On the Lagrange Remainder of the Taylor Formula

Author(s): Ulrich Abel

Source: The American Mathematical Monthly, Vol. 110, No. 7 (Aug. - Sep., 2003), pp. 627633
Published by: Mathematical Association of America
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and denote by L the point of concurrence of A'A = a", B'B = b", and C'C = c". Let
i, i', and t be three distinct lines through L, in general position, and construct the lines
t', a'", b'", c"' such that

(i i' t t') = (t t' a" a'") = (t t' b" b'") = (t t' c" c"') = -1. (9)
Then the points a' n a"', b' n b'", and c' n c"' are collinear on a tangent line of the
conic C(a', b', c', i, i'), which is tangent at the five lines a', b', c', i, and i'.

Finally, let us point out a special case in the Euclidean plane of this last result.
Assume that A'B'C' is any triangle in the Euclidean plane, and that Ci is its inscribed

circle, with center L. Set A'L n a' = A, B'L n b' = B, and C'L n c' = C. If the lines
i and i' are the isotropic lines through L, then the conic C(a', b', c', i, i') coincides

with Ci. Now, let t be any line through the in-center L. In light of (9), the line a'" is

the orthogonal reflection of a"(= A'A = LA) in the line t, and likewise for the lines
b"' and c'". It follows from the preceding discussion that the points a' n a'", b' n b'",
and c' n c'" are collinear on a tangent line of the circle Ci.
REFERENCES

1. H. Levy, Projective and Related Geometries, Macmillan, New York, 1961 and 1964.

2. L. A. Talman, A remarkable concurrence, downloadable from http://clem.mscd.edu/'~t

3. F. van Lamoen, Morley related triangles on the nine-point circle, this MONTHLY 107

Department of Pure Mathematics and Computer Algebra, Krijglaan 281 - S22, B-9000 Gen
charles. thas @ rug. ac.be

On the Lagrange Remainder

of the Taylor Formula
Ulrich Abel

1. INTRODUCTION. Consider a function f : I --+ R, where I is an open interval

in R. Assume that a and x are contained in I and that for all natural numbers n and

p the derivative f("np) exists on I and is continuous at a. Then we can expand f(x)

about the point a up to the nth power by the Lagrange-Taylor formula to obtain

f (x) = f (a) + f'(a)(x - a) + ...

+ [1/(n - 1)!] f(n-l1(a)(x - a)n-1 + (l/n!)f(n)(?)(x - a)n (1)
with "intermediate point" (or points) ? strictly between a and x. Azpeitia [1] proved
an elementary result on the asymptotic behavior of = 4(x) when the length of the
interval involved approaches zero. His main result states that, if f(n+) (a) = 0 for all

j with 1 I j < p and f(n+P)(a) : 0, then

lim
x--a X - a (n

=(2)

August-September 2003] NOTES 627

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In the special case n = 1, we obtain the asymptotic behavior

4-a

lim

x-a x- a VP+a

(3)

of the "intermediate point" 4 in the mean value theorem

f (x)- f(a)
x-a

Equivalently,

we

= f'( ).
have

(3)

for

the

mean

f f(t) dt = f(4)(x - a),

provided that f is continuous in an interval containing a and is p times differentiable

at a, with f(j)(a) = 0 for all j satisfying 1 < j < p and f(P)(a) : 0 [2, Theorem 4].
In the special case p = 1, we have 4 - a + (x - a)/2 as x -* a. This was shown by
Jacobson [4].
The main purpose of this paper is to derive, for the intermediate point in (1), a
complete asymptotic expansion of the form

((x) = k=a1 k+ -(x - a) (x -+ a), (4)

provided that f possesses derivatives of sufficiently high order at a. The factor 1/ k! is
only for convenience. Formula (4) means that, for all q in N,

ck -)k,
?(x) =-a -+>q -(x
ak +o(xIX1q)
-a )
k=l1

as x --+ a. Note that Azpeitia's result (2) is the case q = 1 with cl

der certain assumptions, the series (4) holds as a convergent power
exhibiting 4(x) as a univalent function of x in a certain interval ar
orem 2 implies a result by Mera [5] stating that the derivatives (k

natural numbers k if f is real analytic in I and not a polynomial of de

equal to n.
Further results on mean values can be found in [7] and in the recen

2. THE RESULTS. The following theorem is our main result.

Theorem 1. Let n, p, and q be natural numbers. Assume that f is afun

at the point a ofI a derivative of order n + p + q and that f (n+p+q) is

If f("+j) (a) = 0 for all j with 1 < j < p and f(n+P) (a) O0, then the
point 4 = 4:(x) in equation (1) possesses an asymptotic expansion

(x) a + (x -a)k + O (Ix -a |) (x --+ a). (5)

k=l

The coefficients ck are given by the recurrence formula

c =-- , Ck+l = Rk (Cl,..., Ck) (k = 1 ...., q - 1)

628 @ THE MATHEMATICAL ASSOCIATION OF AMERICA [Mont

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with

Rk (Cl, ..., Ck) O- (k + 1)cl 1 p i! Bk,i v

i=1

i=1
- (jj=1
+ 1)Bk+l,j+l
(C1 , ..., Ck-j+l) ( )i!B [], (7)

where Bk,j[Xv] = Bk,j(XI, x2, . ... , Xk-j+l) denote the (exponential) partial Bell poly-

nomials in the variables x , x2,.... , and

(n
+ p +f(n+p'P
j f-(f(n+p+j)
fj(n
(a) (a)

fj =n+p+j n+p j,(j=0, 1, .. q). (8)

Remark 1. Equation (5) provides the complete asymptotic expansion (4) in the case
where f is infinitely differentiable at a.
If the function f happens to be analytic at a, then the series (4) represents $ (x) as a
convergent series.

Theorem 2. Suppose that the function f is analytic at the point a of R and is

real-valued on some real interval containing a. Given n and p in N, assume that
f("n+(a) = 0 Ofor all j with 1 < j < p and f(n+p)(a) # 0. Then there exists a real
interval I around a such that the intermediate point ? = (x) in (1) is uniquely
determined in I and can be represented in I as a convergent series:

4(x) = a + (x -a)k. (9)

k= k!
The coefficients ck are as defined in (6) and (7).

In the special case p = 1 (i.e., f("n+) (a) : 0), formula (7) takes a simpler form,

and we obtain the recurrence

c = 1/1(n + 1),
k+1 k

Ck+1
= k (j+)fBk+l,j+l (Cl, ... ,
n+l
j=1

Remark 2. For the convenience of the reader, we list the initial coefficients ck explicitly:

1 f("+P)(a)
C2 -'p(p+l)n
i2Cl p ?p1 +f(n~p-l)(a)
August-September 2003] NOTES 629
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2 -4c P + I ( - )(p +l)2(n+p+1) () 2

C 3=c (P + 3)c -4cn + p + 1 (n + p + 1)2 Kp(p n+ 1)f(n?p)(a)

6c ( 1 c2 )f(n+p+2)(a)

p (n + p + 1)(n + p + 2) (p + 1)(p +

3. SOME PROPERTIES OF BELL POLYNOMIAL

tial) partial Bell polynomials are the polynomials

infinite number of variables x1, x2,... that are def
expansion

expm>1
u yxm!=n,k>O
iBn,k~]uk (10)
l
(see, for example, [3, eq. (3a), p. 133]). In particular, it follows from (10) that
1

tm

tn

i (L m)k

k! Xm> . m!,) n k n!

The partial Bell polynomials have integral coefficients. Their exact

Bnlkn1,x2,
*(2!)i2...
. n-=+1
Bnl,(Xl,
X2 9..... xn-k+l) --2 . . l i2.(1!)il
2 ...

7il

where the summation takes place over all nonnegative integers i1, i2, ... such that

ii + i2 + i3 +- -- = k, i9 + 2i2 + 3i3 + ' = n

(see [3, Theorem A, p. 134]). Note that Bn,k[x ] depends only on x, ... , Xn-k+. We
mention the formulas B0,0[xv] = 1, Bn,o[x]v = 0, Bn,1[x,] = Xn, B,,n[x,] = xn for al
n in N, which will be of use in the next section. Further properties of Bell polynomials
can be found in [3, pp. 133-137]. The book of Comtet also contains a table of Bn,k[xv]

up to n = 12 [3, pp. 307-308].

4. PROOFS.

Proof of Theorem 1. Under the given assumptions it is possible to apply the

Taylor formula to expand f(x) up to the (n + p + q)th power and then on

expand f(n")() in (1) up to the (p + q)th power. Thus we obtain

nfW( n+p+q-1 fQ ()(a)(x - a)f+P+q

f (x)
-=
n n+pfq-1
f( -)(a)a)
j=0
j!+E(x
=n+p
(n f(x
+ p -+ a)
q)!f(n+p+q) (?
with (1 strictly between a and x, and

f (x) = f(J() (x -a) + f (-(a _f

j=o J- n! - + ja
(4 - a)>1+'P q 1

+ f(n+p+q) 2

630 ? THE MATHEMATICAL ASSOCIATION OF AMERICA [Monthly 110

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with ?2 strictly between a and ?. Equating the right-hand sides of the latter formulas
yields

f(n+p+j (a) (x(x- -a)p+q(n+p+q)

a) j+ f (np+q) (~1)
=o(n + P + j)! (n + p + q)!

q-f(ln+p+j)(a)
-p+
=j=on(P
-( -a)
+ f(n+p+q)
(2)
+ j)! n!(p + q)!
Because of the continuity of f(n+p+q) we conclude that

a)
P+
((
_-y
j=0 f(n+p+j)(a)
(n + p (x
+ j)!-=0n!
(p + f(n+p+j)(a)
j)! - a)P+J = O (Ix - alP+
(x -- a).
Using fj and fj as defined in (8), we obtain

+ (X - a)j - a p n+ p ( - a)j

j=1 ) -a n j=1 J

+ O (Ix - a q) (x 4 a).

Note that ( - a)/(x - a) > 0. Taking pth roots of both side

expanding the results as binomial series, we find that

i=O

Lj=1

'

xr
-a nij_j=I
k=O
for

xx sufficiently
( -a)n close
i=0
t

all

m-(

1/p

m-

-1

i=0 i j=l 1

n + p 1m- 1/p mi= 0 j=1 _J

+ O(x -alm+')
as x , a. Application of formula (11) leads to

m-_ (x - a)k+l1 ki P)
k=0

i=0

= n+p I/P (j=

- anJ!
l i: i! )iBi [f,] + O ( x-aam+l) (x-+ a).
i=0
August-September 2003] NOTES 631
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(X

In order to establish the asymptotic expansion (5) and the recurrence formula (7) we

proceed by mathematical induction with regard to m. Since Bo,o[x,] = 1, for m = 1

equation (12) reduces to x - a = (nnP)1(P - a) + O(Ix - a12) as x -+ a. This gives

S= a + c (x - a) + O(Ix - a12) with cl = (n")-1/P. Now we assume that, for some
m with 2 m < q,
m-1

$.=a(x - a)k + O(Ix - alm) (x --+ a), (13)

k=1

with Ck as defined in (7). By (13), we can write

m-1

k=l

Ck

with a certain function r that is bounded in a neighborhood of a. Inserting (14) into

(12) and again applying formula (11), we obtain

Sk!i!
m-1
(x - a)k+ lkBki
UiPk
k=O

i=O0

[fv

m-1

(X

=k=ci
(k
O j=0

i=0

l/

i!

a)k+l

f)T

Bi

[]

_(j

(I

as x -- a. Note that all Bk+l,j+l(Cl, .., Cm-1, r (x)) in the latter formula are

dependent of r (x) with the exception of the case k = m - 1 and j = 0,

Bm,l(C, ..., cm-1, r(x)) = r(x). Hence, equating the coefficients of (x - a)k+l

get for k = 0 the obvious identity 1 = cl'Bli,[cv], and for k = 1, ..., m -

formula

Ck+l = Rk (Cl,..., Ck)

For k = m - 1, we conclude that

r(x) = Rm (c, ..., cm) + O (Ix - al)

as x -+ a. In view of (14), this implies that
m

a = a+E (x- a)k +0O(Ix - am+1) (x -- a),

k=l

with cl, ..., Cm as given in (6)-(8). This completes the proof of the theo
ProofofTheorem 2. As in the preceding proof, we arrive at the identity

j=o (n + p fT j)!H a j= O n! (p + j)!

.of(n+p+j)(a) a.o f(n+p+J)(a) (j ) a>P+j

632 @ THE MATHEMATICAL ASSOCIATION OF AMERICA [Monthly 110

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for all x sufficiently close to a. The result analogous to equation (12) reads

F(x, () = g(x) - h(?) = 0, (15)

say, where

a)k+![Al
gW(x:)(x
= ik!Bk
k=O

i=Oi0

)n + p 1/ ( - a) 1
n

j-0 i=O
j=0
J =

Since the partial derivative F1

theorem guarantees the existen
(15) can be solved explicitly for
fore ? can be uniquely express
Moreover, the condition h'(a) A
disk with center a and possesses
of h(a) = 0. Since limx,a g(x) =
that (x) = h-1(g(x)) for all x in
Dr(a) = {z : Iz - aI < r}. Thus, (x
ing for all x in Dr (a). Obviously

expansion

(4).

REFERENCES

1. A. G. Azpeitia, On the Lagrange remainder of the Taylor formula, this MONTHLY 89

2. Z. Bao-lin, A note on the mean value theorem for integrals, this MONTHLY 104 (199
3. L. Comtet, Advanced Combinatorics, Reidel, Dordrecht, 1974.

4. B. Jacobson, On the mean value theorem for integrals, this MONTHLY 89 (1982) 3005. R. Mera, On the determination of the intermediate point in Taylor's theorem, this M
56-58.

6. P. K. Sahoo and T. Riedel, Mean Value Theorems and Functional Equations, World Scientific, Singapore,
1998.

7. W. J. Schwind, J. Ji, and D. E. Koditschek, A physically motivated further note on the mean value theorem

for integrals, this MONTHLY 106 (1999) 559-564.

Fachbereich MND, Fachhochschule Giessen-Friedberg, University of Applied Sciences, Wilhelm-LeuschnerStrafle 13, 61169 Friedberg, Germany
Ulrich.Abel @ mnd.fh-friedberg.de

A Proof of the Mazur-Ulam Theorem

Jussi Vaisala

Throughout this note we let E and F denote real normed spaces. A map f: E -+ F i
an isometry if II fx - fy II = Ilx - y l for all x and y in E, and f is affine if

f((1 - t)a + tb) = (1 - t)fa + tfb (1)

August-September 2003] NOTES 633

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