CS6008 HUMAN COMUTER INTERACTION

UNIT II

DESIN & SOFTWARE PROCESS

Interactive Design Basics Process Scenarios Navigation Screen Design

Iteration and Prototyping. HCI in Software Process Software Life Cycle Usability
Engineering Prototyping in Practice Design Rationale. Design Rules Principles,
Standards, Guidelines, Rules. Evaluation Techniques Universal Design

1.What is design?
Design is achieving goals within constraints.
2.What is a goal?
A well-designed user interface will provide a good match between the user's task needs,
skill level and learning ability.
What is the purpose of the design?
Who is it for?
Why do they want it?
3. List out design's constraints.
What materials must we use?
What standards must we adopt?
How much can it cost?
How much time do we have to develop it?
4. Mention four basic activities of interaction design.
Identifying needs and establishing requirements.
Developing alternative designs that meet those requirements.
Building interactive versions of the designs so that they can be communicated and
assessed.
Evaluating what is being built throughout the process.
5.List the importance of prototype.
A prototype enables to fully understand how easy or difficult it will be to implement
some of the features of the system.
It also can give users a chance to comment on the usability and usefulness of the user
interface design.

 Prototyping provides the developer a means to test and refine the user interface and
increase the usability of the system.
6. Draw interaction design process in details.

7. Describes the uses of scenarios.

communicate with clients or user
validate other task models, dialogue models and navigation models
understand dynamics of individual screen shots and pictures
8. List out basic principles of screen design.
Ask : What is the user doing?
Think: What information is required? What comparisons may the user need to make? In
what order are things likely to be needed?
Design: Form follows function: let the required interactions drive the layout.
9. Write down the Phases of software life cycle.
Requirement specification
Architectural Design
Detailed Design
Coding and Unit testing
Integration and testing
Operation and Maintenance
10.List out Attribute and Backward recoverability of a usability specification.
Measuring concept: Undo an erroneous programming sequence
Measuring method: Number of explicit user actions to undo current program

Now level: No current product allows such an undo

Worst case: As many actions as it takes to program-in mistake
Planned level: A maximum of two explicit user actions
Best case: One explicit cancels action
11.States Throw-way prototype with neat diagram
The prototype is built and tested. The design knowledge gained from this exercise is used to
build the final product, but the actual prototype is discarded.

12. What is Incremental prototype?

The final product is built as separate components, one at a time. There is one overall design for
the final system, but it is partitioned into independent and smaller components. The final
product is then released as a series of products, each subsequent release including one more
component.

13. Write down the techniques to develop the Prototyping.

Storyboards
Limited functionality simulations
High-level programming support
Warning about iterative design

14. What are the Benefits of design rationale?

Communication throughout life cycle
Reuse of design knowledge across products
Enforces design discipline
Presents arguments for design trade-offs
Organizes potentially large design space
Capturing contextual information
15. List out Smith and Mosier guidelines.
Data Entry
Data Display
Sequence Control
User Guidance
Data Transmission
Data Protection
16. Mention Shneiderman's 8 Golden Rules.
Strive for consistency
Enable frequent users to use shortcuts
Offer informative feedback
Design dialogs to yield closure
Offer error prevention and simple error handling
Permit easy reversal of actions
Support internal locus of control
Reduce short-term memory load
17. States the Norman's 7 Principles.
Use both knowledge in the world and knowledge in the head.
Simplify the structure of tasks.
Make things visible: bridge the gulfs of Execution and Evaluation.
Get the mappings right.
Exploit the power of constraints, both natural and artificial.
Design for error.
When all else fails, standardize

18. Write down the Characteristics of patterns.

Capture design practice not theory
Capture the essential common properties of good examples of design
Represent design knowledge at varying levels: social, organisational, conceptual,
detailed
Embody values and can express what is humane in interface design
Patterns are intuitive and readable and can therefore be used for communication between
all stakeholders
Pattern language should be generative and assist in the development of complete
designs.
19. What is Evaluation?
Tests usability and functionality of system
Occurs in laboratory, field and/or in collaboration with users
Evaluates both design and implementation
Should be considered at all stages in the design life cycle
20. Why is Evaluation design used?
Assess extent of system functionality
Assess effect of interface on user
Identify specific problems in the design life cycle
21. List down the Universal Design Principles.
Equitable use
Flexibility in use
Simple and intuitive to use
Perceptible information
Tolerance for error
Low physical effort
Size and space for approach and use

22.Write short notes on Non-Speech Sounds

Non-speech sound can be used in a number of ways in interactive systems. It is often used to
provide transitory information, such as indications of network or system changes, or of errors.
It can also be used to provide status information on background processes, since we are able to
ignore continuous sounds but still respond to changes in those sounds.
23.What is formality gap with diagram?
Verification: Designing the product right.
Validation: Designing the right product.
The formality gap: Validation will always rely to some extent on subjective means of proof.
24. Draw an QOC notation.

25. Write about ISO 9241.

ISO 9241 defines,
Usability,
Effectiveness,
Efficiency,
Satisfaction.

PA RT-B

Interactive Design Basics

Interaction design is about creating interventions in often complex situations using
technology of many kinds including PC software, the web and physical devices.
Interaction design is not just about the artifact that is produced, whether a physical device or
a computer program, but about understanding and choosing how that is going to affect the
way people.
1. Define Design? List and explain the golden rules of design. (8 Marks)

I.What is Design?
Design is achieving goals within constraints.
1. Goal
A well-designed user interface will provide a good match between the user's task needs,
skill level and learning ability.
o What is the purpose of the design?
o Who is it for?
o Why do they want it?

2. Constraints
List of design's constraints,
o What materials must we use?
o What standards must we adopt?
o How much can it cost?
o How much time do we have to develop it?
3. Trade off
It means choosing which goals or constraints can be relaxed so that others can be met.

II. The Golden Rule of Design

The designs we produce may be different, but often the raw materials are the same. This
leads us to the golden rule of design.
Understand your materials
For Human Computer Interaction, the obvious materials are the human and the computer.

o Understand computers

Limitations, capacities, tools, platforms

o Understand people

Psychological, social aspects, human error

III. The Err For Human

The phrase 'human error' is taken to mean 'operator error'.
Example of human error
Accident reports:
o Air crash, Industrial Accident, Hospital Mistake, Blames etc...
If you design using a physical material, you need to understand how and where failures
would occur and strengthen the construction, build in safety features or redundancy.
Similarly, if you treat the human with as much consideration as a piece of steel or concrete,
it is obvious that you need to understand the way human failures occur and build the rest of
the interface accordingly.

IV. The Central Message the User

This is the core of interaction design:
o Put the user first.
o The User in the Center.
o Remember the user at the end.

2.Explain in detail about process of design with suitable examples. (8 Marks)

Interaction Design Process
Simplified view of four main phases plus an iteration loop, focused on the design of
interaction.
The interaction design process are,
Requirements
Analysis
Design
Iteration and Prototyping
Implementation and Deployment

 Interaction Design involves four basic activities are,

Identifying needs and establishing requirements.

Developing alternative designs that meet those requirements.

Building interactive versions of the designs so that they can be

communicated and assessed.

Evaluating what is being built throughout the process.

I. Requirements
What is wanted?
o The first stage is establishing what exactly is needed that is needed to spend more
time for gathering user's needs.
o At the task level, the designer gains a greater understanding of the users and the tasks
carry out and can begin to identity which tasks will be of importance to the proposed
system.
There are a number of techniques used for this in HCI
o Interviewing people,
o Videotaping them,
o Looking at the documents and objects that they work with,
o Observing them directly.
II. Analysis
At the task level, translate the user's needs into system requirements and responsibilities.
The way they use the system can provide insight into the user's requirements.

Example
One use of the system might be analyzing an incentive payroll system, which will tell us
that this capacity must be included in the system requirements
III. Design
This is central stage of interaction design process .Design begins with a problem statement
and ends with a design that can be transformed into an operational system.
IV. Iteration and Prototype
Humans are complex and we cannot expect to get designs right first time. We therefore
need to evaluate a design to see how well it is working and where there can be
improvements.
o A prototype enables to fully understand how easy or difficult it will be to
implement some of the features of the system.
o It also can give users a chance to comment on the usability and usefulness of the
user interface design.
o Prototyping provides the developer a means to test and refine the user interface and
increase the usability of the system.
V. Implementation and Deployment
Implement refines the detailed design into system deployment that will satisfy the user's
needs.

3. Write short notes on User Focus. (4 Marks)

User Focus
Know about user
o How do you get to know your users?

Who are they?

Probably not like you!

Talk to them

Watch them

Use your imagination

4. Explain in detail about the followings, (16 Marks)

a. Scenarios
b. Navigation design
c. Screen design
d. Iteration and Prototyping

A. Scenarios
Scenarios are stories for design: rich stories of interaction.
They are perhaps the simplest design representation, but one of the most flexible and
powerful.
Example scenario
A user intends to press the "save" button, but accidentally presses the "quit" button so loses
his work'. Others are focused more on describing the situation or context.
Scenarios are stories for design which is force to think about design in detail. Also help to
notice potential problem before they happen.
Scenarios can be used to
Communicate with clients or user.
Validate other task models, dialogue models and navigation models.
Understand dynamics of individual screen shots and pictures.
Scenarios are in form of networks, hierarchy and linear.
If it is linearity

Scenarios one linear path through system.

Pros
o

Life and time are linear.

Understand (stories and narrative are natural).

Concrete (errors less likely).

No choice, no branches, no special conditions, no alternative path of interaction.

Miss the unintended.

Cons

So
o Use several scenarios.
o Use several methods.

B. Navigation
User can interact at several levels of GUI.

Individual screens or the layout of devices will have their own structure.
Two main kinds of issue,
o Local Structure
o Global Structure
Local Structure
o It looking from this screen out.
Global Structure
o It structure of site, movement between screens.

I. Local Structure
Local structure focused goal seeking behavior.
To do this goal seeking, each state of the system or each screen needs to give the user
enough knowledge of what to do to get closer to their goal.

 To get you started, here are four things to look for when looking at a single web page,
screen or state of a device.
o knowing where you are
o knowing what you can do
o knowing where you are going or what will happen
o Knowing where you've been or what you've done.

II. Global structure (hierarchical organization)

The overall structure of an application. This is the way the various screens, pages or device
states link to one another.

1. Global Structure Dialog

In HCI the word 'dialog' is used to refer to this pattern of interactions between the user
and a system.

 A simple way is to use a network diagram showing the principal states or screens.
Linked together with arrows. This can,
o Show what leads to what
o Show what happens when
o Include branches and loops
o Be more task oriented than a hierarchy
A network diagram illustrating the main screens for adding or deleting a user from the
messaging system.

III. Wider Still

Style issues
o Platform Standards, Consistency
Functional issues
o Cut and Paste
Navigation issues
o Embedded Applications

C. Screen Design
The basic principles at the screen level reflect those in other areas of interaction design,
o Ask What is the user doing?
o Think What information is required? What comparisons may the user need to
make? In what order are things likely to be needed?

o Design Form follows function: let the required interactions drive the layout
Tools for Layout
We have a number of visual tools available to help us suggest to the user appropriate ways
to read and interact with a screen or device.
o Grouping of Items
o Order of Items
o Decoration - fonts, boxes etc.
o Alignment of Items
o White Space Between Items

1. Order of Groups and Items

In general we need to think! what is natural order of the user?
o Should match screen order!

Use boxes, space etc.

Set up tabbing right!

Instructions
o beware the cake recipie syndrome

... mix milk and flotir, add the fruit

...after beating them

2. Decoration
Use boxes to group logical items
Use fonts for emphasis, headings
but not too many!!
3. Alignment
Alignment of lists is also very important. For users who read text from left to right, lists of
text items should normally be aligned to the left.
Numbers, however, should normally be aligned to the right (for integers) or at the decimal
point. This is because the shape of the column then gives an indication of magnitude a
sort of mini-histogram.
Items like names are particularly difficult.

4. White Space
In typography the space between the letters is called the counter.

D. Iteration and Prototyping

You never get it right first time if at first you don't succeed.
There are two things you need in order for prototyping methods to work,
o

Understand what is wrong and how to improve.

o A good start point.

5. Explain in detail about the Software Life Cycle Process. (16 Mark) or
Discuss about software process in Human Computer Interaction in details.

The Software Life Cycle

Software engineering is the discipline for understanding the software design process,
or life cycle.
Designing for usability occurs at all stages of the life cycle, not as a single isolated activity.
Software engineering for interactive system design is not simply a matter of adding
one more activity that slots in nicely with the existing activities in the life cycle.
Rather, it involves techniques that span the entire life cycle.

A. Phases of Software Life Cycle

Requirement Specification
Architectural Design
Detailed Design
Coding and Unit Testing
Integration and Testing

Operation and Maintenance

I. Requirements Specification
Designer and customer try capture what the system is expected to provide can be expressed
in natural language or more precise languages, such as a task analysis would provide.
II. Architectural Design
High-level description of how the system will provide the services required factor system
into major components of the system and how they are interrelated needs to satisfy both
functional and non-functional requirements.
o Present functionality through a familiar metaphor.
o Provide similar execution style of analogous operations in different applications.
o Organize the functionality of a system to support common user tasks.
o Make invisible parts and processes visible to the user.
III. Detailed Design
Refinement of architectural components and interrelations to identify modules to be
implemented separately the refinement is governed by the non-functional requirements

IV. Coding and Unit Testing

The detailed design for a component of the system should be in such a form that it is
possible to implement it in some executable programming language.
After coding, the component can be tested to verify that it performs correctly, according to
some test criteria that were determined in earlier activities.
V. Integration and Testing
Testing is done to ensure correct behavior and acceptable use of any shared resources.
V. Maintenance
After product release, all work on the system is considered under the category of
maintenance, until such time as a new version of the product demands a total redesign or
the product is phased out entirely.

B. Validation and Verification

Validation
Designing the product right.

Verification
Designing the right product.
The formality gap: Validation will always rely to some extent on subjective means of
proof.

Fig: Feedback from maintenance activity to other design activities

C. Interactive systems and the software life cycle

The actual design process is iterative, work in one design activity affecting work in any
other activity both before and after it in the life cycle.

Figure. Representing iteration in the waterfall model

6. What is Usability Engineering? And discuss in detail about the Usability

Engineering. (8 Mark)
Usability Engineering

The ultimate test of usability based on measurement of user experience.

Usability engineering demands that specific usability measures be made explicit as acquirements.

Usability specification
o

Usability attribute/principle

Measuring concept

Measuring method

Now level/ worst case/ planned level/ best case

Problems
o

Usability specification requires level of detail that may not be

Possible early in design satisfying a usability specification

does not necessarily satisfy usability

Usability standard ISO 9241

Usability categories
o effectiveness

can you achieve what you want to?

o efficiency

can you do it without wasting effort?

o satisfaction

do you enjoy the process?

Some metrics from ISO 9241

7. Discuss about iterative design and prototyping in detail. (8 Mark)

Iterative Design and Prototyping
Iterative design overcomes inherent problems of incomplete requirements.

Prototypes
o Simulate or animate some features of intended system.
o Different types of prototypes,

Throw-away

Incremental

Evolutionary

Management issues
o

Time

Planning

Non-functional features

Contracts

I. Throw-way
The prototype is built and tested.
The design knowledge gained from this exercise is used to build the final product, but the
actual prototype is discarded.

II. Incremental
The final product is built as separate components, one at a time.
There is one overall design for the final system, but it is partitioned into independent and
smaller components.
The final product is then released as a series of products, each subsequent release including
one more component.

III Evolutionary Prototype

Here the prototype is not discarded and serves as the basis for the next iteration of design.

Techniques for prototyping (prototyping in practice)

Storyboards
The simplest notion of a prototype is the storyboard, which is a graphical depiction of the
outward appearance of the intended system.

Limited functionality simulations

Some part of system functionality provided by designers tools like HyperCard.

High-level programming support

Hyper Talk was an example of a special-purpose high-level programming language which
makes it easy for the designer to program certain features of an interactive system.
Warning about iterative design.

8. Discuss in detail about Design Rationale. (8 Mark)

Design Rationale
Design rationale is information that explains why a computer system is the way it is.

Benefits of Design Rationale

o

Communication throughout life cycle.

Reuse of design knowledge across products.

Enforces design discipline.

Presents arguments for design trade-offs.

Organizes potentially large design space.

Capturing contextual information.

Types of Design Rationale

Process-oriented
o Preserves order of deliberation and decision-making.
Structure-oriented
o Emphasizes post hoc structuring of considered design alternatives.
Two examples,
o Issue-based information system (IBIS).
o Design space analysis.
I. Process Oriented Design Rationale
Much of the work on design rationale is based on issue-based information system, or IBIS.
In IBIS, a hierarchical structure to a design rationale is created.
A root issue is identified which represents the main problem or question that the argument
is addressing.
Various positions are put as potential resolutions for the root issue. Each position is
supported or refuted by arguments, which modify the relationship between issue and
position.
A graphical version of IBIS has been defined by gIBIS, which makes the structure of the
design rationale more apparent visually in the form of a directed graph which can be
directly edited by the creator of the design rationale.

II. Design Space Analysis

The design space is initially structured by a set of questions representing the major issues
of the design.
Design space analysis is structure-oriented.
Questions, Options and Criteria (QOC) notation, is characterized as design space analysis.
QOC hierarchical structure
o Questions (and sub-questions)

Represent major issues of a design.

o Options

Provide alternative solutions to the question.

o Criteria

The means to assess the options in order to make a choice.

III. Psychological Design Rationale

To support task-artefact cycle in which user tasks are affected by the systems they use.
Aims to make explicit consequences of design for users.
Designers identify tasks system will support.
Scenarios are suggested to test task.
Users are observed on system.
Psychological claims of system made explicit.
Negative aspects of design can be used to improve next iteration of design.

9. Explain in detail about Design Rules and Principles. (16 Mark)

Design Rules
Principles
Standards
Guidelines
Golden Rules and Heuristics

HCI Design Patterns

Number of different types of design rules
Principles are abstract design rules, with high generality and low authority.
Standards are specific design rules, high in authority and limited in application.
Guidelines tend to be lower in authority and more general in application.
Designing for maximum usability the goal of interaction design

Principles of Usability

Standards and Guidelines

General understanding.

Direction for design.

Design Patterns

Capture and reuse design knowledge.

A. Principles
I. Principles to support usability
o

Learnability

The ease with which new users can begin effective interaction and achieve
maximal performance.

Flexibility

The multiplicity of ways the user and system exchange information

o Robustness

The level of support provided the user in determining successful

achievement and assessment of goal-directed behavior.

II. Principles of learnability

o Predictability

Determining effect of future actions based on past interaction history.

Operation visibility.

o Synthesizability

Assessing the effect of past actions.

Immediate vs. eventual honesty.

o Familiarity

How prior knowledge applies to new system.

Guess ability; affordance.

o Generalizability

Extending specific interaction knowledge to new situations.

o Consistency

Likeness in input/output behaviour arising from similar situations or task

objectives.

III. Principles of flexibility

o Dialogue initiative

Freedom from system imposed constraints on input dialogue.

System vs. user pre-emptiveness.

o Multithreading

Ability of system to support user interaction for more than one task at a
time.

concurrent vs. interleaving; multimodality.

o Task migratability

passing responsibility for task execution between user and system.

o Substitutivity

allowing equivalent values of input and output to be substituted for each

other.

representation multiplicity; equal opportunity.

o Customizability

modifiability of the user interface by user (adaptability) or system

(adaptivity).

IV. Principles of robustness

o Observability

ability of user to evaluate the internal state of the system from its
perceivable representation.

browsability; defaults; reachability; persistence; operation visibility.

o Recoverability

ability of user to take corrective action once an error has been recognized.

reachability; forward/backward recovery; commensurate effort.

o Responsiveness

how the user perceives the rate of communication with the system.

Stability.

o Task conformance

degree to which system services support all of the user's tasks.

task completeness; task adequacy.

B.Standards
Set by national or international bodies to ensure compliance by a large community of
designers standards require sound underlying theory and slowly changing technology.

 Hardware standards more common than software high authority and low level of detail.
ISO 9241 defines usability, effectiveness, efficiency and satisfaction with which users
accomplish tasks
Usability
The effectiveness, efficiency and satisfaction with which specified users achieve specified
goals in particular environments.
Effectiveness
The accuracy and completeness with which specified users can achieve specified goals in
particular environments.
Efficiency
The resources expended in relation to the accuracy and completeness of goals achieved.
Satisfaction
The comfort and acceptability of the work system to its users and other people affected by
its use.

C. Guidelines
More suggestive and general.
Abstract guidelines (principles) applicable during early life cycle activities.
Detailed guidelines (style guides) applicable during later life cycle activities.
Understanding justification for guidelines aids in resolving conflicts.
Smith and Mosier guidelines are,
o Data Entry
o Data Display
o Sequence Control
o User Guidance
o Data Transmission
o Data Protection

D.Golden Rules and Heuristics

It is "Broad brush" design rules.
Useful check list for good design.
Better design using these than using nothing!
Different collections e.g.
o Nielsen's 10 Heuristics.
o Shneiderman's 8 Golden Rules.
o Norman's 7 Principles.
I. Shneiderman's 8 Golden Rules
o Strive for consistency
o

frequent users to use shortcuts

o Offer informative feedback

o Design dialogs to yield closure
o Offer error prevention and simple error handling
o Permit easy reversal of actions
o Support internal locus of control
o

short-term memory load

II. Norman's 7 Principles

o Use both knowledge in the world and knowledge in the head.
o Simplify the structure of tasks.
o Make things visible: bridge the gulfs of Execution and Evaluation.
o Get the mappings right.
o Exploit the power of constraints, both natural and artificial.
o Design for error.
o When all else fails, standardize

E.HCI Design Patterns

An approach to reusing knowledge about successful design solutions.
Originated in architecture: Alexander.
A pattern is an invariant solution to a recurrent problem within a specific context.
Examples,
o Light on Two Sides of Every Room (architecture).
o Go back to a safe place (HCI).
Patterns do not exist in isolation but are linked to other patterns in languages which enable
complete designs to be generated.
Characteristics of patterns
o Capture design practice not theory.
o Capture the essential common properties of good examples of design.
o Represent design knowledge at varying levels: social, organisational, conceptual,
detailed.
o Embody values and can express what is humane in interface design.
o Patterns are intuitive and readable and can therefore be used for communication
between all stakeholders.
o A pattern language should be generative and assist in the development of complete
designs.

10. Describe about Evaluation Techniques in interactive design process and

explain. (16 Mark)
Evaluation Techniques
What is Evaluation?
o tests usability and functionality of system,
o occurs in laboratory, field and/or in collaboration with users,
o evaluates both design and implementation,
o Should be considered at all stages in the design life cycle.

Goals of Evaluation
o It assess extent of system functionality,
o It assess effect of interface on user,
o It identifies specific problems.
Evaluation Through Expert Analysis
Evaluating Through User Participation

Observational Techniques

Query Techniques

Physiological Methods

A. Evaluation Through Expert Analysis

I.

Cognitive Walkthrough

II. Heuristic Evaluation

III. Model-based evaluation

I. Cognitive Walkthrough
It evaluates design on how well it supports user in learning task.
Its usually performed by expert in cognitive psychology.
Expert 'walks though' design to identify potential problems using psychological principles.
It forms used to guide analysis.
II. Heuristic Evaluation
It Proposed by Nielsen and Molich.
o Usability criteria (heuristics) are identified.
Design examined by experts to see if these are violated.
o Example heuristics

system behaviour is predictable

system behaviour is consistent

feedback is provided

Heuristic evaluation 'debugs' design

Nielsens ten heuristics are,

o Visibility of system status
o Match between system and the real world
o User control and freedom
o Consistency and standards
o Error prevention Make it difficult to make errors. Even better than good error
o Recognition rather than recall
o Flexibility and efficiency of use
o Aesthetic and minimalist design
o Help users recognize, diagnose and recover from errors
o Help and documentation
III. Model-based Evaluation
Cognitive and design models provide a means of combining design specification and
evaluation into the same framework.
Design rationale provides a framework in which design options can be evaluated. By
examining the criteria that are associated with each option in the design, and the evidence
that is provided to support these criteria, informed judgments can be made in the design
Using previous studies in evaluation
Using previous results as evidence to support (or refute) aspects of the design. It is
expensive to repeat experiments continually and an expert review of relevant literature can
avoid the need to do so.

B. Evaluating Through User Participation (16 Mark)

User participation in evaluation tends to occur in the later stages of development when
there is at least a working prototype of the system in place.

I. Styles of evaluation
1. Laboratory studies
Advantages
o specialist equipment available
o

environment

Disadvantages
o lack of context
o difficult to observe several users cooperating
Appropriate
If system location is dangerous or impractical for constrained single user systems to allow
controlled manipulation of use.
2. Field Studies
Advantages
o natural environment
o context retained (though observation may alter it)
o longitudinal studies possible
Disadvantages
o distractions
o noise
Appropriate
o where context is crucial for longitudinal studies

II. Empirical Methods: Experimental Evaluation

Controlled evaluation of specific aspects of interactive behavior.

 It evaluator chooses hypothesis to be tested.

A number of experimental conditions are considered which differ only in the value of some
controlled variable.
It changes in behavioral measure are attributed to different conditions.
1.Experimental factors
o Subjects
o Variables
o Hypothesis
o Experimental design
a. Variables
Independent variable (IV)
o Characteristic changed to produce different conditions.
o E.g. interface style, number of menu items.
Dependent variable (DV)
o Characteristics measured in the experiment.
o E.g. time taken, number of errors.
b. Hypothesis
Prediction of outcome
o Framed in terms of IV and DV.
o E.g. "error rate will increase as font size decreases".
Null hypothesis
o States no difference between conditions
o Aim is to disprove this
o E.g. null hyp. = "no change with font size"

C. Experimental design
Within groups design
o Each subject performs experiment under each condition.
o It transfer of learning possible.
o Less costly and less likely to suffer from user variation.
between groups design
o Each subject performs under only one condition.
o No transfer of learning.
o More users required.
o Variation can bias results.

I. Observational Techniques (8 Mark)

A popular way to gather information about actual use of a system is to observe users
interacting with it.

Think Aloud

Cooperative Evaluation

Protocol Analysis

Automatic Protocol Analysis Tools

Post-Task Walkthroughs

1. Think Aloud
It user observed performing task.
It user asked to describe what he is doing and why, what he thinks is happening.
Advantages
o simplicity - requires little expertise.
o It can provide useful insight.
o It can show how system is actually used.

Disadvantages
o Subjective.
o Selective.
o Act of describing may alter task performance.
2. Cooperative evaluation
It variation on think aloud.
It user collaborates in evaluation.
Both user and evaluator can ask each other questions throughout.
Additional advantages
o Less constrained and easier to use
o User is encouraged to criticize system
o Clarification possible
3. Protocol Analysis
Methods for recording user actions include the following:
o Paper and pencil cheap, limited to writing speed.
o Audio good for think aloud, difficult to match with other protocols.
o Video accurate and realistic, needs special equipment, obtrusive.
o Computer logging automatic and unobtrusive, large amounts of data difficult to
analyze.
o

Notebooks coarse and subjective, useful insights, good for longitudinal studies

4. Automatic protocol analysis tools

Post task walkthrough
o User reacts on action after the event.
o Used to fill in intention.

Advantages
o Analyst has time to focus on relevant incidents.
o Avoid excessive interruption of task.
Disadvantages
o Lack of freshness.
o May be post-hoc interpretation of events.
5. Post-task walkthroughs
Transcript played back to participant for comment.
o It immediately fresh in mind.
o Delayed evaluator has time to identify questions.
Useful to identify reasons for actions and alternatives considered.
It necessary in cases where think aloud is not possible.

II. Query Techniques (8 Mark)

Interviews

Questionnaires

1. Interviews
It analyst questions user on one-to -one basis usually based on prepared questions.
It informal, subjective and relatively cheap.
Advantages
o It can be varied to suit context.
o Issues can be explored more fully
o It can elicit user views and identify unanticipated problems.

Disadvantages
o Very subjective
o Time consuming
2. Questionnaires
Set of fixed questions given to users.
Advantages
o Quick and reaches large user group
o It can be analyzed more rigorously
Disadvantages
o Less flexible
o Less probing
Styles of question
o General
o Open-ended
o Scalar
o Multi-choice

o Ranked

III. Physiological Methods (6 Mark)

Eye Tracking
It head or desk mounted equipment tracks the position of the eye.
Eye movement reflects the amount of cognitive processing a display requires.
Measurements include,
o Fixations: eye maintains stable position. Number and duration indicate level of
difficulty with display.

o Saccades: rapid eye movement from one point of interest to another.

o Scan paths: moving straight to a target with a short fixation at the target is optimal.
Physiological Measurements
It emotional response linked to physical changes.
These may help determine a user's reaction to an interface.
Measurements include,
o Heart activity, including blood pressure, volume and pulse.
o Activity of sweat glands: Galvanic Skin Response (GSR).
o Electrical activity in muscle: Electromyogram (EMG).
o Electrical activity in brain: Electroencephalogram (EEG).
Some difficulty in interpreting these physiological responses - more research needed.

11. Explain about the Universal Design. (16 Mark)

Universal Design
Designing systems to be used by anyone under any conditions.
Multi-modal systems use more than one human input channel in the interaction.
o

Speech

Non-speech sound

Touch

Handwriting

Gestures

Universal Design designing for diversity

o Sensory, physical or cognitive impairment
o Different ages
o Different cultures & backgrounds

Universal Design Principles

Multi-Modal Interaction

Designing For Diversity

A. Universal Design Principles

o equitable use
o flexibility in use
o simple and intuitive to use
o perceptible information
o tolerance for error
o low physical effort
o size and space for approach and use

B. Multi-Modal Interaction (8 Mark)

We providing access to information through more than one mode of interaction is an
important principle of universal design. Such design relies on multi-modal interaction.
There are five senses: sight, sound, touch, taste and smell.

Sound in the interface

Speech in the interface

Touch in the interface

Handwriting Recognition

Gesture Recognition

I. Sound in the interface

Sound is an important contributor to usability.
Sound can convey transient information and does not take up.
Screen space, making it potentially useful for mobile applications.

II. Speech in the interface

Language is rich and complex.
Human beings have a great and natural mastery of speech.
1.Structure of speech
The English language is made up of 40 phonemes, which are the atomic elements of
speech. Each phoneme represents a distinct sound, there being 24 consonants and 16
vowel sounds.
2.Speech Recognition Problems
Different people speak differently.
o Accent. Intonation, stress, idiom, volume, etc.
The syntax of semantically similar sentences may vary.
Background noises can interfere,
o Example,
o The Phonetic Typewriter

Developed for Finnish (a phonetic language, written as it is said) .

Trained on one speaker, will generalise to others.

A neural network is trained to cluster together similar sounds, which are

then labeled with the corresponding character.

3.Speech Synthesis
Useful
o Natural and familiar way of receiving information.
Problems
o Similar to recognition: prosody particularly
Additional problems
o Intrusive - needs headphones, or creates noise in the workplace.
o Transient - harder to review and browse

Examples
Screen readers
o Read the textual display to the user utilised by visually impaired people.
warning signals
o spoken information sometimes presented to pilots whose visual and haptic skills are
already fully occupied.
4. Non-Speech Sounds
Non-speech sound can be used in a number of ways in interactive systems.
It is often used to provide transitory information, such as indications of network or system
changes, or of errors.
It can also be used to provide status information on background processes, since we
are able to ignore continuous sounds but still respond to changes in those sounds
5. Auditory Icons
Use natural sounds to represent different types of object or action.
Natural sounds have associated semantics which can be mapped onto similar meanings in
the interaction.
o E.g. throwing something away.
6. Earcons
Synthetic sounds used to convey information.
Structured combinations of notes (motives) represent actions and objects.
Motives combined to provide rich information.

III. Touch in the interface

The use of touch in the interface is known as haptic interaction.
Haptics is a generic term relating to touch, but it can be roughly divided into two areas:
cutaneous perception, which is concerned with tactile sensations through the skin; and
kinesthetic, which is the perception of movement and position. S
Both are useful in interaction but they require different technologies.

IV. Handwriting Recognition

Handwriting is another communication mechanism which we are used to in day-to-day life
Technology.
Handwriting consists of complex strokes and spaces.
Captured by digitising tablet
o It strokes transformed to sequence of dots.
Large tablets available
o It suitable for digitising maps and technical drawings.
Smaller devices, some incorporating thin screens to display the information
o PDAs such as Palm Pilot
o Tablet PCs

 Problems
o Personal differences in letter formation
o Co-articulation effects

V. Gesture Recognition
Applications
gestural input - e.g. "put that there"
sign language
Technology
data glove
position sensing devices
Benefits
Natural form of interaction - pointing
Enhance communication between signing and non-signing users
problems
User dependent. variable and issues of co articulation

C. Designing For Diversity (6 Mark)

Designing for users with disabilities
Visual Impairment
o screen readers
Hearing Impairment
o text communication, gesture, captions
Physical Impairment
o speech I/O, eyegaze, gesture, predictive systems (e.g. Reactive keyboard)
Speech Impairment
o speech synthesis, text communication
Dyslexia
o speech input. output
Autism
o communication, education
Age Groups
o Older people e.g. disability aids, memory aids, communication tools to prevent
social isolation.
o children e.g. appropriate input/output devices, involvement in design process
Cultural Differences
o Influence of nationality, generation, gender, race, sexuality, class, religion, political
persuasion etc. on interpretation of interface features.
o E.g. interpretation and acceptability of language, cultural symbols, gesture and
colour.