DE MONTREAL

UNIVERSITE

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TRANSFORMER MODELING FOR LOW- AND MID-FREQUENCY

ELECTROMAGNETIC TRANSIENTS SIMULATION

MATHIEU LAMBERT

DEPARTEMENT DE GENIE
ELECTRIQUE

ECOLE
POLYTECHNIQUE DE MONTREAL

EN VUE DE LOBTENTION
THESE
PRESENT
EE

DU DIPLOME
DE PHILOSOPHI DOCTOR

(GENIE
ELECTRIQUE)
MAI 2014

c Mathieu Lambert, 2014.

UMI Number: 3708646

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UMI 3708646

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 DE MONTREAL

UNIVERSITE

ECOLE
POLYTECHNIQUE DE MONTREAL

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Cette th`ese intitulee :

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TRANSFORMER MODELING FOR LOW- AND MID-FREQUENCY

ELECTROMAGNETIC TRANSIENTS SIMULATION

presentee par : LAMBERT Mathieu

en vue de lobtention du diplome de : Philosophi Doctor
a ete d
ument acceptee par le jury dexamen constitue de :

M.
M.
M.
M.
M.
M.

KOCAR Ilhan, Ph.D., president

MAHSEREDJIAN Jean, Ph.D., membre et directeur de recherche
SIROIS Frederic, Ph.D., membre et codirecteur de recherche
Manuel, Ph.D., membre et codirecteur de recherche
MARTINEZ DURO
KARIMI Houshang, Ph.D., membre
REZAEI-ZARE Afshin, Ph.D., membre

iii

Myths are persistent because they are not questioned ;

they are persuasive because they offer a simplistic view of a complex reality ;
and they are unrealistic because they disguise the truth.
Barbara Flores

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By ignoring the very alive phenomena underlying the lifeless symbols

it is still possible to get correct numerical answers,
but it is not possible to form a correct physical picture,
much less to build a physical model that corresponds term by term to the equations.
Gabriel Kron

iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

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First and foremost, I would like to thank my dissertation supervisor, Dr. Jean Mahseredjian, for his patience and support during this project. Most of the contributions of this work
would not have been possible without the freedom of research that I had the privilege to have
during the course of this work.
I also wish to express my gratitude to one of my co-supervisor, Dr. Frederic Sirois, for
his help in unveiling the mysteries of electromagnetic fields. Most (if not all) the physical
intuition I developped during these years can be attributed to him.
I am thankful to my other co-supervisor, Dr. Manuel Martnez Duro, for his precious
guidance. I wish to thank him for his knowledge and expertise in transformer modeling for
EMTP, but also for his intellectual rigor and insightful debates that we have had. It is to
him I owe my passion for reading and my hunger for knowledge.
I would like also to thank Andy Wan for our fruitful discussions, as well as many other
graduate students of the group.

Finally, I wish to acknowledge the financial support from EDF R&D and Ecole
Polytechnique de Montreal.

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Dans cette th`ese, de nouveaux mod`eles de transformateurs pour les transitoires electromagnetiques `a basse frequence ont ete developpes pour les appareils cuirasses. Ces mod`eles
utilisent lapproche des inductances de fuite couplees, qui a lavantage de ne pas necessiter
lemploi denroulements fictifs pour connecter le mod`ele de fuite `a un mod`ele topologique du
noyau, tout en arrivant au meme resultat en court-circuit que le mod`ele BCTRAN (matrice
dadmittance indefinie).
Afin daccrotre le raffinement des mod`eles, il est propose de partitionner les enroulements
en bobines (agencement dun ou de plusieurs tours de lenroulement complet). Cependant,
les mesures en court-circuit entre les bobines ne sont jamais disponibles, car on ne peut pas
avoir acc`es a` chaque bobine separement en pratique. Pour combler cette lacune, une nouvelle
methode analytique basee sur la methode des images a ete developpee, ce qui permet le calcul
des inductances de court-circuit en 2-D entre des conducteurs de section rectangulaire. Les
resultats de la nouvelle methode convergent vers ceux obtenus par la methode des elements
finis en 2-D. De plus, lhypoth`ese que le champ de fuite est approximativement 2-D pour les
transformateurs cuirasses a ete validee a` laide dune simulation en 3-D avec un mod`ele plus
complet de transformateur, incluant la cuve et les ecrans magnetiques.
Le produit de cette nouvelle methode pour calculer les inductances de court-circuit entre
les bobines a ete utilise pour calculer les inductances propres et mutuelles du mod`ele dinductances de fuite couplees. Les resultats montrent, dune part, que linductance de court-circuit
totale des enroulements correspond bien aux mesures experimentales et dautre part, que
le mod`ele dinductances de fuite couplees donne des resultats identiques en court-circuit au
mod`ele BCTRAN.
En general, les inductances de fuite dans les mod`eles de transformateurs sont calculees
a` partir des essais en court-circuit et la branche de magnetisation est calculee a` partir des
essais a` vide. De plus, on suppose generalement que les fuites sont negligeables pour le transformateur a` vide et que le courant de magnetisation est infime pendant un court-circuit. Bien
que lhypoth`ese de permeabilite infinie soit valable pendant un court-circuit, car la force magnetomotrice dans le noyau est negligeable, on ne peut en dire autant de lhypoth`ese selon
laquelle les fuites sont negligeables `a vide. En fait, le noyau ferromagnetique du transformateur commence a` saturer `a vide et une partie du flux magnetique fuit a` lexterieur du
noyau. Pour prendre cela en compte, une methode analytique novatrice est proposee dans
cette th`ese, qui permet denlever la contribution des flux de fuite lors des essais a` vide afin
de calculer correctement les branches de magnetisation des mod`eles proposes.

vi

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Cependant, il doit etre souligne que les courants de Foucault ont ete negliges lors du developpement de la nouvelle methode analytique pour calculer les inductances de court-circuit
(comme pour les autres methodes analytiques). De facon similaire, les pertes denroulements
ont ete omises du mod`ele dinductances de fuite couplees, ainsi que dans la methode precedente pour enlever la contribution des flux de fuite des mesures a` vide. Linclusion de ces
pertes sera etudiee dans un travail ulterieur.
Les deux mod`eles de transformateurs presentes dans cette th`ese sont bases sur lhypoth`ese
classique que le flux magnetique du transformateur peut etre contenu (voir discretise) `a
linterieur de tubes de flux. Cest aussi la supposition que lon fait generalement pour les
mod`eles de transformateurs dits topologiques . Malgre le fait que ces mod`eles soient soidisant bases sur le comportement physique du flux, il existe plusieurs mod`eles topologiques
pour un meme transformateur. Dans cet ouvrage, il est demontre que ces differences peuvent
sexpliquer en partie a` laide des concepts de flux divise et flux integral et il est explique que
lapproche a` flux divise est le resultat de manipulations mathematiques, alors que lapproche
a` flux integral est plus physiquement acceptable. Qui plus est, il est montre que dans le cas
dun transformateur monophase a` deux enroulements, les inductances de fuite du mod`ele a`
flux divise doivent etre non lineaires pour que les deux approches soient mathematiquement
equivalentes.
Meme au sein des mod`eles `a flux integral ou parmi ceux a` flux divise, il existe des differences, qui proviennent essentiellement de la definition des trajectoires de flux dans
le mod`ele. En fait, le cote arbitraire de ce choix provient de lhypoth`ese classique que le
flux magnetique peut etre confine `a linterieur de tubes de flux et quil ne peut pas fuir des
parois de ces tubes, do`
u decoule la theorie des circuits magnetiques. Ainsi, dependamment
des conditions doperation du transformateur (degre de saturation du noyau, court-circuit,
etc.), cela peut engendrer differents choix pour les trajectoires du flux (tubes) et par le fait
meme differents mod`eles. Dans cette th`ese, un nouveau cadre theorique est developpe pour
permettre au flux magnetique de fuir des parois de ces tubes, o`
u lensemble de ceux-ci dans
lespace forme un maillage. De plus, une generalisation est proposee dans cet ouvrage pour
inclure les pertes, ainsi que les capacites parasites, engendrant ce qui pourrait sappeler la
theorie sur les circuits electromagnetiques. Il est aussi explique que cette theorie est en fait
equivalente a` ce qui est appele les formulations finies (telle que la methode des elements finis), aboutissant a` la reunion entre les theories de circuit et lelectromagnetisme discret. Non
seulement ce cadre theorique permettra de developper ulterieurement des mod`eles reellement
topologiques de transformateurs, o`
u les circuits electrique et magnetique sont definis sur des
maillages duaux, mais aussi des mod`eles de machines et de lignes electriques (on peut meme
prendre en compte la propagation de londe).

vii
ABSTRACT

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In this work, new models are developed for single-phase and three-phase shell-type transformers for the simulation of low-frequency transients, with the use of the coupled leakage
model. This approach has the advantage that it avoids the use of fictitious windings to connect
the leakage model to a topological core model, while giving the same response in short-circuit
as the indefinite admittance matrix (BCTRAN) model.
To further increase the model sophistication, it is proposed to divide windings into coils
in the new models. However, short-circuit measurements between coils are never available.
Therefore, a novel analytical method is elaborated for this purpose, which allows the calculation in 2-D of short-circuit inductances between coils of rectangular cross-section. The
results of this new method are in agreement with the results obtained from the finite element
method in 2-D. Furthermore, the assumption that the leakage field is approximately 2-D in
shell-type transformers is validated with a 3-D simulation.
The outcome of this method is used to calculate the self and mutual inductances between
the coils of the coupled leakage model and the results are showing good correspondence with
terminal short-circuit measurements.
Typically, leakage inductances in transformers are calculated from short-circuit measurements and the magnetizing branch is calculated from no-load measurements, assuming that
leakages are unimportant for the unloaded transformer and that magnetizing current is negligible during a short-circuit. While the core is assumed to have an infinite permeability to
calculate short-circuit inductances, and it is a reasonable assumption since the cores magnetomotive force is negligible during a short-circuit, the same reasoning does not necessarily
hold true for leakage fluxes in no-load conditions. This is because the core starts to saturate
when the transformer is unloaded. To take this into account, a new analytical method is
developed in this dissertation, which removes the contributions of leakage fluxes to properly
calculate the magnetizing branches of the new models.
However, in the new analytical method for calculating short-circuit inductances (as with
other analytical methods), eddy-current losses are neglected. Similarly, winding losses are
omitted in the coupled leakage model and in the new analytical method to remove leakage
fluxes to calculate core parameters from no-load tests. These losses will be taken into account
in future work.
Both transformer models presented in this dissertation are based on the classical hypothesis that flux can be discretized into flux tubes, which is also the assumption used in a
category of models called topological models. Even though these models are physically-based,

viii

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there exist many topological models for a given transformer geometry. It is shown in this work
that these differences can be explained in part through the concepts of divided and integral
fluxes, and it is explained that divided approach is the result of mathematical manipulations,
while the integral approach is more physically-accurate. Furthermore, it is demonstrated,
for the special case of a two-winding single-phase transformer, that the divided leakage inductances have to be nonlinear for both approaches to be equivalent.
Even between models of the divided or integral approach models, there are differences,
which arise from the particular choice of so-called flux paths (tubes). This arbitrariness
comes from the fact that with the classical hypothesis that magnetic flux can be confined
into predefined flux tubes (leading to classical magnetic circuit theory), it is assumed that flux
cannot leak from the sides of flux tubes. Therefore, depending on the transformers operation
conditions (degree of saturation, short-circuit, etc.), this can lead to different choices of flux
tubes and different models. In this work, a new theoretical framework is developed to allow
flux to leak from the sides of the tube, and generalized to include resistances and capacitances
in what is called electromagnetic circuit theory. Also, it is explained that this theory is actually
equivalent to what is called finite formulations (such as the finite element method), which
bridges the gap between circuit theory and discrete electromagnetism. Therefore, this enables
not only to develop topologically-correct transformer models, where electric and magnetic
circuits are defined on dual meshes, but also rotating machine and transmission lines models
(wave propagation can be taken into account).

ix
TABLE OF CONTENTS

DEDICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

iv

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
RESUM
E

ABSTRACT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
ix

TABLE OF CONTENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xii

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LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii

LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xviii

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1 Basic concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.1 Maxwells equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.2 Integral quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.3 Flux tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.4 Magnetic and electric circuits . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.5 Analogies between magnetic and electric circuits .
1.1.6 Electric and magnetic potentials . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.7 Sources in magnetic circuits . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.8 Connection between magnetic and electric circuits
1.1.9 Inductances and duality . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2 Literature review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3 Dissertation statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5 Dissertation outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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26
26

CHAPTER 2 ANALYTICAL CALCULATION OF LEAKAGE INDUCTANCES . . 28

2.1 Definition of the problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.2 Classical approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

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36
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73
76
78
83
86
88
88
89

CHAPTER 4 SHELL-TYPE TRANSFORMER CORE MODELING . . . .

4.1 Air-core inductance versus saturation inductance . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2 Parameter estimation from typical no-load tests . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.1 From RMS to peak values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.2 Extension of the saturation curve beyond and between no-load
4.3 Calculation of magnetizing branches for single-phase transformers . .
4.3.1 Simple example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.2 Application example and validation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4 Calculation of magnetizing branches for three-phase transformers . .
4.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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91
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98
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102
103
106
111

CHAPTER 5 DISCRETE ELECTROMAGNETISM

5.1 Magnetostatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2 Magnetoquasistatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3 Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4 Resistance, reluctance and capacitance . . . .

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112
113
116
119
122

2.8
2.9

MODEL
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CHAPTER 3 COUPLED LEAKAGE

3.1 Integral and divided fluxes . .
3.2 Star-delta transformation . . .
3.3 Coupled leakage approach . .
3.4 Methods . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.6 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . .
3.7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . .

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2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7

Space harmonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.1 Double Fourier series . . . . . . . . .
Method of images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
New approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Application examples and validation . . . .
Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.7.1 Results for the 360 MVA transformer
2.7.2 Results for the 570 MVA transformer
2.7.3 Results for the 96 MVA transformer .
Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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2.3

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xi
5.5
5.6

Boundary conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSION . . . . .
6.1 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2 Limitations of the new methods
6.3 Future work . . . . . . . . . . .

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129
129
130
131

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REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

xii
LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.4
Table 4.1

Table 3.3

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Table 3.2

Performance comparison to calculate the 484 inductances . . . . . . .

Short-circuit inductance for the 360 MVA transformer seen from the
c
HV side, 2014
IEEE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Positive-sequence short-circuit inductance windings 1 and 2 for the 96
c
MVA transformer seen from the HV side, 2014
IEEE . . . . . . . .
Positive-sequence short-circuit inductance windings 1 and 3 for the 96
c
MVA transformer seen from the HV side, 2014
IEEE . . . . . . . .
Positive-sequence short-circuit inductance windings 1 and 4 for the 96
c
MVA transformer seen from the HV side, 2014
IEEE . . . . . . . .
No-load measurements (RMS) for the LV winding of the 360 MVA
transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

PR
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Table 2.1
Table 3.1

. 63
. 89
. 89
. 89
. 89
. 105

xiii
LIST OF FIGURES

1.10
1.11
1.12
1.13
1.14

Figure 1.15
Figure 1.16
Figure 2.1
Figure 2.2
Figure 2.3
Figure 2.4
Figure 2.5
Figure 2.6
Figure 2.7
Figure 2.8

Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure

1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9

Flux tube. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Toroidal inductor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Equivalent toroidal inductor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Example of magnetic circuit with nine conductors and cuts. . . . . . .
A conducting torus wound around a core canalizing a time-varying
magnetic flux. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A conducting torus wound around a magnetic torus forming dual loops.
Dual loops with Hopkinsons analogy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Dual loops with Buntenbachs analogy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Example of a magnetic circuit with two windings coupled with two
electric circuits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Graphical derivation of the dual circuit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Dual circuit coupled with the two electric circuits. . . . . . . . . . . . .
Dual circuit simplified with ideal with ideal transformers. . . . . . . . .
Single-phase N -winding Saturable Transformer Component. . . . . . .
Magnetic circuit of the UMEC model for the two-winding three-legged
transformer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Magnetic circuit of the Hybrid transformer model for the two-winding
three-legged transformer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Magnetic circuit of the TOPMAG model for the two-winding threelegged transformer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Typical 2-D domain boundaries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Neumann boundary value problem in 2-D to calculate the short-circuit
inductance between two rectangular cross-section coils. . . . . . . . . .
Geometry considered in the classical approach. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fringing flux for different winding geometries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Magnetic flux during short-circuit in the presence of a trapezoidal crosssection high-voltage winding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Current-carrying conductor in front of a semi-infinite slab and its image
c
(Lambert et al., 2013, Fig. 1), 2013
IEEE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Method of images with an infinitely-permeable boundary (k = 1). . . .
Method of images with a flux line boundary (k = 1). . . . . . . . . .

IE

Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure

1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5

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Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure

5
10
11
12
13
14
15
15
18
18
18
19
20
22
22
22
31
32
34
35
36
43
43
44

xiv

Figure 2.14
Figure 2.15
Figure 2.16
Figure 2.17
Figure 2.18
Figure 2.19
Figure 2.20

Figure 2.21

Figure 2.22

Figure 2.23

Figure 2.24

Figure 2.13

IE

Figure 2.10
Figure 2.11
Figure 2.12

Current-carrying conductor between two parallel semi-infinite slabs and

its images. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Current-carrying conductor inside a rectangular cavity and its images. .
Method of images in cylindrical coordinates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pair of rectangular conductors inside a rectangular cavity and their
doubly-periodic images. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Dimensions of the rectangular conductor within the core window (Lamc
bert et al., 2013, Fig. 3), 2013
IEEE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The 360 MVA shell-type single-phase two-winding transformer (Lamc
bert et al., 2013, Fig. 4), 2013
IEEE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The 360 MVA transformers window with pancake coils numbered from
c
1 to 44 (Lambert et al., 2013, Fig. 5), 2013
IEEE. . . . . . . . . . . .
The 570 MVA shell-type single-phase two-winding transformer. . . . . .
The 96 MVA transformers window with pancake coils numbered from
1 to 26. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Coarse mesh for the calculation of Lsc (1, 44) for the 360 MVA transformer with the 2-D FEM. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Convergence of the short-circuit inductance value with the 2-D FEM
with mesh refinement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Relative error between the short-circuit inductance Lsc (1, 44) of the
360 MVA transformer calculated with (2.80) (without and with substitutions) and the FEM in 2-D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Relative error between the short-circuit inductance Lsc (1, 44) of the
360 MVA transformer calculated with Roths method and the FEM in
2-D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Error in the calculation of the short-circuit inductances Lsc (i, j) of the
360 MVA transformer of the method of images (4 layers) with respect
c
to the FEM in 2-D (Lambert et al., 2013, Fig. 7), 2013
IEEE. . . . .
Error in the calculation of the short-circuit inductances Lsc (i, j) of the
360 MVA transformer of the method of images (4 layers), with the
substitutions, and with respect to the FEM in 2-D. . . . . . . . . . . .
Error in the calculation of the short-circuit inductances Lsc (i, j) of the
360 MVA transformer of Roths method (110 harmonics) with respect
to the FEM in 2-D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Figure 2.9

45
46
46
47
48
58
59
59
60
62
62

64

64

65

65

66

xv

Figure 2.28

Figure 2.29

Figure 2.30

Figure 3.1
Figure 3.2
Figure 3.3
Figure 3.4
Figure 3.5
Figure 3.6
Figure 3.7
Figure 3.8
Figure 3.9

Figure 2.27

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Figure 2.26

Error in the calculation of the short-circuit inductances Lsc (i, j) of the

360 MVA transformer of the classical approach with respect to the
c
FEM in 2-D (Lambert et al., 2013, Fig. 8), 2013
IEEE. . . . . . . .
Leakage flux in the 570 MVA transformer during the short-circuit between coils 1 and 44, and flux density along the middle plane. . . . .
Error in the calculation of the short-circuit inductances Lsc (i, j) of the
96 MVA transformer of the method of images (4 layers) with respect
to the FEM in 2-D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Error in the calculation of the short-circuit inductances Lsc (i, j) of
the 96 MVA transformer of the method of images (4 layers), with the
substitutions, and with respect to the FEM in 2-D. . . . . . . . . . .
Error in the calculation of the short-circuit inductances Lsc (i, j) of the
96 MVA transformer of Roths method (110 harmonics) with respect
to the FEM in 2-D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Error in the calculation of the short-circuit inductances Lsc (i, j) of the
96 MVA transformer of the classical approach with respect to the FEM
in 2-D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Equivalent magnetic circuits of a three-phase two-winding three-legged
transformer, with divided leakage flux. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Equivalent magnetic circuits of a three-phase two-winding three-legged
transformer, with integral leakage flux. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Magnetic flux paths of a single-phase two-winding shell-type transc
former, 2014
IEEE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Equivalent magnetic circuits of a single-phase two-winding shell-type
c
transformer, 2014
IEEE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Dual electric circuits of a single-phase two-winding shell-type transc
former, 2014
IEEE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Equivalent magnetic circuits for the three-winding single-phase shellc
type transformer, 2014
IEEE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Dual electric circuits for the three-winding single-phase shell-type transc
former, 2014
IEEE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Two-slope piecewise-linear magnetizing curve for Lc1 and Lc2 of the
c
equivalent, 2014
IEEE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Resulting piecewise-linear leakage curve for Ll1 and Ll2 of the T equivc
alent, 2014
IEEE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Figure 2.25

. 66
. 67

. 68

. 68

. 69

. 69
. 75
. 75
. 77
. 78
. 78
. 79
. 79
. 82
. 82

xvi

Figure 3.13

Figure 3.14
Figure 3.15

Figure 3.16

Figure 4.1
Figure 4.2
Figure 4.3
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure

4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8

Figure 4.9
Figure 4.10
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure

5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5

Figure 3.12

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Figure 3.11

Resulting piecewise-linear magnetizing curve for Lc of the T equivalent,

c
2014
IEEE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Star equivalent circuit for the single-phase four-winding transformer
c
(core inductances not shown), 2014
IEEE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Simplified star equivalent circuit for the single-phase N -winding transc
former (core inductances not shown), 2014
IEEE. . . . . . . . . . .
Coupled leakage model for the single-phase N -winding shell-type transformer with cylindrical windings (reciprocal mutual inductances Lji are
c
not shown), 2014
IEEE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Magnetic flux paths for the three-phase N -winding shell-type transc
former with pancake windings, 2014
IEEE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Equivalent magnetic circuit for the three-phase N -winding shell-type
transformer with sandwiched windings (mutual reluctances Rij are not
c
shown, except for RA12 ), 2014
IEEE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Coupled leakage model for the three-phase N -winding shell-type transformer with sandwiched windings (mutual inductances Lij are not
c
shown, except for LA12 ), 2014
IEEE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Piecewise linear magnetizing branch seen from a terminal. . . . . . .
Degrees of freedom for the single-phase coupled leakage model without
winding losses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Length of each magnetizing branch for a single-phase shell-type transformer with N coils. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Simple example of a 4-coil transformer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Resulting curves calculated from RMS no-load measurements. . . . .
Modified Frolich equation fitted to the piecewise-linear inductance. .
Type-96 hysteresis loop with constant width. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Flux linkages across the low-voltage terminals of the 360 MVA transformer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Currents in the low-voltage terminal of the 360 MVA transformer. . .
Length of each magnetizing branch for a Three-phase shell-type transformer with N coils. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Magnetostatic cell without magnetomotive force sources. . . . . . . .
A loop of reluctances surrounding a current. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A loop of reluctances including couplings to the electric circuit. . . .
Resistive cell without electromotive force sources. . . . . . . . . . . .
A loop of resistances surrounding a time-varying flux. . . . . . . . . .

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Figure 3.10

. 82
. 84
. 85

. 85
. 87

. 87

. 87
. 93
. 99
.
.
.
.
.

100
103
104
104
105

. 106
. 107
.
.
.
.
.
.

108
114
115
117
118
119

xvii

Figure 5.10

Resistive and capacitive cell without electromotive force sources. . . .

Equivalent branches for electric and magnetic circuits. . . . . . . . .
Lengthwise average for the calculation of (self) permeance. . . . . . .
Areawise average for the calculation of (self) capacitance and (self)
conductance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Two conductors in air with Perfect Electric Conductor boundary conditions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

IE

5.6
5.7
5.8
5.9

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Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure

. 120
. 121
. 124
. 126
. 128

xviii
LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

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Direct Current
Degree of Freedom
Electromotive Force
Electromagnetic Transients
ElectroMagnetic Transients Program
ElectroQuasiStatics
ElectroStatics
Finite Difference Time Domain
Finite Element Method
Finite Integration Technique
High Voltage
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
Kirchhoffs Current Law
Kirchhoffs Voltage Law
Low Voltage
Magnetomotive Force
MagnetoQuasiStatics
MagnetoStatics
Partial Element Equivalent Circuit
Reluctance Network Method
Root Mean Square
Slow-Front Overvoltage
Saturable Transformer Component
Temporary OverVoltages
Unified Magnetic Equivalent Circuit

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dc
DoF
EMF
EMT
EMTP
EQS
ES
FDTD
FEM
FIT
HV
IEEE
KCL
KVL
LV
MMF
MQS
MS
PEEC
RNM
RMS
SFO
STC
TOV
UMEC

1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

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Transformers have been around for more than a century (almost two), and date back to
the discovery of electromagnetic induction by Faraday in 1831, with its rudimentary transformer made of two coils wound over an iron ring (Uppenborn, 1889). Even though the
practical application of this apparatus to early alternating current grids (for lighting) dates
back to Jablochkoff (Uppenborn, 1889), the invention of the transformer is often attributed
to Gaulard and Gibbs, or to Zipernowski, Blath
y and Deri. Transformers are an important
(if not critical) element of distribution and transmission systems, because without them it
would have been impossible to distribute power over long distances. Transformers were a
decisive factor in the victory of alternating currents in the War of the Electric Currents,
along with Teslas induction motor (Jonnes, 2004).
Today, transformers are ubiquitous in transmission and distribution grids, and because
of their nonlinear and frequency-dependent behaviors, they can have a significant impact on
power system transients. As such, adequate transformer models are necessary to properly
assess system vulnerabilities and network optimization.
In the field of transformer modeling applied to electromagnetic transient studies, it is
common to divide the studied phenomena into two categories, depending on the frequency
of the concerned transient. The first concerns the transients in the low- and mid-frequency
ranges, and the second deals with the high-frequency range. The main reason for this separation in transformer modeling comes from the importance or not to include the transformers
ferromagnetic core representation in the calculations. Physically, the penetration depth of an
electromagnetic wave decreases as the frequency increases, which means that the magnetic
flux gets confined on the cores surface. Hence, at high frequencies, the core nonlinearities
are essentially unimportant, while the transformer capacitances become increasingly important. The converse is also true: at low frequencies, the ferromagnetic core is important (for
transients that allow the circulation of magnetic flux in the core, i.e. not in short-circuit
conditions), while the capacitances are usually negligible. Also, the penetration depth in
conductors decreases as the frequency increases, which leads to an increase of the effective
resistance by confining current density toward the outer surfaces of the conductors, thus
diminishing the cross section through which the current can flow.
1997), the electromagnetic transients in the lowAccording to (IEC, 2004) and (CIGRE,
and mid- frequency ranges are the temporary overvoltages (TOV) and the slow-front over-

2
voltages (SFO). The frequencies of interest in these transients are below the first winding
resonance, which is typically a few kilohertz (Martinez-Velasco et al., 2005, 1). Examples
of studies in these categories include ferroresonance, transformer energization and geomagnetically induced currents.
As we delve deeper into each topic of this dissertation, specific concepts need to be introduced, but before that, a presentation of the general concepts on the subject of transformer
modeling is necessary.
1.1

Basic concepts

1.1.1

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Before discussing about transformer modeling, the definition of basic concepts that will
be used in this dissertation is in order. These definitions are necessary in order to understand
the problems associated with current models.
Since we are mostly interested in circuit models, we will be dealing with lumped or discretized models, as opposed to distributed or continuous models (in the space and time sense).
Therefore, we are interested in average (integral) quantities, such as electromotive force, magnetomotive force, magnetic flux and electric current, and the relations existing between them.
A more rigorous development on discrete electromagnetism will be made in Chapter 5, in
order to explain the generalization of magnetic circuit theory into electromagnetic circuit
theory, but before, let us review how electric and magnetic circuit theory is generally taught
in Electrical Engineering, as seen for instance in (Dept. Elect. Eng., Massachusetts Inst.
Technology, 1943; Slemon, 1992).
Maxwells equations

Let us start with Maxwells partial differential equations

~
~ E
~ = dB

dt
~
~ H
~ = J~ + dD

dt
~
~
B =0
~ D
~ =

(1.1)
(1.2)
(1.3)
(1.4)

3
along with the constitutive equations
~ = H
~
B
~ = E
~
D
~
J~ = E

(1.5)
(1.6)
(1.7)

~ is the electric field, D

~ is the
in the linear homogeneous and isotropic materials, where E
~ is the induction field, H
~ is the magnetic field, J~ is the current
electric displacement field, B
density, is the charge density, is the permeability, is the permittivity and is the
conductivity.
With the identity


~
~
~
X =0
(1.8)

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~ we can also deduce the charge conservation law from (1.2) by

for a given vector field X,
applying the divergence on both sides, along with (1.4)


~
~ H
~ =
~

~
dD
J~ +
dt

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~ D
~
~ J~ + d
0=
dt
~ J~ = d

dt

(1.9)

When defining electromagnetic problems, it is common to simplify (1.1)(1.4) using the

static or quasistatic approximations. In static approximations, namely magnetostatic (MS)
~
and electrostatic (ES), the time dependence of fields is neglected, which means that ddtB = 0 in
~
(1.1) and ddtD = 0 in (1.2) (implying that d
= 0 in (1.9)). In comparison, with the quasistatic
dt
approximations, namely magnetoquasistatic (MQS) and electroquasistatic (EQS), only one
of the time dependence is neglected.
~
Since we are interested by low-frequency transients, the displacement currents ddtD will
be small in comparison to J~ in (1.2) and can safely be neglected, which results in the mag~
netostatic or magnetoquasistatic approximation, depending if the magnetic induction ddtB is
considered (i.e. with eddy currents or induced voltage in conductors) or not. Hence, ac~ J~ = 0. For more details on the limits of validity of each
cording to (1.9), we also have
approximation, see for instance (Benderskaya, 2007, 2.2.4).

4
1.1.2

Integral quantities

In order to discretize (lump in space) the partial differential equations (1.1)(1.4) into
differential algebraic equations (magnetic or electric circuits, differentiated with respect to
time), we need to define (oriented) integral quantities in space (R3 ).
The electric or conduction current I is the quantity of current density J~ through a surface
S. In other words, it is the surface integral of the component of J~ normal to the surface,
which is given by
x
I=
J~ d~s
(1.10)
S

where d~s is the surfaces normal vector.

~ embraced by a surface S, which is
The magnetic flux is the flux of induction B
x
S

~ d~s
B

(1.11)

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~ embraced by a surface
Similarly, the electric flux is the flux of electric displacement D
S, which is
x
~ d~s
D
(1.12)
=

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~ along a curve L, given

The electromotive force e is the path integral of the electric field E
by

e=

~ d~l
E

(1.13)

where d~l is the paths tangent vector.

In a similar fashion, the magnetomotive force F is the path integral of the magnetic field
~ along a curve L
H
Z
~ d~l
(1.14)
F = H
L

1.1.3

Flux tubes

~ has the same orientation,

If we choose a curve L so that d~l along this curve is tangent to H,
and that the magnitude of the magnetic field H is constant along this curve, then (1.14)
becomes
F = Hl
(1.15)
where l is the length of this curve.
~ has the same orientation,
Similarly, if we choose a surface S so that d~s is tangent to B,

5
and that the magnitude of the induction field B is constant along this curve, then (1.11)
becomes
= Bs
(1.16)

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where s is the area of this surface.

The previous two definitions lead to the concept of flux tube, as depicted in Fig. 1.1 (where
R is the reluctance). Assuming that the permeability inside the flux tube is homogeneous
~ is collinear with the magnetic field H,
~ so that using (1.5),
and isotropic, the induction field B
(1.15) becomes
lB
F =
(1.17)

Figure 1.1 Flux tube.

1.1.4

Magnetic and electric circuits

According to Gausss theorem

{
S

~ d~s =
B

y
V


~ B
~ dv

(1.18)

with (1.16) in (1.3), the sum of magnetic fluxes across the flux tube is zero
x
S

~ d~s1 +
B

x
S

~ d~s2 +
B

x
S

~ d~s3 = 0
B

1 + 2 + 3 = 0

(1.19)