
flexure,

in.-lbs.

MACHINE FRAMES.
Compression

in jib

Compression in

jib

due

to chain tension

due

to load

Combined compression due

to

349

= 10,000

Unit compression = combined compression


channels

45800
=
=

lbs.

= 35,800 lbs.;
both = 10,000X35,800 =45,800 lbs.
-r-area

two

of the

526 lbs.

30

Maximvmi
pression

fiber

=71 20 +1526 =8647

= 6.96.

If

The

jib

load might be

joint at -F

to

combined

The

lbs.

and com-

flexure

factor of safety

0040

a smaller factor of safety were desired, smaller channels

could be used.

The

due

stress

may be

moved

must be designed

checked for shear.

nearly

up

to the mast,

hence the

for a total shear of 10,000 lbs.

The

pin and bearing at G, as well as the supporting framework for


the bearing must be capable of sustaining a lateral force = -BC

= 8950

lbs. in

any

The

direction.

pivot

and step

capable of sustaining the lateral force ^Z> = 895o

vertical

downward

Fig. 275 shows an


HN represents the

pillar crane.

represents one or

M in the

H, and

rods;

MH represents
The

line ah.

vertically

and

vertical force at

may be

ports

designed.

i= 10,000

The

brace

The
276):

these the supfor

the axis of the pillar.

The

tension rods

may be

designed for

lbs.

forces sustained

FE,

KL,

The
lbs.,

treated as in the jib crane, the compressive

force being 21,400 lbs.

the force 15,800

supported

H and = 30,000
From

lbs.

HK
KM

the brace.

These supports should provide

rotary motion of the crane about

may be

pillar is

horizontally at L.

force polygon shows the horizontal forces at

and the

outline of the

extended for support to L;

is

more tension

load hangs from

horizontally at

well as

floor level;

represents the pillar, which

The

H must be

thrust of 10,000 lbs. -|-the weight of the crane.

239. Pillar-crane Frame.

frame of a

at

lbs., as

by the

pillar are

the horizontal component of

as follows

4, = 15,000

(see Fig.
lbs.,

acts

MACHIUE DESIGN.

35
horizontally toward

the right

EB, = 15,000

component

of

30,000 lbs.

acts toward the

toward the right at L.

5000

acts

lbs.

these data

to

lbs. acts
left at

CD

compression in the portion

K, and EF, the horizontal

at

acts

LH

toward the

upward

at L,

may

BC

lbs. acts

producing a

The

of 10,000 lbs.

produce tension between

the pillar

H.

left at

DA =30,000

H, and

force

and K.

total

AF =
From

be designed by methods already given.

Fig. 276.

240.

steam

Frame

riveter.

of a

Steam Riveter.

Let Fig.

when a rivet is being


forces AB, BC, and CA,

three parallel forces

action of these
force

AB

may be
moment

277 represent

Both the frame and the stake are acted upon by


driven.

are ah,

required to drive the rivet = 35,000 lbs.

found, the distances


of flexure

on the

inch-pounds. Let the line

EH

line ^0

and

HG

= 35,000

The Hnes of
ca.
The

he,

BC

and

being known.
lbs.

CA
The

X 74" = 2,590,000

HF represent this moment.

The moment

MACHINE FRAMES.
in

3SI

may be found from the diagram


Any section of the frame or stake may therefore be checked

any horizontal

EFG.
The stake
shells

cross-section

needs to be small as possible in order that small boiler

and large

flues

may be

riveted.

In order that

of equal strength, with the cast iron frame,

it is

it

made of

may be
material

of greater imit strength, as cast steel.

Fig. 277.

The two

bolts

which hold the frame and stake together

tain a force of 107,000 lbs.

53,500

and

lbs.

force

upon each

sus-

therefore

is

If the unit strength of the material is 50,000 lbs.,

the factor of safety

would be=

The

6X53500
,

is 6,

the area of cross-section of each bolt

6.42 square inches.

The

diameter corre-

50000

sponding=2.86

inches.

3|-inch bolt has a diameter at the

M/ICHINE DESIGN.

352

bottom of the thread = 2.88 inches, and and hence 3J-inch


will serve as far as strength is concerned.

bolt

is

60 inches long, and

certain

allowable value, even

if

But the body of the

each inch of this length

and the

amount,

total

yielding

might

will yield

exceed

a safe stress were not exceeded.

yielding per inch of length, or

the

unit

bolts

strain

= \imt

an

The

stress -r

coefficient of elasticity, or

;=1

but

and
.

.'.

/= =

lbs.

E= 28,000,000

6440
= .00002^"^ men.
28000000

A = ^
,

= 6440

Total yielding = ^X6o = .ooi38 inch.

This amount of yielding


bolts will serve.

is

allowable and therefore two 3J-inch

APPENDIX.

The

following

method

of detennining the position of

slider-crank chain corresponding to the


slider is largely

due

to Professor L.

M.

maximum

the

velocity of the

Hoskins.

Refer to Fig. 278.

5M= 6 = connecting-rod length, to scale.


OM = a crank length, to scale.
=^

OA=y.
AM = x.
OB = d.
Angle

"
"
"

^05

=900.

MAO =
AMO = r-

oi.

OMB=p.

Z= 2a = length
From our
chain (see

of stroke of slider.

study of the velocity diagram of the slider-crank

22)

we know

that the length y will represent the


353

APPENDIX.

354
velocity of the slider

on the same scale as the length a repre-

The

sents the velocity of the center of the crank-pin.

is

determined by erecting at

action of the slider

necting-rod

h,

and cutting

extended

Our problem,

then,

corresponding to the

this

perpendicular by the con-

necessary.

if

is

to find the position of the

maximum

value of

the angle included between

x and

a'^=y'^+x'^

mechanism

y.

Consider the triangle whose sides are

b^t

length

a perpendicular to the line of

y, x,

and

Calling

a.

y, a,

2xy

cosa;

(ij

(^^

^"'"^^h
a2=y2 + ^2_2^^_Z_,

Clearing

(3) of fractions

......

and transposing,

+ y^ a^) (x + b),
2xy'^=x^ + x'^b+y^x + y'^ba^x a^b.

2xy'^

(3)

{x^

...

(4)

Differentiating,

2y^+4xy^

=2,x2

+ 2bx+y^+2xy +2by-

-a?.

Transposing,

{6fii:y-2xy-2by)-^^ =2,x^

+ 2bx+y^-a?-2y^.

(5)

APPENDIX.

For maximum value

355

dy

=o; hence we may write o for

of y, j-

the left-hand term of (5).

'

y^=3x^ + 2bxa^

Adding x^ and subtracting

a^

(6)

from both

sides of (6),

x^+y^a^=4x^ + 2bx2a^
From

(7)

(3),

2,2

2^3'^

x+b

-^

Substituting this value in

(7),

'Y'=4^^ +
x+b
..

2bx2a^:

'

2xy^==(4x^ + 2bx 2a^){x+b)

Substituting in (8) the value of y^ given in

(8)

(6),

2x(^x^ + 2bx a^) =(4x^ + 2bx 2a^)(x + b);


.',

6xi^+4bx^ 2a^x=4x^+4bx^ + 2bx^+2b^x2a^x2ba^',


2x^ 2bx^2b^x+2ba^=o;
x^ bx^ b^x + ba^=o

Dividing

(9)

by

a^

and transposing,
a^

x^

x^

52^6+62~63
Equation (10) gives us the relation existing between

and X

for the

(9)

maximum

velocity of the slider.

(10)

a,

h,

APPENDIX.

3S6

By

taking a series of values of

a
corresponding values of r, Curve

-r

and solving

(lo) for the

has been constructed.

Ordi-

X
nates are

-r-

abscissae are r-

For any given problem the values of a and

h are

known.

a
Solve for

-r.

From Curve A

X
find the value of

r-

corresponding to this value

of^.

From

the determined value of

the numerical value of

But equation

is

r and

the

known

value of b

found.

(6) gives for the

maximum

value of y the rela-

tion

y^=^x'^+2bxa^,

which we can readily solve for y since


are

all of

the right-hand terms

now known.

AOB

The

being a right-angled triangle,

values of the right-hand

member being known we can

readily solve this for d.

Let

represent the distance

from the beginning of the

moved through by

stroke, then

ni=b+ad.

the slider

APPENDIX.

The

357

portion of the stroke accomphshed by the slider at the

time of

maximum

its

velocity expressed as a fraction of

the

whole stroke, 2a,

m
2a

Curve
curve

shows the

we can

see at a glance for

cent of the slider's stroke

velocity is reached.

its

From
-r

this

what per

position of

Abscissae are values of

7-

ordi-

2a
velocity of the shder to the velocity

ay

of the center of the crank-pin.

between the values of


y

i.

Add

To find
and

7-

and

we have

shows the relation


a

Abscissae are values of

r
b

^ corresponding

to the

maximum

the three sides of the triangle

;
'

ordi-

velocity

0MB, namely,

Let

d.

s(sd)

value of

s=

cos^/? = -^"^

Then

Curve

y
unity to the ordinates for actual values of -.

the values of

of the slider
b, a,

any given value of

accomphshed when

is

y
= ratio of the maximum

nates

20

maximum
nates

^ and

between

relation

b+a+d
.

from which we can readily get the

/?.

Curve

is

plotted with values of p, in degrees, as ordinates

and values

of

j-

as abscissae.

APPENDIX.

358

Table XXXI.
OF

^Assumed Values of

0' ^,
b
2a

-r,

AND

B,

and Corresponding Computed Values

TO Plot Curves A, B, C, and D.

APPENDIX.

359

INDEX.

Acceleration, diagrams of

55-63
263
270-272 273

Addendum
Angle of action
Application, machinery of
Arc of action
Axle design
Axles, shafts,

and

270-272, 273

161-164

spindles

161-171

Backlash

263

Ball-bearings, see Roller-

and

Ball-bearings.

Bearing pressure, allowable for journals


allowable for roller- and ball-bearings
allowable for sliding surfaces

173-174
206-207
158-159

allowable for thrust-bearings

Bearings

186

188-192

See also Journals

Roller-

and

Ball-bearings.

Belts

cone pulley
crowning pulleys
design, theory of
distance between shafts for
driving capacity, variation of

218-243
224-227
224
227-233

intersecting axes

239
236-239
234-236
222-223

pump-belt design

233-234

rope-drives

239-243

dynamo-belt design

shifting, principle of

221

transmission of motion by

218-221

twist

221-222

weight of leather
Bevel-gears
Bolts and screws
analysis of screw action
calculation of bolts subject to elongation

232

290-297
1 12-140
115-118
125-129
361

362

INDEX.
PAGES

Bolts and screws, calculation of screws for transmission of power.

calculation of screws not stressed in screwing up.

calculation of screws stressed in screwing


classification

and

up

definition

design of bolts for shock

133-140
118,

119

19-129

12-1 15

129-132

jam-nuts
U. S. standard threads
wrench-pull

132
113,

14

124

188-192

Boxes.

See also Journals.

Box

pillar, see

Supports.

80-81

Brackets

See also Supports.

Cams

44-49
81-82

Cast-iron parts

10-12

Centro
15-16,

location of

Centrode.

17,

19-22
12-13

16-1

Centros of three links


Clearance

263
213-217

Clutches

See also Couplings.


Connecting-rod, angularity of

4-8

Cotters

147,

Couplings and clutches

claw or toothed
combination friction and claw

148

209-2 1
213-214
217

compression

2 10-2

flange
flexible

210
212-213

friction

214-217

Hooke's
Oldham's
sleeve or muflF

Weston
Cranes, problems in design of

Crank-pin, design of
Cross-head pin, design of

Cutting speeds
Cycloidal gears
belt design for

212
212
211

Sellers'

Dynamo,

29

28,

Constrained motion

friction

209
216-217

338-350
182
183

30
267-270, 274, 276, 277. 291

234-236

INDEX.

363
PAGES

Efficiency of machines

Elements, pairs of motion

13

size of

17-18

Energy, definition of
in machines
law of conservation of

50-66
i

sources of

Feathers, see Keys.

Fly-wheels

244-260
257-260

construction of
design, general

method

245

pump

249-252
245-249

punching-machine
steam-engine
stresses in

252

arms

255-257
252-255
244-245

stresses in rims

theory of
Force, definition of

149-152
77-8o, 318-352

Force-fits

Frames
closed

329-331

cranes

338-35
318-329
31 8-324
350-352
324-326
329-331
326-329
332-338

open-side

punching-machine
riveting-machine
slotting-machine
steam-engine, center-crank

steam-engine, side-crank

steam-hammer

See also Supports, and Machine parts.


Friction, coefficient for belts
coefficient for ropes

clutches

232

240
214-217

See also Journals, and Sliding surfaces.


Gearing, see Toothed wheels or gears.
Indicator mechanisms

Crosby
Tabor

41-43
42-43
4'

Thompson
Involute gears
Instantaneous center

Instantaneous motion

42
272-274, 275, 276, 279, 292
10-

.'

'

3^4

INDEX.
PAGES

Jib-crane

338-349
172-197

Journals
allowable bearing pressure
calculation

of, for

173-174

strength

178

crank-pin of engine

182

cross-head pin of engine

183

general discussion

172-173

heating of

175-177
192-197
179-181

lubrication of

main journal

of engine

materials for, and bearings

177-178

proportions of

177

184-188

thrust-

Keys, classification of
feathers

141
145,

146

parallel

141

round, taper

147

saddle and

flat

145,

145
146

taper

141,

145
142

Woodruif

144,

145

splines

strength of

Lathe, bed

80

supports

314-317

Legs, see Supports.

Lever-crank chain, location of centres

17

velocity diagram

26

Linear velocity

22
points in different links

Line-shafts

26
168-1

Linkage

14

Lubrication, of rollers and ball-bearings


of rotating surfaces
of sliding surfaces

Machine cycle
Machine frames, form dictated by stress
See also Frames.
Machine function defined
Machine parts, forms of cast members
proportions of

208

192-197
157-160

77-8o
2
81,

82

67-82

INDEX.

365
PAGES

Main journal, design of


Mechanism, definition of

179-181
i^

location of centres in

compound

19-22

Motion, chains

14-15

constrained

4-8

definition of

free

helical

instantaneous

kinds
plane

of,

in

10-13

machines

8-9

relative

spheric,

Pairs of elements

13

Parallel motions, see Straight-line motions.

Passive resistance

5-8

Pillar crane

349-350
270

Pitch arc
Pitch circle

262

Pitch, circular

263
263

diametral

Planing-machine, bed
lubrication of

79-80, 313, 317


160
.

78-79

table

Prime mover

Pulleys, cone

224-227
224
223
239
255-257
252-255

crowning
idler or guide

proper size of
stresses in

arms

stresses in rims

See also Fly-wheels.


belt design for
fly-wheel design

Pump,

Punching-machine, fly-wheel design.


frame design

Quick-return mechanisms
lever-crank quick-return
slider-crank quick-return

Whit worth quick-return


Rigid body

233-234
249-252
245-249
318-324

30-38
32-35
30-32
35-3

10

366

INDEX.
PAGES
83-1 1

Riveted joints
boiler-shell

problem

105-1

construction for tightness

loi,

counter-sunk rivets
efficiencies of various

loi

kinds of

90-97, 99

failure of

87,

88

general formulae

97,

95

kinds of

86,

margin.

98

methods of riveting
more than two plates

83,

103,

perforations of plate
plates not in

84
104
loi

nickel-steel rivets
84,

same plane

104,

plates with upset edges

85
105
102

slippage

99

strength of materials used


strength, proportions,

and

88, 99,

efficiency of

350, 352

and ball-bearings

198-208
206-207
201-206
208
198-205

allowable loading

form

of races

lubrication

102

90-97- 99
84

Riveting-machine, action of
frame design

and sealing
and spinning

rolling, sliding,

size of

Rope transmission

87

100

length of rivet

Roller-

102

207

239-243

Screws, see Bolts and screws.

Screw-threads, see Bolts and screws.


Set-screws

113,

Shafting, angular distortion

combined thrust and torsion


combined torsion and bending
hollow

vs. solid

line-shafts

simple torsion
Shaping-machine, force problem
Sheave-wheels, angle of groove

diameter of
Shrink-fits

Skew

bevel-gears

Slider-crank chain, acceleration diagrams


description of

115,

148
167

167-168
165-166
166-167
168-171
164-165

52-54
242
240
149-152
297
55-63
ig

INDEX.

367
PAGES

Slider-crank chain, force problem, shaping-machine

52-54
54-66
15-16

force problems, steam-engine

location of centros

maximum

velocity of slider

353-358
64-66
24-26
153-160
158-159
155-157

tangential effort diagrams


velocity diagram
Sliding surfaces

allowable bearing pressure

form

of guides

general discussion

153
157-165

lubrication of

proportions dictated

by wear

154,

Slotted cross-head

155

18-19

Slotting-machine, frame design

and

Spindles, see Axles, shafts,

324-326
spindles.

Spiral gears

297-305

Splines, see Keys.

308-312
309-3 1
311-312
310-31
261-290, 305-307

Springs
cantilever
coil or spiral

leaf

Spur-gears

Steam-engine, boxes
crank-pin

190

cross-head pin

174,

177,

174,

177,

fly-wheel design

183
252

force problems

54-66
229-331
326-328

frame, center-crank
frame, "girder bed"
frame, " heavy duty"
main journal

174,

Steam-hammer, double-acting, frame design


single-acting, frame design
Straight-line motions

general

182

method

of design

grasshopper motion
parallelogram

177.

328-329
179-181

336-338
332-336, 337
39-43

4^-43
40, 41
39,

40

74.

39
75
68

flexure

75.

76

shock

73.

74

motion
Stresses in machine parts, compression

Watt

parallel

constant

tension
torsion

variable

74
76,

77

69-73

368

INDEX.
PAGES

Supports

313-317
314-315
313
316-317
3i5-3r6

divided
general laws for design of
reduced number of
three-point

See also Brackets, and Frames.

Thrust-journals

184-1 88

Toothed wheels or gears

261-307

addendum

263
270-272

angle of action

annular

276

arc of action

270, 272

backlash

263
290-297
263

bevel-gears
circular pitch

clearance

263
267-270, 274, 276, 277, 291
263
263

cycloidal teeth

depth, total
depth, working

diametral pitch

263
264-270, 272-274, 280-283

forms of teeth

277-280

interchangeable sets
involute teeth

272-274, 275, 276, 279, 297


270

line of pressure

non-circular wheels

pinion
pitch arc

2 70

pitch circle

262

283-284

proportions of
racks

274, 275

skew bevel-gears

297
297-305
305-307
261-290

spiral gears

spur-gear chains,

compound

spur-wheels
strength of teeth

theory of

worms and wheels


Torque diagrams
Transmission, machinery of
See also Belts, Rope, and Toothed wheels.
Vector quantity
Velocity, angular;

289-290
274

285-289, 295, 304


260-261

298-305
64-66
3

23
22

INDEX.

369
PAGES

Velocity, linear
relative

Whitworth quick-return mechanism


Work, definition of
Worm-gearing.

22
22, 24,

26-27

35-36
i

297-305

CATALOGUE

SHORT-TITLE
OP THE

PUBLICATIONS
OF

JOHN WILEY &


New York.
Londok: chapman & HALL,
ARRAJSTGED
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on

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SUBJECTS.

Books marked with an

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at

AGRICULTURE.
Aimsby's Manual of Cattle-feeding
Principles of Animal Nutrition
Budd and Hansen's American Horticultural Manual:

Part I. Propagation^ Culture* and Improvement


Part IL Systematic Pomology

Downing's Fruits and Fruit-trees of America


Elliott's Engineering for Land Drainage
Practical Farm Drainage
Green's Principles of American Forestry
(Woll.)
Grotenfelt's Principles of Modem Dairy Practice.
Kemp's Landscape Gardening
Maynard's Landscape Gardening as Applied to Home Decoration
Sanderson's Insects Injurious to Staple Crops
(In preparation.)
Insects Injurious to Garden Crops.
(In preparation.)
Insects Injuring Fruits.
Stockbridge's Rocks and Soils
Well's Handbook for Farmers and Dairymen

izmo, $i 75
8vo, 4 00
i2mo,
izmo,
8vo,

i2mo,
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i2mo,
i2mo,
i2mo,
i2mo,
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8vo,

50
50
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i 00
i
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S"
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50

2 50

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i2mo,
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50

ARCHITECTURE.
Baldwin's Steam Heating for Buildings
Bashore's Sanitation of a Country House
Berg's Buildings and Structures of American Railroads
Birkmire's Planning and Construction of American Theatres
Architectural Iron and SteeL
Compound Riveted Girders as Applied in Buildings.,
Planning and Construction of High Office Buildings
Skeleton Construction in Buildings
Brigg's Modem American School Buildings
Carpenter's Heating and Ventilating of Buildings
Freitag's Architectural Engineering
Fireproofing of Steel Buildings

French and Ives's Stereotomy


Gerhard's Guide to Sanitary House-inspection
Theatre Fires and Panics
Holly's Carpenters' and Joiners' Handbook
lohrson'S Statics by Algebraic and Graphic Methods

2 50

00

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5 00

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3 00

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8vo
8vo,

8vo,
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8vo,
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4 00
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75
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* Reisig's Guide to Piece-dyeing

8vo, 25 00
Richards and Woodman's Air, Water, and Food from a Sanitary Standpoint 8vo, 2 00
Richards's Cost of Living as Modified by Sanitary Science
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Cost of Food, a Study in Dietaries
i2nio, i 00
* Richards and Williams's The Dietary Computer
8vo, i 50
Ricketts and Russell's Skeleton Notes upon Inorganic Chemistry.
tPart I.
Non-metallic Elements.)
8vo, morocco,
75
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8vo, 3 00
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Sewage and the Bacterial Purification

of

Sewage

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i2mo,
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Spencer's Handbook for Chemists of Beet-sugar Houses
Handbook for Sugar Manufacturers and their Chemists. i6mo, morocco,
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Descriptive General Chemistry
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Disinfection and the Preservation of Food

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Rostoski's Serum Diagnosis.
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8vo,

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Ruddiman's Incompatibilities in Prescriptions


Sabin*s Industrial and Artistic Technology of Paints and Varnish
Salkowski's Physiological and Pathological Chemistry.
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(Hall.)
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* Walke's Lectures on Explosives
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Wassermann's Immune Sera Hgemolysins, Cytotoxins, and Precipitins, f Bol-

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Short Course in Inorganic Qualitative Chemical Analysis for Engineering
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Students
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Text-book of Chemical Arithmetic
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Whipple's Microscopy of Drinking-water
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Wilson's Cyanide Processes
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Wulling's Elementary Course in Inorganic, Pharmaceutical, and Medical

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CIVIL ENGINEERING.
BRIDGES AND ROOFS. HYDRAULICS. MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING.
RAILWAY ENGINEERING.
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Paper 19^ X24i inches.
Bixby*s Graphical Computing Table
** Burr's Ancient and Modern Engineering and the Isthmian Canal, (Postage,
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Comstock's Field Astronomy for Engineers
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Davis's Elevation and Stadia Tables

3 00

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Engineering for Land Drainage


Practical Farm Drainage
Fiebeger's Treatise on Civil Engineering
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Folwell's Sewerage,
2d Edition, Rewritten
Freitag's Architectural Engineering.
French and Ives's Stereotomy
Goodhue's Municipal Improvements
Goodrich's Economic Disposal of Towns' Refuse
Gore's Elements of Geodesy
Hayford's, Text-book of Geodetic Astronomy
Bering's Ready Reference Tables (Conversion Factors)

50
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50
50

Elliott's

25

3,50
2 50

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Svo,

Svo,

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Small 8vo,
Johnson's (J. B.) Theory and. Practice of Surveying
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Johnson's (L. J.) Statics by Algebraic and Graphic Methods
Laplace's Philosophical Essay on Probabilities. (Truscott and Emory.) i2mo,
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Mahan's Treatise on Civil Engineering. (1873.) (Wood.)
*
8vo,
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8vo
Merriman's Elements of Precise Surveying and Geodesy
8vo,
Elements of Sanitary Engineering.
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Merriman and Brooks's Handbook for Surveyors
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Nugent's Plane Surveying
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Ogden's Sewer Design
8vo half leather,
Patton's Treatise on Civil Engineering
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Reed's Topographical Drawing and Sketching
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Rideal's Sewage and the Bacterial Purification of Sewata
8vo,
Siebert and Biggin's Modern Stone-cutting and Masonry
8vo,
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Smith's Manual of Topographical Drawing.
Sondericker's Graphic Statics, with Applications to Trusses, Beams, and. Arches.

25

4 00
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2 00
s 00
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50
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2 00
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* Trautwine's Civil Engineer's Pocket-book
i6mo, morocco,
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Wait's Engineering and Architectural Jurisprudence
Sheep,
Law of Operations Preliminary to Construction in Engineering and Archi8vo,

tecture

Sheep,

Law

8vo,

of Contracts

8vo,
Warren's Stereotomy Problems in Stone-cutting
Webb's Problems in the Use and Adjustment of Engineering Instruments.
i6mo, morocco,
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8vo,
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BRIDGES AND ROOFS.


Boiler's Practical Treatise

on the Construction

of Iron

Highway Bridges

Thames River Bridge

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4to, paper,

Bxut's Course on the Stresses in Bridges and Roof Trusses, Arched Ribs, and
Suspension Bridges
8vo
.8vo,
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.

Du

Bois's Mechanics of Engineering.

Foster's Treatise

on Wooden

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Vol. II

Trestle Bridges

4to,

Fowler's Ordinary Foundations


Greene's Roof Trusses

8vo,
8vo,

8vo,
8vo,
8vo,
8vo,

Bridge Trusses
Arches in Wood, Iron, and Stone

Howe's

Treatise on Arches

4 00
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2 00
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Merriman and Jacoby's Text-book on Roofs and. Bridges
Part I. Stresses in Simple Trusses
8vo, 2 50
Part n. Graphic Statics
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8vo, 2 50
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8vo, 2 50
Part IV. Higher Structures
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Morison's Memphis Bridge
Waddell's De Pontibus, a Pocket-book for Bridge Engineers. i6mo, morocco, 3 00
Specifications for Steel Bridges
i2mo, i 25
Wood's Treatise on the Theory of the Construction of Bridges and Roofs 8vo, 2 00
Wright's Designing of Draw-spans
Part I. Plate-girder Draws
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8vo, 3 50
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Text-book on Shades and Shadows, and Perspective


Jamison's Elements of Mechanical Drawing
Hill's

8vo,
8vo,
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Advanced Mechanical Drawing


Jones's Machine Design:
Part I. Kinematics of Machinery.
Part n. Form, Strength, and Proportions of Parts
MacCord's Elements of Descriptive Geometry
Kinematics; or. Practical Mechanism

8vo,
8vo,
8vo,
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4to,

Velocity Diagrams
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8vo,
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Mahan's Descriptive Geometry and Stone-cutting

Industrial Drawing.
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Moyer's Descriptive Geometry
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Reed's Topographical Drawing and Sketching
4to,
Reid's Coiirse in Mechanical Drawing.
8vo,
Text-book of Mechanical Drawing and Elementary Machine Design. 8vo,
Robinson's Principles of Mechanism.
8vo,
Schwamb and Merrill's Elements of Mechanism
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Smith's Manual of Topographical Drawing. (McMillan.)
Svo,
Warren's Elements of Plane and Solid Free-hand Geometrical Drawing. i2mo.
Drafting Instruments and Operations
T2mo,
Manual of Elementary Projection Drawing
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Manual of Elementary Problems in the Linear Perspective of Form and
Shadow
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i2mo.
Primary Geometry.
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Elements of Descriptive Geometry, Shadows, and Perspective
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General Problems of Shades and Shadows
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Elements of Machine Construction and Drawing
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Problems, Theorems, and Examples in Descriptive Geometry
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Weisbach's Kinematics and Power of Transmission. (Hermann and Klein)8vo,
Whelpley's Practical Instruction in the Ait of Letter Engraving
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Wilson's (H. M.) Topographic Surveying
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Wilson's (V. T.) Free-hand Perspective
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Wilson's (V. T.) Free-hand Lettering
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Large Svo,
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Small Svo,
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.i2mo,
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3 00

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3 00

Benjamin's History of Electricity

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(Boltwood.).8vo,
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Dawson's "Engineering" and Electric Traction Pocket-book. i6mo, morocco,
(Von
Dolezalek's Theory of the Lead Accumulator (Storage Battery).
Voltaic Cell.
Classen's Quantitative Chemical Analysis by Electrolysis.
Crehore and Squier's Polarizing Photo-chronograph

Ende.)

Duhem's Thermodynamics and Chemistry. (Burgess.)


Flather's Dynamometers, and the Measurement of Power

00

3 00

3 00
5 00
2 50

Svo,

4 00
3 00
2 50
i 00
2 30
2 00

Svo,
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Gilbert's De Magnete.
i2mo,
Hanchett's Alternating Currents Explained
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Bering's Ready Reference Tables (Conversion Factors)
Svo,
Holman's Precision of Measurements
Telescopic Mirror-scale Method, Adjustments, and Tests. .. .Large Svo,
Svo,
Kinzbrunner's Testing of Continuous-Current Machines
Svo,
Landauer's Spectrum Analysis. (Tmgle.)
Le Chatelien's High-temperature Measurements. (Boudouard Burgess.) i2mo.
Lob's Electrolysis and Electrosynthesis of Organic Compounds. (Lorenz.) i2mo,

00

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73
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Wolfi's Windmill as a Prime Mover


gvo,
Wood's Rustless Coatings: Corrosion and Electrolysis of Iron and Steel. .8vo,

3 00

4 00

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Baker's Elliptic Functions
* Bass's Elements of Differential Calculus
Briggs's Elements of Plane Analytic Geometry
Compton's Manual of Logarithmic Computations
Davis's Introduction to the Logic of Algebra
* Dickson's College Algebra
Large
*
Introduction to the Theory of Algebraic Equations
Large
Emch's Introduction to Projective Geometry and its Applications
Halsted's Elements of

Geometry
Elementary Synthetic Geometry
Rational Geometry
Johnson's (J. B.) Three-place Logarithmic Tables: Vest-pocket

g^o^

i2mo,
i2mo,
i2mo,
8vo,

lamo,
i2mo,
8vo,

2S

2 50

gvo,

75

gvo,

so

i2mo,

73
15

size, paper,

100 copies for


10 inches,
10 copies for
Johnson's (W. W.) Elementary Treatise on Differential Calculus .Smah 8vo,
Johnson's (W. W.) Elementary Treatise on the Integral Calculus. Small 8vo,
Johnson's (W. W.) Curve Tracing in Cartesian Co-ordinates
i2mo,
Johnson's (W. W.) Treatise on Ordinary and Partial Differential Equations.
Small gvo,
Johnson's (W. W.) Theory of Errors and the Method of Least Squares. i2mo,
* Johnson's (W. W.) Theoretical Mechanics
ijmo,
Laplace's Philosophical Essay on ProbabiUties. (Truscott and Emory.), izmo,
* Ludlow and Bass. Elements of Trigonometry and Logarithmic and Other
Tables
8vo,
Trigonometry and Tables published separately
Each,
* Ludlow's Logarithmic and Trigonometric Tables
8vo,
Maurer's Technical Mechanics
8vo,
Merriman and Woodward's Higher Mathematics
8vo,
Merriman's Method of Least Squares
8vo,
Rice and Johnson's Elementary Treatise on the Differential Calculus. Sm. 8vo,
Differential and Integral Calculus.
2 vols, in one
Small 8vo,
8vo,
Wood's Elements of Co-ordinate Geometry
i2mo,
Trigonometry: Analytical, Plane, and Spherical

i gg
4 00
i 00
1 50
i 50
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Mounted on heavy cardboard, 8X


.

5 00

2S
2 00
3 00
i 50
i 00
3 50
i 50
3 00
2 00
3 00
2 00
i 00
4 00
5 00
2 00
3 00

2 so
2 00
i

00

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING.
MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING, STEAM-ENGINES AND BOILERS.
Bacon's Forge Practice
Baldwin's Steam Heating for Buildings
Barr's Kinematics of Machinery
* Bartlett's Mechanical Drawing
"
"
"
*
Abridged Ed
Benjamin's Wrinkles and Recipes
Carpenter's Experimental Engineering.
Heating and Ventilating Buildings
Cary's Smoke Suppression in Plants using Bituminous Coal.

i2mo,
i2mo,

gvo,

8vo,
gvo,

so
so
50
3 00
i

130

i2mo,

2 00

8vo,

6 00
4 00

8vo,
(In Prepara-

tion.)

Clerk's

Small 8vo,

Coolidge's

8vo, paper,

00

Mechanical EnOblong 4to,

50

Gas and Oil Engine


Manual of Drawing
Coelidge and Freeman's Elements

of General Drafting for

gineers

4 00

Cromwell's Treatise on Toothed Gearing

i2nio.

on Belts and Pulleys


i2mo,
Durley's Kinematics of Machines
8vo,
Flather's Dynamometers and the Measurement of Power.
i2mo.
Rope Driving
i2mo.
Gill's Gas and Fuel Analysis for Engineers
z2mo.
Hall's Car Lubrication
i2mo,
Bering's Ready Reference Tables (Conversion Factors)
i6mo, morocco,
Button's The Gas Engine
8vo,
Jamison's Mechanical Drawing
8vo,
Jones's Machine Design:
Part I. Kinematics of Machinery
8vo,
Part II. Form, Strength, and Proportions of Parts
8vo,
Kent's Mechanical Engineers' Pocket-book
i6mo, morocco,
Kerr's Power and Power Transmission
8vo,
Leonard's Machine Shop, Tools, and Methods
8vo,
*Loren2's Modern Refrigerating Machinery. (Pope, Haven, and Dean.) .8vo,
MacCord's Kinematics; or, Practical Mechanism
8vo,
Mechanical Drawing
4to,
Velocity Diagrams
8vo,
Mahan's Industrial Drawing. (Thompson.)
8vo,
Poole s Calorific Power of Fuels
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Reid's Course in Mechanical Drawing
Svo,
Text-book of Mechanical Drawing and Elementary Machine Design. Svo,
Richard's Compressed Air
i2mo,
Robinson's Principles of Mechanism
Svo,
Schwamb and Merrill's Elements of Mechanism
Svo,
Treatise

Smith's Press-working of Metals. . . .


Svo,
Thurston's Treatise on Friction and Lost "Work in Machinery and Mill
Work
Svo,
Animal as a Machine and Prime Motor, and the Laws of Energetics 1 2mo,
Warren's Elements of Machine Construction and Drawing
Svo,
Weisbach's Kinematics and the Power of Transmission. (Herrmann
Klein.)
Svo,
Machinery of Transmission and Governors. (Herrmann Klein.). .Svo,
'
Wolff's Windmill as a Prime Mover
Svo,
Wood's Turbines
Svo,
'.

MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING.
Bovey's Strength of Materials and Theory of Structures
Burr's Elasticity and Resistance of the Materials of Engineering.
Reset
Church's Mechanics of Engineering
Johnson's Materials of Construction
Keep's Cast Iron
Lanza's Applied Mechanics
Martens's Handbook on Testing Materials. (Henning.)

Merriman's Mechanics of Materials.


Strength of Materials
Metcalf's Steel.

A manual for

Steel-users

Svo,
6th Edition.
Svo,
Svo,
Svo,
Svo,
Svo,
Svo,
Svo,

i2mo,
i2mo,

Sabin's Industrial and Artistic Technology of Paints and Varnish


Svo,
Smith's Materials of Machines
i2mo,
Thurston's Materials of Engineering
3 vok., Svo,
Part II. Iron and Steel
Svo,
Part m. A Treatise on Brasses, Bronzes, and Other Alloys and their
Constituents
Svo,
Text-book of the Materials of Construction
Svo,

12

7 50
7

50

6 00
6 00
2
7

7
5
1

3
1

50
so
50
00
00
00
00
00
00
50

2 50
5 00

Wilson's Hydraulic and Placer Mining


Treatise on Practical and Theoretical Mine Ventilation

i2mo
T2nio,

SAIOTARY SCIENCE.
Bashore's Sanitation of a Country House
(Designing, Construction, and Maintenance.)
"Water-supply Engineering
Fuertes's Water and Public Health

i2mo,

Folwell's Sewerage.

Water-filtration

8vo,

i2mo.
i2mo,
i6mo,

Works

Gerhard's Guide to Sanitary House-inspection


Goodrich's Economic Disposal of Town's Refuse

8vo,

DemySvo,

Hazen's Filtration of Public Water-supplies


8vo,
Leach's The Inspection and Analysis of Food with Special Reference to State
Control
8vo,
Mason's Water-supply. (Considered principally from a Sanitary Standpoint) Svo,
Examination of Water. (Chemical and Bacteriological.)
i2mo,
Merriman's Elements of Sanitary Eng,*neering
8vo,
Ogden's Sewer Design
i2ino,
Prescott and Winslow's Elements of Water Bacteriology, with Special Reference to Sanitary Water Analysis
i2mo,
* Price's Handbook on Sanitation
i2mo,
Richards's Cost of Food. A Study in Dietaries
Cost of Living as Modified by Sanitaiy Science

lamo.
i2mo,

Richards and Woodman's Air, Water, and Food from a Sanitary Stand8vo,
8vo,
8vo,
8vo,

point
* Richards and Williams's

The Dietary Computer


Rideal's Sewage and Bacterial Purification of Sewage
Turneaure and Russell's Public Water-supplies

Von

Behring's Suppression of Tuberculosis.


Whipple's Microscopy of Drinking-water
WoodhuU's Notes on Military Hygiene

i2mo,

(Bolduan.)

8vo,
i6nK>,

MISCELLANEOUS.
.Large i2mo,
Fursac's Manual of Psychiatry. (Rosanoff and Collins.).
Emmons's Geological Guide-book of the Rocky Mountain Excursion of the
International Congress of Geologists
Large 8vo,
8vo.
Ferrel's Popular Treatise on the Winds

2 50

i2mo,
Haines's American Railway Management.
Mott's Composition, Digestibility, and Nutritive Value of Food, Mounted chart,
i6mo,
Fallacy of the Present Theory of Sound
Ricketts's History of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 1824-1894. .Small 8vo,

De

Rostoski's

Serum Diagnosis.

i2mo.
Large Bvo,

(Bolduan.)

Rotherham's Emphasized New Testament


Steel's Treatise on the Diseases of the Dog
Totten's Important Question in Metrology
The World's Columbian Exposition of 1893

Hebrew Grammar
Hebrew Chrestomathy
Gesenius's Hebrew and Chaldee Lexicon

tp.

Letteris's

Hebrew Bible
16

23

TEXT-BOOKS.
8vo,

(Tregelles.)

4to,

i2mo,

Green's Elementary

25

(Bolduan.)
i2mo,
Behring's Suppression of Tuberculosis.
i2mo,
Winslow's Elements of Applied Microscopy
Worcester and Atkinson. Small Hospitals, Establishment and Maintenance;
Suggestions for Hospital Architecture Plans for Small Hospital i2mo,

HEBREW AND CHALDEE

8vo,
8vo,

Von

50
00
50
25
00
00
00
00
50
50
00
00
50

2 00

the Old Testament Scriptures.

Small 4to, half morocco,

5 00

Svo,

2 2%

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