iu khin thch nghi my cng c iu khin s

(Adaptive Control of CNC Machine-Tools)

PGS. TS. o Vn Hip - Hc vin KTQS
Tm tt ni dung
Trong vi thp k gn y s lng cc h CNC tng vt trong mi lnh vc sn xut. Nhc im
chung ca chng l ch, cc thng s cng ngh, nh vn tc ct v lng chy dao c p t bi ngi
lp trnh v ph thuc vo kinh nghim, hiu bit ca anh ta. Ngc li, tng cha ng trong iu khin
thch nghi l ci thin nng sut hoc chi ph gia cng nh tnh ton v thit t cc thng s cng ngh ti
u ngay trong qu trnh gia cng. Trn thc t, iu khin thch nghi l s pht trin c tnh logic ca CNC.
Trong bo co ny. chng ti m t h AC mi c thc hin ti B mn My v Robot, Hc vin K thut
qun s. Mt s kt qu nghin cu thc nghim trn h ny cng c trnh by y.

Abstract
In the past decades the number of CNC systems has grown tremendously in almost every field of
manufacturing. A common drawback of these systems is that their operating parameters, such as cutting speeds
and feedrates are prescribed by part programmer and depend on his experience and knowledge. By contrast,
the main idea in adaptive control is the improvement of the production rate, or the reduction of machining cost,
by calculation and setting of the optimal operating parameters in the machining process itself. In fact, the
adaptive control of metal-cutting processes is presented as a logical extension of the CNC systems. In this paper
we describe the AC system made in Department of Machine-tools and Robotics of Military Technical Academy.
Some results of experimental studies based on this system are represented as well.

1. Xut x ca vn iu khin thch nghi my CNC

Cho n nay, khi lng sn phm c kh phi qua gia cng bng ct gt ct gt vn
chim t l cao nht trong cc phng php gia cng kim loi. Ct gt l phng php hng
u v kh p ng chnh xc kch thc, phc tp v hnh dng v cht lng b mt
chi tit gia cng. l l do khin cc cng ngh tin tin, c tr gip ca my tnh
(CAD/CAM, CNC) pht trin sm nht v mnh m nht trong lnh vc ny.
Nh tch hp c cc thnh tu mi trong k thut iu khin v my tnh m cc
h CNC hin i c nhiu tnh nng tuyt vi v pht trin rt nhanh. Tuy nhin v bn
cht, iu khin trn cc my CNC hin nay vn ch l iu khin "tnh" vi cc tham s h
thng khng i. Biu hin ca n v mt cng ngh l tc ct v tc chy dao c
thit t c nh bi lnh trong chng trnh NC v c duy tr cho n khi c lnh thit
t gi tr mi.
Trn thc t, qu trnh gia cng l mt qu trnh thng xuyn bin ng, v d:
- B mt phi khng bao gi l mt b mt l
F
tng. V vy, chiu su ct thc t thay i mt
cch ngu nhin;
- Trong vng gia cng c th cha cc l, khe
hng, khi dao chy qua th khng c cht vt liu
no b ct;
- Vt liu ca phi khng ng u. C tnh
ca n c th thay i theo quy lut bit trc hoc
ngu nhin;
F (mm/ph)
FAC = const/t
- Kh nng ct ca dao thng xuyn b thay
i trong qu trnh ct (do mn dao, lo dao, s thay
i ch ct, do nhit cao,...);
Chiu su ct t
- S rung ng hoc bin dng ca cc thnh
FCNC = const
phn trong h thng cng ngh;
- S bin ng ca mi trng xung quanh
X (mm)
(nhit khng kh, rung ng ca nn mng,...);
Hnh 1: Tc chy dao F khi
khng v c p dng AC

Cc i lng bin ng trn gy nn s bin ng ca cc thng s ra, nh lc ct,

cng sut ng c trc chnh, nhit vng ct, bin rung ng ca dao hoc phi,... v
cui cng l khng nhng nh hng xu n cht lng gia cng m cn c th gy nn
s c k thut.
Trong cng ngh ct gt kim loi, iu khin thch nghi (Adaptive Control - AC)
c hiu l h thng c kh nng thng xuyn gim st s thay i ca cc thng s ra
ca qu trnh, cn c vo thay i cc thng s cng ngh sao cho chng lun t gi
tr cao nht c th m vn khng ph v cc iu kin rng buc, m bo cho h thng
hot ng bnh thng.
Hnh 1 minh ha mt trng hp in hnh lm ny sinh tng iu khin thch
nghi. B mt phi gh gh dn n s thay i chiu su ct t v lc ct P (lc ct l hm
ca t). Trn my CNC, m bo an ton, ngi ta lp trnh vi tc chy dao FCNC
tng ng vi chiu su ct ln nht. Mc d phn ln thi gian my gia cng vi chiu su
v lc ct nh, thm ch c vng dao chy qua khng kh, hon ton c th tng tc
chy dao F nhng CNC vn ch duy tr gi tr FCNC = const.
Nu b iu khin c kh nng o lc ct trong thi gian thc v duy tr cho tc
chy dao F t gi tr cao nht c th vi iu kin lc ct khng vt qu gi tr t no
th th F FAC s thay i theo gi tr ca t (gi nh t l nghch vi t). Khi t nh, th
FAC c th ln hn nhiu so vi FCNC. Kt qu l tc chy dao trung bnh s ln hn gi
tr s dng cho my CNC thng thng (FCNC). y chnh l dng thng gp nht ca AC.

Hnh 2: S nguyn l my CNC c iu khin thch nghi

Trn hnh 2 l s my CNC c AC. Vng trn l h CNC thng thng. l h
iu khin kn vi cc thng s iu khin l cc ta X, Y, Z. Tc ct S v lng
chy dao F c xc nh t chng trnh NC v khng c phn hi trc tip. Qu trnh
cng ngh nm ngoi vng iu khin nn b CNC khng c kh nng phn ng vi nhng
bin ng ca qu trnh. H AC c ghp thm (vng di), c nhim v o cc thng s
trng thi v hiu chnh S, F theo cc rng buc, mc tiu v lut iu khin nh trc.
Nh vy l, trong khi CNC ch nhn tn hiu phn hi v tr ca dao, khng c kh
nng t ng hiu chnh S, F th AC thng xuyn gim st s bin ng ca kch thc v
c tnh ca phi, t hiu chnh S, F cho ph hp. Khc vi gia cng CNC, trong nng
sut gia cng tng ch yu nh gim thi gian khng gia cng (thi gian chy khng, nh
v, thay i ch ct, g t phi, thay dao, o kim,...), AC tng nng sut gia cng bng
cch gim thi gian gia cng (thi gian chnh). Mc tiu ca hu ht cc h AC l tng
khi lng ct gt trong gia cng th. Mt s cng trnh nghin cu [1, 2] cho thy, nng

sut gia cng c AC tng 20-80%, cn chi ph gia cng ch bng 40-50% so vi gia cng
CNC thng thng. Li ch r nht ca AC thy c khi gia cng vi chiu su ct thay
i trong phm vi rng.
2. Nghin cu mt vi m hnh AC c
B AC u tin c thc hin ti Bendix Research Liboratories vo khong nm
1962-1964, di s bo tr ca Khng lc M. Vo khong thi gian , hng Cincinnati
Milacron cng xy dng mt h tng t. C hai ni u nhn ra rng khng th to ra mt
h thng c kh nng o trc tuyn ch tiu hiu qu (Performance Index - PI) ca qu
trnh. Mt khc cc h AC ny u qu t c th ng dng trong cng nghip. Cc
cng trnh nghin cu sau tp trung vo tm kim cc m hnh n gin, r tin hn.
C th phn cc h AC thnh 2 loi: (1) iu khin thch nghi ti u (Adaptive
Control With Optimization - ACO) v (2) iu khin thch nghi theo iu kin gii hn
(Adaptive Control With Constraints - ACC). H ACO iu khin cc thng s cng ngh
theo PI xc nh (thng l ch tiu kinh t), ng thi tha mn cc iu kin rng buc.
H ACO c nhc n nhiu nht l h Bendix. H gm c mt my phay NC, khi
sensor v b AC. Khi sensor o momen ct, nhit li ct v dao ng ca my. l
cc thng s u vo xc nh lng chy dao v tc ct ti u. PI c dng trong
h ny l hm ca t s gia th tch kim loi c ct (MRR) vi lng mn dao (TWR)
trong mt n v thi gian.
PI = f(MRR/TWR)
Mc tiu iu khin l m bo gi tr ln nht c th c ca PI m khng ph v h
iu kin rng buc. Cc rng buc ca h Bendix l vn tc ct ln nht v nh nht,
momen ct ln nht, lng chy dao ln nht, nhit ln nht v bin dao ng ln nht.
Gn y, mt h ACO mang tn MEL-Master c xy dng ti phng th nghim c
kh (Mechanical Laboratory - MEL) ca Nht [3], nhm t ng ha vic ra quyt nh ch
ct thay cho k thut lp trnh NC thng thng. H gm mt trung tm gia cng CNC
v 3 phn h m phng, cm nhn trng thi ca qu trnh (Process Sensing) v iu
khin s. Khi h thng nhn ra iu kin lm vic khng bnh thng th n thng bo cho
b CNC. Cc thng s cng ngh s c hiu chnh theo mt chin lc do b CNC xc
nh. MEL-Master dng h chuyn gia x l theo thi gian thc. B m phng lm vic
Off-line, gip cho ngi vn hnh quyt nh v kim tra ch gia cng ti u.
H MEL-Master tin b hn h Bendix v k thut tnh ton. Cc chc nng tnh ton
n l c tp trung vo my tnh ca b CNC. Khc vi h Bendix, dng phng php
gradient tnh ch ct ti u, h MEL-Master dng tr tu nhn to v h chuyn gia.
Mc tiu ca hu ht cc h ACC l tng nng sut ct (MRR), nh cc i ha mt
hay nhiu thng s cng ngh trong mt min, c gii hn bi cc rng buc. Hng
nghin cu c tin hnh nhiu nht nc ngoi l lm cc i lng chy dao vi iu
kin lc ct khng vt qu gii hn cho php.
Kh khn ln nht trong ng dng thc t ca ACO l o trc tuyn mt s thng s
ti u ha ch ct, nh lng mn dao, nhm b mt gia cng,... Hy vng rng
cng vi s tin b ca k thut o lng v iu khin, cc kh khn trn s dn c
khc phc. Khi , chc chn ACO s c a chung. Tuy nhin, cho n nay, v cc l
do kinh t v k thut ni trn m hu ht cc b AC dng trong cng nghip l ACC v rt
t h c kh nng iu khin qu 1 thng s [2].
3. Nghin cu ng dng AC ti Hc Vin KTQS
V hnh thc, h AC ging mt h iu khin c phn hi ch mt hay nhiu thng
s ra c o, lm cn c iu khin cc thng s cng ngh. V lut iu khin, AC c
nt ging nh iu khin ti u, v cc thng s cng ngh c iu khin theo ch tiu ti
u v h iu kin rng buc xc nh. Ci khc c bn ca AC so vi 2 loi trn l h
thng lm vic vi cc thng s mi trng bin ng theo thi gian thc.

 thit k v xy dng mt h AC cn gii quyt 3 vn quan trng:

- Sensor nhn bit s bin ng ca thng s ra (thng s mi trng).
- Thut ton, chng trnh thu nhn, x l tn hiu v iu khin.
- Ni ghp phn cng, lm cho AC ha nhp v lm vic ng b vi CNC.
Sau gn 2 nm nghin cu, vi lc lng con ngi v c s vt cht c hn, chng
ti gii quyt dn tng khu v n nay mt h AC c lp t, lm vic v cho kt
qu ban u rt kh quan.
3.1. M t h thng
H thng (hnh 3) tng t mt h AC in hnh trong hnh 2, gm:
- Mt my phay CNC vi b iu khin TNC360 ca hng Heidenhain (c). l
my phay ng, iu khin 3 trc, c chuyn h t my phay vn nng MFP320 ca
Hungary. C 3 trc chy dao (X, Y, Z) dng cc h iu khin ng c servo, c phn hi
v tr bng 3 thc quang (linear encoder), cng do Heidenhain sn xut.

Hnh 3: S h AC thc nghim

- Sensor o lc c dng l h thng o lc ct 3 thnh phn 9257BA do Kistler
(Thy s) sn xut. Nhim v ca n l o On-line gi tr lc ct, chuyn thnh tn hiu
in p cung cp cho b iu khin (AC Controller).
- Chc nng AC Controller c thc hin nh mt PC, c cm card thu nhn v x l
tn hiu PCL-812 PG do hng Advantech (i loan) sn xut v phn mm tr gip thit k
cc modul thu thp, x l tn hiu v iu khin DASYLab ca hng Dasytec (c). Nhim
v ca cm ny l nhn tn hiu lc ct P, chuyn i A/D, tnh ton, so snh vi gi tr t
(ngng Pmax). Nu PPmax th lnh cho CNC iu khin my gia cng vi lng chy dao
bng gi tr lp trnh1 (F = FCNC). Nu P > Pmax th gim F theo lut nht nh. Cc chc nng
suy lun logic v ra quyt nh iu khin ni trn c thc hin bi mt khi cc modul
logic v mt modul PID.
- H c ghp vi CNC qua mt ng ring truyn lnh iu khin cho CNC.
By gi CNC phi nhn lnh iu khin t 2 ngun: chng trnh NC v AC. N khng ch
iu khin v tr (X, Y, Z) nh trc m cn phi iu khin c tc chy dao F.
V, nh trn ni, gim st trng thi h thng l vn quan trng bc nht ca
AC, trong bi ny chng ti trnh by k hn v h thng ny.

Ch rng gi tr lp trnh FCNC lc ny ln hn nhiu so vi trng hp khng dng AC.

3.2. o v x l tn hiu lc ct
Mi phng php gia cng c kh u da vo s tng tc vt l gia dng c v i
tng gia cng. S tng tc c th hin bi cc i lng vt l, nh lc, momen,
nhit ,... Lc ct l thng s quan trng bc nht kho st, ti u ha, iu khin qu
trnh cng ngh gia cng c kh. V vy mt h AC khng th thiu c sensor o lc ct.
Ni cch khc, nu h AC ch gim st mt thng s ra (a s cc h hin nay l nh vy)
th thng s phi l lc ct.
H thng o lc ct (hnh 4) m chng ti s dng gm:
1. Lc k 3 thnh phn o lc ct (Px, Py, Pz). Lc phi o trong trng hp ny l
lc ng nn chng ti chn sensor kiu p in. Ngoi u th tuyt i v kh nng o lc
ng, sensor p in cn c cc u im khc, nh gn, lm vic tin cy, cng vng c
hc cao, tn s dao ng ring cao, t nhy cm vi s thay i nhit mi trng,... Vt
liu lm sensor y l thch anh (quartz). So vi cc vt liu p in khc, cc thng s
cht lng ca thch anh cn cao hn, v d theo [4]:
- cng vng cao. Modul n hi vo khong 35 40 N/m2.
- Nhit lm vic n 500 oC. Nu k thut gia cng tt, nhy gn nh khng
i trong khong -200 n 350 oC.
- cch in cao, in tr sut ti 1014.
- tuyn tnh cao v tr khng ng k.
Tnh nng k thut chnh ca lc k 9257BA nh sau:
Gii hn o
Di 1
Px, Py
Pz
Di 2
Px, Py
Pz
Di 3
Px, Py
Pz2
Di 4
Px, Py
Pz
Qu ti
Px, Py
cho php Pz

nhy
kN

kN

-0,50,5
-11
-11
-22
-22
-55
-55
-510
-7,5/7,5
-7,5/15

tuyn tnh
tr
Cross talk
cng vng
Dao ng ring
N. lm vic
tri ( 25 oC)

Px, Py
Pz

Cx, Cy
Cz
fo(x, y)
fo(z)

mV/N
%FSO
%FSO
%
kN/m
kHz
o

C
N/s

10
5
1
0,5
3
>1
>2
2,0
3,5
0 60
0,01

2. Control Unit 5233A1. Khi in t m nhim chc nng ca b khuych i in

tch (Charge Amplifier), chuyn i thnh in p v phn knh. T y, tn hiu lc ct
(in p) c th a vo my tnh (thng qua card thu nhn v chuyn i tn hiu - A/D
Board) hoc a ra Oscillograph.
3. A/D Board hin dng l kiu PCL-812 PG ca Advantech (i Loan). N c 16
knh Analog Input (A/D Converter), 2 knh Analog Output (D/A Converter) vi phn
gii 12 bit, 1 knh Digital Input v 1 knh Digital Output 16 bit. Ngoi ra c Programmable
Timer/Counter trn c s b Intel 8253. Tc ly mu ti a l 35 kS/s.
4. Modul phn mm thu thp, x l tn hiu c thit lp trn c s phn mm
DASYLab ca nhm DASYTEC (c). DASYLab l vit tt ca Data Acquisition
SYstem Laboratory. y l mi trng, cho php to cc modul thu nhn tn hiu, tnh
ton, hin th, xut tn hiu iu khin,... theo yu cu c th.
Vi h thng phn cng v phn mm hon thin ni trn, c th o lc ct trn cc
loi my phay, khoan, mi, tin, t dp, un, ct, hn,...
2

Vi iu kin Fx v Fy 0,5Fz

Hnh 4: S ni ghp b sensor 3 thnh phn o lc ct

Trn hnh 5 l mn
hnh hin th kt qu o 3
thnh phn lc ct trn my
phay3. Trong qu trnh ct
gt, nht l qu trnh phay,
thng xy ra rung ng rt
ln. Gi tr tc thi ca lc t
c ngha trong vic tnh
ton bin dng ca h thng
cng ngh. Cng khng th
dng chng iu khin
qu trnh. V vy rt cn tnh
gi tr lc ct trung bnh.
Trn th, ngoi gi tr tc
thi ca cc thnh phn Px,
Py, Pz, cn hin th gi tr
trung bnh (Pxtb, Pytb, Pztb)
ca cc i lng trn. Chng
cn c hin th trn ng
h hin s (Digital Meter)
di y mn hnh.

Hnh 5: Mn hnh hin th kt qu o lc ct trn my

phay

c thc hin ti nh my Diesel Sng Cng vo ngy 18-01-2001.

3.3. Th nghim vi AC
H AC m t trn c th nghim ti B mn My v Robot, Hc vin KTQS
bng cc loi phi khc nhau. Phn ln cc phi u c to trc cc hc, rnh to ra
s khng ng u v kch thc, nh trn hnh 6.
Cc thng s cng
ngh th nghim nh sau:
- Vt liu phi: thp
45 khng nhit luyn,
cng HRC 35.
- Dao thp gi D=10.
- Tc trc chnh S
= 1000 v/ph.
- Chiu su ct danh
nh 2 mm.
- Gi tr t lc thay
i c nh con trt,
khi cn c th hiu chnh
ngay trong qu trnh gia
Hnh 6: Dng chi tit th gia cng trn my CNC c AC
cng.
Trn hnh 7 l nh mt my dng cho AC. th bn tri l gi tr tc thi ca 3
thnh phn lc ct, cha qua x l. th bn phi l cc tn hiu x l, gm gi tr tc
thi ca lc tng hp (ng mu hng), gi tr trung bnh lm trn (ng mu xanh),
in p ra cp cho b CNC (ng ). Bn di 2 th l cc khung hin s tng ng.
Nt pha di, bn phi dng t ngng lc ct iu khin.

Hnh 7: Mt my dng cho AV trong ch kha AC: FCNC = 60 mm/ph.

Th nghim c tin hnh 2 ch .

Ct khng dng AC: Ct vi phi trn, lng chy dao lp trnh l FCNC = 60 mm/ph
(xem hnh 7). Kha AC bng cch t ngng iu khin lc ln cao (1000 N), v vy in
p iu khin c duy tr gi tr ti a, bng 5V. Nhn trn th, ta thy khi dao bt
u n vo phi, lc ct tng t bin (ti 500 N), sau gi n nh gi tr khong 420
N. di mt chu k ct khong 37 giy.
Ct c dng AC: M kha AC bng cch t ngng lc ct bng 250 N (xem hnh
8). Lng chy dao lp trnh FCNC = 90 mm/ph. Nhn th lc ct bn phi ta thy, lc u
xung lc rt ln, ti trn 900 N (ng mu hng). Sau khong 1 giy, in p iu khin
gim nhanh ti, lc ct gim xung 500 N v n nh dn 400 N. Trong on khng ct,
lc ct gim ti gn 0 v in p iu khin tng nhanh ln 5V, cho php tc chy dao
ti a. Trong chu k sau, lc ct c duy tr gi tr di 300 N. Chu k ct ln ny l 32
giy, gim 5 giy so vi trng hp kha AC.

Hnh 8: Trng thi h thng khi dng AC: Pset = 250 N, FCNC = 90 mm/ph.
3.4. nh gi kt qu nghin cu
Lng thc nghim cha nh gi v hiu qu ca vic dng AC. Tuy nhin,
vi cc kt qu ban u, chng ti nh gi kt qu nh sau:
- H AC xy dng trn c s my phay MFP320 CNC v b sensor o lc 9257BA
c thc hin thnh cng. H lm vic n nh, tin cy v cho kt qu ng nh d on.
- Phn mm gim st v x l tnh hung ng nh thut ton xy dng, c giao
din hp l v d s dng.
- Vi cng vng cao (ti 2 kN/m) v tn s dao ng ring cao (ti 3 kHz), vic
lp sensor hu nh khng nh hng n qu trnh ct gt. Khng nhn thy c s gim st
v cht lng b mt gia cng.
Vi phn cng v phn mm ni trn, h th hin y tnh nng ca mt ACC.

Tuy nhin, h cn cn c ci thin mt s ch tiu, nh tng nhy, gim sai s

tnh. Ni vy, nhng iu khng d thc hin. Nh thy trn hnh 5, trong qu trnh ct
gt, gi tr lc ct dao ng rt ln, khng th ly gi tr tc thi ca lc ct iu khin.
Vic ly trung bnh v l phng tn hiu lc s gy nn sai s v tng tr ca h thng.
4. Kt lun
AC l s pht trin logic ca cng ngh gia cng CNC v l gii php thch hp nht
gii quyt nhim v iu khin cc qu trnh cng ngh c nhiu bin ng khng lng
trc c. Trong cc tnh hung nh vy, so vi CNC, AC th hin c cc u im c
bn l cho nng sut ct gt cao, tng tui bn ca dao, gim bin dng h thng cng
ngh, tng chnh xc gia cng, n gin ha vic tnh ton ch cng ngh v lp trnh
NC, hn ch cc s c do qu ti,...
Tuy nhin, cho n nay vic ng dng AC vo cng nghip cn b hn ch. Cc
nguyn nhn chnh l chng lm h thng iu khin thm phc tp, d mt n nh, t
tin. Mt trong nhng yu t quan trng trong AC l thit b o v x l tn hiu. V kh
khn v o lng m mt s h AC khng tm c ng dng trong cng nghip.
B hp dn bi cc u im ca AC, ng thi mun nng cao hiu bit ca mnh v
cng ngh CNC, chng ti mnh dn i vo mt lnh vc m cho n nay th gii vn
cho l kh v Vit Nam cho n thi im ny cha c ni no khc thc hin. l
nghin cu ng dng AC tng hiu qu s dng my CNC.
Kt qu quan trng nht m chng ti t c sau khi xy dng thnh cng b
AC ny l hiu th no l AC, hiu c phn no nhng iu m cc nh khoa hc i
trc ni v n. Thit b v kin thc thu nhn c trc mt s thc y hn na
nhim v NCKH v ging dy ti B mn. Mt khc, chng ti cng vng tin hn tip
tc nghin cu v AC vi mc tiu a chng vo cng nghip.
Trn c s kt qu ban u ny, chng ti d nh s nghin cu tip cc ni dung:
- V phn cng, thay th thit b o hin nay bng loi r hn, ng thi c kh nng
p ng linh hot hn cc nhim v ca cng nghip.
- V phn mm, nghin cu thm cc thut ton khc tng hiu qu v p ng
cc yu cu thc t khc nhau.
- Gii quyt mt cch c bn v c h thng vn cht lng iu khin ca AC.
Trong bi cnh pht trin nh v bo ca CAD/CAM, CNC, cn nhn thc li s cn
thit ca ti u ha qu trnh cng ngh. Vi nng lc ca thit b o v ca my tnh hin
nay, c th gii quyt khng ch m hnh tnh m c m hnh ng ca bi ton ti u ha
ch ct. T c th xut gii php v ACO.
gii quyt tip cc vn trn, chng ti rt cn s hp tc vi cc c s bn v
cc ng nghip c cng mi quan tm v ti u ha ng, iu khin ti u v iu
khin thch nghi qu trnh cng ngh ct gt trn my CNC.
Ti liu tham kho
1. Mikell P. Groover: Automation, Production Systems, and Computer Integrated
Manufacturing. Printice-Hall, 1987.
2. Yoram Koren: Computer Control of Manufacturing Systems. McGraw-Hill, 1983.
3. Japanese National Research Institute: Mechanical Engineering Laboratory. Annual
Report 1993/1994.
4. R. Kail, W. Mahr: Piezoelectric Measuring Instruments and their Applications.
Messen und Prfen, Volume 20 (1984).