CYTOLOGY:

Divide word into two parts

-logy, -ology means the study of
Cyto means cell
Derived from the greek word kytos means hollow vessel or container
So cytology is study of cells
Its a branch of science that studies how cells work and grow and what they are
made of
So cytology is a branch of science that studies how cells work and grow and what
they are made of.
Cells are the lowest level of organization that can perform all activities required for
life; theyre lifes fundamental unit of structure and function
The cell is the basic unit of life. Microorganisms such as bacteria, yeast, and
amoebae
exist as single cells. By contrast, the adult human is made up of about 30 trillion cells
(1 trillion = 1012) which are mostly organized into collectives called tissues.

Definition of genetics:
Genetics is the study of genes, genetic variation, and heredity in living organisms. It is
generally considered a field of biology, but it intersects frequently with many life
sciences and is strongly linked with the study of information systems.

The father of genetics is Gregor Mendel, a late 19th-century scientist and Augustinian
friar. Mendel studied "trait inheritance," patterns in the way traits are handed down from
parents to offspring. He observed that organisms (pea plants) inherit traits by way of
discrete "units of inheritance." This term, still used today, is a somewhat ambiguous
definition of what is referred to as a gene.
The modern science of genetics originated when Gregor Mendels discoveries were
brought to light, showing that hereditary characteristics are determined by elementary
units transmitted between generations in uniform predictable fashion. Each such unit,
which can be called a genetic unit, or gene, is a substance that must satisfy at least two
essential requirements: (1) that-it is inherited between generations in such fashion that
each descendant has a physical copy of this material, and (2) that it provide information
to its carriers in respect to structure, function, and other biological attributes. Perhaps as a
consequence of this double aspect of the gene, there have been two important historical
approaches toward genetic phenomena: one toward identifying its physical substance, the
genetic material, and the other toward discovering the manner and ways by which its
manifestations, the biological characters, are inherited. Until the twentieth century these
lines of investigation were usually separate, because so little was known about both
transmitted substances and transmitted characters.

Definition of cytogenetics:
Cytogenetics is a branch of genetics that is concerned with the study of the
structure and function of the cell, especially the chromosomes.

Definition of plant breeding:

Plant breeding is the art and science of changing the traits of plants in order to produce
desired characteristics.Plant breeding can be accomplished through many different
techniques ranging from simply selecting plants with desirable characteristics for
propagation, to more complex molecular techniques.

Plant breeding has been practiced for thousands of years, since near the beginning of
human civilization. It is practiced worldwide by individuals such as gardeners and
farmers, or by professional plant breeders employed by organizations such as government
institutions, universities, crop-specific industry associations or research centers.

International development nation agencies believe that breeding new crops is important
for ensuring food security by developing new varieties that are higher-yielding, disease
resistant, drought-resistant or regionally adapted to different environments and growing
conditions.

Inter-relationships among them and with other branches of science.

Cytology is the science which deals with the structure, composition and function of
various cell organelles. Cytological studies have been instrumental in establishing the
physical basis of heredity by discovering the nature and role of nucleus, cytoplasm and
gene. The parallelism between chromosomes and genes helped in establishing the
foundation of genetics.

Cytological proof of crossing over has helped in better understanding of the phenomenon
of linkage and the discovery of sex chromosome has been fruitful in developing the
concept of sex determination. The chromosomal aberrations have helped in locating the
genes on chromosomes. Cytological studies on monosomics and nullisomics have been
useful in locating the genes on different chromosomes.

History-historical development:
The invention of the microscope in the 1590s by Zacharias Janssen assisted
in stimulating the study of cells.Cells that were once invisible to the naked
eye became visible. Robert Hooke was the first person to term the building
block of all living organisms as "cells" after looking at cork.The cell theory
states that all living things are made up cells.The theory also states that both
plants and animals are composed of cells which was confirmed by plant
scientist, Matthias Schleiden and animal scientist, Theodor Schwann in 1839.
19 years later, Rudolf Virchow contributed to the cell theory, arguing that all
cells come from the division of pre-existing cells.In recent years, there have
been many studies which question the cell theory. Scientists have struggled
to decide whether viruses are alive or not. Viruses lack common
characteristics of a living cell, such as membranes, cell organelles, and the
ability to reproduce by themselves.Viruses range from 0.005 to .03 microns in
size whereas Bacteria range from 1-5 microns.The late 19th century indicates
the birth of cytology.Modern day cell biology research looks at different ways
to culture and manipulate cells outside of a living body to further research in
human anatomy and physiology, to derive treatments and other medications,
etc. The techniques by which cells are studied have evolved. Advancement in
microscopic techniques and technology such as fluorescence microscopy,
phase-contrast microscopy, dark field microscopy, confocal microscopy,
cytometry, transmission electron microscopy, etc. have allowed scientists to
get a better idea of the structure of cells.

A. Historical & Cell Theory

Cells were named by Robert Hooke in 1665 after looking at cork that was
made up of chambers that looked like monks rooms

Leewenhoeks microscope allowed them to be viewed

1. Schleiden & Schwann

Schleiden was a German Botanist; he came up with the idea that all plants
were made of cells in 1838

Schwann was a German Zoologist; he came up with the idea that all animals
were made of cells in 1839
 Virchow: idea that new cells could only be produced from the division of
existing cells

2. Cell Theory
a. all things are composed of one or more cells
b. cells are the basic unit of structure & function (organizational unit)
c. new cells all come from existing cells
B. Sizes & Limiting Factors
1. Microscopic (measured in micrometers) most cells are between 1-100
micrometers except for egg yolk (largest of all cells), & nerve cells (can be 1m
long)
2. Factors-Volume & Surface Area
the greater the volume, the more difficult it is to receive oxygen & nutrients;
the greater the volume, the greater the surface area the cell needs; more
cellular structures are necessary to adequately exchange materials and energy
examples: plant root hairs, alveoli cells, villi, microvilli

C. Types of Cells

1. prokaryotic (most primitive)

Nuclear or nucleoid region (no nuclear membrane)

Only one chromosome found here; no membrane bound organelles or

internal membranes but usually have a cell wall

example: bacteria,
archaea 2. eukaryotic

nuclear membrane or
envelope membrane bound
organelles
3. common featuresall bound by plasma membrane, cytosol, chromosomes, &
ribosomes
D. Plants vs. Animal cells
1. In animal cells but not plants:
a. lysosomes
b. centrioles
c. flagella (but in some plant sperm)
2. In plant cells but not animal cells
a. chloroplasts
b. central vacuole & tonoplast
c. cell wall
d. plasmodesmata

what is the difference between cytology and cell biology?

Cytology originated with the microscope within the anatomists tradition - to visually
study cells (which where themselves discovered via the microscope). A particular interest
was studying clinically significant tissue at the cellular level. The microscope also
became popular among people interested in genetics once the link was made between the
concept of the gene and chromosomes - karyotyping was an important technique in this
tradition. You can still find old textbooks that cover cytogenetics, or both cytology and
genetics.

On the other hand, the term cell biology was more likely to be used by people taking a
biochemical/molecular approach. The emphasis was a bit more on normal cells and on
physiology and biochemistry. There was a link with genetics in this tradition as well - but
in terms of studying macromolecules. This tradition evolved into molecular biology.

They were studying the same thing but from somewhat different perspectives with
different methods. It's a bit like the difference between anatomy and physiology. You're
studying different aspects of the same thing. Today, of course, the traditions have
completely merged.

How does histology differ from cytology?

In Histology, we look at the tissue. All the cells together and how they
interact with each other and how the extracellular area is filled.
In cytology, we look at the cell alone. The size, shape and color of the cell.
What the cytoplasm looks like and the specifics of the nucleus.

What is the difference between a cell and a protoplasm?

Protoplasm is everything contained within the cell membrane.

Cytoplasm is everything contained between the cell membrane and the nuclear
membrane.

Nucleoplasm is everything contained inside the nuclear membrane.

Cytosol is the solution in the cytoplasm.

Nucleosol is the solution in nucleoplasm.

Father of cytology : Robert Hooke

Father of modern cytology : C. P. Swans

Father of Indian cytology : A. K. Sharma (discovered orcein banding for
chromosome)

Robert Hooke (1665) in his book Micrographia coined the term Cell (Greek word
cellula = Small hollow space), therefore the credit for the discovery of cell goes to Robert
Hooke. Leeuwenhoek (1674) first observed animal cells (Free animal cells) and called
them Animalcule.

Cell theory
J. Schleiden (1838) German Botanist and T. Schwann (1839) German Zoologist proposed
cell theory. All cells arise from pre-existing cells confirmed by Rudolph Virchow (1885)
by stating Omnis cellula e cellula. Virchow proposed Cell Lineage theory. Karl
Nageli showed that plant cells arise from the division of pre existing cells.

Exception of cell theory : Virus, viriods, prions, vaucheria and blue green algae.

Protoplasm theory
Corti first observed protoplasm. Felix Dujardin (1835) observed a living juice in animal
cell and called it Sarcode. Purkinje (1839) coined the term protoplasm for sap inside a
plant cell. Hugo Van Mohl (1846) indicated importance of protoplasm.

Max Schultze (1861) established similarity between Protoplasm and Sarcode and
proposed a theory which later on called Protoplasm theory by O. Hertwig (1892).
Huxley (1868) proposed Protoplasm as a physical basis of life.

Physical properties of protoplasm

(1) Protoplasm is a translucent, odourless and polyphasic fluid.

(2) Protoplasm is a crystal colloid type of solution, a mixture of such chemical substances
among which some form crystalloid i.e. true solution (Sugars, Salts, Acids, Bases etc.)
and others which form colloidal solution (Proteins lipids, etc.)

(3) Viscosity of protoplasm = 220 centipoises

(4) pH = 6.8 contain 90% water (10% in dormant seeds)

(5) Refractive index = 1.4

(6) Approximately 34 elements participate in the composition of protoplasm but only 13

elements are main or universal elements i.e. C, H, O, N, Cl, Ca, P, Na, K, S, Mg, I, Fe.
Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen and Nitrogen form the 96% part of protoplasm.