FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, AKURE

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL

ENGINEERING

BASIC FLUID MECHANICS

AGE 204

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COURSE OUTLINE

1. Definition and properties of fluid

2. Elements of fluid statics, density, pressure, surface tension, viscosity,

compressibility

3. Hydrostatic forces on submerged surfaces due to incompressible

fluid

4. Introduction to fluid dynamics, conversion laws

5. Introduction to viscous flows

6. illustrations

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 FLUID PROPERTIES AND DEFINITIONS

INTRODUCTION

Fluid mechanics is the study of the behaviour of fluid at rest and in

motion. Fluid statics is the study of the forces which keep fluid in static

equilibrium while fluid dynamics deals with the motion of fluid. In fluid

flow, density and viscosity are predominant properties. Fluid dynamic can

be sub divided into hydrodynamic and gas dynamics. Hydrodynamics is

the study of fluid flows where there are no density changes. A sub

division of hydrodynamics is called hydraulics which is the study of the

flow of liquids in pipes and open channels.

DEFINITION OF A FLUID

A fluid is a substance that suffers deformation under action of shear stress

however small the shear stress may be. Fluids may be divided into liquids

and gases. A liquid is only slightly compressible and possess a free surface

when it is placed in an open vessel. Liquid deforms change when

subjected to tangential or shear forces. That explains why it takes the

shape of the containing vessels. On the other hand, a gas always expands

to full its container. A vapour is a gas which is near the liquid state.

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 A shear force is the component tangent to a surface and this force

divided by the area of the surface is the average shear stress over the area.

Shear stress t is given by

F
=
A

shear stress is measured in N/mm2

Deformation Resulting from Application of Constant Shear Forces

Fig. 1

In fig.1 a substance is placed between two closely spaced parallel. Plates so

large that conditions at their edges may be neglected. The lower plate is

fixed and a force F is applied to the upper plate, which exerts shear stress

F/A on any substances between the plates. A is the area of the upper plate.

When the force F causes the upper plate to move with a steady velocity, no

matter how small the magnitude of F, one may conclude that the

substance between the plates is a fluid. The fluid in immediate contact

4
with a solid boundary has the same velocity, as the boundary i.e. there is

no slip at the boundary.

The fluid in a b c d with each fluid particle moving parallel to the

plate and the velocity is varying uniformly from zero at the station any

plate at U at the upper plate. Experiments show that other quantities being

held constant F is directly proportional to A and to U and is inversely

proportional to t in equation from

F = AU
t
In which is the proportionality factor and includes the effect of the

particular fluid.

For shear stress

The ratio is the angular deformation of the fluid i.e. the rate of

decrease of angle bad.

The angular velocity may also be written as both and

express the velocity change divided by the distance over which the change

occurs.

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However, is more general as it holds for situations in which the

angular velocity and shear stress change with y. The velocity gradient

may also be visualized as the rate at which one layer moves relative to an

adjacent layer in differential form

is the relation between shear stress and the rate of angular deformation for

one dimensional flow of a fluid.

The proportionality factor is called the viscosity of the fluid. The

equation is known as Newtons law of viscosity.

t=

A plastic substance cannot fulfill the definition of a fluid because it has an

initial yield shear stress that must be exceeded to cause a continuous

deformation. An elastic substance placed between the two plates would

deform a certain amount proportional to the force but not continuously at

a definite rate. A complete vacuum between the plates would not result in

a constant final rate but in an ever increasing rate. If sand were placed

between the two plates, dry friction would require a definite force to cause

a continuous motion. Thus sand will not satisfy the definition of a fluid.

But not continuously at a definite rate. A complete vacuum between the

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plates would not result in a constant final rate but an ever-increasing rate.

If sand were placed between the two plates, dry friction would require a

finite force to cause a continuous motion. Thus sand will not satisfy the

definition of a fluid.

PROPERTIES OF FLUID

1. Density and specific weight

The density of a fluid at any given temperature and pressure can be

defined in two ways-in terms of mass and weight. The mass density is

defined as mass per unit volume, while specific weight is defined as

weight per unit volume. Using the symbol and for density and

specific weight respectively, the definitions are:

= 1

= 2

We can deduce from the two equations that

= g 3

The S.I. unit of kg/m3 (ML-3) and of water is 1000kg/m3 at 40C. There is

a slight decrease in density with increasing temperature but for practical

purposes, the value is constant.

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2. Specific Gravity

The specific gravity of a fluid is the ration of its density to that of pure

water at the same temperature.

=

3. Bulk modulus

For most practical purposes, liquid may be regarded as incompressible.

However, there are certain cases such as unsteady flow in pipes, where

the compressibility should be taken into account. The bulk modulus of

elasticity K, is given by:

=

4

Where is the increase in pressure, which when applied to a volume V,

result in decrease in volume . Since a decrease in volume must be

associated with a proportionate increase in density and therefore the

equation may be expressed as:

= 5

4. Viscosity

The viscosity of a fluid is that property which determines the amount of

its resistance to a shearing force. Viscosity is due primarily to interaction

between fluid molecules. All real fluids possess viscosity, though to

varying degrees. The shear stress in a solid is proportional to strain

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whereas the shear stress in a fluid is proportional to the rate of shearing

strain. It follows that there can be no shear stress in a fluid which is at

rest. Newton has shown that the force F is directly proportional to the

product of the area of the moving plate A and the velocity gradient as

shown in the figure below:

i.e. or = 6

= = 7

Where is a constant of proportionality known as coefficient of dynamic

viscosity. The equation can be re arranged as in this equation, represents

the shear stress at the plate/liquid interface. The equation is valid if d is

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small and the velocity profile can be assumed linear. If d is large and the

velocity is parabolic, the differential form of equation should be used.

= 8

Dynamic viscosity or simply viscosity is given by,

= 9

Viscosity is expressed in mNs/m2(ML-1 T-1)

5. Surface Tension

Surface tension is the physical which enables a drop of water to be held in

suspension at a tap, a vessel to be filled with liquid slightly above the brim

and yet not spill or a needle to float on the surface of a liquid. All these are

due to the cohesion between molecules at the surface of a liquid which

adjoins another immiscible liquid or gas.

6. Capillarity

The rise and fall of a liquid in a capillary tube is caused by surface tension

and depends on the relative magnitude of the cohesion of the liquid and

the adhesion of the liquid to the walls of the containing vessels.

When small glass tube is dipped into water, it will be found out that the

water rises inside the tube. The water surface in the tube or meniscus as it

is called is concave upward. This phenomenon is known as capillarity and

the tangential contact between the water and the glass indicates that the

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internal cohesion of the water is less than the adhesion between the water

and glass. Mercury behaves rather differently since the force of cohesion

are greater than the force of adhesion, the angle of contact is longer and

the meniscus has a convex face to the atmosphere and is depressed.

(a) Water (b) Mercury

NEWTONIAN AND NON-NEWTONIAN FLUIDS

Fluids may be classified as Newtonian fluid or non-Newtonian. In

Newtonian fluid there is as linear relation between the magnitude of

applied shear stress and the resulting rate of deformation. In non-

Newtonian fluid, there is a non-linear relation between the magnitude of

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applied shear, stress and the rate of angular deformation. An ideal plastic

has a definite yield stress and a constant linear relation of to

A thixotropic substance such as printer is ink has a viscosity that is

dependent upon the immediately prior angular deformation of the

substance and has a tendency to take a set when at rest. Gases and thin

liquids e.g. water, kerosene alcohols tends to be Newtonian fluid while

thick long chained hydrocarbons e.g. Alkenes may be non-Newtonian.

VISCOSITY: Viscosity is that property of a fluid by virtue of which it

offers resistance to shear. Newtons law of viscosity states that for a given

rate of angular deformation of fluid the shear stress is directly

proportional to the viscosity. Molasses and tar are examples of highly

viscous liquids, water and air have very small viscosities. The viscosity of

a gas increases with temperature, but the viscosity of liquid decreases with

temperature. The variation in temperature trends may be explained upon

the examination of the causes of viscosity. The resistance of a fluid to shear

depends upon its cohesion and upon its rate of transfer of molecular to

momentum. A liquid with molecules much more closely spaced than gas.

Cohesion appears to be predominant cause of viscosity in a liquid and

since cohesion decreased with temperature the viscosity does likewise.

Discuss the shear characteristics of the fluids for which the curve have

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been drawn in figure below.

(a) The Newtonian fluids behave according to the law T=p(dudy) or the

shear stress is proportional to the velocity gradient or the rate of shearing

strain. Thus for these fluids the plotting of the shear stress against velocity

gradient is a straight line passing through the origin. The slope of the line

determines the viscosity.

(b) For the "ideal" fluid, the resistance to the shearing deformation is zero,

and hence the plotting coincides with the x-axis. While in ideal fluid exist,

in certain analysis the assumption of an ideal fluid is useful and justified.

(c) For the Ideal fluid or elastic solid, no deformation will occur under any

loading condition, and the plotting coincides with y-axis. Real solids have

some deformation and, within the proportionality limit (Hookes law), the

plotting is straight line, which is almost vertical.

(d) Non-Newtonian fluids deforms in such a way that shear stress is not

proportional to rate of shearing deformation, except perhaps at very low

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shearing at very low shear stresses. The deformation of these fluids might

be classified as plastic.

(e). The Ideal plastic material could sustain a certain amount of shearing

stress without deformation, and thereafter it would deform in proportion

to the shearing stress.

DIMENSION OF VISCOSITY

From

with dimension F, L, T for force, length and time respectively

is seen to have dimension FL-2 T viscosity is thus measured poise or

centi poise in the cgs unit. It is measured in 1b - sec/ft2 or 1 slug/ft+sec.

1 poise = 1 dyne - sec/cm2

is called absolute or dynamic viscosity.

Kinematics Viscosity; Kinematic Viscosity is defined as the ratio of

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 viscosity to mass density

v= / =

: . = ve
The dimensions of v are L 2T-1

The Kinematic viscosity occurs in many applications e.g. Reynolds

number. R = pV

or

R is a dimensionless quantity.

Density: is the ratio of mass to a given quantity of a substance to the

volume occupied by that quantity.

Specific weight: is the ratio of given weight of a given quantity of a

substance to the volume occupied by that quantity.

= g =kgmm2

Specific volume: is the reciprocal of density. It is the volume occupied by

unit mass of fluid.

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 Vs =

Relative Density: otherwise called specific gravity is the ratio of the

density of a substance to some standard density i.e. density of water at

4C.

Surface tension: is the tensile force per unit length at the free surface of a

liquid. Bulk modules is a measure of the compressibility of a liquid and is

the ratio of the change of pressure in the volumetric strain caused by the

pressure change.

K =

K is expressed in N/m2.

Pressure: The normal force pushing against a plane area divided by the

area is the F average pressure =

Hydrostatics is the study of fluids at rest, and is therefore the

simplest aspect of hydraulics. The main characteristic of a stationary fluid

is the force which it brings to bear on its surroundings. A fluid force is

frequently specified as a pressure P, which is the force exerted on a unit

area. Pressure is measured in N/m2 or in bar (1 bar = 103 N/m). Pressure is

not constant everywhere in a body of fluid. Infact, if pressure is measured

16
at a series of different depths below the upper surface of the fluid, it will

be found that the pressure reading increases with increasing dept.

Relationship between Pressure P and Depth Y

Consider a column of fluid at rest, then the action and reaction forces

on the boundary surfaces of the column of liquid must be perpendicular

to the boundary surface. If any forces were not perpendicular to the

boundary, then a shear force component would exist, this conduction

arises only for fluids in motion. It follows that the only force which is

supporting the column of fluid is the force acting upwards due to the

force pressure on the base of column. For the column to be in equilibrium,

the upward force must exactly equal the weight force acting upward. The

weight of the column is pgy. Where V is the volume of the column. The

volume is the product of the horizontal cross-sectional area and height

V = Ay and thus the weight is given by

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 pgAy

The force acting upward is the product of pressure and horizontal cross-

sectional area i.e.

PA. Therefore,

PA = pgAy

P = pgy

This is the basic hydrostatic equation.

DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS AND HYDRAULIC SIMILITUDE

INTRODUCTION

Mathematical theory and experimental data have developed

practical solutions to many hydraulic problems. Important hydraulic

structures are now designed and built only after extensive models studies

have been made. Application of dimensional analysis and hydraulic

similitude enable the engineers to organise and simplify the experiments

and to analyse the results therefrom.

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DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

Dimensional analysis is the mathematics of dimensions of quantities

and is another useful tool of modern fluid mechanics. In an equation

expressing a physical relationship between quantities, absolute numerical

and dimensional quality must exist. In general, all such physical

relationship can be reduced to the fundamental quantities of force F,

length, L, and time T (or mass M, length L and Time T). Applications

include (1) converting one system of units to another, (2) developing

equations, (3) reducing the number of variables required in an

experimental program, and (4) establishing principles of models design.

HYDRAULIC MODELS

Hydraulic models, in general, may be either true models or

distorted models. True models have all the significant characteristics of

the prototype reproduced to scale (geometrically similar and satisfy

design restrictions (kinematics and dynamic similitude). Models

prototype comparisons have clearly shown that the correspondence of

behaviour is often well beyond expected limitations, as have been

attested by the successful operation of many structures designed from

model tests.

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GEOMETRIC SIMILITUDE

/
Velocity: = = / =
/

Acceleration:

Discharge:

DYNAMIC SIMILITUDE

Dynamic similitude exists between geometrically and kinematically

similar systems if the ratios of all homologous forces in the models and

prototype are the same. The following conditions required for the

complete similitude are developed from Newton's second law of motion.

The forces acting may be anyone, or a combination of several forces, and

elasticity forces. The following relation between forces acting on models

and prototype develops

forces (viscous + pressure + surface ten. + elasticity)m =

forces(viscous + pressure + gravity + surface ten + elasticity

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THE INERTIAL FORCE RATIO is developed into the following form

This equation expresses the general law of dynamics similarity between

model and prototype and is referred to as the Newtonian equation.

INERTIAL- PRESSURE FORCE RATIO (Euler number) gives the

relationship (Using T = L/V)

INERTIAL- VISCOUS FORCE RATIO (Reynold number) is obtained from

= = =

INERTIAL-GRA VITY FORCE RA TIO is obtained from

= =

The square root of this ratio, is known as Froude number.

INERTIAL ELASTICITY FORCE RA TIO (Cauchy number) is obtained

from = =

The square root of this ratio is known as Mach number.

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INERTIAL-SURFACE TENSION RA T/O (Weber number) is obtained from

= =

In general, the engineer is concerned with the effect of the dominant

force. In most fluid flow problems, gravity, viscosity and/ or elasticity

govern predominantly, but not necessarily simultaneously solution in this

book will cover case where one predominant force influence the flow

pattern, other forces causing negligible or compensating effects. If several

forces jointly affect the flow conditions, the problem involves and is

beyond the scope of this book.

TIME RATIOS

The time established for flow pattern governed essentially by

viscosity, by gravity, by surface tension, and by elasticity are respectively

T =

T =

T = L

T =

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SOLVED PROBLEMS
Express each of the following quantities (a) in terms of force, length L and

time T and (b) in terms of mass, M, length L, and time T.

SN Quantity Symbol (a) (b)
1 Area A in m2 A L2 L2
2 Volume V in m3 V L3 L3
3 Velocity V m/s V LT-1 LT-1
4 Acceleration a or g in m/s2 a,g LT-2 LT-1
5 Angular velocity in rad/sec T-1 T-1
6 Force F in N F F MLT-2
7 Mass M in Kg/m3 M FT-2 L-1 M
8 Unit weight g W FL-3 ML-2 T-2
9 Density in Kg/m3 FT2 L-4 ML-3
10 Pressure P in N/m P FL-2 ML-1 T-2
11 Absolute viscosity in Pascal FTL-2 ML-1 T-1
12 Kinematic viscosity v in m2/s v L2T-1 L2 T-1
13 Modulus of elasticity E in N/m2 E FL-2 ML-1 T-2
14 Power P in Nm/s or Watts P FLT-1 ML-1 T-3
15 Torque T in Nm T FL ML2 T-2
16 Rate of flow Q in m3/s Q L3T-1 L3T-1
17 Shearing stress in N/m FL-2 ML-1 T-2
18 Surface tension in N/m FL-1 MT-2
19 Weight W in N W F MLT-2
20 Weight rate of flow in W in N/s W FT-1 MLT-3

Pressure on Plane Surfaces

If a body is immersed in a fluid, it must be subjected to external

pressure of the fluid and must provide the reaction necessary for

equilibrium. It must be known that in the absence of fluid motion, the

action and reaction forces must be perpendicular to the surface of the body

at any point. Generally, in design calculation it is the total force of the

body that is required rather than the pressure at any given location. To

show how this is evaluated, take an ordinary plane surface, which is

unimmersed in the fluid as shown in the figure below.

Somewhere on the surface take a small element of area

The force F

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on that area, due to the pressure of the liquid is

PA = F

Obviously the total force acting on the whole plane surface must be the

sum of all the products.

PA

However, P is not constant. Thus if the element is a distant y below the

free surface of the liquid, then

P = gy

F = gyA

and therefore the total force is

F = pgA

But y = 1Sin

Therefore

F = g1A

= gsin1A

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The quantity

1A

is a geometric characteristic of the shape and is known as the first moment

of area. This integral can be evaluated for any shape and equals the

product.

Where A is the area of the plane surface and is the distance from the

origin to the centroid of the plane. +

F = g( sin )A

The force F produces a moment Fl

About the origin

Moment = Fl = gyAl

= g (sin) Al
= g (sin) l2A

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Quantity l2A

Is the second moment of area denoted by

Fl = g(sin) l2A

g(sin) l

this is the moment about the origin. Therefore, the distance from the origin

to the point of action F is

( )
l1 = =
( )

l1 = =
I is usually evaluated by use of the parallel Axes theorem.

Buoyant Force

The resultant force exerted on a body by static fluid in which it is

submerged or floating is called the buoyant force. The buoyant force

always acts vertically upward. There can be no horizontal component of

the resultant because the vertical projection of the submerged body or

submerged portion of floating body is always zero. The buoyant force on

a submerged body is the different between the vertical component of

pressure force on its otherwise and the vertical component of pressure

force on its upper side.

Buoyant force Floating and Submerged Bodies

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In the figure shown above, the upward force on the bottom is equal to the

weight of liquid, real or imaginary, which is vertically above the surface

ABC, indicated by the weight of the liquid within ABCEFA. The different

between the two forces is a force, vertically upward, due to the weight of

fluid ABCD that is displaced by the solid. In equation form

FB = V = Vg

= g

In which FB is the buoyant force, V is the volume of fluid displaced and

is the specific weight of fluid. The same formula holds for floating bodies

when V is taken as the volume of liquid displaced.

VERTICAL FORCE COMPONENTS ON ELEMENT OF BODY

The vertical force exerted on an element of the body in the form of a

vertical prism of cross-section.

is

FB = (P2-P1) A = hA = V

in which V is the volume of the prism.

Integrating over the complete body

FB = v V = V

When is considered constant throughout the volume.

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Center of Buoyancy

To find the line of action of the buoyancy force, moments are taken about a

convenient axis of 0 and are equated to the moment of the resultant, thus

XV = x = vx

or

x = xv

in which is the distance from the line of action. This equation yields

the distance to the centroid of the volume: hence the buoyancy force acts

through the centroid of the displaced volume of the fluid. This holds for

both submerged and floating bodies. The centroid of the displaced volume

of liquid is called center of buoyance.

A suspended body in two different fluids

F1 and F2 are the weights submerged

1 2

are the specific weight of the fluids Wand V1 the weight and volume of the

object are desired. The equation of the equilibrium are written

F1 + V1 = W

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 F2 + V2 = W

and solved
V = (F1 - F2)
(2 - 1)

W = F22 - F31
2 - 1

A Hydrometer in Water in Liquid of Specific Gravity S

A hydrometer uses the principle of buoyant force to determine the specific

gravities of liquids. The above figure shows a hydrometer in two liquids.

It has a stem of prismatic cross section (a) considering the liquid on the

left to be distilled water. S = 1.00, the hydrometer floats in equilibrium

when

V0 = W .................................. (i)

in which V0 is the volume submerged and is the specific weight of water

and W is the weight of hydrometer. The position of the liquid surface is

marked 1.00 on the stem to indicate unit specific gravity S. When the

hydrometer is floated in another liquid, the equation of equilibrium

becomes

(V0 - V)S = W .............. (ii)

in which V = a h

Solving for h with equation (i) and (ii) we have,

h = Vo S -1
a S
for which the stem may be marked off to read specific gravities

Buoyancy Laws

(1) A body immersed in a fluid is buoyed up by a force equal to the

weight of the fluid displaced.

(2) A floating body displaces its own weight of the fluid in which fluids.

(3) The buoyant force is always vertical and acts through the centroid of

the displaced fluids.

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PRINCIPLE OF FLUID FLOW

Classification of Flows

Flow can be classified in number of ways. The system generally

adopted is to consider the flow as being characterized by two parameters)

time and distance. The first major sub division is based on consideration of

time scale. A flow is steady if the parameters describing that flow do not

vary with time. This categorizes all flow as either steady or unsteady.

Typical parameters of flow are velocity, discharge pressure or depth flow.

An unsteady flow is one that varies with time. The second flow division

relates to distance scale. This classifies flow as being uniform or non-

uniform. A flow is uniform if the parameters describing the flow do not

vary with distance along the path.

Conversely, for a non-uniform flow, the magnitude of the parameter

varies from one point along the path. The existence of a uniform necessary

implies that the area of the cross section perpendicular to the direction of

flow is constant. A typical example is that of the flow in a pipeline-of

constant diameter. By contrast, one would have a non- distance, while

others change with respect to time or distance only.

However, the majority of flows will fall into one of the following

classifications.

(1) Steady Uniform Flow: for such a flow the discharge is constant with

time and the cross-section through which the flow passes is of constant

area. A typical example is that of constant flow through a long straight

pipe of uniform diameter.

(2) Steady Non-Uniform Flow: the discharge is constant with time, but

the cross-sectional area varies with distance. Examples are flow in a

tapering pipe and flow with constant discharge in a river (the cross-

section of a river usually varies from point to point).

(3) Unsteady Uniform Flow: the cross section through the flow is

constant, but the discharge varies with time. This is a complex flow

30
pattern. An example is that of pressure surge in a long straight pipe of

uniform diameter.

(4) Unsteady Non-Uniform Flow: This is a flow in which the cross-

section and discharge varies with both time and distance. This is typified

by the passage of a flood wave in a natural channel and is the most

complex flow to analyses.

(5) Streamlines: A streamline is constructed by drawing a line which is

tangential to the-velocity vectors of a connected series of particles.

because the streamline is always tangential to the flow, it follows that

there is no flow across a streamline. A set f streamlines may be arranged

to form an imaginary pipe or tube. This is known as a Streamline tube.

One, Two and Three Dimension Flow

Most real flows are three-dimensional, in that velocity, pressure and

other parameters may vary three directions (x.y.z). There may also be

variations of the parameters with time. In practice it is nearly always

possible to consider the flow to be one or two dimensional. This greatly

simplifies the equation of flow. Minor adjustments to these simplified

equation can be incorporated to allow for a 2 03 3-dimensional flow. For

example steady uniform flow in a pipe is considered to be one

dimensional, the flow being characterized by a streamline along the centre

line of the pipe. The velocity and pressure variations across the pipe are

31
ignored.

The Fundamental Equations of Fluid Dynamics in order to develop

the equations, which describe a flow, hydrodynamists assumed that fluids

are subject to certain fundamental laws of physics. The pertinent laws are:

a) Conservation of matter (Conservation of mass)

b) Conservation of energy

c) Conservation of momentum.

The law of conservation of matter stipulates that matter can be neither

created nor destroyed though it may be transformed (e.g. by a chemical

process). Since this study of the mechanics of fluid excludes chemical

activity from consideration, the law reduces to the principle of

conservation of mass.

The law of conservation of energy stated that energy may be neither

created nor destroyed. Energy can be transformed from one guise to

another (e.g. P.E can be transformed into K.E), but none is actually lost.

Energy sometimes loosely due to friction, but in fact the friction

transforms some energy into heat, so none is really lost.

The law of conservation of momentum states that a body in motion

cannot gain or loose momentum unless some external force is applied, i.e.

forces a rate of change of momentum. This law readily applied to a solid

body in the case of a fluid, to apply this law, we suppose that a flowing

fluid is a continuous that is to say, it is not possible to subdivide the flow

into separate small masses. What can be used is a "control volume".

Control Volumes: A control volume is a purely imaginary region

within a body flowing fluid. The action is usually at a fixed size regards

the regional of he dynamics' forces cancel each other. The control volume

may be of any shape; a streamtube can assume a control volume. Any

force act externally along the boundaries of the control volume.

32
Application of the Conservation Laws to Fluid Flows

(1) The Continuity Equation: (Principle of conservation of Mass)

Fig. 5:

During any time internal 6t the principle of conservation of mass implies

that for any control volume, the mass flow entering minus the mass flow

leaving equals the change of mass within the control volume. If is steady,

then the mass must be entering or leaving the volume at a constant rate:

During time t Mass flow entering a Mass flow leaving.

Since the flow is incomprehensible, the density of the fluid is constant

throughout the fluid continuum. Mass flow entering may be calculated by

taking the product (density of fluid x volume of liquid per second).

Mass M = Q

Q (entering) = Q (leaving)

But since the fluid is incomprehensible, the density is constant Q(entering)

= Q(leaving). This is the continuity equation for study incomprehensible

flow. Suppose the velocity of flow across the constant at U1 m/sec, if the

cross-sectional area of the streamtube at entry is A1 then Q (entering) =

U1A1.

Similarly, if the velocity of flow leaving the volume is U2 and the area of

the streamtube at exist is A2, then Q leaving = U2A2. Therefore the continuity

equation may also be written as U1A1 = U2A2.

33
 The Energy Equation (Principle of Conservation of Energy)

stream tube used to derive energy equation.

The figures above shows the control volume used to develop the

energy equation. The combination of a flow and pressure implies that

work is done. Thus, if pressure packs on, area A, the corresponding force

is PA. If the fluid is flowing, then in travelling through a length L, the

work done equal is the product of force and distance i.e. flow work done =

PAL.

For the constant volume under consideration, the fluid entering the

system travels through distance L, during time interval

The flow work done during this time is P1A1 L. The mass M, acquiring the

system is

during

H= + + = + +Z2

P1 = pressure head U2 = velocity head.

g 2g

34
 Derivations of Euler's and Bernoullis Equations

The figure above shows a small (elemental) streamtube of cylindrical

section. The forces acting in the direction of flow along the streamtube

are the pressure forces at upstream and - PA at downstream end.

- (P + P) A

at circumstance Q (pressure force P cancel)

The resultant force is

-mgcos= PAcos

From Newton's second law i.e.

Force = mass x acceleration then

PA - (P + dP) A PagLCos - PAL ( du/dt )

But

dz = dLcos

Divided by

-dPA - pAgdz = pAdL ( du/dt )

.
pAgdz

35
and in the limit

for steady flow, velocity (u) only varies with distance (L).

Therefore

= =u

Hence, substituting for

1 dp du dz
+ U + g =0
dL dL dt dL
This is known as the Leonhard Euler's equation.
For incompressible fluids integrated to yield

+ + gz = constant

or divided by g, we have

+ + z = constant

This gives Bernoulli's equation

The Momentum Equation (Principle of Conservation of Momentum)

Consider the streamtube shown in Fig. 6 and apply Newton's second Law

in the form:

Force: rate of change of momentum

d (mu)
i.e. F =
dt
in a time dt

Momentum entering = dQtu1

36
 Momentum leaving = dQ2tu2

dQ = dQ2 = dQ

By the continuity principle, hence, the force required to produce the

change of momentum.

dF dQt(U2 U1)
dt

dF = dQ (U2 U1)

as the velocities may have components in the X, Y and Z directions, it is

more convenient to consider each component separately, hence,

dF = dQ (U2x U1x)

and similarly for dFy and dFz

Integrating over a region

is the momentum equation for steady flow for a region of uniform

velocity. The momentum force is composed of the sum of all external

forces acting on the streamtube and may include pressure forces F p

and reaction force FR i.e.

Fx = (FP =FR)

Energy and Momentum Coefficients

The derivation of the equation for the energy coefficient rests on the

principle that the total kinetic energy possessed by a bundle of streamtbe

is equal to U multiplied by the kinetic energy represented by the mean

velocity V. In mathematical form

for unit time

37
hence as

12 Q = 12 QV2
and Q = AV

= 12 QV2 = 12 AV3

Thus,

Or u = u3 dA
V3 A

Similarly for momentum coefficient

Momentum M = Mu = m

mu = MV

pdQu = QV

dQu.u = A.V.V

The Bernoulli energy equation may be written as the

momentum equation as:

+ +Z = constant

Fx = Q (V2x V1x)

38
The values of and may be derive from the velocity distribution across

a region. They always exceed unit, but usually by only a small margin, so

they are frequently omitted.

Application of the Energy Equation

The equation may be written as:

+ + = + +Z2 = constant

For the friction less siphon above, determine the discharged and the

pressure heads at A and B given the pipe diameter is 200 mm and the

nozzle exit diameter is 150mm. calculate discharge, pressure heads at A

and B respectively

Solution:

To find the discharge, first apply Bernoulli's equation along the streamline

39
between 1 and 2.

At both 1 and 2 the pressure is atmospheric i.e. P = 0 and at 1 the velocity

is negligible i.e.

From the figure, Z1 - Z2 = 1.22 + 0.15 = 1.37

= 1.37 m

Hence U22 = 1.37 X 2g

U22 = 2g X 1.37

U22 = 26.85

U2 = 5.18m/sec

For the discharge Q = UA

Q = 5.18 (x 0.152)
4
Q = O.092m3/sec

To find the pressure head at A, again apply Bernoulli's equation along the

streamline from 1 to A.

40
 + + = + + ZA

= (Z + Z ) -

-2.44 -

.
UA = ( . )
= 2.93m/sec.

= 0.44m

= -2.44-0.44 = -2.86m

= -2.88m

The pressure head at B is similarly found i.e.

+ + = + +Z B

Z1 - ZB = 1.22 m

41
Example:

A pump delivers water from a lower to a higher reservoir. The difference

in elevation between the reservoir is 10m. The pump provides an energy

head of 11 m and the frictional head losses are 0.7 m. If the pipe diameter

is 300 mm. Calculate the discharge.

Solution

Appliance modified Bernoulli's equation from the lower to the higher

reservoir.

H1 + 11= H2 = 0.7

or

+ + = + + Z2 +

This equation is really a restatement of the first law of Thermodynamics for a

fluid.

Application of the Momentum Equation

The momentum equation may be used directly to evaluate the force

causing a change of momentum in a fluid. Such applications include

determining forces on pipe bends and junction, nozzles and hydraulic

machines. In addition, the momentum equation is used to solve problems in

which energy losses. Occur that cannot be evaluated directly, or when the

42
flow is unsteady. Examples of such problems include local head losses in pipes,

the hydraulic jump and unsteady flow in pipes and channels.

Example:

Calculate the force required to hold a fire house for a discharge of 5 lines

per sec if the nozzle has an inlet diameter of 75 mm and outlet diameter of 25

mm.

Solution

The force acting in the x-direction on the control volume are the pressure

force Fp and the reaction force FR on the liquid.

Forces on a Nozzle

The sum of these forces must equal the momentum force FM. Thus

and

V1 and V2 may be found using the continuity equation

43
 .
V1 = ( . )
=1.13m/s

V2 = 10.19 m/sec

The pressure forces are:

Fp = P1A1 - PoA2 - P0 (A1- A2)

The pressure P1 may be found using Bernoulli's equation

+ += +

Taking P = 0 (note: gauge pressure may be used because atmospheric

pressure P acts over the whole area A1).

P1 = (V V )

= (10.19)2 (1.13)2

= 51.28KN/m2

Hence
( . )
Fp = 51.28 x 103 x

= 0.225 KN

The momentum force is

Fm = 103 x 0.005 (10.19-1.13)

= 0.0453KN.

44
Hence the reactive force is

FR = Fm - Fp

= 0.0453 0.226

= 0.181 KN

= -0.181KN

FR is the force exerted by the nozzle on the fluid. The fireman must of course

provide a force of equal magnitude but opposite direction.

Example:

Calculate the magnitude and direction of the force exerted by the pipe bend

shown in the figure below, if the diameter is 600mm the discharge is 0.3m 2/sec

and the upstream pressure head is 30meters

Solution:

In the case, the force exerted is due to the change of direction and x and y

components of the force must be calculated separately. Hence

FMX = FPX + FRX

45
FMY = FPY + FRY

FMX = PQ (V2X - V1X)

FMY = PQ (V2Y - V1Y)

As the pipe is of constant diameter

.
V2 = = ( . )

= 1.06m/sec.

Neglecting the small energy loss around the pipe bend

P2 = P1 = 30 = 294.3 KN/m2

Pressure forces

( . )
FPX = P1A1 - 0 = 294.3 X

= 83.21KN

And

FPY = 0 - P2A2 = -83.21KN.

Momentum forces

FMX = PQ (0 - V1)

= 103 x 0.3 (-1.06)

= -0.318KN.

And

FMY = FMX - FPY

46
 F = -0.318 - 83.21

= -83.528KN

And

FRY = FMY + FPY

= 0.318 - (-83.21)

= 83.528KN

Hence

FR = ( FMX - FRY)

= ( -83.538)2 + (83.528)2

= 118.1KN

And

Tan =

= tan-1 = 450

From ve x direction

To +ve y direction

Force on T -junction

Example:

Calculate the magnitude and direction of force exerted by the T -junction

shown in the figure below, if the discharges are Q1 = 0.3m3/sec, Q2 = 0.15m3/sec, Q3

47
= 0.15m3/sec, the diameter D1 = 450 mm, D2 = 300 mm, D3 = 200 mm and the

upstream pressure P1 = 500 KN/m2.

Solution

In this case there are changes of direction and pressure and velocity. First

find the three velocities by continuity, and then apply Bernoullis equation to

find the pressure P2 and P3. To apply the momentum equation,

Velocities

V2 = Q2 = 2. 122m1s
A2

V3 = Q3 = 4.775mls
A3

Pressure

48
 + = + = +

Pressure forces

Momentum forces

Reaction forces

FRX = Fmx - Fpx = -80.09 KN

FRY = Fmy - Fpy = + 19.50 KN

Hence,

( ) ( )
=

49
 = 82.43 KN

Tan =

= tan-1

Velocity and Discharge Measurement

Velocity Measurement

The pilot tube is used to measure velocity. At the nose of the pilot tube, the

fluid is brought to rest and the height of the fluid in the pilot tube

therefore correspond to

This is known as the stagnation pressure

The pressure head

50
is measured separately by a second tube and hence

+ = + h

= h :. U2 = 2gh

:. U = 2gh

The two pressure heads are normally measured by a single

integrated instrument called the pilot static tube. The instrument when

connected to a suitable manometer may be used to measure point

velocities to pipes, channels and wind tunnels.

Discharge Measurement in Pipelines

The venturimeter is an instrument which may be used to measure

discharge in pipelines. It essentially consists of a narrowed section

tapering out to the pipe diameter at each end. In the throat section, the

velocity is increased and consequently the pressure is decreased. Be

measuring the difference in pressure an estimate of discharge may be

made as follows:

Consider a streamline from the upstream position (1) to the throat position

(2). Then

51
 + = +

Assuming no energy losses and using mean velocities or

The pressure head difference is indicated by the manometer reading

Also, by continuity

Substituting for V 2 in terms of VI yields

where,

Solving for V1

52
Hence

Taking

Qideal = 2gh

The actual discharge will be slightly less than this due to energy losses

in the convergence section. The energy losses are accounted for by

introduction of coefficient of discharge Cd such that Qactual =CdQideal.

An orifice plate is an instrument for measuring discharge in a pipeline. Its

function is similar to the venturimeter, in that a region of low pressure is

created by a local construction. The same discharge equation applies. The

major difference between the devices lies in the fact that the downstream

of the orifice late, the flow area expands instantaneously while the fluid is

unable to expand at the same rate. This creates a separation zone of

turbulent eddies in which large energy losses occur. Cd for the orifice is

about 0.85. The advantage of the orifice plate is its lower cost and its

compactness. So long as the energy losses are acceptable. It may be used

instead of a venturimenter.

53
Discharge through a Small Orifice

The figure shows a jet of water issuing from a large tank through a

small orifice. At a small distance from the tank the streamline are

straight and parallel and the pressure is atmospheric. Application of

Bernoulli's equation between this point and the water surface in the

tank yields.

+h = +

Or U = 2gh

54
This result is usually attributed to Torricelli. The discharge may be

calculated by applying the equation of continuity.

Q = u.A

Qideal = A 2gh

Where A is the area of the jet. The area of the jet is small than that of the

orifice due to the convergence of the streamlines. The contraction of the jet

is called the vena contraction. Experiment have shown that the jet area A

and orifice are Ao are related by

A = CCAl = Cc.Ao

Where Cs is the coefficient of contraction and is between 0.61 - 0.66. In

addition, energy losses are incurred at the orifice, and therefore a

second coefficient Cv is introduced to account for these. Cv ranges

between 0.97 - 0.99 hence the true discharge may be written as

Qactual = Cv. Co. Ao 2gh

Or

Qactual = Cd Ao 2gh. Cd.Ao. 2gh

Where Cd is he overall coefficient of discharge.

The Renewable Number

55
 Owing to viscous stress, of fluid, the fluid particles flow regular

layers known as laminar flow. The other type of flow known as turbulent

flow as the individual particles of fluid moving irregularly. Turbulent

action is essentially irregular motion in which there is no ordered pattern

of flow. As laminar and turbulent flows are widely different in their

nature and effect, it is of prime importance to know the condition under

which each may be expected to exist, and the law which govern them.

Reynolds in his experiment showed that similarly of flow is thus

produced by similarity of forces that is, when the force acting on a particle

in the flow are in the same ratio of magnitudes as the forces noting on a

particle at the correspondence point in the other flow. The only force

concerned when an incompressible fluid flows without a free surface are

those to viscosity and to the difference of piezometric pressure is the

viscous forces and he pressure forces.

From the definition of viscosity

du
=
dy

Viscous force = 2 = p= I2 = 1u

For any particle, the ratio is a constant

56
U is the velocity of flow.

i.e.

where u is the velocity of flow.

Re =

His quantity is known as Reynolds number. Reynolds number is a

fundamental characteristic of flow and is of very great importance when

considering flow through channels and pipes.

Re = where v =

v = Kinematic viscosity

when applying this equation t pipe flow; is taken as diameter of pipe i.e. d

Significance of Reynolds Number

Re =

Or

The length and velocity U appearing I the Reynolds number are quantities

chosen as representative ones.

57
 For flow in a circular pipe, for example, the representative length
measurement is the diameter and representative velocity is the mean

velocity i.e. volume flow rate divided by the cross-sectional area.

Reynolds number is essentially a means of comparing one flow with

another and provided that the corresponding lengths and corresponding

velocities are compared in the two flows the particular choices of length
and velocity do not matter. For turbulent flow the velocity considered is

inevitably' an average velocity. In such flow the instantaneously velocity

at a point is in continual fluctuation, but if the flow is steady, an average
of the velocity at a particular point, taken over a sufficient time interval, is
constant in magnitude and direction.
These average velocities are these which are the characteristics of

the given pattern of flow and they are readily measurable. It should be

borne in mind that Reynolds number concerns only the force due to
viscosity and inertial. Inertial forces are present even when the flow as a

whole is steady and not changing direction. Individual particles of fluid

may not move entirely in straight paths, and if the path-line followed by a

particle has even the slightest degree of curvature the particles must

undergo as acceleration. In situation where viscous and inertia forces are

the most significant however, provided the necessary condition of

geometric similarity is met. Reynolds number is the parameter which may

be used to compare experimental observations and to assemble every

apparently related data with comprehensive laws. It is evident from the

58
form of the expression.

That is a high value of e, I or u

Or a small value of

gives a high value of Re-conversely, a low value of Re is brought about by

viscosity or low velocity or small size. A high value Re indicates that

inertia force dominates the flow while viscous force play only a small part

when Re is small in value, the viscous forces have the upper hand inertia

forces take second place .

Distribution of Shear Stress in a Circular Pipe

59
If fluid passes with steady velocity along a pipe the loss of mechanical

energy brought about by viscosity results I a decrease of the piexometric

pressure. This decrease in piezometric pressure is related 'directly to the

hear stresses at the boundaries of flow. Consider a flow within a straight,

completely closed conduit such as a pipe, which the fluid fills entirely.

Consider a short length dx of this conduit of uniform cross-sectional area

A. The mean pressure at section (1) is P, and at section (2) P + dp. The

way of the fluid between sections (1) and (2) is

gAdx
Where

represents the density of the fluid; we obtain for the net force on

the fluid in the direction of flow.

PA - (P + dP) A - gAdxcos ) + dx

Where P represents the perimeter of the section in contact with the fluid

and is the mean shear stress at the boundary. This force is zero and

thus:

gAdxcos = 0

PA - (p+dp) A - 0 + pdx = 0

Adp = pdx
= Adp/ pdx
for a pipe of radius R

60
 = =

Laminar Flow

Laminar flow may occur in many situations. Its distinguishing features are

that individual particles of fluid follow paths, which do not cross those

neighbouring particles. It occurs at velocities low enough for force due to

viscosity to predominate over inertia forces and thus, if any individual

particle attempts to stray from its prescribed path, viscosity restricting

hand at once firmly brings back the errant one, and the orderly procession

of particles continues. Viscous stresses area set up whenever there is

relative movement between adjacent particles of fluid and that these

stresses tend to eliminate the relative movement.

The basic law of viscous resistance was described by Newton as

Steady Laminar Flow in Circular Pipe

THE HAGEN-POISEUILLE LAW

61
The law governing laminar flow in circular pipes was studied by Enginer

G.H.L. Hagen and a French Physician, J.L.M Poiseuille.

The diagram above shows a cylinder of radius r, moving from let to right

with velocity u inside a slightly larger cylinder of radius r + dr in the same

direction with velocity u + duo The difference of velocity between the

cylinders bring viscosity into play, and thus there is a stress along the

interface between the flow layers of fluid so as to oppose the relative

motion. For the steady flow the shear stress .

Radius r is given

In laminar flow the stress is due to entire viscous action and so is

62
 given the equation

Thus,

if is constant, integration with respect to r gives

= +

A = constant of integration from boundary conditions

U = 0 and r = R.

0 = R2 +

63
From the above equation, it is clear that the maximum velocity occurs at

the centre of the pipe where r = O.

The discharge Q through the annular space between radius r and r + dr

is velocity x Area i.e

Area i.e.

Q = x 2 dr

The discharge through the entire cross-section is therefore

( )

This equation is known usually as Poiseuille's formular and is

sometimes as the Hagen-Poseiseuille formula.

For a length l of the pipe over which the piezometric pressure drops from

P1 to P2 the equation may be written as:

64
An expression in terms of diameter d rather radius is often more

suitable, Thus:

= [ ]

Mean velocity =

Therefore, mean velocity =

65
QUESTIONS

la What is fluid?

b Distinguish between a Newtonian and a Non-Newtonian fluid

c. Explain the phenomena of the following:

(i) Viscosity;

(ii) Vapour Pressure.

d the velocity V at radius r of a pipe of radius is given in terms of

the centerline velocity Vc for laminar flow as

=1

If the centreline velocity in a pipe of metre diameter is 6m/sec and the

viscosity is 0.002NS/m2, shear stress profile for a cross-section. What is

the drag per Kilometre length of the pipe power is required to overcome

this.

2a (i) Define the terms known as the "Buoyant Force and how would

you determine the buoyant force of an elemental body that is submerged

in a fluid

(ii) State the Buoyancy laws

b A Hydrometer weighs 0.002157 Newton and has a stem at the upper

66
end, which is cylindrical, and of diameter 2.794mm in diameter. How

much deeper will it float in oil of relative density of 0.780 than in alcohol

of relative density 0.821?

3. Define the following terms:

a. (i) Steady flow;

(ii) Unsteady flow;

(ii) Uniform flow;

(iv) Non-Uniform Flow;

(v) Ideal Flow

b State and prove the Bernoulli's theorem

c the difference of head registered in two limbs of a mercury

gauge with water above the mercury connected to a venturimeter was

0.1778m, the diameter of the pipe and the throat of the metre are 0.1524m

and 0.0762m respectively. The coefficient of the meter is 0.97. Find the

discharge though the meter.

4a Show for a venturimeter that the quantity of a fluid discharged

through it can be given as

67
where a1 ,a2, h and Q are well defined parameters.

b. A jet of water has a velocity of 4m/s. If the diameter of the jet is

10cm, find the horsepower

5 A horizontal venturimer measures the flow of oil of specific gravity O.9

in 75diameter pipeline. If the difference of pressure between the full bore

and the throat tapping is 34.5KN/m2 and the area ratio m is 4, calculate the

rate of flow, assuming a coefficient of discharge is 0.97

6(a).Derive an expression for the Kinetic energy correction factor and for

the steady incompressible flow

(b) A 25mm diameter nozzle discharges 0.76m3 per minute when the

head is 60m the diameter of the jet is 22.5mm. Determine the value of the

coefficients.

7. (i) State the Hagen-Poisseuille's formula and then define the parameters

used in the formula

(ii) An oil of viscosity 8 poises and specific gravity 0.9 flows through a

horizontal pipe of 50mm diameter; if the pressure drop in 100m length of

pipe is 2000KN/m2

68
Determine

(i) the rate of flow of oil in cummecs;

(ii) the mean velocity;

(iii) the Kinematic viscosity and the

(iv) Reynolds number

8. Show from the first principle that the steady discharge of a viscous

fluid through a circular pipe can be given as:

where Q is the discharge, R is radius of the pipe, r is the viscosity of the

fluid and is the pressure gradient.

69