ELF Pedagogical and Interdisciplinary Pe PDF

ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives
Deree-The American College of Greece: Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Natasha Tsantila, editor. | Jane Mandalios, editor. |Melpomeni Ilkos, editor.
Title: ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives./editors, Natasha Tsantila, Jane Mandalios,
Melpomeni Ilkos.
Description: Athens: Deree-The American College of Greece, 2016. | Includes bibliographical
references.
Identifiers: ISBN 9786188180307
Subjects: LCSH: English languageStudy and teaching. | English languageForeign countriesDiscourse
analysis. | English languageGlobalization.
Classification: LCC PE1072 E58 2016 | DDC 420--dc23
The publishers and editors of this volume do not guarantee the accuracy or completeness of any
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The opinions expressed in the chapters of this volume belong to the author(s) alone and may not
necessarily reflect the opinions of the publishers or editors.
Copyright for abstracts and papers written for this volume stemming from the 7th International
Conference of English as a Lingua Franca is retained by the individual author/s, who should be contacted
for permission by those wishing to use the materials for purposes other than those in accordance with
fair use provisions of Greek No. 2121/1993 as last amended by No. 3057/2002 (article 81) and by
3207/2003 (article 10 par. 33) and International erne Agreement of Copyright Law.

In honour of Henry G. Widdowson
We want to express our deep gratitude to Professor H.G. Widdowson for his unstinting and generous
support for the ELF7 conference. In addition to providing a motivating and uplifting opening address,
he provided invaluable advice on all aspects of the organisation of the conference, both academic and
practical. We were honoured by his presence and participation.
ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives i

CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS v
FOREWORD Tony Buckby vi
INTRODUCTION Natasha Tsantila, Jane Mandalios, Melpomeni Ilkos 1
AN INTRODUCTION TO HENRY WIDDOWSON 5
A Widdowsonean perspective Sophia Papaefthymiou-Lytra 5
COLLOQUIUM 1 7
ELF aware classroom practices and teaching materials: Issues and new perspectives in ELT.
Convenors: Lucilla Lopriore & Paola Vettorel 7
A shift in ELT perspective: World Englishes and ELF in the EFL classroom .
Lucilla Lopriore & Paola Vettorel 8
Network based language teaching and ELF Enrico Grazzi 16
Teaching towards ELF competence in the English classroom Kurt Kohn 25
The attitudes of learners and teachers towards ELF-oriented materials, with related implications
Reiko Takahashi 33
COLLECTING ELF CORPORA AND DESCRIBING ELF 41
ACE Japan: A closer look at the ùser language Anamika Sharma 42
ELF and code-switching: A corpus-based study of visa consultancy posts on Facebook webpages
Laura Centonze 51
The localisation of ELF. Code mixing and switching between ELF and Italian in Italian internet
accommodation forums for international students Thomas Christiansen 60
THE SOCIOLINGUISTICS OF ELF 70
ELF: Sociocultural characterizations and ELF reformulation strategies in the migration movie
Its a Free World Pietro Luigi Iaia & Mariarosaria Provenzano 71
Humor in academic lectures: A case study in an ELF context Marina Tzoannopoulou 78
Japanese university students attitudes towards their English: Open-ended email questionnaire study
Tomokazu Ishikawa 87
Positioning in ELF interactions Berat Baser 95
ELF AND MULTILLINGUALISM 103
Plurilingual communication in science laboratory classrooms:A preliminary report on students interactive
discourse in an English-medium degree programme in Japan. Harushige Nakakoji 104
Pedagogical implications of teaching through ELF: A case study of United World Colleges and the
1st International School of Ostrava Veronica Quinn Novotna 112
ELF AND LANGUAGE POLICY 121
Competing discourses between English as a Lingua Franca and the English without Borders
programme Telma Gimenez, Taisa Pinetti Passoni 122
English as a Lingua Franca: A weapon or a tool? Sophia Kitsou 129
Reflections based on experience in the Italian university system and in an EU-funded programme for
early-career scholars Laurie Anderson 136
English as a Lingua Franca: The linguistic landscape in Lidras and Onasagorou Street, Lefkosia, Cyprus
Dimitra Karoulla Vrikki 145
ELF AND INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION 155
Unequal encounters in ELF immigration contexts: Failure and success in social, political and religious
negotiation Maria Grazia Guido 156
Use of Lingua Franca in student mobility: A study of Turkish ERASMUS students Derya Duran 178
Significance of intercultural competence development for study-abroad students
Faruk Kural &Yasemin Bayyurt 184
Study-abroad students ELF awareness and intercultural sensitivity prior to sojourn: Necessity for training
Faruk Kural & Zeynep Kocoglu 193
Could we speak about ELF in Armenia? An exploration of Armenian adult EFL speakers attitudes
towards English Iren Hovhannisyan 201
ELF learners and their refusal strategies: Use of English in ELF contexts Ratchaporn Rattanapumma 212
Achieving politeness in ELF conversations: A functional-pragmatic perspective Bill Batziakas 220
ELF in independent learning: Lessons from an international blog project
Claudia Kunschak & Joshua Lee 227
Philosophical approaches to ELF and vice versa. Ana Monica Habjan 234
The negotiation of intelligible pronunciationin English as a Lingua Franca in Northeast Asia
George ONeal 241
English as a lingua franca in Kuwaits secondary schools: The dimensions of the cultural content
Marta Tryzna 249
ELF AND LANGUAGE EDUCATION 260
ELF-aware teacher education with pre-service teachers: A transformative and technology enhanced
case from Turkey Elif Kemaloglou-Er & Yasemin Bayyurt 261
ELF in teacher education programs: Mapping the proposals presented in ELF5 and ELF6
Luciana Cabrini Simoes Calvo, Michele Salles El Kadri, Atef El Kadri 268
ELF in Brazilian teacher education programs
Michele Salles El Kadri, Luciana Cabrini Simoes Calvo, Telma Gimenez 278
Making sense of new words and worlds: Early routes to L2 multiliteracies in the Greek context
Alexia Giannakopoulou 283
Accent, attitudes, and ownership of English: Perspectives of Italian college-bound youth
Jacqueline Aiello 293
English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) in relation to teacher cognition in international universities
Sami Basheer Al-Hasnawi 300
Teaching English as a Lingua Franca: Reflections on ELF-related issues by pre-service English
language teachers in Turkey Esma Biricik Deniz, Yonca zkan , Yasemin Bayyurt 308
ELF and teacher schizophrenia Domingos Savio Pimentel Sinqueira & Juliana da Silva Souza 315
ELF across teachers' strategies in TEFL Vasilia Kazamia, Edgar Joycey 322
/kju:kmb(r) /or /kukumber/ ? Preferences and attitudes towards standard accents in the Greek ELF
context Anny Georgountzou & Natasha Tsantila 330
Is ELF of benefit in a Japanese educational context? Paul McBride 341
ELF ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION 348
iii
Potential links between ELF and alternative assessment in the EFL multicultural class: Researching
teachers perspectives Androniki Kouvdou 349
ELF LEARNERS 358
Reconsidering the impact of gender on learners motivation to learn English
Areti-Maria Sougari & Iren Hovhannisyan 359
I speak very good English even though Im not American: Implications from business students
perspectives of ELF Roxani Faltzi 368
ELF AND TRANSLATION 375
Exploring the mediated side of ELF: Emerging challenges in academic settings
Claudio Bendazzoli 376
ELF AND WRITING 384
Exploring academic writing skills of Czech university students
Renata Povolna 385
LIST OF AUTHORS 392
iv
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We, the ELF7 Organising Committee, wish to express our deep gratitude to all those who worked to
make this collection a reality. First of all, we thank Erasmus, the Conference Secretariat, for having
collected the authors original submissions. We also thank each one of the contributors of this volume
for their commitment in finalizing and taking the responsibility to check and proofread their papers
before submitting the final copies for publication.
Our special thanks go also to Deree-The American College of Greece faculty and administrative staff
members for their full support in the publication of this volume. Dr Thimios Zacharopoulos, Provost,
Dr Hariclea Zengos, Head of the English and Modern Languages Department and Associate Dean of
Academic Affairs, Ms Vicky Tseroni, Assistant Dean of Libraries, and Ms Angie Seferelis, Director of
Procurement Services, and the Marketing Department fully supported this initiative throughout the
process.
v
FOREWORD
Tony Buckby
Director, British Council, Athens, Greece
I am very pleased that we were able to support this conference, ELF7, which follows on from other very
successful ELF conferences. There is much to build on and much work to take forward in a context of
growing interest and awareness. That interest seems to crop up in unlikely places. While looking at the
BBC website a couple of days ago I read an article by the writer and journalist Will Self. It happened to
be about George Orwell but essentially Self was writing about English and about people speaking the
same language differently and one sentence in particular caught my eye when he refers to (quote) small
c conservatives who would rather peer at meaning by the guttering candlelight of Standard English
frozen in time than have it brightly illumined by the high-wattage of the living, changing language. I
thought well yes indeed there is constant change with regard to attitudes and understanding about
English.
About ten years ago years when I was working for the British Council at our head office in London,
part of my job was to lead on our research programmes for English and in the context of that work, I
arranged with David Graddol for him to carry out specific research for us on where English learning
might be going and that is when he wrote the book we published in 2006 called English Next. I think
one of the things that caught peoples attention at the time was the reference to really huge numbers such
as more than a billion learners of English. Now we are very used to seeing these figures, they trip off the
tongue much more easily, they do not surprise us so much and I think, I hope, there is more awareness
generally about related educational needs and priorities. Also more awareness about what this all means
for the concept of native speaker and about how diverse peoples can best talk to each other.
In a room full of experts, I am not going to risk saying things on the topic that are all too obvious, in
the sense of too obviously right or wrong, but I do want to stress that in the British Council we support
different forms of English and increasingly we employ local teachers - and where we do get involved in
or encourage educational solutions to challenges we certainly focus on ones which are suited to local
contexts and which use and develop local talent.
In particular, we do a lot of work with Higher Education providers, especially in partnerships in
relation to students from Greece studying overseas and the Transnational Education market here, so one
area we are very interested in is the shift from EFL to English as a medium of instruction for various
academic subjects. We have been working with Oxford University Department of Educations research
centre on a global scoping research to look at issues around English as the Medium of Instruction. Some
initial results show that policies on EMI exist in about 40% of the 50 or so countries looked at, which is
surprising given that the research also shows that teachers interviewed seemed largely unaware of any
policy in their universities. So there is clearly a lot of work to be done and a lot of questions to be looked
at. It is a fascinating development and through the research we do hope at least we can make some
contribution to knowledge and understanding of EMI as the study of it is increasingly important for
language teachers, EMI instructors and educational materials and assessment development.
Also, for the last two years, we have partnered with UK universities to find the best ELT Master
dissertations. This scheme, where universities submit the best dissertation from
their ELT Master programmes and then judge them along with a panel of British Council invited experts,
is designed to recognise and celebrate the brightest minds in ELT at Master level. We hope that by
publishing these dissertations they can become additions to the canon of research in ELT and accessible
to practitioners. In fact, the recent winner of the British Council Master Dissertation Award with Best
Potential for Impact on ELT was a student at Edinburgh University whose paper was entitled Attitude
towards English in relation to English as a Lingua Franca - in the context of Tanzania.
ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives vi

So in these various ways, through joint research and other partnerships, we hope to contribute to the
development of this important area of study and research for teaching and learning English as a Lingua
Franca and we are very pleased to support all of you in that work by supporting this conference.
ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives vii

INTRODUCTION
English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) has established itself as a major and expanding field of academic
research over the last two decades. Since the 2000s, upon the publication of the pioneer work of Jennifer
Jenkins (2000), Barbara Seidlhofer (2001), and Anna Mauranen (2003), ELF research has been abundant
as the several research projects undertaken, the books and articles published and the main ELF corporai
compiled indicate. The ELF-related Mouton de Gruyter publicationsii, conferences, symposia, projects,
workshops, seminars with relevant topics, the ELF ReN, as well as the summer course on English as a
Lingua Francaiii, to mention a few, have also significantly added to this area of enquiry. The ELF annual
international conference, which has been hosted by different academic institutionsiv since 2008, has
undoubtedly been the ideal forum for researchers to present their work on ELF and discuss its interfaces
with pedagogy, identity, language policy-making, intercultural awareness, technology, and language use at
all levels. This thriving and continuous body of research, alongside with the widespread use of English
as lingua franca as a result of globalization, indicates that far from being monolithic and prescriptive,
ELF is a dynamic, multifaceted, fast-evolving field, describing processes of language change, divergence
and convergence in many of its core domains, thus, offering its users new language options to cover their
communicative needs, and influencing current thinking on English language use.
This volume stems mainly from the ELF7 International Conference, held in 2014 at Deree The
American College of Greece in Athens. We, as the ELF7 organisers and editors of this volume, felt it
was particularly fitting that this Conference was held in Greece. In ancient times, it was Greek that
functioned as one of the worlds lingua francas. Now, in modern times, Greeks still use a lingua franca,
but this time it is English. Despite the immense challenges brought about by the economic crisis, Greeks
devote huge amounts of time and effort to learning English, with 65% of the population taking English
classes outside school (Eurobarometer, 2012). English indeed ELF - can be found in the daily realities
of most Greeks, in their personal, academic and professional lives. It was very appropriate, therefore, to
host a conference such as ELF where new and critical perspectives related to modern developments in
language are still debated.
Our main motivation for this publication is to provide the reader with relevant papers that were mainly
presented in ELF7, thus contributing to the field by publishing current ELF research on a variety of
issues that would undoubtedly lead to maintaining ELF interest, increasing ELF insight, and furthering
ELF research.
The theme of ELF 7 was ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives and explored the interfaces of
ELF with disciplines such as, but not exclusively, pedagogy, inter-culturality, testing, pragmatics,
sociolinguistics, language policy, clearly reflected by the four plenary presentations as well as the 188
paper presentations.
Unlike previous conferences, the plenary sessions as well as some presentations were video recordedv
offering thus the opportunity to educators, learners and users to: a) hear some of the most prominent
scholars in Applied Linguistics, sociolinguistics, language policy, testing and teacher education discuss
the links of ELF to other disciplines; b) develop an interest and get further insights in the field; c) make
themselves part of the ELF discussion; and d) reflect upon and incorporate, ultimately, the possible
implications as well as applications of ELF to pedagogy.
The links between the past and the present in terms of linguistic enquiry, the adaptations to the
teaching practices, and the necessity to look for continuities (Widdowson, 2015, p.359) was clearly
explained by Henry Widdowson highlighting at the same time that this retrospection can also provide
a different [and critical] perspective which might show ELF in a new light (Widdowson, 2015, p.359)
for language and language learning in general.
Elana Shohamy focused on language testing and the fact that test-takers are frequently penalized for
their use of other-language, beyond native English, resources, like mixing codes, having L1-influenced
performance, code-switching, impaired reading comprehension due to inadequate socio-cultural and
historical knowledge of the L2 target group and so on.
ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives 1

Maria Grazia Guidos talk1 was on case studies that explored the cognitive and communicative
processes between non-western supplicants and western experts in authority (in this volume) Her
analysis demonstrated that not acknowledging ELF variations in intercultural communication may lead
to serious misunderstandings at all levels between those involved, thus, often raising ethical issues about
social justice. She, therefore, recommended that successful communication in cross-cultural
immigration interactions between the western experts in authority and the supplicants can be achieved
through the development of accommodation strategies of ELF reformulation and hybridization of an
ELF mode among all those involved in cross cultural encounters.
Finally, Nicos Sifakis stressed that awareness of ELF principles can lead to teachers own autonomy
and ultimately raise their own and their students intercultural competence and linguistic confidence.
This 44 paper volume, following the thematic organization of the conference, is divided into eleven
theme-focused sections and the papers reflect the interfaces of ELF with other disciplines. The first
section is on a colloquium, titled ELF aware classroom practices and teaching materials: issues
and new perspectives in ELT convened by Lucilla Lopriore & Paola Vettorel, whereas the next
sections are divided in the following thematic areas:2
Collecting ELF Corpora and describing ELF

The sociolinguistics of ELF
ELF and multilingualism
ELF and language policy
ELF and intercultural communication
ELF and language education
ELF assessment and evaluation
ELF learners
ELF and translation/interpreting
ELF and writing
The Editors,
Natasha Tsantila Jane Mandalios Melpomeni Ilkos
References
Europeans and their languages. (2012).Special Eurobarometer 386. Survey co-ordinated by the European
Commission, Directorate-General for Communication (DG COMM Research and Speechwriting
Unit), June 2012. Retrieved from:
http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_386_en.pdf.
Jenkins, J. (2000). The phonology of English as an International Language. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Mauranen, A (2003). The corpus of English as lingua franca in academic settings. TESOL Quarterly 37(3),
513-527.
1Maria Grazia Guidos talk, was not video-recorded but it is included in this volume under the theme: ELF and intercultural
communication
2 In this volume, summaries of papers precede each thematic area.

Seidlhofer, B. (2001) Closing the conceptual gap of English as a lingua franca. International journal of
Applied Linguistics 11(2), 133-158
Widdowson, H. (2015). ELF and the pragmatics of language variation. JELF 4(2), 359-372.
i
VOICE: https://www.univie.ac.at./voice/
ELFA: https://www.helsinki.fi/elfacorpus
WrELFA: https://www.helsinki.fi/englanti/elfa/wrelfa.html
ACE (The Asian Corpus of English), https://corpus.ied.edu.hk/ace/
ii Journal of English as a Lingua Franca (JELF); DELF series
iii
a) PROJECTS:
e.g. 1)ELF-TeD: http://teacherdevelopment.boun.edu.tr/;
2) ELF-GATE: http://elfgateproject.edu.gr/
b) WORKSHOPS:
e.g. ELF and multilingual practices in professional contexts: http://www.english-lingua franca.org/activities/past
c) ELF ReN:http://www.english-lingua-franca.org/about/elf-ren
d) Summer course on English as a Lingua Franca: https://elfaproject.wordpress.com/2015/02/19/summer-
course-on-elf/
iv ELF CONFERENCES:
ELF1, Helsinki (2008); ELF2, Southampton (2009); ELF3, Vienna (2010); ELF4, Hong Kong (2011); ELF5, Istanbul
(2012); ELF6, Rome (2013), ELF7, Athens (2014), ELF8 Beijing (2015), ELF9, Lleida (2016), ELF10, Helsinki, (2017),
ELF11, London (2018).
v PLENARY TALKS
VIDEOS of the plenary talks and colloquia presentations are available (at the time of publication, anyway) as
follows:
Henry Widdowson: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EHr5rVyzzPM and
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zvaM2ddMZ9o
Elana Shohamy: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9TvrV7_-PZQ
Nicos Sifakis: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ovr95tQX8AI
COLLOQUIA
Colloquium 1: ELF-Aware Classroom Practices and Teaching Materials: Issues and New Perspectives in ELT.
Convenors: L. Lopriore & P. Vettorel ( https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8MVGrI_yK7A)
Speakers:
Enrico Grazzi (University of Roma Tre, Italy): Network-based Language Teaching and ELF
Kurt Kohn (University of Tubingen, Germany): Teaching towards ELF competence in the English classroom
Lucilla Lopriore (University of Roma Tree, Italy) & Paola Vettorel (University of Verona, Italy): A shift in perspective: ELF
implications for the EFL classroom
Aya Matsuda (Arizona State University, USA): Representation of English users and uses in Japanese EFL textbooks
Reiko Takahashi (Gakushuin Women's College, Japan): The attitudes of learners and teachers towards ELF-oriented materials,
with related implications
Melissa Yu (University of Southampton, UK): Re-navigating classroom practice through critical resistance to NS-oriented
materials
Colloquium 2: ELF-aware teacher education. Convenor: Yasemin Bayyurt:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b4CrhYPtkrI
Speakers:
Yasemin Bayyurt and Nicos Sifakis: Towards an ELF-aware teacher education
Enric Llurda: Awareness, empowerment and overcoming (self-)imposed limitations among English language teachers
Andrew Blair: Standard language models, variable lingua franca goals: How can ELF-aware teacher education square the circle?
Martin Dewey: Language awareness and content knowledge among novice teachers: Incorporating ELF in pre-service training
Stephania Kordia: Towards an ELF-aware pedagogy: A personal transformative journey
Glnur ahin, Jale Sarc and Serpil ztrk: New perspectives: ELF-aware classes in high schools, primary schools and teacher
reflections
Elif Kemalolu and Il Gnseli Kaar: ELF-aware teacher educaton wth pre-service teachers: transformatve & technology-

enhanced cases from Turkey
Zeynep Mine Derince, Bahar zgen and Pelin Tekinalp akmak: In-service English language teacher education in Turkish
state schools: A transformative perspective
Derya Altinmakas: Incorporating ELF awareness in an undergraduate course: Elements of transformation in students' perspectives
Colloquium 3: ELF in the Curriculum: Moving from Implication to Application. Convenor: Martin Dewey
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bOGhUURg9rk::
Speakers:
Sonia Morn Panero (University of Southampton, UK): Engaging with students metalinguistic discourse: A way forward for the
language classroom?
Laura Patsko (Saint George International/Kings College London, UK): Talking to novice teachers about ELF: Dealing with ELF
in pre-service TESOL courses
Inmaculada Pineda Hernndez (University of Malaga, Spain): ELF for Science and Technology: A practical case study
Melissa H. Yu (University of Southampton, UK): Re-constructing teaching theory: Critical perspectives on reproduction, resistance
and the unexpected
Alessia Cogo (University of Southampton, UK): Facing negotiations in business ELF: Between users and textbooks

AN INTRODUCTION TO HENRY WIDDOWSON
A Widdowsonean perspective
Sophia Papaefthymiou-Lytra
University of Athens
It is with great pleasure that I have undertaken to chair the plenary talk of Professor Henry G.
Widdowson and introduce him to the audience on the occasion of ELF7 in Athens.
Professor Henry G. Widdowson was born in Leicester on May 28, 1935 and was educated at King's
College, Cambridge where he read English, French and German; an indicator, in my view, of his interest
in languages early on in his educational trajectory! He went on to the University of Edinburgh, where he
was awarded a Diploma in Applied Linguistics in 1965 and his PhD in 1973.
He started his teaching career as a Lecturer at the University of Indonesia in 1958-61 and went on to
work as a British Council Officer in Sri Lanka (1962-63) and Bangladesh (1963-68). These early teaching
experiences shaped his interest in English as a foreign/contact language. In 1969, he returned to Britain
as a Lecturer at the Department of Linguistics, University of Edinburgh. He then moved to London as
Professor of Education at the Department of English for Speakers of Other Languages, Institute of
Education, University of London from 1977 to 2001. In 1993, he left for the University of Essex where
he was appointed Professor of Applied Linguistics; there he taught and researched from 1993 to 1998.
Finally, in 1998, he was appointed Professor of English Linguistics at the University of Vienna where he
taught until 2001.
Throughout the years, he continued his collaboration with the British Council as Chairman of the
British Council English Teaching Advisory Committee from 1982-91 as well as Chairman of the British
Council English Language Promotion Unit from 1989-92. He was also a member of the Kingman
Committee of Inquiry into the Teaching of English Language and the author of its very influential
minority dissenting report.
In his long career, he has been awarded several honorary doctorates, has been honoured with two
Festschrifts and has been involved with the editing of publications and journals relevant to the field. His
interests cover all aspects of applied linguistics, language, learning, teaching, testing, teacher development
among others in a range of contexts, and he has always been a generous participant in scholarly debate,
offering responses, replies or reactions to other colleagues' publications regarding theory, policy and
practice in Applied Linguistics in general and ELF in particular. I consider these responses as instrumental
in pushing the boundaries of the fields of Applied Linguistics and ELF. Another aspect of his publishing
activity that I would like to highlight is his re-introducing of old masters such as Firth and Hornby to
younger generations of researchers and practitioners and appraising their contribution to the field.
Last but not least, a few words about his important contribution and impact to the field by
contributing to the organisation of the ELF ReN (Research network) and its related activities.
I would like to conclude my short introduction to Henrys contribution and impact to our profession
over the years by citing the poem he wrote on the occasion of the closure of the VOICE project in
homage to Barbara, partner and colleague, and her Voices. To my mind, this poem succinctly
encapsulates the spirit of ELF.
VOICE Verses
On the occasion of the closure of the VOICE Project
In homage to Barbara and her Voices
by Henry Widdowson

When standard norms held undisputed sway,
Textbooks, teachers, books of reference
Told English users that there is no way
Communication can be effective
Without acquiring native speaker competence.
Otherwise it is deviant or defective.
Correctness is the order of the day.
Conformity is all, there is no choice,
You have to be correct. And then came VOICE.
Revealing this is not the case of course.

ELF users break free from these imposed norms:
Exploiting their English knowledge as resource,
Communicating without going native,
They make their meaning out of varied forms,
Express ELF-self in ways that are creative
When normative constraints are not in force.
So they discover they do have a choice
VOICE has shown them how to find their voice.
Thank you, Henry, for your legacy concerning The ownership of English (TESOL Quarterly 28(2), 1994),
for giving voice and empowering not only the ELF general and/or special users and their creativity to
manage communication worldwide through ELF and learn through ELF on a global scale, but also the
ELF NNS researchers and classroom practitioners. After all, ELF, NNS researchers and classroom
practitioners working and researching in their own local contexts will never become native speakers and,
why should they, after all? They will always be ELF advanced learners and users themselves much like
the students they teach.
On a more personal note, thank you once more for the thought-provoking conversations in London
and elsewhere. As Alexander the Great said about his teacher, the philosopher Aristotle:
, " I owe my life to my parents but my good
life to my teachers"!

A shift in ELT perspective Lopriore & Vettorel
COLLOQUIUM
ELF-aware classroom practices and teaching materials: Issues and new

perspectives in ELT. Convenors: Lucilla Lopriore & Paola Vettorel
Wellattested findings in the fields of World Englishes, and increasingly in ELF research studies, would
demand for a shift in perspective, both in teacher education programs and in the development of English
language teaching classroom materials. Findings in ELF research studies, as well as several experimental
projects carried out at international level, are gradually informing both teacher education programs and
English classroom practices by enhancing learners active participation in awarenessraising activities.
Such projects, in some cases connected to teacher education programs, are aimed either at developing or
at implementing pedagogical materials and activities at several school levels and in higher education. This
colloquium aims at presenting findings from international research studies concerning how (and whether)
innovations in textbook and task design, also in computer-mediated pedagogical practices, are currently
taken into account in the ELT classroom. Exemplifications will include samples of experimental projects
on the development of ELFrelated teaching materials and activities currently used in the English
language classroom and oriented at raising learners' awareness of ELF. The Colloquium will deal with
theoretical perspectives, with exemplifications from classroom practices, and with teachers and students
attitudes towards these new ELF-inclusive perspectives. In particular, Lucilla Lopriore & Paola
Vettorel discuss demands for a shift in perspective in materials development and in teacher education
courses. They argue that new approaches in the ELT classroom are required and activities raising socio-
linguistic awareness of World Englishes and English as a Lingua Franca should be reconsidered and
redesigned. Enrico Grazzi presents a European telecollaboration project carried out in the 2014-2015
academic year, whereby a community of Italian and Finnish high-school students interact online to
improve their intercultural and communicative competencies. Kurt Khn explores ways in which the rift
between ELF and EFL can be bridged and sketches out a pedagogical approach geared to the
requirements and purposes of ELF communication. Reiko Takahashi examines the attitudes of
Japanese learners and teachers of English towards materials that have an ELF perspective and discusses
relevant findings with regard to the implementation of ELF-oriented materials.

Lopriore, L., & Vettorel, P. (2016). A shift in ELT perspective: World Englishes and ELF in the EFL classroom. In N.
Tsantila, J. Mandalios & M. Ilkos (Eds.), ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives (pp. 8-15). Athens: Deree The
American College of Greece.
A shift in ELT perspective: World Englishes and ELF in the EFL classroom
Lucilla Lopriore
Paola Vettorel
Abstract
The socio-linguistic consequences of the current role of English in the world are reflected in the most recent research studies in the field of
English as a Lingua Franca and of World Englishes. These studies bear significant implications for English language teaching and require
both a careful rethinking and a new design in language planning, particularly in foreign/second language curricula, course-book and
classroom materials and language tasks. The teaching of English should be oriented at fostering language and (inter)cultural awareness, as
well as the use of effective communicative strategies in the classroom, in order to develop effective communicators in todays world, where
English is increasingly employed as a LF among speakers of different linguacultures. This contribution illustrates the shift in perspective
required within a new WE and ELF aware approach in the ELT classroom and in teacher education courses. Exemplifications of teaching
activities devised by ELT teachers in an in-service WE and ELF aware training course will also be described and discussed.
Keywords: World Englishes, ELF, EFL classroom, teacher education
1. Introduction
Research studies in the field of World Englishes (WE), and increasingly of English as a Lingua Franca
(ELF), have in the last few decades represented two of the most vibrant and challenging areas in applied
linguistics, bearing significant implications for English language teaching, too. Given the spread of
English and its pluralization, as well as findings from some of the above research areas, reflection on the
socio-linguistic consequences of the current role of English, particularly as an international lingua franca,
is needed. Implications for the development of classroom materials, activities and tasks in ELT are
manifold, within an orientation towards the development of language and (inter) cultural awareness, as
well as of effective communicative strategies that is, providing learners with tools to become effective
communicators in todays world, where English is increasingly employed as a lingua franca (LF) among
speakers of different linguacultures.
Research related to the representation of English in its plurality, as well as ELF, above all in its
international language function (EIL) in ELT materials has amply shown that representations rarely go
beyond activities aimed at raising awareness of the current plurality of English, are generally more present
in civilization rather than language textbooks, and frequently with a focus on (inter)cultural rather than
language skills (e.g. Gray, 2002; Lopriore & Ceruti, 2012; Lopriore & Vettorel, 2015; Naji Meidani &
Pishghadam, 2013; Vettorel, 2010; Vettorel & Corrizzato, 2012; Vettorel & Lopriore, 2013).
Furthermore, ELF, when included, receives in the great majority of cases a token representation of its
global spread.
In this paper we will first discuss how this new scenario demands for a shift in perspective in materials
development and in teacher education courses and how new approaches in the ELT classroom are
required. In the second section, specifically aimed at looking at activities raising socio-linguistic awareness
of WE and ELF, exemplifications of teaching activities directly proposed by trainee teachers involved in
a teacher education course will be presented.
Roma Tre University. lucilla.lopriore@uniroma3.it

University of Verona. paola.vettorel@univr.it

2.Shifting perspectives in the language classroom
The adoption of a WEs and ELF aware perspective in language teaching demands for a shift in the design
and implementation of the FL curriculum, of classroom practice as well as the identification of new
teaching and learning tools.
Introducing WEs and ELF does not just imply the insertion of ELF and/or WE-oriented language
activities, it rather requires a careful rethinking of the construct of FL teacher education courses, of their
components and of the EFL/ESL curricula and syllabi at all school levels. This global perspective, once
embedded in the foreign language curriculum, will require careful reconsideration in the choice and use
of foreign language materials and course-book organisation. Such a shift involves revisiting several
diverse pedagogical aspects such as the approaches adopted by teachers or the extension of learners
roles in their contacts with the language within and beyond classroom walls, as well as devising
appropriate activities and materials specifically suitable for the growing number of multilingual
classrooms.
2.1 A shift in language planning constructs

The new emerging ELT scenarios, more and more characterised by the presence of glocal Englishes and
by the widespread use of ELF by non-native speakers, pose new challenges and demand for the definition
of the construct underlying the components of an EFL curriculum. Within a WEs and ELF awareness
perspective in language planning of curricula and syllabi, several aspects of the traditional language
curriculum need to be revisited and reconsidered in an international perspective. Aspects such as, for
example, the expansion of the language functions conventionally introduced in language courses and too
often limited to traditional transactional exchanges, or a dynamic process approach to grammar and
pronunciation sections, that are almost always presented as monolithic models of rules, or the
introduction of elements of pragmatic awareness in interactive spoken tasks, should be taken into
consideration.
Among the principles underlying this plurilithic approach to English language learning, aims such as
developing learners intercultural communicative skills (Khn, 2015; Kramsch, 2009), valuing and
enhancing their multilingual repertoires (Mauranen, 2012; Seildhofer, 2011) as well as promoting learners
capacity for languaging and translanguaging (Canagarajah, 2011, 2013; Blommaert, 2010; Swain, 2006)
should thus become central components of the curriculum. There are different, yet powerful ways to
achieve these goals, particularly through innovative language policies and curricular guidelines mirroring
the plurilingual contexts of many European and Asian contexts. New perspectives in the development
of materials and course-books by revalidating their design, their contents and their multimedia texts may
well represent an innovative change in the foreign language curriculum.
Course-books, to start with, are a very powerful tool for introducing innovations in language teaching
since they are usually based upon research on language learning, and they are growingly focussed upon
material development (Tomlinson, 2011, 2012, 2013; Tomlinson & Masuhara, 2010). They are usually
aimed at meeting the needs of global markets in order for publishers to widen their business, but this
way they often fail to respond to local needs, too often confused with the glocal ones (Gray, 2002).
Course-books are very often characterised by a very centred perspective of the language (Pennycook,
1994; Phillipson, 2009) where authors and publishers beliefs about the language are rarely challenged,
and grammar, for example, is still presented in a very traditional way, often laid as a set of arbitrarily fixed
standard rules. Even if most of the internationally sold course-books tend to overlook some of the
emerging pedagogical issues linked to local needs, they could be designed with a careful outlook at what

language is being presented and at how future users of WE and of ELF may be best prepared to interact
in glocal contexts.
If the curriculum needs careful revalidation in the light of this new global perspective, the same applies
to the ELT syllabus that should be mostly usage-based and aimed at developing learners ability to:
understand and make sense of a variety of English native and non-native speakers accents;
intelligibly interact in intercultural encounters;
recognise as well as use a variety of language functions;
use interactive and intercultural communicative strategies (Cogo & Dewey, 2012; Hlmbauer, 2009;
Seildhofer, 2011);
grammaring1, i.e. to use grammar structures accurately, meaningfully and appropriately (Larsen-
Freeman, 2001);
languaging2, or rather Englishing, whereby language is being used to make meaning when interacting
with texts (Swain, 2006).
2.2 A shift in teaching approaches and in learners roles
In order to develop learners above mentioned skills and competencies, both course-book authors and
classroom teachers in an authentic learner-centred approach - should provide students with appropriate
materials and activities gradually leading learners to become independent language users, capable of:
engaging in interactive communicative encounters with mono- and plurilingual English speakers;
exploring and resorting to the English resources present in their environment, e.g. their linguistic
landscapes and opportunities for encounters with English in the media;
identifying, understanding, and using pragmatic features in English-using contexts;
resorting and referring to English(es) and ELF corpora when involved in lexical development and text
analysis activities;
observing, discussing and reflecting upon their own and their mates forms of code-switching;
identifying, reflecting upon and successfully using communication strategies.
Within an ELF aware learner-centred approach, English language teachers, particularly those who
graduated from very traditional academic approaches to language studies, may be involved in challenging
their own beliefs about the language they teach as well as their view of language learning and teaching.
This process can only be enhanced through a reflective approach within teacher education pre- and in-
service courses where teachers should be exposed to samples of different World Englishes and ELF, in
order to view English as a complex and plurilithic system. Teachers-to-be need to experience and learn
to resort to different WE and ELF resources when planning their teaching and to rely upon authentic
samples of English usage through media and corpora.
In order to reflect upon the learning and teaching process underlying an ELF aware approach aimed
at developing their learners as independent language users, teachers will also need to reconsider the notion
of communicative competence (Leung, 2005) and to learn how to engage the students in using their
multilingual competencies. The whole construct of assessment and evaluation would therefore need to
be redefined, too, since the degree of acceptability of the students performance might need to be
extended.
1 I created Grammaring to convey the idea that grammar is a dynamic system, which needs to be taught as a skill, the fifth skill (the other
four being reading, writing, speaking and listening), rather than as a fixed body of rules. If you understand that what you are trying to do
is to get students to use grammatical structures accurately, meaningfully, and appropriately, then you realize that you need to provide
students with an opportunity to use grammar structures in meaningful and engaging activities. (Prez-Llantada, 2007, p.158)
2 Languaging about language is one of the ways we learn a second language in an advanced level (Swain, 2006, p. 96)

2.3 A shift in devising tasks and classroom activities

Classroom based activities as for example the organisation at school or in the school district, of
intercultural communicative encounters through school exchanges, or the implementation of project
work beyond classroom walls through a more extensive use of technologies and on-line resources, have
become central in an intercultural and ELF aware approach. These activities should be aimed at
enhancing learners ability to notice L2 as well as L1 cultural and pragmatic features (House, 2013), at
using languaging and cross-languaging tasks (Swain, 2006), or presenting and having learners practise a
wider variety of communicative functions. Teachers should, therefore, start planning their lessons, with
or without reference to their own course-books, by drawing from a variety of multicultural and
multimodal resources, exposing learners to multilingual contexts through a wide number of aural and
oral tasks, skills too often neglected in traditional classroom-based activities. In multilingual classrooms,
teachers may also elicit learners reflection upon their different L1s as well as challenge their capacity for
language use and for talking through their language learning process, by resorting to their often pluringual
repertoires
Tasks and activities would engage learners in comprehending non-native speakers using English in
authentic exchange contexts and in noticing similarities and differences in idiomatic uses, in sounds, in
values, in different forms of politeness in their first language as well as in the English they are being
exposed to. Learners would thus become aware of cultural and linguistic differences among non-native
users of English. In devising activities, teachers should thus expose students to cross-cultural realisations
of English and ELF, while engaging them in negotiating practice through a process of active cross-
cultural mediation with and through English.
The following sections will illustrate samples of activities devised and implemented within a teacher-
training course where trainees had been introduced to WEs and ELF, and their implications in ELT.
3. Exploitation of existing ELT materials
In the following sections we will provide some exemplifications of WE and ELF-related activities that
were developed by a group of trainee teachers attending a Percorso Abilitante Speciale (PAS3), a teacher
education course for English teachers in lower secondary schools in Italy, at the University of Verona
(Italy). During the course component devoted to English language out of the 6 total lessons (36 hours)
one was dedicated to World Englishes, one to ELF, and one to the pedagogical implications of these two
research areas in ELT; besides face-to-face lessons, trainees had the opportunity to reflect upon the topics
dealt with during classes on the online Moodle dedicated space, too. As part of the programme, all
trainees were required to write a final report, including one, or a series of, teaching lessons/units on a
topic of their choice. Out of the 42 trainees, 9 specifically focused on aspects related to WE, ELF, and/or
the presence of English in the media, advertisements, music and the linguistic landscape; some other,
while not dealing specifically with these areas (tackling topics such as cinema, world citizenship, sports),
took into account activities related to the spread and diversification of English. Several among these
teaching units take ELT textbooks as a starting point for the development of activities aimed at raising
awareness of the spread of English, as well as of concepts related to L1, L2, ENL/ESL/EFL/ELF,
generally in connection to Kachrus three circles; awareness of cultural differences is generally included,
too, with reference to the Ministry guideline document Indicazioni Nazionali per il Curricolo della Scuola
dellinfanzia e del primo Ciclo di Istruzione4.
3 The PAS courses were activated by the Italian Ministry of Education as a complementation to the Tirocinio Formativo Attivo (TFA) courses
and addressed to teachers who had some teaching experience.
4 Cf. http://www.indicazioninazionali.it/documenti_Indicazioni_nazionali/Indicazioni_Annali_Definitivo.pdf

Quite a few reports include tasks and activities connected to Inner Circle varieties (four focus on
American English lexical differences; two on Australian English, 1 with hints to Maori - the Haka dance),
and one on South African slang. Outer Circle varieties are taken into consideration in six cases, four
focussing on Indian English, (two with activities related to phonetic awareness/accents too, two
involving an Indian student in the class), and three on Bollywood (Bride and Prejudice; Bend it like Beckham,
in one case in conjunction with Slum Dog Millionaire). Two projects comprise tasks related to Kenya, one
in connection to an existing pen pal correspondence, and the other with some activities related to the
Swahili language. Two reports also comprise aspects closely connected to the presence of English in the
students environments, focusing on loanwords in English from other languages, and from other
languages into English, on English in advertising, music and the printed media.
3.1.1 English in the world

All the projects focusing on the pluralization of English include an initial activity about areas where
English is spoken in the world, either with the support of a geopolitical map from the web projected on
the IW, or, in the majority of cases, from a textbook activity (e.g. Banzato & Dalziel, 2009: 8-9, T15). In
an initial brainstorming session future students are invited first of all to reflect upon their own experiences
with English through prompts such as In which countries do people speak English? Do you use English when you
go on holiday? Do you find English in public spaces? Where? Do you listen to English songs? Do you need English when
you use the computer? (ER).
This step is then followed by a reflection on the different territories in the world where English is
spoken, and with group activities on the related concepts and definitions of first/native, second and
foreign language.
A reading activity from existing published materials is frequently included at this stage, in most cases
related to the global spread of English. As mentioned earlier, the fact that passages related to ELF are
only occasionally included, and mostly in civilization textbooks rather than curricular ones, is
confirmed also in the reference materials used by the trainee teachers. In the case of The role of English
(Banzato & Dalziel, 2009, p. 9, T1, T2), for instance, a reference is made to English as the global lingua
franca, with information about the different functions of English in the world, too. At times the activities
provided in the textbook materials are personalized: students are invited to reflect upon their first-hand
experiences with English-speaking students (see 3.2 below).
Some reports further develop the interconnection with the presence of English in the students
environment, setting forward activities aimed at fostering noticing processes to be then organized in
spider-grams or grids. In two cases, the noticing phase is accompanied by a reflection on lexical items
currently used in English, but originally coming from other languages (T1, T2) (hints provided, e.g.
Banzato & Dalziel, 2009), followed by a reflection session through questions such as Does Italian use many
English words?, Do you use foreign words when you speak Italian?, Can the use of foreign words be difficult for some
people?, Do you read or write in English on the Net? If you do so, what do you write about? Is it important to study
English at present?, Do you think that within a few years everybody will speak English in your country? (T1).
3.2 World Englishes

Several teaching units were developed with reference to Outer Circle Englishes, some drawing from
textbook materials, others taking advantage of web resources, videos in particular. One proposal (T3)
refers to the animated video The English language in 30 accents6 that, although at times representing
stereotyping views, constitutes an interesting starting point to raise awareness of the different accents
with which English is spoken in the world, from the Inner to the Expanding Circle.
5 Pseudonyms for each trainee teachers are as follows: T1 ER; T2 OB; T3 LF; T4 MLB; T5 GM; T6 BT.
6 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NtB1W8zkY5A

Another proposal is related to South African English: after watching a video7 focusing in particular
on slang expressions, where the 11 languages spoken in South Africa are also cited, students are asked to
take notes of the words mentioned in the video and to match them with the British English equivalent
(awesome/ great/cool, not cool, barbecue, goodbye, terrible, hit, a lover, empty-headed, swim-suit, a
friendly greeting) (T4).
As to Kenya, a text related to the different languages spoken in Kenya is proposed, together with a
short text on Chai Tea (Tomkinson & Lee, 2013, p. 64, adapted by T1) containing several localized
lexical elements.
In one case, a letter exchange is proposed and students are invited to reflect on a sample letter, quite
formal in style (MLB)
As regards Indian English, rather than referring to textbooks, projects rely on videos from YouTube,
ranging from Apu, a character of Indian origins from The Simpsons8, to a recorded (and subtitled)
problematic food ordering telephone conversation9 , to an extract of a video introducing the Project
Voices of India10. It should be noticed that, apart from the last one, these materials contain quite
stereotypical representations, which would call for further reflection. Nevertheless, the accompanying
activities created by the trainee teachers (a lexical matching activity Indian/British English (T5), a reading
comprehension passage about characteristics of Indian English, T5) seem a reasonable starting point to
raise awareness of the current plurality of English. An interesting example of connection with the school
environment can be found in the proposal to invite a student originally from India to class in order to
provide an example of Indian English accent, with the students noticing differences from what they
usually hear from the teacher and recorded material (T2). Similarly, as part of activities related to the film
Slum Dog Millionaire (D. Boyle), the students of Indian origin are invited to explain to the rest of the
class the meaning of Chai Wallah, with the support of pictures projected on the IW.
As to the teaching plans related to film extracts (Bride and Prejudice; Bend it like Beckham: Slum Dog
Millionaire), they are in general focused more on the film plots than on World Englishes, although they
naturally contain some activities aimed at reflecting on cultural differences. In one case, however, an
awareness-raising and noticing activity related to the pronunciation of dental fricatives // and // is
included (T6).
4. Implications and concluding remarks
In the rapidly emerging scenarios in English language teaching within a global perspective English has
achieved a status of an international language and it is spoken by a growing number of non-native
speakers; these scenarios demand for a change in language policies and in language planning. These
changes involve the organization of foreign language curricula, the syllabus design, the type of material
and English course-book development, since English is being now taught at all school levels almost all
over the world and it is being used to teach subjects other than English, too. A careful rethinking of
English language learners new competencies and language profiles as well as of language teachers
education approach is needed. Unfortunately most of course-books and materials used by teachers in the
language classroom do not yet fully take into account the current status of English, not to mention
teachers preparation. Teachers are still most often trained in a traditional way and more and more
frequently they suffer the contradictions between the language they teach and the language they and their
learners encounter every day. What teachers need is a more profound engagement with and exposure to
7 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4v4JRHMdayw&hd=1
8 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zXccMf1cBgQ
9 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_eDB70lYP_A
10 http://www.voicesofindia.org/

World Englishes and ELF, an engagement that would result in a different approach to material
development and to task design.
If awareness of the current plurality of English is raised in teacher education courses, there are good
chances that this perspective is taken into account, hence the importance of theoretical concepts linked
with hands-on activities in teacher training courses, to provide chances to experience implications of WE
and ELF in a plurilithic perspective. Course-books, for example, could be used as a starting point for a
less Anglophone-centred and a more inclusive and realistic approach. As the examples quoted in this
contribution prove, even if course-books do not always provide extended activities on WE, teachers are
more willing to include them rather than ELF-related practices. This tendency may possibly be due to
the fact that ELF is still too young as a research field, or it is perceived as too difficult and maybe
destabilizing to fit the current curricula and thus less pedagogically viable. Further research in this area
could certainly provide important and positive insights into this field.
About the authors

Lucilla Lopriore is associate professor at Roma Tre University. Research interests: ELF, teacher education, assessment, CLIL, early
language learning. Recent publications: (2014) ELF in the Primary Classroom. TEXTUS, 27/1:119-135; (2015) ELF and Early Language
Learning. In Bayyurt & Akcan, Current Persectives on pedagogy for ELF. Berlin: Mouton De Gruyter. Email: lucilla.lopriore@uniroma3.it
Paola Vettorel is assistant professor in the Department of Foreign Languages and Literatures - University of Verona. Her recent
publications include: (2014) English as a Lingua Franca in wider networking. Blogging practices. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter; (2015) (Ed.). New
Frontiers in Teaching and Learning English. Newcastle-upon-Tyne: Cambridge Scholars. Email: paola.vettorel@univr.it
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Network-based language teaching and ELF
Enrico Grazzi
Abstract
This chapter is based on the assumption that studies on English as a lingua franca (ELF) and telecollaboration can be pulled into a common
framework whenever research is focused on the dynamic process that combines web-mediated communication and second language
learning. The purpose of this paper is to examine a similar issue and present a European telecollaboration project that is being carried out
in the 2014-2015 academic year, whereby a community of Italian and Finnish high-school students interact online to improve their
intercultural and communicative competencies. Results from a previous research (Grazzi, forthcoming) show that whenever the English
classroom is connected to the Internet to let students practice network-based language teaching (NBLT), the authentic environment in
which participants interact transforms the closed context of schooling into an open virtual space, which consequently turns English from a
foreign language (EFL) and a school subject into a lingua franca that is socially constructed by its users. In this view, the distinction between
EFL and ELF is contextually defined and conceived of as a continuum rather than a dichotomy. My contention is that once the English
classroom is turned into an open ecosystem (van Lier, 2004) that is connected to the world outside through hypermedia technology, EFL
and ELF tend to converge and become complementary in the L2-user's performance. Finally, the kind of e-partnering that has been activated
through the current telecollaboration project is expected to provide examples of cooperative negotiation of forms and meanings between
interlocutors, which enhance their language awareness in a Vygotskian zone of proximal development (ZPD) (Lantolf and Thorne, 2006).
Keywords: ELF, telecollaboration, intercultural competence
1. Foreword
The research project that is reported here is called Intercultural Telecollaboration: Italy-Finland. It was first
presented at 7th International Conference on English as a Lingua Franca (ELF7) that was held in Athens,
Greece, on September 4-6, 20141. This research is taking place in the current 2014-2015 academic year,
hence, it is still in progress while this chapter is being written. For obvious reasons then, it would be
premature to draw firm conclusions at this stage, when participants are still in the process of
implementing their assignments. Therefore, this contribution is primarily concerned with the description
of the operational framework of the project in order to look closely at the well-grounded practical
experience that has been carried out so far.
Essentially, my intent is to describe the phases of this research, to show how a focus on
telecollaboration (Antoniadou, 2011; Belz, 2002; Ware & O'Dowd, 2008) and innovative language
teaching/learning practices via web-mediated communication (Warschauer & Kern, 2000) can grow out
of a focus on the pedagogical implications of ELF (Cogo & Dewey, 2012; Grazzi, 2013; Jenkins, 2015;
Lopriore, 2010; Seidlhofer, 2011; Sifakis & Sougari, 2010; Vettorel & Lopriore, 2013). These two foci are
then combined into a blended approach that allows language teachers to transform the isolated, self-
contained environment of the traditional EFL classroom into a virtual agora, where students from diverse
languacultural backgrounds meet and use ELF as an affordance to mediate their social relations in an
authentic communicative environment. My contention is that thanks to NBLT learners may activate a
sociocultural process (Vygotsky, 1978) whereby they simultaneously internalize (Lantolf & Thorne, 2006)
English and reshape it through its usage. In this constructionist perspective, the emergence of ELF is the
result of the processes of grammaticalization and syntacticization (Tomasello, 2003, p.13) that
characterises the evolution of human verbal languages. In this sense, Grazzi (2013) says, [..] each English
classroom becomes a thriving ecosystem (van Lier, 2004) [..] where EFL is inevitably adjusted by the
learning community to suit its communicative needs and specific sociocultural profile (p. 66).
University of Roma Tre, Dept. of Foreign Languages, Literatures and Cultures. enrico.grazzi@uniroma3.it
1This presentation was given in a Colloquium entitled: ELF aware classroom practices and teaching materials: issues and new perspectives in ELT,
which was convened by Lucilla Lopriore (University of Roma Tre) and Paola Vettorel (University of Verona).

Networked-based language teaching Grazzi
The impact of ELF on English language teaching (ELT) has long been debated in the literature since
the early days of ELF research (see e.g. the discussion on the Lingua Franca Core and the teaching
priorities in Jenkins, 2000; Seidlhofer, 2004), nevertheless it is still the subject of a major unresolved issue
of our time. The growing number of non-native speakers (NNSs) of English who belong to the outer circle
and the expanding circle (Kachru, 1982) has led to the emergence of glocal Englishes, which diverge both
from standard English (SE)2 exonormative models and other native-speaker (NS) varieties of English at
phonological, lexicogrammar and discourse levels. This complex sociolinguistic phenomenon, which has
turned the inner circle (Kachru, 1982) of NSs into a comparatively minority population, questions whether
ELT should resist this process of language change and diversification, or instead, following Cogo and
Dewey (2012), adjust to it and reformulate its models and practices to become more engaged with
contemporary developments in language and sociocultural realities (p. 168). Myclaim is that the second
option is possible, as the following sections of this chapter intend to prove. The assumption underpinning
this choice is that innovative activities like telecollaboration could well integrate the current pedagogic
practice and offer the opportunity for teachers and pupils to experience the reality of ELF.
2. A conceptual shift
This study is directed to high-school teachers of English, as well as to applied linguists and ELF scholars,
to explore the practicability of the line of research presented above and show how possible it is to
integrate mainstream English school syllabuses, which are traditionally geared towards NS
communicative competence, with a more open approach to ELT that incorporates ELF as a viable option
whenever learners are involved in real intercultural communication. This, however, entails a shift in
perspective as regards the way language practitioners experience and understand ELF and the various
sociolinguistic phenomena connected to it. To begin with, there has been no general agreement on a
shared definition of ELF, which instead remains problematic and causes heated disputes not only among
linguists and foreign language educators, but even among students and public opinion at large. For
instance, a few years ago Seidlhofer (2003) reported a lively debate between two eminent scholars,
Randolph Quirk and Braj B. Kachru, who held opposite positions on the global spread of English and,
as Schneider (2011) defines it, the consequent indigenization and nativization process of English in
many countries (p. 3). Even today, despite the development of a rich literature on ELF studies, Quirk's
and Kachru's views are emblematic of the unyielding polarity of those who still support the primacy of
SE and native language teaching (NLT) versus those who claim the right of NNSs to appropriate and
adapt English to their languacultural identities, as it normally happens in language contact situations
(Heine & Kuteva, 2005; Mauranen, 2012). Moreover, between these extremes we find several intellectual
middling postures, where the degree of acceptability of non-standard ELF forms may depend on
considerations about a) the ad hoc contexts of use where ELF communication takes place; b) the use of
ELF for different discourse types and genres; c) the relative felicity (Potts, 2006) of ELF utterances in
relation to the achievement of pragmatic goals3.
On the other hand, shareholders in English educationteachers, students, parents,
administratorsoften tend to misinterpret the notion of ELF, which they either confuse with the
diffusion of NS English internationally, or else identify with the learner's interlanguage (Corder, 1981;
Selinker, 1972)that is a fallacious form of SE, or simply disparage as a sort of broken English.
Understandably, though, the practitioners' resistance to disregard the static NLT paradigm and
reconfigure English as a dynamic lingua franca in the age of globalisation might have been induced by
2Namely, the British Received Pronunciation (RP), and the US General American (GA).
3Potts's (2006: 1) notion of maximally felicitous utterance (in context) is borrowed here to provide a pragmatic definition of successful
ELF communication. Hence, we have pragmatic felicity when interlocutors negotiate meanings through ELF and accomplish their
pragmatic goals.

the dominant orientation in ELT to meet grade-level proficiency standards that are set according to NS
competencies. For example, since the end of 20th century, the institutional English curricula within the
EU usually have incorporated the descriptors of competence indicated in the Common European
Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) (Council of Europe, 2011), where the idealised adult,
educated native speaker is essentially regarded as the Pole Star for language learners. As Jenkins (2007)
observes, Still less surprising is it, then, that the majority of English language teachers remain
unconvinced of the wisdom of an ELF approach to teaching and unable to make the necessary conceptual
shift (p. 16).
Undercutting teachers' intense scepticism about ELF and changing their deeply ingrained pedagogic
beliefs and practice is not an easy task, though, and cannot result from a sudden conversion based on
sound, albeit theoretical, principles. Hence, it seems reasonable to believe that bridging the gap between
advanced academic research on ELF and the practitioner's attitudes and classroom routine is an
enterprise that goes well beyond the individual teacher's conceptual shift. By definition, teachers tend to
reproduce the way they were taught and trained. Besides, they generally act in compliance with national
curricula, so it would be quite illusory to think that a radical change in ELT should start from them. For
a paradigm shift to happen, it takes first of all financial resources to invest in long-term training
programmes, with the joint effort between educational institutions, Universities, teachers, school
professionals, teacher-training agencies and textbook publishers. In other words, a coordinated action
that is comparable to the communicative revolution, which laid the new foundations for language pedagogy,
in the 70's. This is not to say that EFL will be rendered obsolete and that NLT should be replaced by
ELF-based syllabuses altogether. NS varieties of English should in fact continue to play a fundamental
role in language teaching. Nevertheless, as Cogo and Dewey (2011) point out:
language pedagogy needs to go beyond focusing so predominantly on the reproduction of encoded

language forms. Successful communication is primarily not norm dependent. In language teacher
education this needs to be addressed by enabling teachers to investigate this particular environment
and sociocultural context in which their students will use English. It is important for teachers to have
greater exposure to the variety of ways in which English is used globally, in order that they can present
students with alternative variants when highlighting language forms and the pragmatic functions this
can be used for. (p. 183)
In this view, the purpose of the research project that is sketched out in the following section is to provide
an empirical picture of ELF-based learning activities and signal that change in schooling is possible.
3. Intercultural telecollaboration: Italy-Finland
The research project Intercultural Telecollaboration: Italy-Finland started in April 2014 and is supposed to
finish in February 2015. It follows from a similar project (Grazzi, 2015) called Intercultural Telecollaboration:
Italy-U.S.A.4 that was carried out in the 2012-2013 academic year. The main goal of this year's project is
to improve the students intercultural competence, a) by fostering their mutual understanding through
the use of ELF as a mediational tool, and b) by supporting cooperative practices through web-mediated
communicative activities (Belz 2005a, 2005b; Thorne 2003, 2010).
This project was designed by Grazzi, and is supported by the following local high-school teachers of
English: Rosella Manni, from the Liceo Classico Statale Ennio Quirino Visconti, Rome, Italy; Jari Aalto
and Pivi Meinander, from Kallio Secondary High School, Helsinki, Finland. The Italian-Finnish
4This project was a recipient of the European Language Label Award for Innovative Projects in Language Teaching and Learning 2012-
2013. It was co-designed by Stefano Maranzana, a PhD student in Second Language Acquisition and Teaching at the University of
Arizona, and Grazzi. It involved the participation of 10 volunteer Italian high-school students of English, and 10 American volunteer
university students of Italian.

partnership includes the participation of two groups of volunteer high-school students in the final grade:
12 Italians and 14 Finns respectively. Participants have been assigned to 12 teams. 10 are composed of
one Italian and one Finnish student each; two are composed of one Italian and two Finnish students
each. Team members were matched randomly. This way, a multicultural and multilingual community of
practice (CoP) (Wenger, 1998) has been created, that is implementing newly developed collaborative
activities informed by NBLT (Warschauer & Kern, 2000).
The rationale behind the teaching experience presented here is that the Internet provides a learning
space whereby the remediation (Bolter and Grusin, 1999) of linear written discourse via the integration
of digital sources (e.g. verbal texts, audiovisual documents and hyperlinks) can promote authentic
interaction and favour sociocognitive processes in language use (Batstone, 2010; Thorne, 2010).
3.1 Step 1: Preparation

When the implementation of the project began (October 2014), the teachers informed their students
about the purpose of intercultural telecollaboration and described their assignments with a focus on the
importance of ELF as an affordance to connect people with different languacultural backgrounds.
First of all, a presurvey5 was conducted online by the project coordinators to gather relevant
information about the participants' approach to telecollaboration. Students were asked 12 questions on
the following areas: their use of the Internet and social networks; their interest in different cultures; topics
they would like to engage in as regards the contemporary Italian and Finnish cultural backgrounds; their
basic knowledge of the Italian and Finnish cultural backgrounds; their expectations as regards the use of
ELF in telecollaboration; their command of ELF.
Secondly, the project coordinators explained how participants should accomplish their tasks by using
the digital resource that had been set up, namely a wiki called Intercultural Telecollaboration: Italy-Finland6,
which is accessible only to members of the CoP (i.e. the students and the project coordinators).
The wiki contains several pages, where participants can find:
a. A homepage that welcomes participants and gives an overview of the project.
b. A detailed powerpoint presentation of the project and a powerpoint manual to operate on the wiki.
c. A list of 10 relevant cultural topics to choose from, with short background notes and links to
websites that could provide participants with additional informative materials.
d. A list of participants and teams.
Here is the list of topics that participants are free to select in order to carry out their online discussions:
1. Talk about yourselves (e.g. family, school, plans for your future, etc.)
2. Hobbies and sports
3. Food and cuisine
4. Fashion and style
5. Mass media (radio, TV, cinema, newspapers and magazines, etc.)
6. New media (the Internet, social networks, mobile apps, etc.)
7. Travelling around Europe. Your meaning of travel
8. Italy and the Italians. Finland and the Finns
9. Using English as a Lingua Franca
10. Developing European citizenship
5 See Appendix.
6 This wiki (http://intercultural-telecollaboration-italy-finland.wikispaces.com/) was created on Wikispaces
(http://www.wikispaces.com/), a website that is free for educational institutions.

These themes were either proposed by the project coordinators or by the students through the pre-
survey.
3.2 Step 2: Implementation

Students have been working on this project at school, during regular English classes that their teachers
dedicate to telecollaboration. However, they are also expected to continue their work at home.
Understandably, it is impossible to interconnect the Italian and the Finnish groups at the same time
during the English classes, because they have different timetables. Moreover, it is unlikely that Italian and
Finnish partners are simultaneously connected online to carry out their work at home. Therefore, the
project coordinators have opted for asynchronous computer-mediated communication (ACMC).
Here is a step-by-step description of the students' main assignment:
1. Each team chooses a topic from the list of themes provided on the wiki.
2. They carry out asynchronous discussions by uploading their written texts onto their personal page
on the wiki. Here, they can also add audiovisual materials (e.g. pictures, videos, etc.) and links to
other websites (e.g. You Tube, Wikipedia, etc.) to share additional information.
3. In each team, one of the students uploads their text between Monday and Wednesday, to start a
discussion.
4. Their partner replies by Saturday, the same week.
5. Teams are free to exchange language feedback (i.e. corrective peer review).
6. Each team may choose to develop the same topic or move to a different one the following week.
Students are free to elaborate their discussions as they chose, but they are encouraged to use the links
provided for each topic as a source of inspiration. They have been told that the main goal of their activity
is to promote intercultural learning, therefore, they are expected to complement their personal views with
opinions that are also typical of their culture.
As regards the so-called netiquette (e.g. socially acceptable conduct online), participants are expected
to post their contributions in time. Besides, they have been told that expressing ones personal
disagreement is acceptable, provided they explain their different ideas and show respect for their
partners'.
Thanks to a forum hosted on the wiki, every participant is allowed to follow the ongoing discussions
by reading the contributions that each team has uploaded, and then interact with them by posting their
messages. This way, participants are interconnected within their CoP.
Students are allowed to use online monolingual and bilingual dictionaries, if necessary. As for the
teachers, their task is to provide guidance and advice when asked by participants. They are not supposed
to correct or mark the students' work, however they are expected to assess the whole process together
with the students and assign them credits for their commitment. They also provide participants with
technical support in the use of digital technology.
3.3 Step 3: Peer review

An important component of this research project is the participants' reciprocal corrective language
feedback to improve the overall intelligibility of their texts. Peer review, as Grazzi (forthcoming) explains,
helps ELF users, to disambiguate opaque or inappropriate lexicogrammar expressions, but most of all
promote[s] a reflexive attitude intrinsic to the interlocutors' communicative performance. This is what
Ware and O'Dowd (2008, p. 46) also call e-partnering, a practice that is based on Vygotsky's (1978) notion
of zone of proximal development (ZPD), whereby participants, Grazzi (forthcoming) continues, commit
themselves to offer reciprocal support in order to negotiate meanings and carry out their joint
intercultural endeavour successfully.

In line with the results of the presurvey, where respondents have expressed their wish to improve
their English, it seems reasonable to expect that e-partnering and the use of ELF will foster the students'
communicative competence and enhance their language awareness. In this perspective, the manual that
is available on the wiki recommends that participants be selective and deliver corrective feedback only
when their partners' texts contain deviant lexicogrammar expressions that affect successful
communication. This should lead to a process of negotiation of forms and meanings between team
members and to the implementation of accommodation strategies (Jenkins, 2000), which are fundamental
features of both ELF and telecollaboration respectively.
4. Conclusions
As was anticipated in the first section of this chapter, the research project that has been presented here
is not over yet, hence it is impossible to provide a quantitative and qualitative data analysis. Nevertheless,
this study should have exemplified the compatibility of ELF and telecollaboration within a theoretical
framework that leads to a reconceptualisation of ELT. The description of the activity design contained
in 3rd section was intended to show that pedagogical innovations in the English classroom can be based
on a blended approach whereby the variability of English as a global language, the technological
innovations of web-mediated communication, and the potential of multicultural collaborative learning
practice converge to enhance the L2-user's intercultural communicative competence (Byram, 1997: 3).
Additionally, peer-to-peer language feedback is expected to improve the learner's language awareness and
focus their attention on the pragmatic goals of verbal communication, leaving them free to express their
languacultural identity through the use of ELF.
To conclude, it is advisable that future research efforts be focused upon integrating NBLT and ELF-
mediated communication to develop a new landscape of innovations in the field of ELT.
About the author

Enrico Grazzi is associate professor of English Language and Translation at the University of Roma Tre, Italy. His main interests are:
English as a lingua franca, educational linguistics, and sociocultural theory. In 2013, he participated in an Italian-American project called
Intercultural Telecollaboration, which was a recipient of the European Language Label Award for Innovative Projects in Language Teaching and
Learning, 2012/2013. He is the author of a monograph on ELF: The Sociocultural Dimension of ELF in the English Classroom. Rome: Editoriale
Anicia 2013. Enrico Grazzi is a qualified teacher trainer, textbook writer and past President of TESOL-Italy (2002-2004). Email:
enrico.grazzi@uniroma3.it
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Thompson & D. Hiple (Eds.), Selected papers from the 2004 NFLRC symposium: Distance education,
distributed learning, and language instruction, (pp. 48-86). Honolulu, HI: University of Hawai'i, National
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APPENDIX
Pre-survey
Intercultural Telecollaboration: Italy-Finland
2014-2015 school year
* This question requires an answer
You are cordially invited to participate in a research study about intercultural telecollaboration between
Italian and Finnish students, using English as a lingua franca (ELF).
This study is being conducted by Enrico Grazzi, a researcher of the University of Roma Tre, Rome, Italy;
Rosella Manni, a teacher of English of the "E.Q. Visconti" high school, Rome, Italy; Jari Aalto and Pivi
Meinander, from Kallio Secondary High School, Helsinki, Finland.
You will be given a questionnaire that will take about 10 minutes to complete, to gather relevant
information about your current approach to your foreign partners' culture and the use of (ELF).
Thank you for your cooperation!
By checking the Agree button, you give the project coordinators consent to use your anonymous
responses as well as your telecollaboration contributions in this study. *
o I AGREE
o I DO NOT AGREE
1) Have you ever used the Internet to get in touch with people from other countries?
o Social Network
o Forum
o E-mail
o Other:
2) Do you think it's important to learn about other peoples' cultures?
o Yes
o No
2b) Why?
3) What topics would you like to engage in during your telecollaboration as regards the contemporary
Italian and Finnish cultural backgrounds?
4) What aspects of your foreign partners' culture are you interested in?
o History
o Art
o Cinema
o Economy
o Cuisine
o Fashion
o Music

o Sport
o Politics
o Other:
5) In what way do you believe it is different from your culture and way of life?
6) How would you define the Italians/Finns?
7) Could you mention three famous Italian/Finnish people?
8) Have you ever used ELF for real communication with a foreign person?
o Yes
o No
9) If yes, please explain why.
10) How long do you think it takes you to write 300 words in English?
o 20 minutes
o 30 minutes
o 40 minutes
o More
11) What do you expect to learn by participating in a telecollaboration project on the Italian/Finnish
cultural backgrounds, using ELF?
o More English vocabulary

o More English grammar
o More about Italy/Finland
o Other:
12) How do you consider your command of ELF?
o Adequate to communicate with my foreign partners.

o Partly inadequate to communicate with my foreign partners.
o Quite inadequate to communicate with my foreign

Khn, K. (2016). Teaching towards ELF competence in the English classroom. In N. Tsantila, J. Mandalios & M. Ilkos
(Eds.), ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives (pp. 25-32). Athens: Deree The American College of Greece.
Teaching towards ELF competence in the English classroom
Kurt Kohn
Abstract
In my paper, I explore ways in which the rift between ELF and EFL can be bridged to establish a common ground for integrated pedagogical
solutions. Guidance and orientation are provided by an ensemble of communicative-constructivist assumptions concerning the
communicative nature of ELF competence, a constructivist understanding of language acquisition as individual and social creation, the role
of speaker satisfaction as a criterion of communicative success, and a constructivist reconceptualization of Standard English as a
teaching/learning goal. Against this backdrop, I sketch out a pedagogical approach geared to the requirements and purposes of ELF
communication. Learning objectives include awareness-raising as well as knowledge and skills development for comprehension, production,
and interaction. Special attention is given to enabling learners to trust and explore their own non-native speaker creativity. Learning tasks
and activities suitable for ELF practice and development are described and discussed with reference to online resources and environments
available from various OER projects. These include BACKBONE narrative interviews with European ELF speakers, TELF small group
discussions with ELF speakers from lingua-cultural backgrounds around the world, PELLIC practice enterprise interactions in business
English in a Moodle-based virtual learning environment, and TILA telecollaboration exchanges (videoconferencing and 3D virtual worlds)
for intercultural foreign language learning in secondary school settings.
Keywords: ELF competence, ELF-aware pedagogy, English classroom, ELF communication, intercultural language learning, Standard
English, EFL, e-learning, telecollaboration, social constructivism
1. Conceptual clarifications
ELF is increasingly being recognized as a learning objective in educational standards for secondary
schools and teacher education, e.g. in the state of Baden-Wrttemberg, Germany
(Kultusministerkonferenz, 2012). ELF pedagogy thus seems to be gaining ground in traditionally
hostile EFL territory. At the same time, however, EFL professionals on all levels of expertise are still
harboring the suspicion that teaching ELF is all about "teaching incorrect English". Much of the
persistent antagonism between ELF and EFL is due to misunderstandings based on hidden differences
regarding focal interests and key conceptualizations both in research and pedagogy.
The way we think and talk about ELF in the English classroom is strongly influenced by the way
we think and talk about ELF in the first place. If we conceptualize ELF as some kind of language, some
kind of variety of English, our pedagogic focus will quite naturally be on sounds, words and phrases and
structures that should or should not be taught. This is why many EFL teachers tend to associate ELF
and ELF pedagogy with teaching incorrect English. If on the other hand we conceptualize ELF as
communication, the pedagogic task will be understood as helping speakers/learners further develop and
use their own English for purposes of communication under ELF conditions. This opens up a more
differentiated view on teaching towards ELF competence.
Before we proceed, we need to clarify our understanding of language learning: what does it mean to
acquire a language? From a social constructivist perspective, the best we can achieve when acquiring a
language is to develop and create our OWN version of it in a complex individual and collaborative
construction process that is influenced by a number of forces including our native language, our chosen
target orientation, the effort we invest, who we are and who we want to be (Khn, 2007, 2011; see also
Seidlhofer & Widdowson, 2009). This raises, once again, the issue of Standard English (SE), a beacon of
EFL, and its role in the ELF-aware English classroom. Is a SE orientation necessarily in conflict with
successful ELF communication? Obviously not, since communication among ELF researchers does not
University of Tbingen, Germany. Email: Kurt.Kohn@uni-tuebingen.de

Teaching towards ELF competence Khn
seem to be handicapped by the fact that most of them are native or non-native speakers of some kind of
SE. Yet, in discussions around the ELF/EFL divide (Swan 2012, 2013; Widdowson 2013) the pedagogic
status of SE is a key element of disagreement. Informed by a social constructivist understanding of
language learning and my personal identity as a non-native ELF speaker with a SE orientation, my own
perspective on these issues is quite clear: there is no intrinsic conflict between SE and ELF (Khn, 2011).
This view is compatible with Barbara Seidlhofers (2011) line of reasoning according to which the choice
of the target language is not ELF-specific but rather depends on local educational decisions. More
important than the choice of the target language, she argues, is what ELF speakers do with their target
language when they appropriate it, and make it their own, for ELF communication purposes (p. 198).
The distinction between a rigid and an open SE orientation1 might help to better understand and,
hopefully, resolve the conflict between EFL and ELF regarding the pedagogic status of SE. According
to a rigid SE orientation, learners are required to strictly comply with pedagogically mediated and imposed
SE norms deviations might be tolerated (in particular in communicative approaches) but the closer they
get, the better. Such a view is quite common in EFL circles even among otherwise modern and
enlightened teachers. On closer inspection, however, it becomes clear that a rigid SE orientation
conceptualizes language learning as some kind of behavioristic copying and cloning process, i.e. as
something we just do not believe in any more. An open SE orientation, on the other hand, incorporates
a social constructivist view according to which the adopted SE target model provides guidance but at the
same time leaves room for the cognitive and emotional processes by which learners create their own
brand of English.
Adoption of an open SE orientation acknowledges non-native speakers creativity as an essential and
non-detachable part of foreign language learning. It is of crucial importance for teachers and other
language teaching professionals to see this creativity as pedagogically positive and valuable. Accepting
non-native speakers natural creativity goes hand in hand with granting them stronger agency in
connection with the assessment of success. Speakers own satisfaction with their communicative
performance needs to be acknowledged and pedagogically implemented as a key criterion for success.
Speaker satisfaction is the force that links creativity with autonomy.
2. Dimensions of ELF competence
Against this backdrop, issues of ELF competence development are now addressed with regard to five
dimensions: awareness, comprehension, production, communicative interaction, and non-native speaker
creativity. On each of these dimensions, speakers attitudes and requirements, their linguistic-
communicative knowledge as well as their strategic knowledge processing and interaction skills are
involved, challenged and adapted in special ways. Overall orientation and monitoring is provided by the
speakers desire and intention to communicate under lingua franca conditions successfully and to their
own satisfaction. ELF competence on all five dimensions plays a crucial role in connection with third
space negotiation in intercultural encounters between speakers from different lingua-cultural
backgrounds (Kramsch, 2009).
From a pedagogic perspective, speakers first of all need to develop awareness of linguistic-
communicative lingua franca manifestations of English and the conditions and requirements of
successful and satisfactory ELF communication. To achieve this, it is necessary for them to perceive and
evaluate ELF communication in relation to their own requirements of success and satisfaction. At the
same time, these requirements need to be open for change in the light of speakers' ELF exposure and
experience. For many ELF speakers, this includes reevaluating their familiar focus on correctness, as
1 These terms replace the strong/weak dichotomy used in Khn 2012a and 2015.

adopted from the common EFL classroom, and readjusting it within a more complex constellation of
requirements of accuracy, fluency, comprehensibility and participation balanced in relation to the
respective communicative situation (Khn, 2011). This goes hand in hand with perceiving and accepting
themselves as agents of their own communication and development. All in all, awareness helps stimulate
speakers linguistic and cultural tolerance, both for others and for themselves, as a crucial element in their
endeavour to make English their own. Awareness-raising tasks include explorations of ones own and
others manifestations of genuine ELF communication with a focus on language, communication styles
and cultural differences, combined with an assessment regarding efficiency and speaker satisfaction.
Reflective follow-up activities help learners digest their exploration experience. These activities can be
performed alone, in pairs or in larger (class) groups. Online support (e.g. a Moodle forum) can be used
depending on availability or pedagogic preference. Explicit learning about characteristics and possibilities
of ELF communication and about the challenges and strategies involved complements the experiential
insights and puts them in a wider research-informed context.
With regard to ELF-aware comprehension skills, special attention should be given to unfamiliar
pronunciation and sentence structures, to unclear utterance meanings regarding lexis, proposition or
illocution, and to weak discourse coherence due to lack of explicit markers (cohesion) or unfamiliar
organization. In terms of exposure to linguistic-communicative means of expression, it is evident that
comprehension reaches out far beyond what a speaker should be able to master for production purposes.
Suitable tasks involve exposure to and practice with pedagogically selected manifestations of genuine
ELF communication. Focus should be on the identification and analysis of comprehension problems
due to unfamiliar linguistic-communicative means of expression, unclear meanings or lack of coherence.
Learners need to get accustomed to these phenomena and they also need to develop appropriate
processing strategies. Further diagnostic consolidation of the insights gained is achieved through
reflective follow-up activities, alone or in (online) collaboration with others, as well as through learning
about comprehension including challenges and strategic solutions.
Helping learners develop ELF-aware production skills crucially involves inviting them to reset their
own requirements of performance and to better align them with the challenges involved in
communicating outside the protected enclosure of the classroom. This concerns in particular a more
relaxed and functional attitude towards correctness and a stronger focus on fluency. It is also important
to help learners expand and strengthen the communicative power and specialization of their linguistic
repertoire with regard to, e.g., politeness, agreeing and disagreeing, topic and conversation management,
paraphrasing, or handling misunderstandings. In general, learners need to develop and consolidate their
ELF-specific pragmatic fluency (House, 2002) and express-ability (Albl-Mikasa, 2013). Relevant
tasks draw on participation in authentic ELF interactions with a focus on communicative form and
function and an overall social constructivist Standard English orientation. Fluency practice should be
foregrounded and combined with the identification and analysis of production problems, attention to
linguistic means of expression specifically relevant for intercultural ELF communication, and facilitation
of collaborative output processing and languaging (Swain, 2006). Reflective follow-up explorations as
well as learning about the conditions and strategic processes of successful non-native speaker production,
preferably in collaboration with others and enhanced by e-learning tools, further consolidate and enrich
the learning experience.
Comprehension and production processes converge in strategic communicative interaction. On
this competence dimension, the requirements speakers impose on their own communicative performance
play a key role. Speakers usually want to get their meaning across, they may want to comply with certain
linguistic standards and conventions they consider educated, or they want to be accepted as members in
a preferred community. To meet these requirements they activate and creatively stretch the linguistic
means of expression at their disposal the way they deem most appropriate. Third space negotiation is

a shaping force since it requires strategic moves of various kinds, from avoiding and handling
misunderstandings (Mauranen, 2006) to mutual accommodation, meaning negotiation, and letting-it-
pass. From a pedagogic perspective, it is important to understand that all these strategies, albeit ELF-
specific adaptations and uses, are firmly anchored in speakers ordinary communicative competence and
behavior. Suitable tasks should be designed around authentic ELF communication with a focus on
meaning and community-related communication intentions, the identification and analysis of problems,
and the exploration of strategic solutions. Relevant back-up support is provided by reflective follow-up
and complementary learning about activities.
The most challenging part of ELF competence formation concerns non-native speaker creativity.
In traditional EFL contexts, this quality is commonly neglected with detrimental effects on learners
motivation, comfort and learning success. However, being able to make creative use of ones linguistic-
communicative resources is a speakers most natural and distinguishing capability. It is at the root of
communicative adaptation, learning and development, and it holds for native and non-native speakers
alike. As Widdowson (2003) states, "learners are creative in spite of themselves, and their
nonconformities are taken as evidence of incompetence, for all their appealing inventiveness" (p. 49).
Being allowed to creatively appropriate the target language is a necessary and constitutive condition for
non-native speakers to develop a feeling of agency and ownership, self-confidence and satisfaction.
Helping learners to explore and trust their natural non-native speaker creativity is thus of foremost
importance in teaching towards ELF competence (Khn, 2015, p. 62). Relevant tasks begin with raising
learners awareness of the need and possibility to reconceptualize their SE orientation (or whichever
target orientation they might have adopted) from a social constructivist perspective. Such a move renders
their requirements of performance, including those concerning compliance with a (SE) target model,
more pliable and easier to adjust to varying communicative situations. And it provides leeway for learners
to reset their requirements of performance to include the dimension of speaker satisfaction. Next are
tasks for the development and practice of strategies for the creative exploration and extension of ones
own linguistic-communicative resources. This includes developing a critical monitoring sensitivity for
communicative success and speaker satisfaction through collaborative and mutual self-assessment
combined with reflective follow-up activities. A convenient framework of thought is provided through
learning about the fundamentally social constructivist nature of communication, language acquisition, and
language change.
3. E-learning resources and environments for ELF competence development
In this chapter, four projects are briefly described that offer different e-learning perspectives on
communication-based language learning (see also Grazzi 2013). The respective practice materials and
environments are characterized with regard to their pedagogic potential for the development of ELF
competence.
The EU project BACKBONE (Pedagogic Corpora for Content and Language Integrated
Learning)2 offers several corpora of video-recorded natural narratives in various European languages
(Khn, 2012b). Included is an ELF corpus with 50 narratives by French, German, Polish, Spanish, and
Turkish speakers. All narratives are available as an online open educational resource (OER) along with
video and sound access as well as transcripts annotated with regard to topics and language characteristics.
Flexible search procedures combine annotation-based queries with lexical searches and displays.
The ELF narratives represent speakers from different walks of life and exhibit a variety of
pronunciations, speaking styles and levels of proficiency. They are thus particularly suitable for awareness
2 http://projects.ael.uni-tuebingen.de/backbone (2009-2010)

raising and comprehension practice. Watching the video recordings and listening to speakers trying to
find expression for what they want to say, first of all exposes users to different manifestations of ELF
performance. What is more, however, it also makes it possible for them to evaluate what they see, hear
and understand in relation to themselves: it helps them sharpen their own requirement profile and target
orientation, and enables them to make peace with who they are in ELF communication. In a more
practical vein, the ELF narratives can be used for repeated listening comprehension in order to get used
to unfamiliar accents and ways of speaking and to develop appropriate strategic solutions. This can be
done with or without transcript support depending on scaffolding needs. Both awareness raising and
comprehension practice would greatly profit from collaborative reflection and languaging. Production
activities could be facilitated and integrated in connection with follow-up tasks involving e.g. summary
writing or discussions.
The small-group discussions offered by the TELF corpus project (Tbingen English as a Lingua
Franca)3 shift the focus of pedagogic exploitation towards communicative interaction. The TELF
corpus (ca. 100,000 words) contains 36 intercultural ELF discussions about a critical incident topic
involving 160 speakers (including native speakers) from 30 different linguistic and cultural backgrounds.
The discussions are available as sound files of the original video recordings along with transcripts, speaker
profiles concerning learning history and requirements of performance as well as retrospective comments
about problems and challenges encountered and strategic solutions found. This combination of
performance and introspection data offers insights into ELF communication conditions and strategies
beyond mere output recordings (for a similar approach see Salakhyan, 2014).
The TELF discussions can be used for ELF awareness-raising and comprehension practice. Different
from the BACKBONE narratives, the focus is on communicative exchanges in small groups. In addition
to noticing ELF-specific peculiarities and familiarizing oneself with speakers pronunciation or speaking
styles, learners can study and evaluate the strategic dimension of ELF communication. Do speakers show
consideration for each others linguistic-communicative capabilities? How do they agree or disagree? Do
they develop meaning collaboratively? Do they notice and tackle communication problems? Which roles
do speakers take and with what linguistic means? Collaborative reflection helps to reach deeper levels of
noticing and evaluation. At the same time, reflective languaging introduces an element of production
practice, which itself can be carried further through follow-up summaries or discussions.
The EU project PELLIC (Practice Enterprise for Language Learning and Intercultural
Communication)4 offers a more interactive quality of pedagogic deployment (Glombitza, 2012). With
its virtual learning environment based on Moodle and Google Apps, PELLIC demonstrates how business
students from different universities across Europe set up Practice Enterprise companies and engage in
business interactions in English. Emphasis is on written communication in connection with business-
related activities including e.g. starting a company, advertising, buying and selling, as well as attending
trade fairs and exhibitions. The PELLIC approach enables speakers to change from observers and
evaluators of other peoples communication to active agents in their own authentic communicative
interactions. This brings production practice to the fore, along with the struggle for and exploration of
communication strategies. Communication problems and challenges can be identified and analyzed with
the aim of finding a solution. The original PELLIC focus on written business communication can be
easily extended to include spoken interactions as well.
The EU project TILA (Telecollaboration for Intercultural Language Acquisition)5 sets out to
explore the pedagogic potential of telecollaboration for intercultural foreign language learning on
secondary school level (12-18 years, A2-C1) (Jauregi, Melchor-Couto, & Beltrn 2013). This objective is
3 http://projects.ael.uni-tuebingen.de/telf (2006-2013)
4 http://projects.ael.uni-tuebingen.de/pellic (2009-2011)
5 www.tilaproject.eu (2013-2015)

motivated by two complementary assumptions: (a) successful language learning is essentially driven by
communication, and (b) telecollaboration facilitates and supports authentic intercultural communication
beyond and outside the natural limitations of the physical classroom. In order to provide pupils from
different European countries with opportunities for intercultural contact and written as well as spoken
communication, blended learning task ensembles are used to enrich the face-to-face classroom approach
with practice activities in asynchronous and synchronous telecollaboration environments including
forum, blog, chat, videoconferencing, and 3D virtual worlds in OpenSim (Hoffstaedter & Khn, 2014).
In addition to the traditional native speaker oriented tandem constellation, TILA also offers a lingua
franca format in which pupils use chat or video communication to talk with each other in pairs or small
groups in a shared target language, e.g. English, French, German, or Spanish (Hoffstaedter & Khn,
2015a). Familiar topics such as "fashion", "eating habits" or "use of social media" are chosen to enable
pupils to draw on their own experiences, opinions and preferences and thus to make their conversations
authentic for themselves. Telecollaboration access is available from the pupils homes instead of from
their schools computer rooms. This helps to avoid sound problems due to congested school networks
and to grant pupils more flexibility for making appointments. Most importantly, however, home access
provides the kind of communicative privacy generally lacking in a crowded computer room.
Under these conditions, all ELF-related competence dimensions from awareness to comprehension
and production to strategic interaction are activated, explored and extended. Both pupils and teachers,
including those who initially lean more towards native/non-native speaker tandems, come to appreciate
the ensuing ELF conversations because of their rich thematic and linguistic diversity, overall cooperativity
and motivational force. Quite obviously, the ELF format holds the potential for learners to exploit and
develop their non-native speaker creativity, the most advanced and most challenging dimension of ELF
competence. By experiencing themselves in interaction with others and by evaluating their own
communicative achievements against their own communicative intentions and requirements of success,
learners are able to reach deeper levels of awareness and self-awareness as speakers. While struggling for
ways to express themselves (Swain, 2006), they become sensitive to the need and possibility to creatively
explore and extend their own linguistic-communicative resources. And by finding themselves in the same
non-native speaker boat, they learn to hone their sense for communicative empathy and collaboration
(Hoffstaedter & Khn, 2015b).
4. Conclusions
Teaching towards ELF competence in the English classroom requires two things: (a) a social
constructivist reconceptualization of SE as a pedagogic target model that allows for creative
appropriation and development, and (b) flexible and pedagogically sustainable access for learners to
intercultural ELF communication.
The first requirement addresses the key culprit for the pedagogic rift between EFL and ELF. Even
when informed about empirical insights gained by ELF research regarding the creative nature of ELF
communication, teachers from traditional EFL contexts often seem to be unable to appreciate the
pedagogic value of an ELF perspective. The stumbling block, however, is not so much their SE
orientation as such but rather a rigid, behavioristic view leaving no room for non-native speaker creativity.
An open, social constructivist reconceptualization of learners (and teachers) SE orientation is argued to
provide the necessary common ground for EFL and ELF interests and perspectives.
The second requirement follows from the view that communication is more than a goal of language
learning; it is its very medium. This view is all the more important in connection with learning and
teaching towards ELF competence, i.e. competence for intercultural ELF communication. Successful
implementation of an ELF perspective in the EFL classroom thus crucially hinges on the availability of

opportunities for learners to experience authentic intercultural ELF communication. E-learning

resources and telecollaboration exchanges are demonstrated to offer innovative pedagogic solutions for
developing the ELF-related competence dimension of awareness, comprehension, production,
interaction, and non-native speaker creativity.
Currently debated ELF-aware teacher education programs with their post-normative (Dewey, 2012),
plurilithic (Hall, Wicaksono, Liu, Qian, & Xiaoqing, 2013), or transformative (Sifakis, 2014) orientation
could be significantly enhanced by a social constructivist pedagogic revision of SE and the incorporation
of e-learning approaches based on open online resources and telecollaboration environments for
intercultural ELF communication.
About the author

Kurt Kohn is emeritus professor of Applied English Linguistics at the University of Tbingen and director of the Steinbeis Transfer Center
Language Learning Media (www.sprachlernmedien.de). His research and teaching interests include theoretical and empirical issues of second
language learning and teaching, e-learning for languages, English as a lingua franca, translation and interpreting. Since the early 1990s, he
has been involved in EU projects focusing on multimedia content authoring, pedagogic corpus development, intercultural telecollaboration,
interpreter training in virtual reality, and language teacher education. Email: Kurt.Kohn@uni-tuebingen.de
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The attitudes of learners and teachers towards ELF-oriented materials, with

related implications
Reiko Takahashi
Abstract
It has been a while since Jenkins (2004) suggested that applied linguists and publishers would need to find ways of promoting a greater ELF
perspective in teaching materials. However, the prevailing orientation in [..] ELT materials remains undoubtedly towards ENL (Jenkins,
2012, p. 487). It is not yet clear how well ELF perspectives have been integrated into teaching materials, or how users are likely to respond
to new materials in the future. These areas are open to investigation. The aims of this paper are: (1) to examine the attitudes of Japanese
learners and teachers of English towards materials that have an ELF perspective; and (2) to discuss relevant findings with regard to the
implementation of ELF-oriented materials. I first identify an ELF-orientation in the representation of coursebooks, as well as in the content
of coursebook readings, by analysing ELT coursebooks according to ELF traits. I then go on to investigate the attitudes of Japanese learners
and teachers of English towards ELF-oriented features by means of questionnaires, focus groups and interviews. The survey data revealed
that informants showed diverse reactions to ELF-oriented features that were closely related to issues of a target model (e.g., written forms
of non-standard English). There were participants (both students and teachers) who expressed concerns regarding the varied forms of
English. Even those teachers who were positive about the inclusion of these forms remained concerned about the level of the learners and
the stage of their learning when using such materials. In the meantime, student comments implied that they became more aware of such
issues throughout the focus-group sessions, where they exchanged ideas concerning the use of English varieties and standard/non-standard
English. Based on an analysis of this data, I conclude my paper by proposing pedagogical implications for the future use of ELF-oriented
materials.
Keywords: English as a Lingua Franca, teaching materials, pedagogical implications
1. Introduction
It has been a while since Jenkins (2004) suggested that applied linguists and publishers would need to
find ways of promoting a greater perspective of English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) in teaching materials.
However, the prevailing orientation in [..] ELT [English Language Teaching] materials remains
undoubtedly towards ENL [English as a Native Language] (Jenkins, 2012, p. 487). It is not yet clear
how well ELF perspectives have been integrated into teaching materials, or how users are likely to
respond to new materials in the future. These areas are open to investigation.
The aims of this paper are: (1) to examine the attitudes of Japanese learners and teachers of English
towards materials that have an ELF perspective; and (2) to discuss relevant findings with regard to the
implementation of ELF-oriented materials. I first identify the ELF-orientation in the representation of
coursebooks (such as the nationality of characters represented there), as well as in the content of
coursebook readings, by analysing ELT coursebooks according to ELF traits. I then go on to investigate
the attitudes of Japanese learners and teachers of English towards ELF-oriented features by means of
questionnaires and focus groups. For the purposes of this paper, I will devote the majority of space to
the pedagogical implications, rather than solely reporting the results of the analysis and research.
2. Literature review
Graddol (2006, p. 87) claims that some of its [ELFs] ideas are likely to influence mainstream teaching
and assessment practices in the future. Indeed, a new approach to teaching and learning English has
recently emerged: teaching English as a Lingua Franca (ELF). Although ELF is not a single variety, the
philosophy of teaching ELF could be reflected in the purposes, goals, target models, teaching materials
and assessment methods of English learning and teaching. It would be premature to make detailed
Gakushuin Womens College. reiko.takahashi@gakushuin.ac.jp

Attitudes of learners and teachers Takahashi
pedagogical suggestions regarding teaching ELF at this stage (Seidlhofer, 2004, p. 226). However,
Seidlhofer (2004, p. 226) does suggest that it is worth attempting a broad outline of likely consequences
of an orientation towards teaching ELF.
As a suggestion for ELT practice, scholars including Jenkins (2004) have proposed exposing learners
to a wider range of varieties of English, including outer-circle (OC) and expanding-circle (EC) varieties
(Kachru, 1985). This exposure would expand a learners knowledge and move him/her beyond a
monomodel to a polymodel understanding of the English language (Brown, 1995, p. 237). In addition,
exposure to varieties of English other than a target model could help learners understand that the variety
they are learning is one of many and may differ from what their future interlocutors use (Matsuda, 2012,
p. 173). Furthermore, [d]ifferences in vocabulary, grammar, and usage can also be presented through
media texts and other written materials (Friedrich & Matsuda, 2011, p. 338). McKay (2012, pp. 73-74)
recommends having readings on the diversity of standard in English today which include examples
of differences in specific features of English.
As suggested by Jenkins (2004), we will need to find ways of promoting the inclusion of a greater ELF
perspective in teaching materials. For that, we should first identify the specific ways in which we could
include the ELF perspective in materials. In addition, we should investigate how people are likely to
respond to such new materials in the future. I hereby present my research question:
What are the attitudes of Japanese learners and teachers of English towards ELF-oriented features in
coursebooks, and what are the implications of the implementation of ELF-oriented coursebooks?
3. Research methodology
I first identify the ELF-orientation in the representation of coursebooks, as well as in the content of
coursebook readings, by analysing ELT coursebooks according to the presence of ELF traits. I then go
on to investigate the attitudes of Japanese learners and teachers of English towards ELF-oriented features
by means of questionnaires, focus groups and interviews.
3.1 Coursebook analysis

For the coursebook analysis, I employed a taxonomy that I rst created for a project in 2011 (Takahashi,
2011). More specically, I investigated the following features in the representation of coursebooks, which
are based on categories originally proposed by Matsuda (2002): (1) nationality of characters, (2) number
of words uttered by each character, (3) locations of dialogues, and (4) types of communication. Regarding
the content of coursebook passages/topics, for each coursebook I searched for sections and sentences
that contained information on any of the following ELF-related contents/topics: (1) the current/future
situation of English and number of speakers, (2) English varieties, (3) linguistic imperialism and critical
awareness, (4) ELF contexts and uses, (5) new model(s), and (6) multicultural topics.
The analysis (above) was necessary in order to find the coursebook features that are comparatively
more (or less) ELF-oriented. Through the analysis, I identified some features that display more (or less)
ELF orientation, compared between the different coursebooks. The following list shows the eight ELF
features that I discovered (see Takahashi 2011 and 2014 for details):
Representation
Feature 1: Number of Non-native Speaking (NNS) Characters Other than Japanese
Feature 2: Number of Different NNS Characters Other than Japanese (Range of Different
Nationalities)
Feature 3: Number of Words Uttered by NNSs Other than Japanese
Feature 4: Number of OC and EC countries other than Japan as places of English uses

Feature 5: Instances of Communication exclusively between NNSs
Content of readings/topics
Feature 6: Number of Chapters which Contain ELF Issues
Feature 7: Number of Different ELF issues
Feature 8: Number of Topics about OC and EC Countries other than Japan
3.2 Research on the attitudes of learners and teachers of English

I investigated the attitudes of Japanese learners and teachers of English towards how the users and the
uses of English are featured in the coursebooks (Representation) and also their attitude towards the
contents of the passages/topics by means of questionnaires, focus groups, and interviews. In total, 454
eleventh-grade students from three state SHSs (SHS A, SHS B and SHS C) and 28 teachers were involved
in the questionnaire survey.
I designed the questionnaire by including the ELF-oriented features which I found in the coursebook
analysis (above). The questionnaire consists of four parts: Part 1 included questions regarding the
coursebooks representation of English users and uses; Part 2 contained questions about the content of
the passages/topics; Part 3 consisted of questions about audio materials (although the results of this
section will not be reported since they are not the focus of the current paper); and Part 4 included
questions about the informants' background and experience of learning English. I conducted two student
focus-group sessions (16 students in total), two mini-group sessions with the teachers (9 teachers in total),
and two one-to-one interviews. This is part of a wider study about the features of ELF in English
coursebooks (see Takahashi, 2011 for details). For the purposes of this paper, I will report my main
findings from Parts 1 and 2 of the questionnaire; in particular, findings which are related to the
implementation of ELF-oriented materials.
4. Results
Overall, the survey data revealed that informants expressed little objection to ELF features which were
related to contextual factors of ELF, for instance, representation of characters in a dialogue. In contrast,
they showed diverse reactions to ELF-oriented features that were closely related to issues of a target
model (e.g., written forms of non-standard English).
4.1 Reactions to representation of characters

In Part 1 of the questionnaire, the informants were asked to choose their preferred combination of
characters out of five possible combinations. The five choices were:
(1) 2 Japanese (JP) and 1 Native speaker (NS)

(2) 1 JP and 2 NSs
(3) 1 JP and 2 NNSs (more ELF-oriented)
(4) 1 JP, 1 NS and 1 NNS
(5) 3 NSs (less ELF-oriented)
The combination of 1 JP, 1 NS and 1 NNS (Choice 4) was the preferred choice of SHS students. Two
hundreds and fifty-four student informants (55.9%) chose it.
Both students and teachers expressed their favourable attitudes towards a wide range of characters.
Some students wrote on their questionnaire that it was good because they could see different opinions,
values, customs and cultures. The following are a few examples of their written comments:

I thought the content [of the coursebook] would become interesting because the values of the three people
were different from each other.
I think it [the coursebook] will become more interesting if it features differences in ways of thinking and in cultures.
I think it is more interesting if there are thoughts of mother-tongue speakers and those of non-mother-tongue
speakers.
The focus-group data also showed that the students felt positive about the combination of characters (1
JP, 1 NS and 1 NNS). There were also some student focus-group participants who did not give me any
definite reasons for their preferences other than to say [including a variety of characters is] fun. Another
student participant commented on the use of conversations between NNSs in English coursebooks as
follows: I think, in the future, it will be taken for granted, but for now I think it is a bit strange. In
summary, the informants and participants did not show objection to ELF-oriented features in the
representation of characters in a dialogue.
4.2 Reactions to ELF-related passages/topics

In Part 2 of the questionnaire, the informants read eight short extracts related to ELF issues. They rated
them on a five-point scale according to how important they thought each extract was for learning English
in Japan thus indicating whether or not they thought that these extracts should be included and taught
in a senior-high-school English coursebook. The eight extracts included the following contents: current
situation of English, existence of different English(es) and the names and characteristics of these, ELF
contexts and uses, standard English, new model(s), international intelligibility as a goal, and learners
choice. Due to the limited space available, I will report the reactions to the following two extracts: (1) the
extract on the existence of different varieties of English and the names of these (Extract 1); and (2) the
extract on the characteristics of a non-standard variety of English (Extract 2) (for the extracts, see
Appendix 1; for all the results, see Takahashi 2011).
The teacher reactions to Extract 1 appeared to be positive: more than 85 percent of the teachers
thought that it was extremely important or somewhat important, with 71.4 percent choosing extremely
important. Approximately 60 percent of the students thought that it was extremely important or
somewhat important.
Extract 2 is different from Extract 1 because it presents the forms of a non-standard variety of English.
The informants here felt comparatively less positive about Extract 2, which included authentic examples
of English in Singapore, than they felt about Extract 1. Nevertheless, approximately 60 percent of the
teachers still thought that it was extremely important or somewhat important.
There were participants (both students and teachers) who expressed concerns about including the
varied forms of English in a coursebook. The focus-group data reveals that even those teachers who
were positive about the inclusion of these forms remained concerned about the level of the learners and
the stage of their learning when using such materials. Similarly, while being aware of the merit of including
non-standard English, some teachers mentioned a possible negative influence on the learners:
Data 1
Male Teacher 1: It wouldnt be a problem at all to tell students that people can communicate using this type
of [varied] forms in Singapore, but, for Japanese people, upon learning English, well, if people feel: Oh, then we
do not have to memorise the correct [forms of] English, I feel it is a bit dangerous.
(JHS A, Teachers interview, Time: 6:50 7:22)

Focus-group students from two different SHS schools expressed similar concerns about including the
forms of English spoken in Singapore. One student made the following comment:
Data 2
Researcher: What do you think about including such a sentence [as Extract 2]?
Female Student 1: Not good.
Researcher: Not good. Do you have any reason(s)?
Female Student 1: I think proper English should be taught.
(SHS B, Students focus group, Time: 18:30 18:47)
In the meantime, student comments implied that they became more aware of such issues throughout the
focus-group sessions, where they exchanged ideas concerning the use of English varieties and
standard/non-standard English.
5. Discussion
In this section, I will discuss the relevant findings with regard to the implementation of ELF-oriented
materials.
5.1 Contextual factors in coursebooks

The contextual factors for the ELF-features in my analysis were (1) representation of characters, (2)
location of dialogues, and (3) types of communication. I consider that these have been included in the
coursebooks for the purpose of exposing learners to different uses of English, different speakers of
English, and different types of communication. The participants in my study did not show strong
reactions to contextual factors in textbook representation.
Other ELF features related to the contextual factors in the current study appeared in texts about the
current situation of English, the existence of different varieties of English, ELF contexts and uses. The
students reactions towards these extracts were comparatively more positive than those directed towards
the extract about characteristics of a non-standard variety of English. One possible reason why students
rated the extract on the characteristics of a variety less positively (than the extracts which included
contextual factors) may be because it presented non-standard forms of English in a written text, or also
because it was related to the issue of a target model.
5.2 Features related to the issue of a target model

The survey data revealed that informants showed diverse reactions to ELF-oriented features that were
closely related to issues of a target model (e.g., written forms of non-standard English). There were
participants (both students and teachers) who expressed concerns regarding the varied forms of English.
Even those teachers who were positive about the inclusion of these forms remained concerned about
the level of the learners and the stage of their learning when using such materials. Therefore, we should
at least take special care when including and dealing with the written forms of non-standard in English
coursebooks.
6. Conclusion and implications
Based on an analysis of this data, I conclude my paper by proposing pedagogical implications for the
future use and development of ELF-oriented materials. Firstly, the following features, which I regard as
contextual factors, could be relatively easily incorporated into ELT coursebooks:

1. Representing active participation of NNS characters in dialogues

2. Including contents of readings on:
- the current/future situation of NNS users
- the diversity of English
3. Including more multi-cultural topics
These contextual factors can be seen as safe options when compared to the passages which include the
actual forms of non-standard English, which differ from the learners target model.
Secondly, the reasons for using ELF-oriented materials should be clearly communicated to the
students. The participants in the current study expressed more sensible attitudes towards the features
which were closely related to the target model than towards the contextual factors in coursebooks. One
of the possible purposes behind the inclusion of ELF features is to make learners become aware of the
existence of different varieties of English. Another purpose is to make people more aware that the
primary reason for English learning and teaching in certain contexts is to help learners attain a level of
international intelligibility (not necessarily NS-like accuracy), at least under the aims advocated by the
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) in Japan.
Finally, I found that the discussion topics afforded learners with opportunities to think about issues
related to the diversity of English. Student participants in my study exchanged their ideas in focus groups
that considered such issues as English varieties, standard English, and new models. Some student
participants said that they had never thought about these issues before. These responses from the
students indicate the potential of discussion opportunities, as suggested by Matsuda (2003, 2005, and
2006). An alternative means of raising a learners awareness of English varieties is to increase his/her
meta-knowledge about Englishes (Friedrich & Matsuda, 2011, p. 339; Matsuda, 2012, p. 174). This
effort to increase a learners meta-knowledge about Englishes can be put into practice either in English
or in a learners first language.
About the author

Reiko Takahashi is Junior Associate Professor at Gakushuin Womens College in Tokyo. She graduated from the University of Edinburgh,
and her doctoral research is on ELF-oriented features in ELT materials and the attitudes of Japanese learners and teachers of English
towards ELF-oriented materials. Her current research interests include English as a Lingua Franca, World Englishes, and ELT. Email:
reiko.takahashi@gakushuin.ac.jp
References
Brown, K. (1995). World Englishes: To teach or not to teach? World Englishes, 14(2), 233243.
Friedrich, P., & Matsuda, A. (2011). English as an international language: A curriculum blueprint. World
Englishes, 30(3), 332344.
Graddol, D. (2006). English next. London: British Council.
Ichikawa, Y., Hestand, J. R., Shiokawa, H., Kobayashi, C., & Hagino, S. (2004). Unicorn English Course II.
Tokyo: Buneido.
Jenkins, J. (2004). ELF at the gate: The position of English as a Lingua Franca. In A.
Pulverness (Ed.), IATEFL 2004 Liverpool Conference Selections. Canterbury, UK: International
Association of Teachers of English as a Foreign Language.
Jenkins, J. (2012). English as a Lingua Franca from the classroom to the classroom. ELT Journal, 66(4),
486494.
Kachru, B. (1985). Standards, codification and sociolinguistic realism: The English language in the outer
circle. In R. Quirk & H. Widdowson (Eds.), English in the World: Teaching and learning the language and the
literatures (pp. 1130). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press in association with the British Council.

Matsuda, A. (2002). Representation of users and uses of English in beginning Japanese EFL textbooks.
JALT Journal, 24(2), 182200.
Matsuda, A. (2003). Incorporating World Englishes in teaching English as an international language.
TESOL Quarterly, 37(4), 71929.
Matsuda, A. (2005). Preparing future users of English as an international language. In A. Burns (Ed.),
Teaching English from a Global Perspective (pp. 6372). Alexandria, VA: TESOL.
Matsuda, A. (2006). Negotiating ELT assumptions in EIL classrooms. In J. Edge (Ed.), (Re)Locating
TESOL in an age of empire (pp. 158170). Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave MacMillan.
Matsuda, A. (2012). Teaching materials in EIL. In L. Alsagoff, S. L. McKay, G. Hu, & W. A. Renandya
(Eds.), Principles and practices for teaching English as an international language (pp. 168185). New York, NY:
Routledge.
McKay, S. L. (2012). Teaching materials for English as an International Language. In A. Matsuda (Ed.),
Principles and practices of teaching English as an international language (pp. 7083). Bristol: Multilingual
Matters.
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology. (2003). The establishment of an action plan
to cultivate Japanese with English abilities. Retrieved from:
http://www.mext.go.jp/english/topics/03072801.htm
Seidlhofer, B. (2004). Research perspectives on teaching English as a Lingua Franca. Annual Review of
Applied Linguistics, 24, 209239.
Shimozaki, M., Iida, R., Iwasa, Y., Kuroiwa, Y., Sasaki, H., Sugeno, A., & Taylor, G. (2004). Crown English
series II. Tokyo: Sanseido.
Takahashi, R. (2011). English as a Lingua Franca in a Japanese context: An analysis of ELF-oriented features in
teaching materials and the attitudes of Japanese teachers and learners of English to ELF-oriented materials
(Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK.
Takahashi, R. (2014). An analysis of ELF-oriented features in ELT coursebooks. English Today, 30(1), 28
34. doi:10.1017/S0266078413000539

APPENDIX
Questionnaire, Part 2
Here are some extracts regarding the current situation of and facts about English. How important do you
think it is for you learning English in Japan that these sentences be included and taught in a senior high
school English coursebook (English II)?
Please indicate your preference using the following scale and circle the appropriate number. If you have
any comments, please feel free to write them in the space provided below.
(5 = extremely important, 4 = somewhat important, 3 = neutral, 2 = not very important, 1 = not
important at all)
Extract 1
As the English language grows in the world, it is creating new dialects called Englishes American
English, British English, Indian English, and several other Englishes.
There are many kinds of English used in the world. For example: Indian students generally use the
variety of English common in India, even when they travel abroad; an Italian businessman often
speaks English with an Italian accent.
(p. 85, Lesson 6: Singlish Bad, English Good, Crown English Series II; p. 144, Lesson 10: English
as a World Language, Unicorn English Course II)
Extremely important 5 4 3 2 1 Not important at all

Any comment?
Extract 2
Often the grammar [of English in Singapore] is a little simpler, or just different [from standard
English]. For instance, in a shop in Singapore you may hear the customer bargaining with the
salesclerk, Cheaper, can or not?
Every Singaporean speak. Me too. It not a dialect. (Examples of English in Singapore. Emphasis
added.)
(p. 142, Lesson 10: English as a World Language, Unicorn English Course II; p. 86, Lesson 6:
Singlish Bad; English Good, Crown English Series II)
Extremely important 5 4 3 2 1 Not important at all

Any comment?

COLLECTING ELF CORPORA AND DESCRIBING ELF
In this section contributors report on studies based on corpora compiled in different

geographical, socio-cultural and educational settings and through various media.
Anamika Sharma reports on a study aimed at contributing to the Asian Corpus of
Englih by recording communication-focused interactions amongst Asian speakers of
English. Laura Centonze uses social network interactions of authentic use of ELF by
participants from different L1s to compile a corpus of Facebook posts dealing with visa
consultancy services in order to examine the extent to which politeness and code-
switching are interconnected and represent an effective means of eliciting preferred
responses in asymmetric communication contexts. Thomas Christiansens study,
which analyses students internet messages regarding accommodation arrangements in
Italy, identifies extensive code-switching, but also shows how ELF is informed by
Italian, concluding that ELF is a complex and varied linguistic repertoire.

Sharma, A. (2016). ACE Japan: A closer look at the ùser language. In N. Tsantila, J. Mandalios & M. Ilkos (Eds.), ELF:
ACE Japan: A closer look at the ùser language
Anamika Sharma
Abstract
This paper will explore part of the data gathered to identify potential common features of an emerging Asian ELF, examples of
communication breakdown and repair, which result from linguistic or intercultural misunderstanding, and use of successful ELF
communication strategies for mutual negotiation[s] involving efforts and adjustments from all parties (Jenkins, 2009, p. 201). This goes
on to reiterate that the language used is a not a `learner language` but a 'user language' like any other. (Breiteneder, 2009, p. 257). The
scrutiny will accentuate the need of a feature pool to document the way speakers assert their multilingual identities and their joint ownership
of the lingua franca they are using and in using it, they are shaping and developing it (Seidlhofer, 2009, p. 242) albeit inadvertently. The
awareness of these potential linguistic forms may lead to an eventual acceptance in case they form part of the shared linguistic system. This
type of linguistic analysis of ELF as used in Japan will further some fruitful mediation and address concern raised by Jenkins (2009) that
pedagogical decisions about language teaching should not follow on automatically from language descriptions. (p.202).
Keywords: Emerging Asian ELF, mutual negotiations, ùser language`
1. Introduction
This study emerged from a research project, which involved collecting samples of English being used as
a lingua franca in the Asian context. The Project Title is: Investigating English Use in Asia: Building and
researching a Corpus of Asian Corpus of English (ACE).
It is aimed towards building a general corpus of naturally occurring ELF interactions. Following the
VOICE convention, the intention is to divide the data into 3 domains at the first level: educational, leisure
and professional to be further divided into other subdivisions. The corpus, once large enough to draw
conclusions, is aimed towards providing a basis for largescale and in-depth linguistic descriptions of
ELF. The following paper took shape while researching the gathered data as the interest kept growing
on how the real time interactions were actually taking place vs. the nearly entrenched views towards
English usage.
2. Research questions
Drifting away from the practice of imitating traditional varieties of English in their discourses, a more
inclusive communication-focused usage was getting recorded. So, in an attempt to have a closer look at
some real conversations, few questions were drafted and focused upon. There can be many focal areas
in this data and many research pointers can be derived but for the purpose of this study, the focus is on
some accommodation strategies.
The focus questions are:
How do speakers from different contexts use different discourse strategies?

Does Japanese English achieve comprehensibility and interpretability?
Can this analysis take us a step further in deciding about ELF- variants in this region?
What are its implications both pedagogical and/or for ELF research?
Department of British & American Studies, Nagoya University of Foreign Studies, Nagoya, Japan: anamika2503@gmail.com

ACE Japan Sharma
3. Structure of the research
The data used for this study is an interaction between five speakers: 2 from Japan (namely, H & T), 2
from India (namely A & U), and 1 born in India but raised in the UK (namely M). These are regular and
proficient users of ELF in their personal, professional and academic domains. The four basic external
criteria for ELF recordings were also adhered to for this recording, so the corpus captured naturally-
occurring, real-life interactions between English users who can be considered `fairly fluent non-native
speaker of English` (Seidlhofer 2001, p. 146).
The interaction recorded is naturally occurring, as opposed to elicited or arranged, in the sense that
they were `talks that would have happened anyway, whether or not researcher was around to record
it`(Cameron, 2001, p. 20) and falls under one of the 3 domains following the VOICE conventions: leisure,
the others being educational and professional.
It is clear that the speakers recorded represent a very small `discourse community` (Swales, 1990, p.
24) and that there is an inclusion of a native speaker. Her upbringing of many years has been in England
but then ELF is a question, not of orientation to the norms of a particular group of English speakers,
but of mutual negotiations involving efforts and adjustments from all parties (Jenkins, 2009, p. 201).
The duration of the talk was for 40 minutes. The recordings will be made available for analysis to
broaden the understanding of researchers about the language being constructed to suit the immediate
and practical requirement as it is in the immediacy of interaction and the co- construction of spoken
discourse that variation from the familiar standard norms becomes most apparent(Seidlhofer, 2004, p.
223).
4. Basic premise for the research
Basic premise of this particular study is as Seidlhofer (2001, p. 143) puts it at the most general level []
ELF interactions often are consensus- oriented, cooperative and mutually supportive, and that the most
important cooperative strategy underlying successful ELF talk is accommodation (Seidlhofer 2005, p.
160).
Accommodation means the process in which speakers usually unconsciously, adjust their speech and
non-verbal behavior, fine tune these to become more accessible and more acceptable to each other
(Seidlhofer, 2005, p.160). Thus, ELF speakers may make their speech resemble that of their interlocutors
both to enhance intelligibility and to signal solidarity and invoke approval (Cogo 2007; 2009). In the
process, speakers assert their multilingual identities and their joint ownership of the lingua franca they
are using and in using it, they are shaping and developing it (Seidlhofer, 2009, p. 242) albeit
inadvertently. Hence, the language used is a not a `learner language` but a 'user language' like any other.
(Breiteneder, 2009, p. 257).
In the field of ELF, accommodation strategies are seen as having multiple functions. Firstly, they may
directly enhance mutual understanding; secondly, they may project lingua-cultural identities (e.g. Polzl,
2005); and thirdly mainly as a side-effect/ process in the collaborative meaning-making, they may
contribute something positive at the interpersonal level of talk. That is, they may simultaneously express
solidarity (e.g. Cogo 2007, 2009), and establish rapport (Kordon, 2006). Through accommodation for
convergence, speakers prioritize communicative effectiveness over narrow predetermined notions of
correctness (Jenkins, 2011), and jointly create a shared ELF repertoire on the spot. To understand
these clearly, following strategies were analyzed in the recorded data.

ACE Japan Sharma
4.1 Cooperative utterance building

A key and highly influential finding of early CA research, based on spoken American English, is that one
party talks at a time (Sacks et al., 1974, p.706). Such a claim is based on the assumption that speakers
have the ability to project, and the interlocutors to foresee when a transition relevance place is
approaching. The one-party-at-a-time principle suggests that interlocutors do not take over during a
speech, but rather wait until the current speaker reaches a transition relevance place.
4.1.1 Cooperative overlapping/ simultaneous talking

However, it would be wrong to assume that all simultaneous talks are disruptive and problematic (Sacks,
1992). Some simultaneous talks cannot be seen as competitive. In fact, some are cooperative as they
smoothen the progression of talk. In addition, researchers who do not use CA but another form of
discourse analysis emphasize that simultaneous talk can be linked to emotional and affective meanings
such as the show of engagement, support, camaraderie, rapport and listenership (e.g. Levinson, 1983;
Murata, 1994; Tannen, 1984;1994 as cited in Archibald, Cogo & Jenkins, 2011). Thus, cooperative
simultaneous talk is designated not with the notion of interruptions, which has negative connotations,
but with notion of overlaps (Archibald, Cogo & Jenkins, 2011).
4.1.2 Rapport function

In the light of Cogos (2007) work, collaborative utterance building at a moment of word search can also
be analyzed as an ELF interactional strategy. The main functions of the interactional strategies are best
described and summarized by Kordon (2006). The flow function serves the purpose of making the
communication smooth and successful; whereas rapport -function concerns itself with the speakers
show of interest, involvement and investment in the conversation, and help the speakers create a positive
atmosphere and display friendliness. In the field of ELF, Cogo (2007) examines simultaneous talk most
thoroughly. She identifies different groups of overlaps. Of particular relevance to the present paper are
the so called completion overlaps, which involve collaborative utterance building in overlapping
speech. They have two main varieties. One is where the interlocutor provides the missing notion in
overlapping speech as a way of helping out; the other is where they complete the current speakers
utterance in simultaneous talk as a way of showing their involvement and listenership.
4.1.3 Code-switching
It is under focus in ELF research to examine the social dynamics of code switching (Gumperz 1982. In
ELF, code switching is not flagged unless it is used as a compensatory strategy at a problematic
moment. Cogo (2007, 2009) sheds light on accommodative function of code switching, and on the ways
in which it is further used to express social relationships. She claims that when speakers shift to their L1
or their other additionally learnt languages, they act upon the assumption that the co-participants are
multilinguals who will be able to make sense of the code-switched utterance. In this sense, then, their
code switching is an attempt to express more nuanced meanings while at the same time; they mean to
adjust their language to the linguistic and cultural diversity characterizing the ELF situation. When, in
return, a co-participant repeats the code switched element, or responds with another code-switched
utterance, they engage in another act of accommodation. They are expressing solidarity with the
interlocutor, invoking approval and/or showing membership in the same community of multilingual
speakers. Therefore, code switching may just as well be used for expressing cultural identity.
The corpus was then explored to find out if these above mentioned and established strategies often
employed in ELF interactions, were used in this data too and if used, were they effective.

ACE Japan Sharma
5. Analysis
1. Cooperative overlapping:
U Yeah! There is certain amount of heels that they can wear like 2 inches because its a school
area and they are always there and generally wear like comfortable clo shoes, but outside school,
they wear high heels on special occasions, they wear high heels.
A Ya, but I thought you told me that your girls wear pretty high
U- Ya, they do..
H- maybe outside of school
U- When they can wear, they do
A Even I dont understand this whole concept of high heels!! Because I think it they must be very
uncomfortable
M- But If they can manage it T- Yeah H- Its there! M- its justT yeah, M- it takes a lot of hard
work H- that make M- City life , I thinkits demanding T- superficial H- It looks good
A-.Ya, because it has to be T it looks sexier, H- hhhmmm (in agreement) T - it looks nice, thats
why people wear H- hhmmm looks skinnier M- right!
Do you think it looks sexy?
U- It does put the human figure in different form
H- Yeah,
T- Yeah,
M- Yeah Laughter (in agreement)
In the recorded data, there were instances of providing language support to each other across the board
irrespective of their geographical differences as well as the differences in their level of language prowess,
which was obviously different for each one. This pattern was also available between the two Japanese
speakers, which was quite contrary to their general pattern of being non-intrusive in each other`s speech.
This finding supports Smits (2010, p. 377) principle of joint forces according to which ELF speakers,
engaged in social practice, are willing to bring to the exchange whatever is perceived as interactionally
and transactionally necessary to make the linguistic practice work.
2. Rapport function:
A - But cutting would not be a problem for parents as well as teachers?

M- Because
T Ya, Its a problem but we dont make it too short
H (agrees smirking) so that we can wear just normal like
H - (within Ts answer) smart enough to survive
A enough to survive
T We rolled it up
A even that you rolled up
T- mmmm
H- mmmm (Joined Laughter)

ACE Japan Sharma
U Our school was trying to bring it in, but all the students actually wrote a petition that dont bring
it in So our teachers couldnt.
T It was a Christian school
M- Oh
T Ya, it was a Protestant, very strict
H Should be strict
T- Yaa there goes your short dress
M- up in the air!!!! (Joined Laughter)
This excerpt brought out a very palpable collaborative utterance building in the form of word search as
observed by Cogo (2007) and help provided to each other by the participants. In this sense, it became a
very effective ELF interactional strategy. In this case of collaborative utterance building as a way of
helping out, speakers were involved in the conversation to a point where they could guess what the
current speaker is to say next. Another example of simultaneous talk as an effective ELF strategy used
by participants in this data is as follows:
3. Completion overlaps:
H- (17.40) You know, I used to work as a secretary and my boss only let me wear high heel
A Sorry??
H- My boss onlyM- high heels??
A - Only the boss is allowed to??
T Only your boss?
H- My boss ONLY let me wear high heel M- ahhhh (in surprise)
H- when I was working
M- How high
H- More than like 5 cms, M- thats so high
H- Centimetres (self-questioning) and I wore that more than 10 hours a day
A Ehhhhh, now I dont understand, when you say that your boss allows you??
H- Yeah
U- Only allows her to wear high heels
H- me to
A- Means who is not allowed
H no no no no I can only wear high heel shoes
A Oh, so, you can wear a simple
H- No suppose you want to go in
H- No, like slippers
T She cant wear flat shoes
M- Normal flat shoes
H- No, I couldnt! coz that makes me look beautiful!
Supporting Smits principle of joint forces (2010, p. 377) and by employing Cogo`s (2007) concept of
completion overlaps, the participants provided many instances of language support to each other. For
example U intervened to say ` Only allows her to wear high heels ` when the meaning was not becoming

ACE Japan Sharma
clear to A and once again T provided meaning clarity as part of collaborative utterance building by saying
` She cant wear flat shoes` to clarify H`s statement about who was wearing high heel shoes.
4. Code switching -1:
T Thats how I was dressed.

H- Ahhhhhhhh (in agreement)
T Ya, because I had to dress like that.
A December, January, February, suddenly everybody will become black.
H- Ne.Ne(Japanese agreement)
The hair would be black, the dress would be black completely, as if you know and You ask them
they will say Oh! we have joined job hunting
H-Recommended ne. (Japanese agreement)
T Yeah! I mean you shouldnt stand out just because of the attire.
M- Oh
H- Have to be the same
T- You have to look the samebut maybe you should stand out because of your skill or your
personality, not because of your looks, because you have to look formal in front of the company
M- Laughter. He said that with such innocence on his face, so sincere!!!!

T laughter
M- Priceless!!!!
T yeah
H- laughter
T But my
A As if it was bonhomie and I stand with you.
Joined laughter
U Thatll be weird if we dont agree to that
T - Ya
A You stood by them because they were your fellow students
H- Ya, Yeah laughter
T Agreement with laughter
A Not have any other reason, right??
T laughter No
U So, we do have the 2 inch rules and all the other stuff
H- Heyyyyyyyyyyyyy (Japanese verbal exclamation style)
T, H hhhhhh with laughter
M- Like I said. I really admire when they can crack it and look very graceful, like sometimes I have
seen girls walk with their
A yeah, wobbling

ACE Japan Sharma
T- yeah
H doesnt fit them
A they wobble!! Badly
A thats when I feel
M- Gambatte for trying
U Theres a certain height which fits
Following the accommodative function of code switching of Cogo (2009), these seemed to be three
instances with three different functions:
When speakers use their L1, they are sure that the co-participants will be able to make sense of the
code-switched utterance (instance-ne)
They switch codes as a way of enhancing intelligibility beyond cultural differences (instance-heyyy)
Speaker employ their additionally learnt language to invoke bonhomie, approval, increase weightage
in their utterance (instance- gambatte)
By code switching without flagging it, the speakers provided an extra flavor and additional emphasis,
which was understood by all the participants and gave a smooth flow to the conversation. Thus, they
used it, as a marker of in group status as a resource taking their English conversation forward,
emphasizing that plurilingual repertoires enhance an ELF situation. In this sense, English worked with,
rather than against, multilingualism: it helped gained access into a multilingual environment where further
languages could then be used (Seidlhofer, 2001, p. 133).
6. Answers to research questions
1. These ELF speakers coming from different contexts, carefully and skilfully employed sophisticated
processes and different discourse strategies towards a smooth & successful interaction.
2. All the participants including the otherwise generally reticent Japanese participants were engrossed in
the conversation and were mutually comprehensible, intelligible as well as interpretable.
3. This data can help demonstrate degree of independence of ENL norms and in that sense provide
valuable recorded data, which in near-future can help realize the `sociolinguistic reality` of the English
being spoken by Japanese speakers in an ELF situation.
4. The National curriculum prepared by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and
Technology 2003, states that teaching practices should enable Japanese students to understand
different varieties of English, including non-native ones, and on the other hand, it stipulates that for
compulsory foreign language instruction, English should be selected in principle (ibid) illustrating
that English is categorized as a foreign language. Hence, there is a conflict between the two concepts
of EFL & ELF. Corpus of this kind can help researchers resolve such issues paving way for clarity in
approaches and methodology required in the pedagogy of English language in Japan. Needless to say,
such a compilation of interactions is a mine for varieties of research probes.
7. Conclusion
Since ELF focuses on international intelligibility, not native-like accuracy, in my understanding as in many
others too, a different teaching approach is needed one that should prioritize the ability to understand
diverse English varieties (Graddol, 2006; Jenkins, 2009c).

ACE Japan Sharma
Once extensively collected and finalized, ELF variants can be established with the help of this data
to demonstrate degree of independence of ENL norms and also how speakers assert their
multilingual identities and their joint ownership of the lingua franca they are
usingshapingdeveloping(Seidlhofer, 2009, p. 242).
In that sense, creating Japanese with English abilities as in the Directive from the Ministry of
Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT 2003) may become a possibility and not a
distant dream.
About the author

Anamika Sharma has a PhD. in Linguistics (2005), Department of Linguistics, University of Delhi, Delhi, India, and is affiliated with the
Department of British & American Studies, Nagoya University of Foreign Studies, Nagoya, Japan. Her areas of academic interests include
teaching and researching English for academic purposes, ELF corpus analysis, curriculum development and teacher training. Email:
anamika2503@gmail.com
References
Archibald, A., Cogo, A. & Jenkins, J. (2011). Latest trends in ELF research. Cambridge:
Breiteneder, A. (2009). English as a lingua franca in Europe: An empirical perspective. World
Englishes, 28(02), 256-269.
Cameron, D. (2001).Working with spoken discourse. London: Sage Publication.
Cogo, A. (2007). Intercultural Communication in English as Lingua Franca: A Case Study.
PhD Dissertation, Kings College, London.
Cogo, A. (2009). Accommodating difference in ELF conversations: A study of pragmatic strategies. In
A. Mauranen & E. Ranta (Eds.), English as a Lingua Franca: Studies and findings (pp. 254-273). Newcastle
upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Press.
Gumperz, J. J. (1982). Discourse strategies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Jenkins, J. (2007). English as a Lingua Franca: Attitude and identity. Oxford: OUP.
Jenkins, J. (2009c). English as a Lingua Franca: Interpretations and attitudes. World Englishes 28(2), 200-
207.
Jenkins, J. (2011). Accommodating (to) ELF in the international university. Journal of Pragmatics 43, 926-
936
Kirkpatrick, A. (2010). English as a Lingua Franca in ASEAN. Hong Kong: HKU Press.
Kordon, K. (2006). You are very good Establishing rapport in English as a Lingua Franca: The case
of agreement tokens. Vienna English Working Papers 52(2), 5882.
Plzl, Ulrike. (2005). Exploring the third space. Negotiating culture in English as a Lingua Franca.
Unpublished PhD thesis. University of Vienna.
Sacks, H. Schegloff, E. A. & Jefferson, G. (1974). A simplest systematics for the organisation of turn
taking for conversation. Language 50(4), 696-735. Retrieved from:
www.cs.columbia.edu/~julia/cs4706/Sacks_et_al_1974.pdf
Sacks, E. (1992). Lectures on conversation. Oxford: Blackwell.
Scotton, M. (1993). Social motivation for code switching: Evidence from Africa. Language in Society, 24(2),
302-305.
Seidlhofer, B. (2001). Closing a conceptual gap: The case for a description of English as a Lingua Franca.
International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 11(2), 133-158.
Seidlhofer, B. (2004) Research perspectives on teaching English as a Lingua Franca. Annual Review of

ACE Japan Sharma
Seidlhofer, B. (2005). English as a Lingua Franca. ELF Journal, 59(4), 339-340.

Seidlhofer, B. (2009). Common ground and different realities: World Englishes and English as a Lingua
Franca. World Englishes, 28(2), 236-245.
Smit, U. (2010). English as a Lingua Franca in higher education: A longitudinal study of
classroom discourse. Berlin: Mouton.
Swales, J. (1990). Genre analysis: English in academic and research settings. NY: CUP

Centonze, L. (2016). ELF and code-switching: A corpus-based study of visa consultancy posts on Facebook webpages. In
N. Tsantila, J. Mandalios & M. Ilkos (Eds), ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives (pp. 51-59). Athens: Deree
The American College of Greece.
ELF and code-switching: A corpus-based study of visa consultancy posts on

Facebook webpages
Laura Centonze
Abstract
Previous research in the field of computer-mediated types of discourse has focused on discourse-specific features of language (Prez-
Sabater, 2012; Lee, 2002), on the contrastive study of different forms of web communication (Lin and Qiu, 2013), on the proximity factor
in interned-based communication (Grabher and Maintz, 2006) as well as on the emergence of new theoretical models of interpersonal
communication and information-processing (Walther 1996; Maldonado et al., 2001). Notwithstanding this, although the worldwide
phenomenon of social-networking involves the interaction of large numbers of people from all over the world, rarely does literature analyse
interactions among people from different linguacultural backgrounds (Cogo et al. 2011, p. 2) using English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) (cf.
Seidlhofer, 2001; Mauranen, 2007; Jenkins, 2007) for mutual understanding over the web. This paper combines the analysis of social
network interaction with an examination of the authentic use of ELF by participants from different L1s. A corpus of posts was compiled
from a number of Facebook pages dealing with Visa consultancy services (e.g. Global Visa Support, Spouse Visa and USA Visa Experiences)
where people from diverse socio-cultural backgrounds use ELF either to ask for help to obtain a Visa or simply to tell their stories and
express their disappointment with red tape. We adopted a quantitative as well as a qualitative method for the analysis of such linguistic and
pragmatic aspects as politeness formulae (Brown and Levinson, 1978, 1987; Mills, 2003) and code-switching (Nilep, 2006) in ELF, using the
AntConc 3.4.1 software (Anthony, 2014). In particular, we examine the extent to which politeness and code-switching are interconnected
and represent an effective means to elicit preferred responses in asymmetric communication contexts.
Keywords: ELF; Facebook; code-switching; politeness; VISA.
1. Introduction
The present study focuses on the use of English as a Lingua Franca (henceforth ELF) in social-
networking, by analyzing a corpus of Visa consultancy posts on Facebook webpages of different types
as well as the interconnections between code-switching, (henceforth CS), (Nilep, 2006) and politeness
formulae (PF) (Brown and Levinson, 1978, 1987; Mills, 2003) for the complete achievement of preferred
answers within communication. Computer-mediated types of discourse have been thriving over the last
few decades with the advent of social networks (e.g. Facebook, Twitter, etc.) and, more specifically, of
web pages aimed at sharing information, clarifying doubts or simply sharing views and any form of
experience either positive or negative - related to a given topic being generally displayed in the title of
the page itself.
In the light of the aforementioned, our study shall combine the analysis of social network interaction
with an insight into the actual use of ELF made by participants from different L1s i.e., in this case,
migrants to the UK. A small corpus of posts (which we shall call The VISA Corpus or VC for short) was
compiled from five different Facebook pages dealing with Visa/work permit consultancy services (e.g.
Global Visa support, Spouse Visa, USA Visa Experiences) where people from diverse (lingua)socio-cultural
backgrounds use ELF either to ask for help to obtain a Visa permit or simply express their
disappointment with red tape and bureaucrats. The prevalence of certain types of CS (either initial,
intersentential, or final) according to circumstances is an effective means to elicit preferred responses on
the part of the administrator (the person who is in charge of the webpage, which might also coincide
with the person working at the office in question) and of the other members of the group. The innovation
of such a study lies in the fact that generally three such theories are applied to the analysis of
casual/structured conversation and not in cases like that of Facebook, which represents a peculiarity in
that it is a hybridized (asymmetric) form of discourse displaying the characteristics of both a written and
Universit del Salento, Lecce, Italy: laura.centonze@unisalento.it

ELF & code-switching Centonze
a spoken one: namely, it is the written report of verbal requests and/or thoughts on the part of the
member, who is asking for clarification on certain procedures.
2. The study corpus: The VISA Corpus
Our corpus (henceforth VC) is made up of different Facebook webpages dealing with Visa/work permit
consultancy services provided worldwide, and is constantly under construction. A breakdown of the
sections of VC is represented below:
Table 1. Breakdown of The VISA Corpus
As we can see from the table above, the number of words for each corpus sub-section is not
homogeneous: by considering the current year 2014 and 2013, the smallest one is represented despite
the title by 1st for Immigration-UK Visa Experts, with only 852 words; the biggest one is represented
by USA Visa Experience, with its 7,849 sub-corpus. As regards the general topics being discussed, the
privileged one is undoubtedly a VISA-related type of request (how to obtain a VISA, who to address the
request, VISA interviews, etc.), followed by requests for career opportunities, enrolment to university
degrees and requests for information concerning procedure the disappointment with unsuccessful VISA
interviews.
3. Corpus research methodology
As stated previously, our aim will be to identify and isolate the different types of code switching (CS) in
VC and see their occurrences in context; the next step will be to associate the different responses / non
responses to the Facebook posts in which CS occur and make some general observations.
Of course, although the corpus sections we analysed were relatively small (i.e. 17,192 words), sorting
out the different posts presented quite a challenge, especially because of the fact that each post had
comments in it, so it was necessary to copy and paste each post into a table and show the relation to the
main post (e.g. main post/comment to main post). In addition to this, most of the time the Facebook
pages that we analysed underwent some changes both in terms of webpage title (e.g. Global Visa Support
turned into Global Admin Visa) and in terms of posts (especially due to the fact that members of the

group answered with a certain delay even weeks or months after the main post had been posted), and
some groups were also closed so it was impossible to expand the corpus and/or update it with the latest
news. Notwithstanding this, we activated notifications for the webpages under analysis, so we received
an email every time someone posted something and/or commented previous posts, and we managed to
filter them albeit to a limited degree.
As far as the corpus methodology is concerned, we used AntConc (Anthony, 2014; version 3.2.4w) to
retrieve all instances of CS in our corpus. Before moving on to their retrieval, however, we had to convert
files into the format which was most convenient for an analysis of this kind: we generated a table for
each corpus, which displayed the names of the group members on the left, and the content of posts on
the right. Where more than one comment belonged to the same main post, we made a distinction
between Answer 1 and Answer 2 and so on (A1, A2). Where possible, we also indicated the origin of the
speaker. Since it was not a mere quantitative analysis but rather an overview in context of the use of CS
in the study corpus, we did not apply any specific formulae in order to weigh the number of occurrences
against the actual number of words in the corpus especially given the fact that CS constitutes a sub-
category and results are thus relatively low if compared to the whole corpus under examination.
4. Results
For the purposes of our study and as stated in the previous sections, we isolated each instance of CS so
as to easily identify the frequency of words and languages. Here follows a sample of CS within VC:
Table 2. Sample of code-switching in The VISA Corpus
As can be seen, instances of CS are highlighted in yellow and one can understand the different degrees
of CS within discourse: one goes from a switch from one language to another at word level (e.g. where in

makati po?) to much more complex sentence structures such as the longest one by a Malayan (pag complete
na po reqs ko at IELTS 7 passer po..). Of course, the object of our study will only be the analysis of CS at
an intersentential/final/initial level, not the complete switch from one language to another because, as
also stated among others by Gumperz (1982) and Muysken (1995), CS occurs in individual utterances.
4.1 Analysis 1. Code-switching in The VISA Corpus

Here follows a table with the occurrence of CS in the study corpus sorted out by web page and whether
it is initial, intersentential or final with respect to the utterance:
Table 3. Different types of code-switching in The VISA Corpus: Some findings
As we can see from the table above, CS does not seem to occur in all the file sections of VC: they are
only present in two web pages, namely Global Visa Support and UK Visa and Work Permit. The occurrences
are also relatively low, but this is of course because CS is a very specific phenomenon within discourse if
compared to other linguistic phenomena such as, for instance, tag questions, ellipsis, substitution,
anaphora, etc. Another important aspect is represented by the fact that CS predominantly occurs in the
corpus at an intersentential level and switches within the same sentences are so frequent that it became
impossible to easily categorize them as either initial or final.
4.2 Analysis 2. Insights into the use of code-switching: The cases of po and other related particles.
As stated in the previous paragraph, the use of CS is present in some specific sections of our study corpus,
and the modality in which it occurs is predominantly an intersentential one (see Table 3). In this section,
however, we shall gain insights into the use of CS from a linguistic point of view, by examining more
closely the particles which are used and the patterns that regularly co-occur in specific sections of VC.
For the such purposes, we looked at each post containing instances of CS and compared the use of
English words with the co-occurrence of local language varieties. Figures for these words were then put
onto a table:

Table 4. Particles co-occurring within the code-switching event: Global Visa Support
As one can see from the table above, most of the instances of CS are represented by the occurrence of
the po particle (21 tokens), followed by ko (6 tokens only relatively low, if compared to other figures
for switches). Here follow some examples:
Table 5. Concordances with po: A sample
The po particle occurs in a very interesting set of data, given its frequency (21 instances); its closest
correspondence in English is please as well as Sir and belongs to Filipino, the standardized form of
Tagalog, i.e. the language spoken in The Philippines, and is used as a politeness formula to show respect
towards elderly people as well as to those in authority. The breakdown of the po particle shows it is used
mainly in an intersentential position:

Table 6. Position of po within sentences
The frequent use of po can be explained by the nature of the webpage itself: Global Visa Support is with
an official administrator appointed by the agency in question. The use of po can be also justified by
comparing the results found on another Facebook page of different nature, i.e. UK Visa and Work Permit,
a much more informal webpage where people discuss issues related to Visa but where there is no official
administrator.
Table 7. Particles co-occurring within the code-switching event: UK Visa and Work Permit
As can be seen from the table above, in contrast to previous results, the most common particle is ka (a
definite article cfr. the) followed by hai (third person of be) and kiya (what). Unlike findings in the first
Facebook sub-corpus that we analysed, here there are no specific politeness formulae, but rather we find
a more concise and straight-to-the-point strategy, in which there is the narration of personal experience
and no emotional commitment on the part of the speaker as in the previous corpus. Compare two
excerpts from the two different sections of corpora:

Tables 8 & 9. Global Visa Support vs UK Visa and Work Permit: A comparison of two excerpts
4.3 Code-switching and preferred / dispreferred answers in The Visa Corpus.

In this final section we shall look in more detail at the extent to which CS and politeness might be related
in order to elicit preferred/dispreferred responses from other participants (i.e. the administrator, or other
group members). As previously stated, in the study corpus, CS predominantly occurs in an intersentential
position and, in the first subcorpus that we analysed, it is characterized by the use of politeness particles
(see po), whereas in the second, no specific politeness pattern was found (CS being confined to articles
and third-person verbs).
In the light of the aforementioned, we extracted again by means of AntConc - all instances in which
CS occurred in order to see whether such a phenomenon might affect the preferred (PREF) or
dispreferred (DISPREF) response on the part of the speaker to some extent. Results are here represented
and divided up into categories; the number in brackets represents the total number of instances for that
CS:
Table 10. Code-switching and preferred/dispreferred answers in The Visa Corpus.
As can be seen, the use of CS combined with the use of such politeness formulae as the po particle tend
to elicit positive/preferred responses.
In order to examine more closely intersentential CS once again and, more specifically, on the
collocation immediately before and after the switch, we first run a wordlist through Antconc and take as a
point of reference all the English words in their vicinity.

Table 11. Foreign vs English terms: Co-occurrence in The VISA Corpus.
As we can see, the use of CS and the English-local language switching is a (relatively) frequent pattern
and seems to be employed as a way of putting emphasis on the focus of the conversation, by resorting
to English to designate the information that is requested (e.g. seminar; UK university; IELTS), the typology
of application form (e.g. application; nursing) or the result of a process (e.g. pag complete); use of the local
language is confined to prepositions, conjunctions, relative pronouns and determiners (in Tagalog,
respectively: ko: my; na: that; ng: of; sa: of; ang: the), i.e. to those discourse particles that do not prevent
members of the group from understanding the request and which do not necessarily have to be translated,
as the main focus of the information exchange is, in this very specific case, the successful completion of
the application form (which is why application is translated into English thus allowing the member to
reach a wider audience and eventually get the most reliable answer).
5. Conclusions
To conclude, in the present study it has been shown that CS is not simply used in order to compensate
for a lack of linguistic competence on the part of the interactant, but as also stated by Watts (2003) -
becomes a sociolinguistic practice serving pragmatic needs within interaction at all levels, most of all
because the speaker wants to 1) elicit the right (preferred) answer by putting the emphasis on the subject
of the conversation and thus resorting to the English language for the achievement of such a goal, and
2) reach a wider audience by means of the same language that is shared by the Facebook community. In
addition to this, the use of CS combined to politeness formulae (e.g. po) in our corpus proves to be a very
successful strategy for eliciting positive answers on the counterpart in general, not least from those in
authority, as also displayed in our results. This inevitably adds a new function to the already-existing
pragmatic nuances that CS may acquire in context, especially when seen in multicultural settings where

meaning has to be negotiated and CS becomes a doubly valuable way in order to both bridge the gap
between different linguistic competences and, at the same time, obtain the desired answer.
About the author

Laura Centonze is currently a PhD student and a lecturer in English language and translation in the Departments of
Humanities and of Engineering (Universit del Salento, Lecce, Italy). She holds a Masters degree in literary translation and
has recently completed a 1st level postgraduate Master programme in Cross-cultural Language Mediation in immigration and
asylum contexts, in collaboration with the Italian Council for Refugees. Her main interests include the translation of specialized
texts as well as corpus linguistics applied to the study of synchronic aspects of ELF in both academic and multicultural
domains. Email: laura.centonze@unisalento.it
References
Anthony, L. (2014). Antconc 3.2.4w, Tokyo, Japan: Waseda University. Retrieved from:
http://www.antlab.sci.waseda.ac.jp/
Brown, P., & Levinson, S. C. (1978). Universals in language usage: Politeness phenomena. In
E. N. Goody (Ed.), Questions and politeness .Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Brown, P., & Levinson, S. C. (1987). Politeness: Some universals in language usage. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Cogo, A., Archibald, A., & Jenkins, J. (Eds.). (2011). Latest trends in ELF research. Cambridge:
Grabher, G., & Maintz, J. (2006). Learning in personal networks: Collaborative knowledge production
in virtual forums. In Working Papers Series, New York: Centre on Organizational Innovation,
Columbia University. Retrieved from http://www.coi.columbia.edu/pdf/grabher_maintz_lpn.pdf
Jenkins, J. (2007). English as a Lingua Franca: Attitude and identity. New York: OUP.
Lee, C. K. M. (2002). Literacy practices in computer-mediated communication in Hong Kong. The
Reading Matrix, 2(2), 1-25.
Lin, H., & Qiu, L. (2013). Two sites, two voices: Linguistic differences between Facebook status
updates and Tweets. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, 80(24), 432-440.
Maldonado, G., Mora, M., Garca, S., & Edipo, P. (2001). Personality, sex and computer-mediated
communication through the Internet. Anuario de Psicologa, 32(2), 51-62.
Mauranen, A. (2007). Hybrid voices: English as the lingua franca of academics. In K. Flottum (Ed.),
Language and discipline perspectives on academic discourse (pp 243-59). Newcastle, UK: Cambridge Scholars
Publishing.
Mills, S. (2003). Gender and politeness. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Muysken, P. (1995). Code-switching and grammatical theory. In L. Milroy & P. Muysken (Eds.), One
speaker, two languages: Cross-disciplinary perspectives on code-switching (pp. 17798). Cambridge: Cambridge
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Nilep, C. (2006). Code switching in sociocultural linguistics. Colorado Research in Linguistics 19, 1-22.
Prez-Sabater, C. (2012). The linguistics of social networking: A study of writing conventions on
Facebook. Retrieved from: http://www.linguistik-online.de/56_12/perez-sabater.html
Seidlhofer, B. (2001). Closing a conceptual gap: The case for a description of English as a Lingua
Franca. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 11, 133-158.
Walther, J. B. (1996). Computer-mediated communication: Impersonal, interpersonal, and
hyperpersonal interaction. Communication Research, 23, 3-43.
Watts, R. J. (2003). Politeness. Cambridge. Cambridge University Press.

Christiansen, T. (2016). The localisation of ELF. Code mixing and switching between ELF and Italian in Italian internet
accommodation forums for international students. In N. Tsantila, J. Mandalios & M. Ilkos (Eds.), ELF: Pedagogical and
interdisciplinary perspectives (pp. 60-69). Athens: Deree The American College of Greece.
The localisation of ELF. Code mixing and switching between ELF and Italian in
Italian internet accommodation forums for international students
Thomas Christiansen*
Abstract
In this research, we look at a corpus of approximately 2,000 messages posted on internet forums regarding requests for and offers of
accommodation for international students in Italy. The approach will be largely quantitative (via a statistical analysis of the occurrence of
relevant phenomena). We will examine the way ELF in this context is informed also by Italian, as a particular type of code mixing and
switching as appropriate given the specific extra-linguistic context of students coming to Italy largely to learn about Italian art, culture,
history and language. Such mixing and switching is found not only in the micro-aspects of the languages such as in names of places (proper
nouns) and of culture-specific concepts, but also in longer discourse segments such as phatic expressions, for instance, salutations. We argue
that the code switching, in particular, constitutes a deliberate strategy whereby speakers from expanding circle countries in particular would
seem to be deliberately displaying affinity with Italian language and culture.
Keywords: ELF; Italian, code mixing, code switching, hybridisation.
1. Introduction
While the importance of the link between languages, culture and community (or society) has long been
established (see Hallidays 1978 social semiotics), their role in Lingue Franche 1 and, ELF in particular,
remains difficult to define, at least using existing models.
ELF can be seen as a collection of fluid variations rather than a set of distinct and static varieties.
Consequently, there is a need to look at each discourse situation separately, including the backgrounds
of the specific participants, the discourse domain (Douglas and Selinker, 1985) and the general context
of situation (Firth, 1957; Malinowski, 1922).
When ELF is used in a particular geographical context, there may be mixing and switching (the former
entailing hybridisation or merging of codes, the latter, movement from one language to another)2 with
local languages resulting eventually in convergence (Auer and Di Luzio, 1988). This constitutes a process
of localisation whereby the ELF variation comes to reflect the specific locality (intended both literally
and virtually, i.e. via the net) of its use. In this paper, we will examine this phenomenon in the specific
context of a popular online forum, mostly in English, where mainly international students can seek
accommodation in Italy. Our aim is to ascertain how and in what circumstances Italian (code switching)
and hybrid forms (code mixing) occur in this specific variation of ELF.
2. The corpus
The corpus used for this research is taken from the Studentsville3 site. In all, we downloaded 2,995 posts,
dating from 2006-2014 (January) amounting to approximately 143,998 words, after removal of irrelevant
posts and duplications. The posters represented over an estimated 80 different nationalities. Broadly
speaking, one could divide participants into accommodation providers and accommodation seekers.
*Universit del Salento, Italy, thomas.christiansen@unisalento.it

1 lingue franche (coincidentally, the origin of the expression lingua franca is Italian).
2 See Romaine and Kachru (1998, pp228-229).
3 Date of retrieval 04/03/14: http://www.studentsville.eu/italyforum/forums/default.asp.

Localisation of ELF Christiansen
Most of the former, but not all, were Italian. Indeed, among those seeking accommodation, were also
some Italians using English.4
3. Research method
After downloading posts, we converted the individual posts to text files. A second and time-consuming
stage was to eliminate unwanted posts (e.g. spam) and duplicates, because often the same post was posted
more than once in identical form or, in peoples replies to posts, the original one was also quoted. We
then categorized each post according to speaker origin (nationality) and assigned to one three categories
(IC, OC, EC) inspired by Kachrus (1985) three circles: model inner, outer and expanding circle.
We next compiled a wordlist from the corpus using Concordance 3.3 software (Watt, 2009). This, we
then analysed, manually, identifying non-standard and nonnative English speaker forms. Finally, we
recorded the frequency of each of these according to speaker origin.
Assigning a nationality or linguistic origin to a given speaker was not, however, always a
straightforward matter. The country from where the message was posted was indicated but this merely
meant that the person had used a computer based in that locality. Some speakers did however choose to
indicate their nationality with phrases such as Hi, Im Matteo, I live in England but I am from Perugia
(in a message posted from Italy). To cope with the many cases where speaker origin was indicated only
by place of posting, we had to add extra categories to those described above. In all, we identified ten
different types of speaker in the corpus: IC; IC? (i.e. presumed IC on the basis of the country of posting);
IC/OC (e.g. Canada, South Africa), OC; OC?; OC/EC? (e.g. Cameroon); EC; EC?; IT and IT?. As the
latter two categories show, Italian speakers were allocated to a specific category. Technically, these fall
within EC or EC? but seeing that our focus is on code-mixing and switching between Italian and ELF,
it is obviously useful to single out this linguistic group.5
As regards contributions (in English) to the corpus, the percentages for the different categories of
speaker are given in Figure 1 below. From this, it emerges that the categories of EC, EC?, IT, and IT?
contribute the majority of the discourse (together 68%), with OC, OC?, IC, IC? etc. contributing only
32%.The category of IC/OC? returns a figure of 0%. This does not actually mean there were no
occurrences if that were indeed the case then the category would not exist but rather that they were
too few to enter into the calculation of the
overall percentages.
Figure 1. Percentage of corpus (in English)

contributed by speaker category
4 Within the corpus, English was used for approximately 96% of the time, Italian for 3%. The other 1% was made up of examples of such
diverse languages that we identified as German, Spanish, French, Dutch and Portuguese, as well as smatterings of what appeared to be
Bulgarian, Czech, Greek, and Turkish.
5 IT? is perhaps the most problematic group, as discrepancies (discussed below) between the results for this group and that of IT show.
The reason for this is that it can be assumed that many of those speakers posting from Italian are international students or renters
residing in Italy, speaking a variety of L1s.

4. Results
In the sections below, we will go through the results of our analysis of the use of Italian (code switching)
and Hybrid words and expressions in the corpus (code mixing). As Figure 1 shows, the contributions of
different categories of speaker are not uniform which makes direct comparison misleading. To rectify
this problem, we adopted a weighting system whereby the number of occurrences of an item are divided
by the number of words produced by that specific speaker category (choosing always the lowest possible
level as possible i.e. specific L1 or variety of English). The result was then multiplied by 10,000: an
arbitrary number chosen to avoid tiny numbers with an excessive number of decimal places.6
4.1 Use of Italian within posts in English (code switching)

In Figure 2, we give the frequency and percentages of Italian words and expressions used within posts in
English in the corpus, according to speaker category.
Figure 2. Percentages for Italian words and

expressions within posts in English
As can be seen, the largest speaker category for their use is EC? (33%) followed by EC (24%) and then
OC/EC? (16%) followed by OC (13%) and then by OC? (8%). Surprisingly perhaps IT and IT? come
lowest out of all the categories (0% and 1% respectively) behind even IC and IC?.
These first results indicate that the use of Italian words and expression within the ELF variations
found in this corpus cannot be put down to mere interference from Italian, but rather would seem to be
deliberate strategy employed for rhetorical purposes. It is noticeable that the two general groups who
avail themselves most of this device are EC and OC.
Revealingly also, although IC and IC? only use Italian rarely (combined 5%), they still use it more than
L1 Italian speakers. It would seem therefore that international students in Italy and non-Italian property
renters (including some from the IC group) show the greatest propensity to Italianise their ELF discourse.
In doing so, they are perhaps showing a tendency not so much of assimilation (Berry, 1997) but rather
of identification and association with their specifically Italian context; as Romaine and Kachru (1998)
note, code switching can be used as kind of deictic device to differentiate between in and out groups,
informal versus formal, and close at hand and more distant events. In the examples they cite however, it
is use of the ELF users L1 that seems to signal proximity of one sort of another; here we have the local
language, Italian, used by ELF users in a similar sense but to indicate closeness to the local or host
community. That the L1 Italian speakers do not participate in this show of affinity with Italy is perhaps
explained by a perceived greater need on their part to identify themselves with the international discourse
6 For example, ciao as an opener is found three times in the subcategory of IC AUS (Inner Circle / Australian English). Dividing this by
the number of words in that section of the corpus (2,492) gives 0.00120385 which, multiplied by 10,000, becomes 12.0385.

community and not their own L1 one. It would seem that they avoid code switching so as not to treat
the other ELF users as an out group even if, ironically, by not doing so they may in effect be doing just
that.
4.2 Use of Hybrid words and expressions within the corpus (code mixing)
As well as Italian words and expressions, we found examples of mixing of English with other languages
(Hybrid). These may be considered as of particular interest because a particular ELF discourse
community may be characterised by the Hybrid forms it uses, these distinguishing it both from other
ELF communities and the local community. Code mixing may represent an important step in the
direction of endonormativity whereby the ELF variation in question begins to take on an identity of its
own, and its users can begin to recognise themselves and each other as part of the same in-group.
Many of the Hybrid forms found were however identifiable as being cases of interference from Italian
centro historico, momolacale, indipendent, polytechico. In many cases however, it was not clear what the source
languages were for the hybridisation: turistic, accomodations, University Bocconi, palace, Genovas. Our original
intention had been to distinguish between mixes of English and Italian and those of English and other
unidentified languages, in practice, it proved impossible to draw a clear line between the two and so we
decided to treat all such cases as a single category.7
In Figure 3 we give the figures for the percentages for Hybrid forms.
Figure 3. Percentages for Hybrid words and expressions within posts in English
By far the largest users of Hybrid forms are EC and EC?: respectively, 48% and 28% (together 76% of
the total). It is therefore among speakers from the expanding circle where the tendency to code mix is
most marked. In their case, it could be argued that, as many are residents in Italy or students of Italian,
there is some genuine interference between English and Italian, which are to them two foreign languages,
and much of the mixing may be a case of unsuccessful attempts to use Italian. The figures for IT and IT?
support this interpretation. The figures for mixing are very low, only 1% for IT but none for IT?
(remembering that 0% means the figure is not absolute zero but too low to affect overall percentages):
Italian speakers tend to use either English or Italian but not confuse the two.
The fact that IC and IC? use Hybrid forms (2% and 3%) more than IT or IT? also supports the
hypothesis that many mixed forms may be the product of interference from English on Italian, not vice
7 For example, University Bocconi, displays the right branching head-modifier word order typical not just of Italian but also of many, if not
most, languages.

versa. The use of Hybrid forms in this corpus may thus not signal a move towards endonormativity per
se but again be a sign of affinity with the local Italian community.8
That said, Figure 3 does suggest that the EC speakers adhere less to NS English as a model and are,
for whatever reason, developing their own norms. Indeed many of the Hybrid norms, such as head
modifier word-order (see footnote above), are features of many languages (excluding English) and there
may thus be a natural tendency for this to be used in variations of ELF that are thus becoming more
endonormative. Indeed, in a process similar to that of accommodation (Giles et al., 1991), some IC
speakers are also using such Hybrid forms.
4.3 Use of Italian and Hybrid words and expressions within specific semantic fields
In this section, we will examine in which precise kinds of semantic contexts Italian and Hybrid terms are
used within the corpus. This we did by noting down each example and categorising it according to the
semantic field to which it belonged. In Table 1, we list the categories which we identified together with
some representative examples of the Italian and Hybrid words and expressions which were found in the
corpus.
Table 1. Categories of Italian and Hybrid words and expressions found in corpus, with examples
Public Transport Location

Funicolare (Funicular) centric ubication (centrally located)
Metro A termini (Termini Line A Metro Station) colocation (location)
Tramvia (Tramway) disposition (layout)
About Town (features of cities) Names of Institutions

centro historico (old town) Accademia Di Belle Arti (Academy of Fine Arts)
duomo (cathedral) Scuole civiche di Milano (Civic Schools of Milan)
edicola (newsagents / newspaper kiosk) Universit Bocconi (Bocconi University)
Place Names Organised Events

Basilica San Paolo (St Pauls Basilica)
Salone dei Mobile (Furniture Fair)
Citta di studi (university complex)
Salone Satellite (Satellite Fair)
Roma (Rome)
Calendar Months Education

dottorati (phd)
februario (February)
istituto (institute)
mai (May)
poleticnico (polytechnic)
Phatic (expressions used to establish and Accommodation (things found in rented

maintain interpersonal relations) accommodation or related to housing)
ciao (hi / bye) condominio (condominuium)
buongiornio (good morning / goodbye) frigo (fridge)
grazie (thank you) climatization (air-conditioning)
Miscellaneous (not assignable to any of the

above categories)
bonifico (postal/bank payment order)
fidanzato ((steady) boy/girlfriend)
trasformed (transformed)
8 There
is a notable discrepancy between the high figure for OC (17%) and the low one for OC? (1%), which indicates that this latter
group may contain many diverse speakers, not all of whom are actually from the outer circle. The figure for OC? resembles that for IC
more than it does EC which indicates that the OC? category may who adhere closely to a NS model of English or who may even be IC.

Concentrating on these different categories, we can compare the frequency of Italian and Hybrid items
according to semantic field (except in the case of Miscellaneous which is just a basket into which we have
put items that do not fit in the other categories). The results for this analysis, we present below in Figure
4 and 5 below.
Figure 4. NS English vs. Italian / Hybrid combined forms according to semantic field.
Figure 5. Italian vs. Hybrid forms according to semantic field.

Looking at Figure 4, it can be seen that in every category, English terms outnumber the Italian and Hybrid
forms, with the notable exception of Place Names and Names of Institutions. Figure 5 shows that Italian
forms are also more frequent than Hybrid forms in every category and that Hybrid forms occur only in
a discernible number in the categories of Public Transport, Place Name, Miscellaneous, Institutions and
Education.
Speaking generally, as regards Place names and Names of Institutions, both of these groups constitute
names (often equated, erroneously with proper nouns (Christiansen, 2009, p130), which by convention
are normally left in the local language except in a few historical cases where conventional translations do
exist (Taylor:1998, p30). It is interesting that in the cases of many Italian cities, all also important
historically, English forms do exist (e.g. Naples, Florence, Genoa, Milan, Rome, Turin, Venice) but Figure
4 shows that the local, Italian, form is still fairly widely used even though, overall, the English form is
more frequent.
Again, as with Hybrid and Italian forms generally (see Figures 2-3), this tendency is most pronounced
with EC and EC? participants not with IT or IT? or IC and IC?
Of the other categories where the frequency of Italian and Hybrid items is highest are Institutions,
Education, Phatic and About Town. These would seem correspond to those areas of life in Italy where
international students would have most contact with the local population.
Phatics are especially interesting in this respect because they consist of phrases, expressions and
formula used to establish and maintain social relations. The use of Italian forms seems to confirm that
there exists a degree of affinity with the local community and culture, in so far that they constitute not
ways of referring to items (real, imaginary, concrete or abstract) in the cognitive environment,9 but rather
markers of social relations among participants. At play here then is not reference at the ideational level
of discourse but identity, stance and social position, at the interpersonal level.
4.3 Frequency of colloquialisms in corpus

From Sections 4.1 and 4.2, it emerges that all categories of speaker, except IT, use Italian or Hybrid forms
to varying but notable degrees. One interpretation of such data as evidenced in Figures 2 and 3, is that
the increased use by EC, EC? is that of interference with Italian, or some other L1, not code switching
or mixing as discourse strategies. This however would not account for the figures for OC (or IT, IT?).
To remove this doubt, it is illuminating to look at use of colloquialisms and slang terms both in NS
English and Italian in the corpus, as these can, in the case of the former, be indicative of general degree
of familiarity with NS English, and in the case of the latter of affinity with Italian. Colloquialisms and
non-standard forms in general are also significant because they constitute a breaking away from standard
usage and are thus another step in the direction of endonormativity.
By colloquialisms and slang we mean either non-standard forms usually identified as such by reference
works10 and also apparently deliberately unconventional spellings.
In the case of NS English colloquialisms, the assumption is that if EC and EC? use them then they
are comfortable with English and it is thus more likely that their use of other codes is a conscious choice.
The colloquialisms which we identified in the corpus are summarised in Table 2.
9 See Christiansen (2009).

10 On the difficulties of providing a precise definition for the term slang, see Christiansen (2008).

Table 2. Colloquial words and expressions found in corpus, with examples
Colloquialisms found in corpus
NS English Italian
bamboozled by lingo Info (information) thanx ciaooo!! (hi / goodbye)

cheeeep infos (informations) thks grazissimi (thanks a lot)
cheers (closer) opp. (opposite) thnx ragaazi (guys)
da (the) pleaze (please) thx ragazzi (guys)
de (the) plese (please) thx a lot
fellows pls (please) tnx
gal(s) plz (please) tx
goood pubbing txs
greetz (greetings) r (are) u (you)
guy(s) rgds (regards) wana
hai sbdy (somebody) wanna
hey thank u yo (you)
hi thanks a bunch
hiya thankss
thanksssss
In Figure 6 we give the frequency of use of the two general categories of NS English and Italian
colloquialisms.
Figure 6. Frequency of general categories of Italian and NS English colloquialisms according to speaker category
It transpires that while Italian colloquialisms are relatively rare, here again they are used most by the
categories of EC, and also OC? not, as may have been expected, by IT or IT?. Furthermore, use of NS

English colloquialisms is most prevalent with EC? then OC/EC? then EC followed by OC and OC? and
not IC or IC?.11
5. Conclusions
The fact that the same subjects in this study that use Italian and Hybrid forms also use NS English
colloquialisms, as well as a few Italian ones too, indicates that the ELF users in question have command
of a varied linguistic repertoire which they can exploit for rhetorical effect.
Within this specific ELF discourse community existing within a specific social context, code mixing
and switching between ELF and the host communitys language (Italian) can be seen as a sign of
identification with that community: in terms of acculturation,12 an act of assimilation or integration. This
constitutes, in effect a mirror process to that where ELF users adopt NS English colloquialisms, which
serves as a sign of the appropriation of ELF as their natural means of expression within certain discourse
domains.
This shows that ELF need not be only oriented to NS English but may draw on other languages
which, like ELF, are additional to the typical ELF users L1 (assuming that they are not NS English or
L1 Italian). This creates a much more complex picture of ELF: one in which a specific variation of it is
not just a syndrome made up of different speakers versions of English but also, to a lesser but still
important degree, of their variations of additional languages, typically deriving from the location in which
the discourse takes place, as well. This no doubt reflects the fact that ELF is in reality first and foremost
an international Lingua Franca and only secondarily a variation of English.
About the author

Since 1987, Thomas Christiansen has taught in various positions at various universities in Apulia (Italy), the UK, and Poland. He is an
associate professor in English Language and Translation at the Universit del Salento (Lecce, Italy). He has published on various areas of
linguistics including systemic linguistics and functional grammar, varieties of English, ELF, teaching English, language testing, and analysis
of different corpora, including spoken discourse. Email: thomas.christiansen@unisalento.it
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2006. In S. Kermas & M. Gotti (Eds.), Socially-conditioned language change: Diachronic and synchronic insights
(pp. 445-469). Lecce: Edizione del Grifo.
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consequence. In H. Giles, J. Coupland & N. Coupland (Eds.), Contexts of accommodation: Developments in
applied sociolinguistics (pp.1-68). New York: Cambridge University Press.
11 Indeed, the fact that EC use NS English and Italian colloquialisms more than even IC (in the former case) or IT (in the latter)
resembles the phenomenon of hypercorrection as illustrated by the overuse of certain forms associated with the upper middle class by
members of the lower middle class as found by Labov in his landmark study of rhotic R in New York City (1966).
12 See Berry (1997).

Halliday, M.A.K. (1978). Language as social semiotic: The social interpretation of language and meaning. London:
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Oxford companion to the English language (pp. 228-229). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Taylor, C. (1998) Language to language: A practical and theoretical guide for Italian / English translators. Cambridge:
Watt, R.J.C. (2009). Concordance v. 3. Available at: concordancesoftware.co.uk

THE SOCIOLINGUISTICS OF ELF
In this section contributors explore the interfaces of ELF with the various socio-
cultural and education settings. Pietro Luigi Iaia & Mariarosaria Provenzano
explore the socio-cultural and linguistic characterisations of migrant workers in both
original English and Italian dubbed/subtitled versions of the migration movie Its a
Free World, and argue ELF variations should be identified not only in the lexico-
syntactic properties of the language, but in the asymmetrical relations identified in the
dialogues and distinctive traits of the speech also within a comparative-discourse
framework as well as in relation to the perlocutionary dimension of the dubbing
translation. Marina Tzoannopoulou analyses the use of humor in academic lectures
by non-native speakers of English where English is used as a lingua franca and
examines the various ways in which humor is manifested linguistically in spoken
academic discourse. Tomokazu Ishikawa investigates Japanese university students
attitudes to the English speoken in Japan, finding extensive evidence of a negative of
non-standard English. Berat Baer presents a preliminary study which investigates
issues of positioning in ELF interactions, where speakers do not share linguacultural
conventions.

Iaia, P. I., & Provenzano, M. (2016). ELF: Sociocultural characterizations and ILF reformulation strategies in the migration
movie Its a Free World. In N. Tsantila, J. Mandalios & M. Ilkos (Eds.), ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives (pp.
71-77). Athens: Deree The American College of Greece.
ELF: Sociocultural characterizations and ILF reformulation strategies in the

migration movie Its a Free World
Pietro Luigi Iaia

Mariarosaria Provenzano1
Abstract
This paper explores the socio-cultural and linguistic characterisations of a group of migrant workers in both original English and Italian
dubbed/subtitled versions of the migration movie Its a Free World (In questo mondo libero, Ken Loach, 2007). Scenes are selected on the
basis of their relevance to the main objective of the study, i.e. to analyse the pragmalinguistic aspects of the perception of the migrant
workers in their work context characterized by power-asymmetry relationships between high-status SE speakers and low-status immigrants.
It is argued that in this movie ELF variations should be identified not only in the lexico-syntactic properties of the language, but in the
asymmetrical relations identified in the dialogic moves (Guido, 2008) and distinctive traits of the speech (brevity of sentences, disfluency
of rhythm) also within a comparative-discourse framework (cf. Brown & Yule, 1983; Provenzano, 2008) as well as in relation to the
perlocutionary dimension of the dubbing translation, since the source and target scripts of a number of selected interactions shall be analysed
in order to enquire into the Italian translation strategies for the dubbing and subtitles. In fact, the dubbed version resorts to Italian lingua-
franca reformulation strategies by means of specific lexical and structural features deviating from standard uses (Seidlhofer, 2011), consistent
with the original illocutionary and perlocutionary dimensions (Austin, 1962). Subtitles, instead, because of spatial and temporal constraints
(Daz Cintas, 2005; Neves, 2009), condense the original utterances (Bogucki, 2011) and retextualising the features of the ELF variation
adopted into standard Italian, providing a target version that is not the pragmalinguistic equivalent of the source script.
Keywords: ELF, English as a lingua franca, audiovisual translation, conversation analysis, migration movie, film
1. Introduction and rationale
This paper focuses on the English and Italian lingua-franca variations employed in the construction and
translation of the migration movie Its a Free World. The analysis aims at identifying the ELF variations in
the lexico-semantic properties of language, in the dialogic moves (Guido, 2008) and traits of speech, as
well as the strategies adopted to provide an equivalent representation of the illocutionary, locutionary and
perlocutionary levels (Austin, 1962) for target receivers, accounting for the interaction between the
linguistic and extralinguistic dimensions of the source and target scripts.
By means of the analysis of the original interactions, this paper will raise awareness of the new ELF
usage variations of the language, and of their pragmatic implications in conflict situations. Our focus will
be on the moves employed by participants in the movie interactions to authenticate the
inaccessible/specialized concepts, and also on the pragmatic consequences determined by these
interactions in the building of knowledge-sharing. The theoretical concept of authentication (Guido,
2008, p. 21) should be underlined, insofar as it serves to justify the processes of adaptation and
negotiation of some specialized concepts in the making of the conversations. Such an interpretation will
take into account the preferred/dispreferred moves in some relevant oral exchanges (cf. Sinclair &
Coulthard, 1975), and try to justify them in terms of: (a) the power-asymmetry relationships among the
participants in the interactions, and (b) through the Conversation Analysis method, aimed at also
reflecting on the social relationships represented.
University of Salento, Italy: pietroluigi.iaia@unisalento.it
University of Salento, Italy: mariarosaria.provenzano@unisalento.it

1 While both authors are responsible for the design of this study and for sections 1, 4.1 and 5, and have co-revised the paper, Pietro Luigi
Iaia is responsible for sections 3, 4.3, 4.5 and 4.7, and Mariarosaria Provenzano for sections 2, 4.2, 4.4, 4.6.

EFL sociocultural characterizations Iaia & Provenzano
At the same time, the focus on the Italian translations for the dubbing and the subtitles will detail the
alternation between the Standard Italian and the lingua-franca variations in the former, and the selection
of Standard Italian in the latter, eventually enquiring into the effects of such strategies in terms of the
linguistic and pragmatic equivalence to the source version.
2. ELF uses and pragmatic implications
One focus will be on the ELF variations employed in the three extracts analysed, where attention is
placed particularly upon the pragmatic features of the exchanges, i.e. on the use of such variations as
representatives of a different social status characterization ascribed to the characters represented. It is
appropriate here to apply Guidos (2008) theory, mainly in relation to the role of knowledge schemata
considered in the case of cross-cultural communication and power-asymmetry relationships. In
particular, we will consider the construct of transfer, and the way(s) this comes to be involved at the
interpretation level. We will look and try to account the modalities by which it comes to construct
interactions and specifically, the pragmatic implications associated to the ELF uses of the language.
Among these problems, there is the practical focus on tax-paying and, hence, the analysis will take into
account the moves and acts enacted by the Western producers of the movie, in order to point out: the
mismatching between the illocutionary force of the acts and the perlocutionary effects achieved on the
migrant subjects.
3. Lingua-franca variations in the translation of multimodal scripts
The exploration of the Italian audiovisual translation strategies will identify the lexical, syntactic and
pragmatic features of the language variations in dubbing and subtitles. In fact, the former resorts to an
Italian lingua franca variation marked by short or incomplete sentences and non-conventional lexical
choices, to provide a multimodal characterisation of low-status, non-native speakers in opposition to
Angie, the high-status protagonist. Such translation strategy is connected to the colonising trend of
dubbing (cf. Paolinelli & Di Fortunato, 2005), which usually omits or replaces those references or
characteristics considered too culture-specific and not appropriate for target audiences. In Its a Free
World, whereas all the Polish characters have a foreign accent reproduced by the Italian dubbing artists,
not all of them resort to the lingua-franca variation. The latter alternates with Standard Italian when it
comes to Karol, whose utterances do not contain the fragmented syntax and non-standard pronunciation
that identify the workers lingua franca, and who is not involved in conversations whose turn-taking
systems resemble those unequal encounters where the native speakers status and will are imposed
(Guido, 2008). If this suggests that translators may have seen such alternation as a strategy to deal with
the different social distance between the man and Angie, it is also true that an equivalent target script is
not attained in terms of socio-linguistic characterisation, since Karols ELF variation is one of the
elements that label him as a migrant who sees English as the only means for communication (cf.
Seidlhofer, 2011) in a foreign country.
As for the subtitles, the target text only resorts to Standard Italian and to more syntactically-complex
sentences, which are condensed in order to comply with the number of characters and lines that have to
appear on screen, and with the duration of their superimposition (cf. Daz Cintas, 2005; Neves, 2009).
The focus on the technical dimension, though, leads to consequences in the linguistic features of subtitles,
since translators are expected to shorten utterances by including only those parts of the scripts that they
consider relevant (Bogucki, 2011) according to their source-text interpretations. For these reasons, a
different training for audiovisual translators is advocated, underlining that in migration movies the
original linguistic features should be examined and rendered in translations, as they deliver the speakers

socio-cultural characterisations along with the communicative and semantic dimensions of the scripts. In
fact, the exclusive adoption of standard Italian produces partially-equivalent target texts that do not
actualize the participants status by means of their utterances, whereas if the speakers hesitations,
repetitions, and lexically- and syntactically-marked utterances were preserved in subtitles, receivers could
identify non-native speakers also from their language variations which interact with their attitudes and
tones of voice.
4. Analysis
4.1 Corpus
Three scenes from the migration movie Its a Free World, are analysed: a dialogue between Angie and a
migrant worker protesting over pay; a worker describing the migrants conditions; an interaction between
the female protagonist and Karol. The selected case studies will highlight the different linguistic and
multimodal construction of the unequal and equal encounters, along with the different Italian translation
strategies, enquiring into the effects in terms of equivalence of the alternation between the Italian lingua
franca and standard variations in dubbing and the selection of Standard Italian in the subtitles.
4.2 Case study 1: ELF uses

What follows is the analysis of case study 1, with a focus on the representation of the problems of pay
and of tax and other financial commitments emerging from the dialogue between the British employer,
on the one hand, and the migrant worker, uttering Your tax isnt my problem, which is a refuse move.
This is followed by the backchannel move, What? Do you reckon we just pick it from a tree?, signalling
unacceptance by the British native speaker, and pointing out the need for further clarification of the
illocutionary force in the move uttered by the low-status participant, as far as the pragmatic interpretation
is concerned. It is interesting to note here the communicative uses of ELF, wherein the refuse move is
rendered through Standard English, although with a peculiar ELF accent, and thus becomes functional
(cf. Seidlhofer, 2011) to the interpretative needs of the interlocutor: denouncing a conflict situation
associated to tax payment.
Similarly, a functional perspective of analysis is applied to the ILF translations, where differences with
the original version exist and may be accounted for in terms of register reformulation (van Dijk, 1980).
A relevant example is the rendering of the native speakers cue relating to tax (see the move above) into
the ILF version, Ci sono le tasse! Paghiamo lassicurazione, per tutti voi. Questi soldi da dove li
prendiamo?!, where pragmatic equivalence is preferred over the semantic one, and the need to extend
meaning is realized by either adding information through the exclamation-based utterance, and by means
of the marked emphasis on the thematic subject Questi soldi, eliciting urgent attention on the part of
the target audience to this subject.
This exchange 1 is also characterized by other challenging moves, mainly associated to the non-native
speaker in relation to the lack of acceptance of different culture-bound concepts, as these become
instantiated through the sentences You asked., Where is my money? Where is payslip?
4.3 Case Study 1: AVT

Two different strategies are adopted for the audiovisual translations of the interaction: a lingua franca
variation for the dubbing, and Standard Italian for the subtitles:

Table 1. Interaction between Angie and a migrant worker, 00:36:44 00:37:07
English Script Italian Dubbing Italian Subtitles

ANGIE: Thats your hours, thats Queste sono le ore che hai Queste sono le ore che hai
your tot. If you dont like it, fatto, questa la paga. Se fatto e questa la paga. Se
there the guy, you can go. non ti sta bene, quella non ti sta bene, puoi anche
luscita, puoi andartene. andartene.
MAN: Oh, no, no, no, no. No, no, no. [Not rendered]
ANGIE: Look! Tax, national Ci sono le tasse! Paghiamo Ci sono le tasse,
insurance, where do you lassicurazione, per tutti voi. lassicurazione. Da dove
reckon we get it from? Questi soldi da dove li prendiamo questi soldi?
prendiamo?!
MAN: Your tax isnt my problem Le vostre tasse non sono Non un mio problema.
problema mio.
ANGIE: What? Do you reckon we Credi che noi i soldi li I soldi li troviamo sugli
just pick it from a tree? troviamo sugli alberi? alberi?
MAN: Ier I worked for you Io ho lavorato per tutta la Ho lavorato tutta la
all week. You must pay me settimana. Voi dovete settimana. Dovete darmi
200 pounds per week. pagare 200 sterline a 200 sterline.
settimana. Tu mi hai
chiamato
ANGIE: We will sort it out later. di questo ne parliamo [Not rendered]
dopo.
MAN: you asked me. Where is dove sono i miei soldi? Dove sono i miei soldi?
my money? Where is
payslip?
ANGIE: [to Karol] Can you tell him [a Karol] Gli vuoi dire che Digli che se non va a
ififif he doesnt go to se ora non va a lavorare non lavorare, non avr pi un
work, he will have no job? avr pi un lavoro, che la lavoro.
Can you tell him? faccenda la risolviamo
dopo? Glielo dici, per
favore?
The dubbing translation multimodally represents the speakers characterisation by resorting to the Polish
mans different accent (a characteristic which will be shared by all non-native, low-status participants)
and by means of the syntactic features of his cues, characterised by short sentences whose structures
deviate from standard norms. For example, consider le vostre tasse non sono [un] problema mio [your taxes
arent [a] problem of mine], which lacks the non-definite article un, a. The different variation is not
preserved in the subtitles, which display shorter sentences in order to respect the technical constraints.
Yet, this decision leads to the omission of important turns, such as the second and the eighth. Though
the omission of the second turn may be not relevant, since Italian receivers can still listen to the original
mans No, no, no, no, by not reproducing Angies cues, the focus on her disrespect of the workers requests
is missed, whereas it is conveyed by the original and dubbed scripts.

After a period without being paid, a group of migrant workers ask for an explanation from Angie. Since
she is still not able to satisfy their demands, one of the workers describes their desperate conditions in
exchange n.2. The latter is also representative of an asymmetrical relationship, which is mainly realized

through the main utterance by the foreign man, This is the third time is happening. As in the previous
case study, here also incomprehension arises and is represented through the syntactic deviation in the
third person of the singular, in which case Seidlhofers (2011) theory of functional varieties of ELF may
apply. In other words, this comes to be justified in terms of the relevance attributed to the contents rather
than to the form of the proposition, i.e. to the claim of the utterance.
4.5 Case study 2: AVT

The features identified in the audiovisual translations of the previous case study are preserved in the
following interaction:
Table 2. One of the migrant workers describes their conditions, 01:00:31 01:00:46

MAN: This is the third time is Questa la terza volta che la terza volta che non ci
happening. Liverpool, non ci pagano. Liverpool, pagano, Liverpool,
Birmingham and now. This Birmingham e ora qui. Birmingham e ora qui.
is not good. We have Questo non buono. Abbiamo una famiglia.
families, we came here to Abbiamo una famiglia e Veniamo qui per lavorare.
work, we work very hard. veniamo qui a lavorare. Ci trattate come animali,
You treat us like animals, we Lavoriamo tutto il giorno, ci lavoriamo sodo. Ci servono
work very hard, were trattate come animali, i soldi adesso.
desperate. We need money lavoriamo tutto il giorno e
now. We cant wait siamo disperat[e]. Vogliamo
anymore. soldi ora. Noi non possiamo
aspettare pi.
Besides the different accent identifying the non-native speaker, the dubbing translation is characterised
by specific syntactic features such as the omission of articles or non-conventional structures. For
example, in Questa [la] terza volta [This is [the] third time] the definite article la is omitted, whereas
Questo non buono [This is not good] entails a non-conventional lexical choice for a native Italian
speaker. A different adjective would be selected, for example bello [nice], or a more complete syntactic
structure would be adopted, such as Questa non una cosa buona [This is not a good thing]. From a
pragmatic perspective, those structures provide the non-native speakers difficulty in mastering Italian,
respecting the source-script construction and proposing the similar selection and repetition of the present
simple tense. Also in this case, the translation for the subtitles is shorter and in Standard Italian, not
reproducing the speakers socio-cultural and linguistic characterisation. For example, the sentence la
terza volta che non ci pagano [It is the third time that they havent paid us] condenses the original subject
clause and resorts to a written, more formal style that respects the temporal and spatial constraints, but
which is unexpected from a non-native speaker who instead generally resorts to repetitions such as we
work very hard to communicate his difficulties with the language.

In this exchange, the relation between the two participants is represented as less asymmetrical than in the
two previous ones, since they have had an affair and are now friends. So, the analysis is meant to provide
evidence of this peculiar relationship in terms of the moves employed and of the register associated to
them. In the exchange between Angie, the British employer, and Karol, the Polish mediator, the reduced
social distance is mainly reflected in the move And you know the old saying Never return a favour, pass
it on?, where also the relatively colloquial Tenor becomes symptomatic of a different, social relation
between the two. The dialogue indeed concludes with the reiteration, as a Backchannel, of the previous

one by the Polish man, Pass it on, mainly aiming to reintroduce the idea of ground-sharing between
them.
4.7 Case study 3: AVT

Differently from case studies 1 and 2, the interaction between Angie and Karol reveals a different strategy
adopted in dubbing:
Table 3. Interaction between Angie and Karol, 01:02:23 01:02:42

ANGIE: Its for your help. You Per laiuto che mi hai dato. Per laiuto che mi hai dato.
really, really helped me out, Mi sono servite davvero Mi hai aiutato moltissimo
all right? All your moltissimo, sai, le tue con le tue traduzioni.
translating? traduzioni.
KAROL: Cash? Contanti? Soldi?
ANGIE: Yeah. S. S.
KAROL: And you know the old Lo conosci il detto: Non Conosci il detto: Non
saying, Never return a pagare mai un favore, rendere mai un favore,
favour, pass it on? ricambialo? fanne un altro?
ANGIE: You sound like my Dad. Mi sembri mio padre! Sembri mio padre.
You should meet him, Avrei dovuto fartelo Dovevo fartelo conoscere.
actually. There you go. conoscere. Tienili! Tieni.
KAROL: Pass it on. Not everything Ricambialo: non tutto si Non tutto si pu
is money. pu comprare. comprare.
The dubbing translation is almost exclusively based on the phonological features, for Karol is identifiable
as a non-native speaker only by his different accent, whereas his cues are not marked from the lexical and
syntactic perspectives, as in Non tutto si pu comprare [You cant buy everything]. The selection of
Standard Italian does not provide an equivalent target script from the linguistic and pragmatic
perspectives, since even though it may be meant to guide the receivers interpretation of Karol and
Angies different relationship, the original association between the non-native speakers and their lingua-
franca variation is not rendered. We sustain that the Italian lingua-franca variation should have been
preserved and preferred, leaving the original audiovisual dimension, for example Angies attitude and the
participants body movements, as a hint of their lower social distance. The Standard Italian is adopted in
the translation for the subtitles as well, which shares some equivalence issues with the dubbed script. For
example, in the translation of Karols saying, the verb to return is rendered as pagare, to pay, whereas
the repetition of some cues such as Karols Pass it on is avoided, underlining that subtitles do result
from what cues translators consider relevant for the transmission of the original semantic dimensions.
Actually, since such relevance is based on the translators interpretation of the original scripts, a cross-
cultural training of audiovisual translators is advocated, in order to avoid the omission of some
characteristics such as the repetitions or hesitations, which should be reproduced for target receivers also
in the subtitles of migration movies. The reason is that such characteristics are relevant insofar as they
construct more credible representations of low-status, non-native participants.

5. Conclusions
This paper has analysed the adoption of ELF variation in the script of the migration movie Its a Free
World and the Italian translation strategies for the dubbing and the subtitles. The analysis of the original
ELF features has revealed that the variations associated to the characters reflect a complex dynamics
between them and are mainly the representation of (a) a knowledge gap, and (b) of the cultural difference
between them, which has been manifested in the moves selected. The Italian audiovisual translation
strategies have confirmed the tendency to alternate the lingua-franca and standard variations for the
dubbing, and the prevalence of the standard variation for the subtitles. Such conventional choices,
however, should be revised to promote the pragmatic and linguistic types of equivalence of migration
movies, whose scripts resort to the audiovisual and linguistic features to convey the socio-cultural
construction of the unequal encounters and of the represented participants.
About the authors

Pietro Luigi Iaia is a lecturer in English Applied Linguistics and Translation in the University of Salento, Italy. His research interests focus
on ELF in cross-cultural audiovisual discourse. E-mail: pietroluigi.iaia@unisalento.it
Mariarosaria Provenzano is a tenured researcher and Adjunct Professor in English Applied Linguistics and Translation at University of
Salento, Italy. Her research focuses on ELF and Specialized Discourse. E-mail: mariarosaria.provenzano@unisalento.it
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Tzoannopoulou, M. (2016). Humor in academic lectures: A case study in an ELF context. In N. Tsantila, J.
Mandalios & M. Ilkos (Eds.), ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives (pp. 78-86). Athens: Deree The
Humor in academic lectures: A case study in an ELF context
Marina Tzoannopoulou
Abstract
This study analyses the use of humor in academic lectures where lecturers and students are both non-native speakers of English
and where English is used as a lingua franca. It examines the various ways in which humor is manifested linguistically in spoken
academic discourse by focusing on the forms and functions of humor and also on the pedagogical implications of its use. A further
purpose of the study is to inform the design of English for Academic Purposes courses for international university settings. The
data involve the analysis of a small corpus of five university lectures which were delivered as part of an English-medium program
in a Greek university. Seven main types of humor were identified: teasing, irony, self-deprecation, hyperbole, black humor,
personal anecdote, and word play. Analysis of the transcriptions reveals that, the lecturers use humor mainly to build rapport, to
manage anxiety and to maintain social order in the classroom.
Keywords: humor, ELF, spoken academic discourse, English for Academic Purposes
1. Introduction
Humor is a topic that has attracted considerable interest over the years in linguistic research
(Attardo, 2001; Bell, 2009; Norrick, 1993). Humor in academic lectures has been explored mainly
in the fields of communication studies and psychology resulting in a number of taxonomies of
lecture humor types (Bryant, Comisky, Crane, & Zillmann, 2008). Recently, in the field of applied
linguistics, there have been a number of studies focusing on the use of humor in spoken academic
discourse most of which point to cultural differences and to the difficulties international students
face in comprehending humor coming mostly from British or American lecturers (Lee, 2006; Nesi,
2012; Wang 2014). In the increasingly globalized world of academia, however, most English-
medium instruction (EMI) at universities takes place with English as a Lingua Franca (ELF), since
students and teachers do not share a first language (Jenkins, 2007; Seidlhofer, 2011). In this study
I explore the under-examined phenomenon of humor in academic lectures where both lecturers
and students are non-native speakers of English and where English is used as a lingua franca. More
specifically, the paper focuses on the linguistic forms and interactional functions of humor in
speech episodes derived from a corpus of social sciences lectures and delivered as part of an
English-medium program in a higher institution in Greece.
2. Theoretical background
The academic lecture is part of institutional discourse and is considered to be one of the more
clearly defined genres of this particular community of discursive practice. However, there are
differences to be found in the level of formality of a lecture which has led researchers to distinguish
between lectures that are more monologic and lectures with a more conversational style (Morell,
2004). Traditionally, a lecture has been defined as an extended holding of the floor in which one
speaker, usually reading aloud from a pre-written paper, imparts his view on a subject using a
slightly impersonal style (Goffman, 1981, p. 165). However, the process of internationalization of
higher education with the increasing use of English as the main language of instruction in lectures
where both the audience and teachers are very often non-native speakers of English, has had an
impact on what may be considered the traditional lecture. Conversational style lectures where
teachers deliver the lecture from notes, using a more informal style and allowing some
conversation/interaction with students (Dudley-Evans, 1994, p. 148) are increasingly becoming
Aristotle University of Thessaloniki: marijo@jour.auth.gr

Humor in academic lectures Tzoannopoulou
more common in contexts where non-native listeners are involved (Morell, 2004), such as is the
case with ELF settings.
With regard to the use of humor in education a number of studies show that it is an important
part of classroom discourse (Neuliep, 1991; White, 2001). However, most studies derived from
educational research tend to discuss humor in pedagogical terms by highlighting its purposes (e.g.
increasing student learning and participation) rather than by focusing on its social functions
(creating social order, building rapport, enhancing the speakers positive face).
The work of scholars such as Attardo (2001), or Norrick and Chiaro (2009) focuses on the form
and functions of humor in discourse, mainly spoken discourse, whereas previous research either
explored theories of humor or examined written sources, for example scripted jokes (Glenn, 2003).
Research into the functions of humor in spoken discourse revealed that it is an adaptable discourse
strategy which can be used for a number of communicative purposes, such as the construction of
in-group cohesion, the delineation of personal boundaries or the mitigation of conflict (Holmes,
2006).
Few studies of humor in lectures exist and most of them (but not all) involve native speakers of
English as lecturers. Lee (2006) uses data from the Michigan Corpus of Spoken English (MICASE)
to demonstrate that laughter is common in American academic spoken discourse and he points to
the difficulties international students studying in the US might have in understanding American
humor and its linguistic forms. Cultural differences, in particular, can cause problems in lecture
reception. Wang (2014), for example, pointed to a remarkable mismatch in intention and
comprehension between British lecturers use of humor and its reception by Chinese students in
the UK, and Zhang (2005) goes so far as to suggest that humor is inappropriate in lectures delivered
in Chinese college classrooms. Zhangs findings revealed that the instructors use of humor during
the lectures increased students classroom communication apprehension, thus pointing to the
suggestion that attitudes towards humor may be culture-specific.
In the British academic context Nesi (2012) draws data from the British Academic Spoken
English corpus (BASE) to analyze the types and functions of laughter episodes in lectures. The
study shows the prevalence of face-work humor in the lectures, as British lecturers seem to tease
their students frequently. Lecturer self-deprecation appears also to be a frequent form of humor
in the BASE lecturers which is used to signal modesty and approachability and, therefore, to
build rapport between students and lecturers (p. 85). On the whole, Nesi argues that British
lecturers use humor to maintain social order, to release tension and to build rapport in the
classroom. She also points out that the teacher and student scripts which are shared in a UK
university context may be unrecognizable or even inappropriate outside this context and she makes
the suggestion that British lecturers should adjust their use of humor when lecturing to
international students or outside the UK. However, Nesi (2012) also makes a comment about the
frequency of laughter in English-medium lectures delivered in non-ENL (English as a native
language) contexts: Laughter episodes in lectures may also be less common in countries where
English is used as a medium of university instruction but is spoken as a second or foreign language,
because lecturers who deliver the information content of their lectures in English tend to revert to
their first language for other social and class management purposes (p. 87). What appears to be
missing from this suggestion is that English-medium instruction in many universities worldwide is
practiced in English as a lingua franca settings, since students and teachers do not share a first
language. The ELFA corpus (English as a Lingua Franca in Academic Settings), which was
collected from university speech events in Finland provides useful evidence as to the existence of
plentiful laughter episodes in ELF settings. The corpus includes speakers of 50 first languages other
than Finnish, thus switching to Finnish for social and class management was not an option. A
recent re-calculation by Carey (2014) of the laughter episodes in the ELFA corpus and a subsequent
comparison of the ELFA figures with those from BASE and MICASE has shown that while the
monologic lectures in ELFA show a lower frequency of laughter than the monologic lectures in
BASE and MICASE, a strong preference for laughter episodes is found in the dialogic ELFA

lecture discussions, which even surpasses similar findings in the native-speaker corpora (p. 118).
It seems, then, that relatively infrequent laughter may be a characteristic of ELF monologic lectures
but this does not suggest that non-native speakers of English are unable to experience humor or
perform relational work in a foreign language, as the ELFA corpus has demonstrated (see
Mauranen, 2012, p. 224-227). Indeed, the higher frequency of laughter in interactive discussions in
the ELFA findings points to where laughter may be found in academic ELF. According to Nesi
(2014) there is a great deal of variation in the frequency of laughter and the use of humor generally
in academic events around the world, depending on the interplay of temporal, disciplinary,
linguistic, regional and generic factors (p. 48).
3. Data analysis
The data of this study involves the analysis of five lectures delivered in the framework of the
English-medium program offered by the School of Journalism and Mass Communications,
Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, during the spring semester 2014. The International Program
offers 16 courses in English to Erasmus and exchange students and it is one of the very few
English-medium programs in Greece. This is an ELF setting, as both teachers and students are
non-native speakers of English and they dont share an L1.
The participants were 21 Erasmus students of different nationalities (Denmark, Germany, the
Netherlands, Estonia, The Czech Republic, Turkey, France, Spain and Sweden). Their level of
English satisfies the B2 level of the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR), an
official requirement by the School. The study also involves semi-structured interviews with the
lecturers and the students who participated in the study, in an attempt to examine the perceptions
and attitudes of both parties towards humor. The lecturers who volunteered to participate in the
study are four male and one female native speakers of Greek. As self-reported their levels of
English ranged between high intermediate and advanced and all of them had experience in lecturing
in English before.
The main body of the study involves the analysis of 5 lectures (6 hours of recordings,
approximately 40,000 words). The courses and length of the lectures can be seen in Table 1. There
are variations in the length of the lectures ranging from 27 minutes to 2.20 minutes.
Table 1. Courses, duration and number of humorous episodes in the lectures
Courses Duration (hours, minutes) Number of humorous

episodes
TV and Entertainment 1:02 9
International Relations 0:27 7
Globalization and the Arts 2:20 11
TV Production 1:37 16
Electronic Mass Media Technology 1:18 9
Total 6:04 52
The purpose of the study is three-fold:
1) What are the forms and functions of humor in the academic lectures under investigation?
2) How do the Erasmus students perceive humor in these lectures?
3) How do the lecturers account for their own use of humor in these lectures?

However, due to limitations of space the present paper will only offer an analysis of the types
and functions of humor in the recorded lectures and references to the interviews will be made only
to complement some of the findings.
Table 2 shows that 7 types of humor were identified in the lectures. The typology was
constructed inductively from the data, however some categorizations were used from the relevant
literature, especially by Nesi (2012) and Lee (2006). Since this is small corpus it was manually
analyzed. What became evident during the analysis was that not all humor elicits laughter, a finding
which has also been identified by previous research (Attardo, 2001), which has shown that laughter
and humor are related but are not co-extensive. Indeed, laughter does not necessarily indicate a
reaction to humor as laughter can be instigated by anxiety or relief (Ross, 1998).
Table 2. Types of humor in the corpus and number of humorous episodes
Types of humor Number of humorous episodes

Lecturer-student teasing 13
Irony/sarcasm 12
Register/word play 8
Jokes/personal anecdotes 6
Lecturer self-deprecation 5
Hyperbole/exaggeration 5
Black humor 3
Total 52
With regard to the functions of humor identified in the data, Table 3 offers a breakdown of each
type of humor with its associated functions. Three broad categories of functions were identified,
associated with facework, with anxiety management and with maintaining social order.
Table 3. Types of humor and their functions in the lectures
Types of humor Functions of humor

Lecturer-student teasing breaking the ice, building rapport, releasing
from tension/anxiety, maintaining social order
Irony/sarcasm releasing from tension/ anxiety, demonstrating
individualism, critiquing
Register/word play building rapport, breaking the ice, making
content memorable
Jokes/personal anecdotes Demonstrating spontaneity, breaking the ice,
building rapport, making content memorable
Lecturer self-deprecation building rapport
Hyperbole/exaggeration building rapport, breaking the ice
Black humor Releasing from tension/anxiety
The most common type of humor identified in the lectures was lecturer-student teasing. In extract
1 the teacher makes a teasing reference regarding the absence of some students.
Extract 1
I see some of the students are not here this morning probably their quilts were heavy they could not lift them
up this morning <laughter> but I have their e-mails <mimicking a threatening voice> <laughter>

It is interesting to note that the lecturer translates literally an idiomatic expression from Greek to
English (when somebodys quilt is heavy it means that he/she often sleeps late and cannot get up
in the morning). The students laughed and later mentioned in the interviews that they understood
the idiom as it was quite clear and straightforward. Lecturer-student teasing is used here in order
to maintain some form of social order in the classroom. The lecturer reprimands the absent
students as their misbehavior threatens the lecturers competence face. However, the teacher
defuses the potentially face-threatening act by using a funny voice, so that the reprimand is not too
harsh and the ensuing laughter relieves the tension. Fine and Soucey (2005) refer to the role of
teasing: the member who has violated group expectations is reprimanded; but because the frame
is a joking one, there is formally no criticism; the reputation remains formally unsmudged; this is,
after all, only joking (p. 11). In the native speaker corpora the teachers frequently tease the
students for coming in late, for not working hard and for partying or drinking, especially in the
case of the British lectures where partying, drinking and not working hard is part of the student
script which all the students share (Nesi, 2012). In the present study lecturers tease students about
coming in late, falling asleep or talking to each other but no references to alcohol were recorded,
probably because it does not seem to be part of the student script in Greece.
Another type of humor is lecturer self-deprecation which is quite common in the BASE and
the MICASE lectures. It is the type of self-effacing joke that is used to express modesty, humility
and approachability on the part of the speaker. Extract 2 comes from a lecture on Television and
Entertainment where the teacher is discussing the Big Brother show.
Extract 2
It managed (the Big Brother show) to score some huge numbers on the ratings even I Im ashamed to say I
watched it <laughter> it was a huge success <in an apologetic tone>
The teachers remark serves to build rapport with the students, adding as such to community
building. The teachers embarrassment for watching a show which is not very sophisticated is
actually a face saver as it bonds him with the students who have most probably watched the show
themselves.
The next form of humor identified in the data was irony and sarcasm, a familiar form of humor
in many academic genres. Extract 3 comes from the course TV and Entertainment where the teacher
shows video clips of popular Greek shows to the students. The video clip discussed here is that of
the weather news forecast from STAR channel which is famous for its lifestyle news, its news
program being full of gossip and news about celebrities and TV personalities.
Extract 3
And now the not-exactly weather forecast of STAR channel they chose a different approach for STAR
channel on the weather see why this is Petroula <laughter> (video is on showing the weather forecaster
wearing a bikini) nobody would watch it for the weather as you understand but for the girl only there was no
way to learn about the weather from this particular program OK (video is off) <sighs of
disappointment from the students> do you want more of Petroula? <in a soft voice> <laughter>
Sarcasm usually takes the form of an understatement (the not-exactly weather forecast of STAR
channel) and it can be easily recognized only when it involves something explicitly absurd or openly
mocking (Lee, 2006). In the same extract the lecturer teases the students after the video is off asking
them if they want to see more of the sexy weather forecaster. Some of the types of humor identified
in the data are not mutually exclusive and occasionally co-occur as in this case.
The next type of humor is that of hyperbole/exaggeration. The following extract comes from
the introduction of a lecture.

Extract 4
Now lets talk about something really useful dont worry were going to tell you everything here youre going to
be very very satisfied <laughter>
The humor here is to be found in the exaggerated nature of the description, it takes the form of an
overgeneralization (were going to tell you everything here) and of an exaggeration to an extreme
extent (lets talk about something really useful, youre going to be very very satisfied). It serves the
purpose of breaking the ice and making the students more at ease. Hyperbole is a common type of
humor mostly to be found in the opening and closing sections of lectures as evidenced in the
MICASE corpus (Lee, 2006). Previous research (Ohlrogge & Tsang, 2004) has shown that
hyperbole tends to be avoided in academic speech since lecturers tend to be very accurate when
developing their ideas and do not appear to exaggerate when talking about their subject matter.
There were some instances of black humor in the data. Extract 5 comes from the Electronic Mass
Media Technology course, a laboratory course where the teacher and students are having a discussion
about their final-term projects at the end of the lecture.
Extract 5
Teacher: By the way each one of you who wants to be virtually present in the system that we used last week
you can send me an e-mail and we will do it of course you will be in Canada I think and the time will be a
little different but if you really want to participate just tell me and I will change the time for you <laughter>
we can all wear pajamas to class <laughter>
Student: Can I give you my project by the middle of June?
Teacher: Until the last day you are in Greece you are leaving your bones in the lab <laughter>
The episode that involves black humor (you are leaving your bones in the lab) relieves the tension
of the student as to the deadline of the project. Black humor is quite common in the native speaker
corpora, however only 3 instances were identified here.
Another type of humor identified in the data is that of the personal anecdote where the teacher
narrates a story with a humorous effect. The following story comes at the end of a lecture on
International Relations when the students are discussing their projects; the atmosphere is relaxed and
they are only a handful of students in the classroom.
Extract 6
I had the most horrible experience from Italian taxi-drivers <teacher whistles> <laughter> They are
as we say in Greece arpachtable. (i.e. try to rip you off) they cannot be compared to anyone else they were
telling me take a taxi-driver with a meter so I would ask do you have a meter? of course <emphatic tone>
I would go in the taxi where is the meter? it is broken <loud laughter> do you know? what can you do?
The purpose of the story, as the teacher later explained in the interview, was to release the tension
in the class after the lecture and also to build rapport with the students; he was sure that they had
heard or even experienced similar incidents with taxi-drivers in the southern part of Europe. It is
interesting that the teacher uses some form of code-switching in this episode. Although he does
not seem to know the English word for someone who tries to overcharge you he does not appear
to be daunted and he forms a Greek-English blend (arpachtable) with the Greek word (a
rip-off) and the English suffix -able to mark it as an adjective. The students later said in the
interviews that they understood the meaning of this blend from the context.

Extract 7 is another example of personal anecdote which directly follows the previous one
where the lecturer narrates what happened to him with another taxi-driver in Italy. This episode
combines two types of humor, the personal anecdote and that of register as we notice the use of
taboo language.
Extract 7
In Italy I once asked a taxi driver to take me to we were a big company of men in somewhere near NATO
in Napoli that was back in 1992 a group of journalists and academics you know the Americans took us to
NATO so after the meeting with the generals there we the same taxi driver yeah <laughter> he was always
in front of us <laughter> we tell him take us to a club we meant a bar to drink something you know and
he misunderstood and he was driving driving driving after about two hours we arrived at some very dark place
he says the club is here you know so we go down the stairs and it was it was a brothel <whispering> full
of whores and you know we were searching for him to tell him that he misunderstood <loud laughter>
probably the word club in Italian means something else rather than bar be careful with the words you choose
<laughter> in international politics the wrong word can get you in serious trouble (.) but they were really
terrible they would ask us what do you want to eat? spaghetti ah to my sisters <laughter>
It is interesting to note here the use of taboo language, the frequency of which is usually low in
academic discourse. Mild swearing consisting of old-fashioned or time-worn words can
occasionally be found in the MIKASE corpus (Lee, 2006) and four-letter words sometimes make
an appearance in the BASE corpus (Nesi, 2012). The use of mild vulgarity may have a social
management role, as the lecturers try to break the ice and build rapport. It may also be seen as an
attempt on the part of the lecturers to create a positive face by appearing spontaneous. What also
deserves some attention here is the final remark of the lecturer regarding the misunderstanding of
the word club by the taxi driver. He urges the students to be careful with the words they choose as
in international politics the wrong word can get you in serious trouble. Therefore, humor seems
to serve a pedagogical purpose in this episode as the teacher tries to make the content of his lecture
memorable to the students. Previous research has highlighted the pedagogical use of humor in
education and its importance in increasing student learning and participation (Neuliep, 1991; White,
2001).
4. Discussion and conclusion
The question that inevitably needs to be addressed here is: Is it possible to fully experience humor
when using (and lecturing in) a foreign language? There is, however, no straightforward answer
as the use of humor varies from individual to individual (there are people with no sense of humor
in any language) and from culture to culture. Humor can be culture-specific; it is common
knowledge that even native speakers of the same language coming from different cultural
backgrounds (e.g. British and Americans) are prone to misunderstandings when cultural references
are made. And the situation is made even more complicated with lingua franca interaction. The
findings of the present study, which involved an ELF academic setting, reveal that lecturers,
although non-native speakers of English and addressing an audience of students coming from
different linguistic and cultural backgrounds, use humor to build rapport, to manage anxiety and
to maintain social order in the classroom. Occasionally, the lecturers seem to draw on their L1
resources for help (translating literally an idiom from Greek into English, or using some form of
mild code-switching as in blending a Greek and an English word) but this does not seem to hinder
the humorous effect on the students. Indeed, this could be a creative strategy on the part of the
lecturers which they use deliberately in an effort to preserve their humor and spontaneity in a
language other than their L1.

Finally, we need to consider the pedagogical implications of the present study, especially since
we are dealing with an ELF context. It is well-known that unlike local or national languages ELF
is an international medium of communication and as such it has no native speakers and no
prevalent cultural norms (Seidlhofer, 2011). Therefore, it could be argued that it is everyones
property. Since it lacks native speakers and a native culture, it may also lack culture-specific
pragmatic aspects such as idioms, collocations, slang, puns, and, consequently, humor. However,
the present study points to the existence of humor in academic ELF. A question that, evidently,
arises is whether English for Academic Purposes courses which address students coming from
different linguistic and cultural backgrounds should involve teaching humor awareness or
strategies for recognizing and responding to humor. Some pedagogical consciousness-raising tasks
aimed at helping students decipher the various types and functions of humor in academia would
be helpful, including activities on the culture-specific uses of humor. What we should bear in mind,
however, is that humor is universal and that it has the potential to create connections among people
from different nationalities and cultures. Thus it would be useful to highlight cross-cultural
similarities in forms and functions of humor in order to give students the opportunity to compare
their own cultural patterns with those of their fellow-students and to examine real examples of
humor coming from native speaker and ELF corpora. Humor is a fundamental part of life and its
understanding (or misunderstanding) should be openly discussed. Therefore, it would not be
unreasonable to suggest that incomprehension of humor in academic ELF should be given some
space for open negotiation, exchange and feedback.
About the author

Marina Tzoannopoulou is a lecturer at the School of Journalism and Mass Communications, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki.
She holds an M. Phil. in Applied Linguistics from Trinity College Dublin and a PhD in Linguistics from the Aristotle University of
Thessaloniki. She currently teaches courses in Academic Writing and English for Specific Purposes. Her research interests lie in the
areas of second language acquisition, English for Specific Purposes, Content and Language Integrated Learning and English as a
Lingua Franca. She has published in journals and international conference proceedings and has co-edited books in applied linguistics.
E-mail: marijo@jour.auth.gr
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Japanese university students attitudes towards their English:

Open-ended email questionnaire study
Tomokazu Ishikawa
Abstract
English is currently used as a global lingua franca (ELF), involving people from diverse socio-linguacultural backgrounds (e.g.,
Seidlhofer, 2011; Jenkins, 2015). However, as a former English teacher in Japan, I observed many Japanese students see no tangible
connection between themselves and ELF. Indeed, they appeared overtly pejorative about their own English, or more generally,
Japanese peoples English. To investigate these issues, my research explores the following two research questions with reference to
ELF theories: 1) How do Japanese university students orient to Japanese peoples English including their own? and 2) What factors are associated with
the students orientations, and how do these factors work to form their orientations? My research theorises peoples orientations to language as
language attitudes, in other words, the evaluative concepts directed to a linguistic phenomenon (e.g., Niedzielski & Preston, 1999/2003;
Preston, 2010). To answer the above research questions, an open-ended email questionnaire was disseminated, through my
intermediaries, to 516 Japanese students at leading Japanese universities. Of this number, 95 students sent back their completed
questionnaires, to which I applied qualitative content analysis (e.g., Miles, Huberman, & Saldaa, 2014; Schreier, 2012). As the
preliminary findings of the first research question, my respondents two sets of evaluative concepts (i.e., attitudes) were identified
as underlying their generally negative accounts. The first set of negative attitudes was the perceived prioritisation of correctness in
American and possibly British English as a Native Language (ENL) at the expense of effective oral communication. The second
set of negative attitudes was a deficit perspective on Japanese-influenced English use. Also, as the preliminary findings of the second
research question, it seems that school English and English tests collaboratively presented to my respondents geographically-
bounded correct ENL in the US and possibly the UK as the English. Provisional pedagogical implications are briefly discussed at
the end.
Keywords: language attitudes, English as a Lingua Franca (ELF), English education in Japan, sociolinguistics, social psychology of
language
1. Rationale and research questions
The impetus for my research stems from both my English teaching experience in Japan and my
encounter with Jenkins (2000). As a former English teacher at institutions for university-entrance-
exam preparation, I had opportunities to teach upper secondary school students who aimed to
enrol in leading Japanese universities. Although teaching them was rewarding, I was not satisfied
that many of them appeared overtly pejorative about their own English, occasionally with the
excuse that they were Japanese. Meanwhile, as a part-time Masters student, I happened to read
Jenkinss (2000) monograph on English as a Lingua Franca (ELF). Casting a sceptical eye on the
sole ownership of English on the part of particular nationalities (e.g., Widdowson, 1994), she
presents empirical evidence to demonstrate how English can be used internationally without
sacrificing diverse socio-linguacultural identities. Even though her focus confines itself to
phonology, she left me delighted at the positive feelings of freedom and independence as an
international English user freedom from and independence of the nationalistic doctrines of
linguistic correctness (Woolard and Schieffelin, 1994, p. 64) enshrined even in an international
setting, irrespective of intelligibility. While delighted, I realised that the possible lack of ELF
perspectives through some factors in Japan might have something to do with my former students
negative orientations to their own English, or more generally, to Japanese peoples English.
It seems that university undergraduates are in a good position to offer some insight to my
research because they are highly intelligent and also able to draw on school, university preparation
and university experiences. Some studies have been concerned with how Japanese people perceive
Japanese English vis--vis the global spread of English (e.g., Matsuda, 2003; Jenkins, 2007).
Indeed, a few of them specifically target Japanese university students from a quantitative research
approach (McKenzie, 2010; Sasayama, 2013). However, at present, there seem to be few qualitative
research counterparts. In addition, taking account of global English use, scarcely any research has
Centre for Global Englishes, University of Southampton: ti1g12@soton.ac.uk

Japanese university students attitudes Ishikawa
explored the factors associated with Japanese orientations to Japanese peoples English. Thus,
bearing ELF theories in mind, my research aims to explore the two research questions below.
How do Japanese university students orient to Japanese peoples English including their own?
What factors are associated with the students orientations, and how do these factors work to
form their orientations?
2. Theoretical framework
In order to theorise peoples orientations to language, my research borrows the commonly used
academic term language attitudes. Accordingly, my theoretical framework consists of not only ELF
but also language attitudes. Integrating diverse theoretical arguments, my research identifies
language attitudes with a reservoir of evaluative (i.e., some degree of positive or negative) concepts
directed to a linguistic phenomenon (e.g., Niedzielski & Preston, 1999/2003; Preston, 2010). Even
though language attitudes are expressed as and inferable from observable responses, such as verbal
accounts, these responses are not language attitudes per se, but are constructed in a situational
context based on the underlying evaluative concepts (e.g., Eagly & Chaiken, 2007; Potter &
Wetherell, 1987). While cognitive language-attitude responses can be regarded as beliefs about
language, they may well be inevitably imbued with affect (e.g., Cunningham & Zelazo, 2007), thus
not necessarily a distinguishable construct.
My research also draws on ELF theories. As a result of the global expansion of English, people
from different socio-linguacultural backgrounds use English for lingua franca communication in
and across all three Kachruvian circles (e.g., Seidlhofer, 2011; Jenkins, 2015). The correctness in
geographically-bounded English varieties is not pertinent to ELF communication, but instead, any
given communicative needs take priority (e.g., Cogo & Dewey, 2012). At the same time,
accommodation to listeners/readers is key not only for the purpose of intelligibility but also for
the sake of interactants socio-linguacultural identities (e.g., Jenkins, 2000; 2014). In so doing, ELF
interactants may employ their linguistic resources as bi- or multilinguals dynamically and
situationally, although ELF communication may include monolingual native English speakers
(NESs) who can accommodate their English as necessary (e.g., Jenkins, Cogo, & Dewey, 2011).
While the same first-language (L1) users in the expanding circle probably share parallel L1
influence, the concept of variety in the traditional sense does not apply to their English, because
there is no English speech community for them (e.g., Mauranen, 2012).
These two sets of theories lay a foundation for answering my research questions. More precisely,
my research infers Japanese university students language attitudes and explores associative factors
with reference to ELF theories by way of their accounts.
3. Method
Jenkins (2014) provides a precedent, demonstrating that an open-ended email questionnaire may
serve as a research tool for profound exploration, as long as respondents have the capability to
express themselves in written words and feel the theme very relevant to them. Seeing that my
participants were all highly intelligent, and that my research enquiry was their English, I adopted
her questionnaire method so that my enquiry would be open to the range of possible answers
(e.g., Drnyei & Taguchi, 2010, p. 36).
The pilot questionnaire, with which I found no major problem, was conducted at a UK
university. The main study questionnaire and attached participant information sheet were emailed,
between January and June 2014, through my 25 intermediaries, to 516 Japanese university students
(including seven postgraduates who were accidentally involved). Both the questionnaire and
attached sheet were written bilingually in Japanese and English. Out of that number (i.e., 516), 94
undergraduates and one first-year Masters student sent back their completed questionnaires. The

questionnaire from this Masters student was included as valid data, given that my respondents
included year 5 undergraduates. The respondents were students at one of the following fifteen
universities, which all have a high academic reputation in Japan: the national institutions of Kyoto,
Osaka, Tokyo and Tsukuba, and the private institutions of Doshisha, the Jikei University School
of Medicine, Kansai, Keio, Kwansei Gakuin, Meiji, Rikkyo, Ritsumeikan, Sophia, the Tokyo
University of Science, and Waseda. The respondents disciplines ranged widely across arts and
humanities, social sciences, natural sciences and medicine.
It should be admitted that an email questionnaire is not without limitations. First of all, it is not
certain that targeted respondents have completed it alone. In addition, respondents can answer it
through any terminal (e.g., iPad) and in any place, thereby possibly influencing the data (Robson,
2011). Furthermore, the response rate tends to be low (e.g., Bryman, 2012) and even lower in the
case of an open-ended questionnaire (Jenkins, 2014). In my research, I needed to recruit additional
intermediaries in the process, hoping that the number of my respondents would reach at least 100.
4. Analytical framework
As the sole constituent of my analytical framework, I employed qualitative content analysis (e.g.,
Miles, Huberman, & Saldaa, 2014; Schreier, 2012), by which I mean coding the written data,
integrating the assigned codes into a smaller number of hierarchically organised categories, and
interpreting the relationships between the developed categories as well as between the codes under
the same or different categories. In effect, by way of categorising and connecting (Maxwell & Miller,
2008), qualitative content analysis, such as mine, works towards capturing the deep structural
meaning conveyed by the message (Berg & Lune, 2012, p. 355, emphasis in original).
My analytical framework suits language-attitude theories in my theoretical framework. As the
theories identify language attitudes as a conceptual reservoir on which a respondents accounts
about language are based, it is the above-mentioned deep structural level that my analysis needed
to reach. My analysis was also conducive to exploring not only what but also how (in my
second research question) by adding interpretive depth and breadth through the trilogy of coding,
categorising and interpreting.
Seeing no plausible reason to do otherwise, I treated each questionnaire question separately in
analysis. Due to word limitation, this paper omits actual codes, categories and interpretation
process.
5. Preliminary findings
The questionnaire consisted of ten items, among which question 9 simply asked for an optional
email address. Out of my 95 respondents, 64 submitted their email addresses, enabling me to
pursue their questionnaire answers in later emails. The final analysis being in progress, this section
reports preliminary findings under each research question. It should be noted that since almost all
the respondents answered in Japanese, all the quotations in this section are my translations into
English.
5.1 Research question 1

The questionnaire included four items to explore my first research question. These were questions
1, 3, 4 and 5. Question 1 was: In your view, what is positive and/or negative about Japanese peoples English?
Overall, my respondents accounts were considerably skewed to the negative side. Even though
positive comments were somewhat noticeable on grammatical knowledge, reading skills and, to
some extent, writing skills, 89 answers (out of 95) argued that Japanese people were weak in their
actual English use, mostly in oral communication. In fact, no positive comments appeared on
English oral communication, except that Japanese people might be polite and sincere to their
interlocutors, and that their English might be easy at least for fellow Japanese to understand.

Importantly, across those 89 answers, two sets of negative evaluative concepts (i.e., attitudes)
manifested themselves. First, while none of my respondents appeared to doubt the equation of
correct English as a Native Language (ENL) with good English at any linguistic levels (e.g.,
phonology, lexis, grammar), they indicated that Japanese peoples perceived prioritisation and thus
high evaluation of correctness in ENL, mainly in terms of grammar, would hinder oral
communication. As one example:
As for their weakness, having been made to cram grammar into their heads too much, Japanese people worry
about grammatical mistakes and become obsessed with perfect sentence structure when speaking English.
(Respondent 1, Waseda)
This answer implies that Japanese people attach more importance to grammatical accuracy than
conveying message. Similar concerns emerged across the universities involved. Second, along with
a possible lack of usable English vocabulary and idiomatic expressions, my respondents seemed to
regard Japanese-influenced English use as deficient, mostly without discussing the issue of
intelligibility, or possibly with their presumption that needless to say, such was not intelligible. As
one example:
The weaknesses include the tendency not to be able to avoid Japanese- influenced English words and sentence
structures (Respondent 2, Rikkyo)
The assumption here is that the Japanese influence should always be avoided. Some respondents
offered a more specific criticism of Japanese peoples English as not straightforward in expression
(for example, euphemistic or circumlocutory), while assuming such to be always problematic.
As another example:
As for their weakness, Japanese people use a unique intonation (katakana pronunciation etc.).
(Respondent 3, Tokyo)
The assumption here is that including intonation, Japanese peoples unique pronunciation itself
is a weakness, although it is true that the pronunciation derived from Japanese phonograms
katakana may undermine intelligibility (e.g., Jenkins, 2000). All the above considered, it is no
wonder if Japanese people are shy about, unconfident in, or even reluctant about speaking English.
Such is the situation which some respondents explicitly claimed was the case.
Question 3 was: What about your own English in relation to questions 1 and 2? Only the relation to
question 1 is the target here. My respondents accounts were akin to those in question 1, except
that 22 respondents saw themselves as somewhat better in English oral communication than other
Japanese people. These 22 respondents accounts seemed to consider Japanese peoples English
oral communication ability in general to be poor, and nativelike competence in English oral
interaction, particularly that close to American NESs, to be the most desirable.
Question 4 was: What word(s) would you use to describe Japanese peoples English? (for example,
beautiful). Again, my respondents main concern was Japanese peoples perceived lack of ability
in actual English use, mostly in oral communication. Even though many respondents wrote only
words or short phrases, 70 answers pertained to this lack of ability. Among these 70 answers, 23
included pejorative words, such as awkward, inadequate, and the like. Again, my respondents
suggested that the same two sets of negative attitudes as found in question 1 (mentioned above)
underpinned their concern with this particular aspect of Japanese ability. Perhaps as a corollary of
these attitudes, some respondents claimed English in Japan to be either learned for knowledge or
a symbol of effort, independently of its communication function. Two examples below are:

For the purpose of studying, but not using. (Respondent 4, Keio)
This respondent expressed the view in the previous questionnaire questions that even if Japanese
school students did not need English outside their classrooms, they were supposed to gain its
knowledge. Thus, her answer implies that knowledge itself is the target to learn in the school
English classroom.
Proof of effort! (Respondent 5, Rikkyo)
This respondent later discussed in an email how much effort she and her peers had devoted to
English, despite not being confident in speaking English. It could possibly be extrapolated that
English functioned as an effort indicator in the form of test scores for my respondents.
Question 5 was: What word(s) would you use to describe your own English? (for example, beautiful). My
respondents answers about their own perceived lack of ability to use English, mostly in oral
communication, were prevalent. Again, although many respondents wrote only words or short
phrases, 79 answers pertained to this lack of ability. Among these 79 answers, 39 included
pejorative words, again, such as awkward, inadequate, and the like. Such being the case, at least
some respondents were unconfident in English oral communication, possibly also feeling unsure
of being able to make sense to NESs, as was the case with this respondent.
I have no idea whether I can get my message across. (Respondent 6, Tsukuba)
Having said that, according to this respondents later email, she had some experiences of successful
English communication in continental Europe. She apologised in the same email that she could
not recall any communication instances with NESs. Indeed, including her, 29 respondents
suggested in their questionnaires and/or later emails, without being prompted, that their English
should be understandable to NESs. On the other hand, despite being relatively confident in English
oral communication, a few respondents seemed dissatisfied with their own spoken English due to
its inaccuracy, mainly in terms of grammar, and its Japanese influence.
Given the significant role that American and British peoples English seems to play in Japanese
university students attitudes towards English (e.g., McKenzie, 2010; Evans & Imai, 2011), the
questionnaire included questions 6 and 7. Question 6 was: What do you think about American peoples
English? Question 7 was: What do you think about British peoples English? The answers to question 6
mostly admired American peoples English, including its assumed high intelligibility. Example
phrases are absolute authority (Respondent 7, Waseda), real English (Respondent 8, Kwansei
Gakuin), and the English generally accepted in the world (Respondent 9, Keio). On the other hand, the
answers to question 7 tended to describe a relative unfamiliarity with and only a moderate
acceptance of British peoples English along with its assumed low intelligibility.
The questionnaire also included question 8: Please comment freely on English used by people not
mentioned above (i.e., those who are not American, British or Japanese). Even though comments on
low intelligibility, often with reference to accentedness, were noticeable, my respondents still
tended to view those other people as better English speakers than Japanese. Also, a very few
respondents touched on the existence of indigenised types of English in the world, and none of
them saw Japanese peoples English as such a type. Moreover, while another few respondents
observed international English users prioritising communicative needs rather than conformity to
ENL, it seems clear that none of them was entirely positive about this phenomenon.
5.2 Research question 2

The questionnaire included two items to explore my second research question. These were
questions 2 and 3. Question 2 was: What experiences make you say positive and/or negative? My
respondents tended to discuss the Japanese educational context. Indeed, 64 respondents (out of

95) placed some blame on school English, English tests and/or English use at university inside
Japan. Regarding secondary education, my respondents indicated that school English marginalised
communication use, particularly in oral interaction, and emphasised the importance of correct
American and possibly British ENL not influenced by Japanese, mainly through grammar, in
conjunction with reading and, to some extent, writing. In their view, this school English was in
accordance with English tests, particularly entrance exams. Two examples describing such coupling
of school English with English tests are:
I think both school English education and English for university entrance exams specialise in the same thing.
(Respondent 10, Osaka)
This respondent later added in an email that both focused extensively on correct grammar and
reading. Thus, her answer implies that both are likely to disregard communication use.
Through English classes, Japanese students will become relatively good at reading, writing and grammar in
tests. But I often see them thinking too much or hesitating when speaking English. (Respondent 11,
Ritsumeikan)
This respondent later claimed in an email that Japanese English education before university would
instil apprehension about making mistakes. Her answer implies, then, that school English in Japan
is primarily a subject for paper tests.
Regarding tertiary education, my respondents suggested that Japanese university students could
have few opportunities to use English regularly with foreign people, except possibly with North
American or other NES English instructors. They also clearly suggested that a Japanese university
English classroom was likely to make L1 Japanese speakers use English among themselves, however
unlikely this is to happen in real-world communication.
Outside the educational context, my respondents appeared to have few opportunities to use
English in Japan. Also, a small number of respondents suggested two things: first, my respondents
regarded English-origin loanwords in Japanese as no longer English, and second, they regarded it
as a matter of course that teachers from the inner circle would predominate in private,
commercialised eikaiwa (English conversation) schools. Meanwhile, even my respondents
experiences abroad did not allow them to see second-language (L2) English in its own right. One
respondent, for example, described the non-native English she had heard in a Middle East
country as messed up in grammar and not properly educated (Respondent 12, Tsukuba). It
may be that their language attitudes, formed inside Japan, set limitations on how to view other
peoples English abroad.
Again, question 3 was: What about your own English in relation to questions 1 and 2? Only the relation
to question 2 is the target here. My respondents generally did not seem to have anything new to
say after question 2. Accordingly, no major difference emerged between the answers to questions
3 and 2.
All things considered, it seems that both school English and English tests served as main factors
in forming my respondents language attitudes, on which English use at university did not add any
major influence. Meanwhile, it seems unlikely that their daily lives and even experiences abroad had
any counter influence on their language attitudes.
The questionnaire also included question 10, which asked for optional further comments on my
research. My respondents comments included their encouragement, the difficulty they had in
answering the questionnaire, and their concerns about Japanese peoples and/or their own English
oral communication ability. There emerged nothing remarkably new in relation to either research
question 1 or 2.

6. Summary and provisional pedagogical implications
Through qualitative content analysis in the light of ELF theories, my respondents two sets of
negative attitudes became manifest, and underlay their generally negative accounts about Japanese
peoples and their own English. The first set of negative attitudes was the perceived prioritisation
of correctness in American and possibly British ENL, mainly in terms of grammar, at the expense
of effective oral communication. The second set of negative attitudes was a deficit perspective on
Japanese-influenced English use. It seems that school English and English tests collaboratively
presented to my respondents geographically-bounded correct ENL in the US and possibly the
UK as the English, without heeding how to make use of classroom knowledge for real-world
international and intercultural communication or valuing the exploitation of plurilingual resources.
Given the native-speakerism (e.g., Holliday, 2006; Houghton & Rivers, 2013) indicated by answers
across questionnaire questions, it may be that my respondents valued Japanese peoples and their
own English only in terms of how much it resembled ENL, mostly American ENL.
I do not claim the enhancement of ELF awareness in Japanese English education to be a
panacea for alleviating such negative attitudes as expressed by my respondents. However, if the
Japanese English classroom regards English as an international language rather than a national
language of a particular country, it might be worthwhile not only to introduce the global diversity
of English but also to provide opportunities to use English for lingua franca communication,
possibly via online communication, and discuss, for example, the following questions.
When English is used in an international setting,

what do you think constitutes correctness in English communication?
what do you think is the rationale for trying to avoid all the Japanese-influenced English use
without much consideration of the issue of intelligibility?
Such discussion might assist Japanese students in preparing themselves, as international English
users, not simply to replicate what is taught, but use it as a means for developing effective
communicative strategies related to their own [socio-lingua]cultural reality (Wen, 2012, p. 373).
Acknowledgements
I gratefully acknowledge the financial aid provided by the Gen Foundation, London. Also, I would
like to thank Erin Bruni Suzuki (Shorin Global Junior & Senior High School) for her invaluable
comments and suggestions.
About the author

Tomokazu Ishikawa is a PhD candidate at the University of Southampton, a member of the Universitys Centre for Global
Englishes, and a former English teacher at Japanese institutions for university-entrance-exam preparation. He holds an MA from
Teachers College, Columbia University, and an LLB from Keio University. Email: ti1g12@soton.ac.uk
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Baer, B. (2016). Positioning in ELF interactions. In N. Tsantila, J. Mandalios & M. Ilkos (Eds.), ELF: Pedagogical and
Positioning in ELF interactions
Berat Baer
Abstract
When people communicate with others whose values and lingua-culture they share and with whom they have similar schematic
knowledge, they can quite quickly position themselves in relation to the other, because of the social conventions that they both
subscribe to. If the people communicating do not share a language and familiarity with shared values, as is the case in using
English as a lingua franca (ELF), then they have got work to do to establish a position. How, then, do ELF speakers use English
to establish relative positions in their interactions? This paper reports on the early stages of an exploration of this question. It
outlines the issues that arise, through a synthesis of the following three related approaches: the Cooperative Principle (Grice,
1975), the Speech Act Theory (Searle, 1969, 1979) and Labovs sociolinguistics (Labov, 1972). The concepts and findings of
these three approaches in the literature have been related to samples of ELF data from Vienna Oxford International Corpus of
English (VOICE), in order to arrive at a useful operational framework for the empirical analysis of how positioning is enacted
more specifically in ELF interactions. All three approaches have to do with preconceived assumptions in communication,
regarding how a speaker should position the hearer in order to ensure that effective communication takes place. There is a
strong connection, for instance, between the uncooperative flouting of the maxims of the Cooperative Principle, and not
fulfilling the Speech Act Theorys conditions necessary to perform non-defective illocutionary acts. Searle discusses that there
are some conditions that have to be contextually met for a particular utterance to count as a certain illocutionary force. The
conditions Labov mentions, on the other hand, are much more social conditions, i.e. more related to social factors, such as
status and power.
Keywords: Communicative conventions, positioning in ELF, meaning making, illocutionary force, mitigation, intercultural
pragmatics.
1. Introduction
This paper addresses the issues arising in the early stages of an investigation of how English as
a lingua franca (ELF) speakers use English to establish relative positions in their interactions.
If the people communicating do not share a language and familiarity with shared values, as
is the case in using English as a lingua franca, then they have got work to do to establish a
position. How, then, do ELF speakers use English to establish relative positions in their
interactions?
This paper reports on the early stages of an exploration of this question. It outlines the issues
that arise, through a synthesis of the following three related approaches: the Cooperative
Principle (Grice, 1975), the Speech Act Theory (Searle, 1969, 1979) and Labovs sociolinguistics
(Labov, 1972). These are three of the approaches that deal with preconceived assumptions in
communication, regarding how a speaker positions the hearer in order to ensure that effective
communication takes place. Then, the interconnected concepts of these three approaches are
related to one sample of ELF data from Vienna Oxford International Corpus of English
(VOICE).
2. General remarks on positioning
People have been acting together to accomplish some tasks through communication for
centuries. How, then, do they communicate? How do they understand what their conversational
partner(s) mean? In order to find an answer to these questions, lets start our investigation with
a look at a general model of communication.
P1 (sender) makes contact with P2 (receiver) to get some meaning across. This meaning can
be described in Speech Act terms. So, what does Speech Act Theory tell us about it?
For speech acts to be successfully enacted for P1 to engage with P2- there has to be co-
operation. So this leads on to a discussion of the co-operative principle where intentionally
University of Vienna, Department of English. Email: berat_baser@yahoo.com

Positioning in ELF interactions Baer
flouting the maxims results in implicatures which relate to perlocutionary effects. One way of
thinking about co-operative behavior is in terms of Labovs sociolinguistics so what does
Labovs formulation tell us about that?
In Grices Co-operative Principle, the speaker flouts the maxims in order to show his position
in relation to what has been said, and in order to make it more acceptable, accessible, and
imposing to the hearer (Widdowson, 2012, p. 13). According to Widdowson (2012, p. 15), there
are two imperatives in communication, the territorial and communicative imperatives.
Territorial imperative is the natural urge to assert ones own personal space and protect it
against intrusion (Widdowson, 2007, p. 63), and co-operation is a communicative imperative
(Widdowson, 2012, pp. 3-4). The former is the reason for the violation of the maxims, and the
latter is the cause of observing the maxims. So, as Widdowson (2007, p. 64) states, one reason
for not observing the maxims is to establish territorial rights and to present ones self. The other
reason is that co-operation necessitates intrusion on the territory of the other. This should be
tactfully managed. Invading the others territory may not be liked by the other, and it can cause
offense, embarrassment, and force the other to make an adjustment that (s)he is not ready to
make. In return, the other may create the same problems for you. As such, it is to our benefit
to keep good relationships with the other by respecting each others wants and rights
(Widdowson, 2007, p. 64).
In Grices Co-operative Principle, there are maxims for conversational engagement that every
participant is expected to obey. These maxims are contextually constrained and very general
(Widdowson, 2004, p. 52). The Co-operative Principle says make your conversational
contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or
direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged (Grice, 1975, p. 46).
According to Widdowson (2004, p. 52), the contributions that participants make are required
by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk (Widdowson, 2004, p.52). Therefore, their
utterances are formulated to correspond to some agreed pattern of interaction (Widdowson,
2004, pp. 52- 53). This pattern is considered as suitable for the occasion. Participants understand
the type of the exchange that they are involved in, and behave accordingly.
Co-operation requires conformity to certain conventions that define kinds of
communication; or, to put it another way, to what is interpersonal schemata (Widdowson, 2004,
p. 53). Interpersonal schemata are customary ways in which participants engage with others, and
conventions participants take for granted that relate to how participants interact with each other
(Widdowson, 2007, p. 33). It can, then, only be possible to realize that the maxims are being
disregarded or flouted in connection with the accepted schematic conventions. This would be
true for spoken and written discourse. It is not possible to think that the maxims can be violated
in a way that is isolated from the schema (Widdowson, 2004, p. 53). If you say that an instance
of speech or writing is obscure, or over-elaborate, or irrelevant as such, without regard to what
is required by its accepted purpose, then you are making a statement about text in dissociation
from the discourse it is designed to realize (Widdowson, 2004, p. 53). To illustrate, when the
language user, in a legal document, uses prolix and obscure expressions on the condition that
people accept such expressions as conventionally appropriate to their purpose, it cannot be said
that the manner maxim requiring him / her to be perspicuous is violated (Widdowson, 2004, p.
53). Implicatures would arise if the expressions were not appropriately prolix and obscure.
Similarly, in an obituary, or other kinds of ritual encomium, the quality or quantity maxims are
not violated by being economical with the truth (Widdowson, 2004, p. 53).
Widdowson (2004, p. 53) suggests that the same case is valid for ideational schemata -- a
mental construct of reality or frame of reference which represents a customary and predictable
way of seeing things (Widdowson, 2007, p. 130). Ideational schemata represents what a group,
large or small, considers to be customary, normal, natural ways of thinking about events
(Widdowson, 2007, p. 33). Similarly, assumptions about how the world is ordered and ideated
by cultural convention regulate the Gricean maxims activation. Participants do not verbalize

the information that is recoverable schematically. When you have grounds to believe the truth
has already been known, it is not possible to evade the truth by not mentioning it (Widdowson,
2004, p. 53).
The maxims of Grice are engaged in the actualization of both ideational schemata and
interpersonal schemata (Widdowson, 1984, p. 110). The sets of conditions that define
illocutionary acts suggested by Searle (1969) or the ones proposed by Labov (1972) could be
examples of interpersonal schemata (Widdowson, 1984, p. 110).
Widdowson (2004, pp. 55-56) underlines that both Searle and Labov define conditions
necessary for the act of request or command.
Here is Searles account:
Propositional content: Future act A of H

Preparatory: 1. H is able to do A. S believes H is able to do A.
2. It is not obvious to both S and H that H will do A in the normal
course of events of his own accord.
Sincerity: S wants H to do A
Essential: Counts as an attempt to get H to do A
Comment: Order and command have the additional preparatory rule that S must be in a position
of authority over H (Searle, 1969, p. 66).
The following is the account suggested by Labov for construing any utterance as a request for
action (or command). (Widdowson, 2004, p. 56) suggests that Labovs formulation, as he
points out, is focused on rights and obligations which are plainly social constructs :
If A requests B to perform an action X at a time T, As utterance will be heard as a valid command

only if the following preconditions hold: B believes that A believes (= it is an AB- event that):
(a) X needs to be done for a purpose Y
(b) B has the ability to do X
(c) B has the obligation to do X
(d) A has the right to tell B to do X (Labov, 1972, p. 255).
Searle, in the Speech Act Theory, is concerned with conventions of use at a level of
philosophical abstraction, and focuses on the conditions that have to be (sic.) met for utterances
to count as particular acts of communication (Widdowson, 2004, p. 56). On the other hand,
Labovs definition is sociological rather than philosophical in orientation. It is different in the
following aspects: it concentrates on the conventions affecting the way in which interactions are
managed, and it makes use of the actually occurring conversational data (Widdowson, 2004, p.
56). The conditions Labov mentions are much more social conditions. Labov is concerned with
social things; therefore, the conditions that he talks about are more related to social factors, such
as status and power. As such, one can argue that the work of Labov complements and extends
the work of Searle.
To summarize, what these three approaches have in common is the assumption that P1 and
P2 have a mutual knowledge of what is customary or conventional.
But then what about people like ELF users - who do not have this mutual knowledge of
linguacultural conventions? How do they accommodate to each other, how does politeness
work with them? How, in short, do they position themselves?
3. ELF data
To find a possible answer to these questions, lets move onto the authentic ELF example that I
am going to bring to your attention now. It is taken from Vienna Oxford International Corpus

of English (VOICE) and its ID number is: EDcon496. Its written text and audio recording is
available in VOICE.
It is a conversation between business students at a study booth at the university library in
Amsterdam, Holland. It is taking place while the speakers are preparing the group presentation
that they are going to make together in class tomorrow.
Table 1 shows the speaker IDs, and speakers sex, age, first language (L1), role in the
conversation, and occupation.
Table 1 Speaker information (http://voice.univie.ac.at)
ID Sex Age L1 Role Occupation

S1 male 25-34 spa-VE participant business student
S2 female 25-34 eng-GY, dut-NL participant business student
S3 male 25-34 ind-ID participant business student

S4 female 25-34 ger-AT researcher linguistic researcher
S5 female 17-24 ita- IT non-participant business student
3.1 The script of the ELF data (EDcon496, http://voice.univie.ac.at)

4. Discussion
What can I say with this bit of data? How far can my comments be informed by the concepts
discussed in these three aforementioned approaches?
Searle would say that there is a defect in S2s utterance i could bring a plate and chop your finger
(EDcon496: 588) when S2 says this to S1 right after saying you want my cut? your paper cutter is
better than mine you know (EDcon496: 588). It would be difficult to count it as a threat or as a
promise. S1 responds by telling S2 oh youre so: sweet you know (EDcon496: 589), to which S2, in
turn, responds with laughter. Then, S1 says <imitating> bring a plate and chop me finger you (.) you
PUssy hole huh? (.) you PUssy HOLE you (rasta1) (EDcon496: 591) by switching to a variety of
English spoken in Jamaica. Here, again, it is possible to bring in the notion of defect in relation
to this particular data. These words of S1 do not count as an attempt by S1 to insult S2. The
literal meaning of these words uttered is so bad that it could easily create offense. But, all in all,
why would S1 want to insult S2 - why could he want to insult? There is no reason for this in the
context. S2 does not take this as an insult. That is obvious from her reaction; she starts to laugh
right after hearing (..) you PUssy hole huh? (.) you PUssy HOLE you (rasta2) (EDcon496:591),
rather than reacting in an angry way. Apparently, S1 switches from Standard English to a variety
of English which is used in the Caribbean where S2 is from, and S2 acknowledges it. Also, the
1 In line 591 of EDcon496 in VOICE, the word rasta is spelled wrongly. It should be rasclat, which is a deeply offensive term,
used in Jamaican English. It is used throughout the Discussion Section of this paper in the way that it is misspelled in VOICE.
2 See Note 1.

following utterances of S1, e. g. i used to live with a jamaican in the states (EDcon496: 593) make
it apparent that his previous utterances are not meant to be an insult. If it is not possible to take
these as insults, how can we explain them then? These utterances can be explained by another
term from the Speech Act Theory: perlocutionary effect. S1 utters the words in line 591 in order
to commune. So, by uttering these words, what S1 has in mind is to create a sense of
togetherness, and closeness with S2. This is also the case in S2s utterance: i could bring a plate
and chop your finger (EDcon496: 588). Widdowson (2004, p. 79) would call these a pretext, a
term used to refer to a primary motive, that is a pretension of doing one thing with the intention
to do another thing. Widdowson (2004, p. 79) suggests that the definition of pretext can, then,
be extended to cover perlocutionary purpose in general, and to explain such situations in casual
conversations, (Widdowson, 2004, p. 85) says Never mind about the meaning of the words as
such, it is the effect that counts.
At the same time it is possible to propose that the co-operative imperative is not conformed
to by S1 since he creates an irony when he tells S2 oh youre so: sweet you know (EDcon496: 589)
and <imitating> bring a plate and chop me finger you (.) you PUssy hole huh? (.) you PUssy HOLE you
(rasta3) (EDcon496: 591). It can clearly be understood from S1s accent and the word choice,
e.g. rasclat (sic.), that he is imitating a variety of English spoken in Jamaica. Jamaica is one of
the island countries in the Caribbean where S2 is from. This bit of information can help us
understand the real meaning of the words uttered. S1 says these things to S2, right after being
told i could bring a plate and chop your finger (EDcon496: 588) by S2. Most probably, S1 utters
these words in order to signal that he does not believe that S2 really means that she could bring
a plate and chop his finger. By uttering the words in (EDcon496: 589) and (EDcon496: 591),
he most probably tried to signal that he acknowledges that S2 means something else other than
the literal meanings of her words, and he follows the same strategy to respond to it. He, himself,
repeats what she says, and, then, utters in a Jamaican accent some words which could offend
people seriously if they are taken literally. Basically, he chooses to use the words uttered by his
Jamaican ex-roommate. He states this in line 607. S1 and his ex-roommate must have had an
informal relationship since they were roommates, which made S1 take his ex-roommates words
as a sign of closeness, other than as an offense.
S1s audience, S2, understands that S1 does not believe in what S1 himself has said, and S2
is aware that S1 is sure that this is obvious to his audience. This is why S2 responds to it by
laughing and giving him her impression of the kind of English accent he is imitating.
If it is not the literal meanings of the words uttered that is taken into consideration by S1 and
S2, what is it then? How can the Co-operative Principle explain this?
Grice would say that both S1 and S2 are intentionally flouting the co-operative maxims and
this results in implicatures which relate to perlocutionary effects of the Speech Act Theory.
This flouting of maxims results in an irony as Baer (2016, p. 298) puts it:
Based on what Grice (1975 [1989]: 34) says about irony, it is possible to say that if the S1s
utterance is not entirely pointless, which does not seem to be the case, S1 must be trying to
communicate some other proposition than the one he appears to be putting forward. This
proposition must be a related one. What is the most related proposition is the contradictory of
the one S1 appears to be putting forward. What S1 tries to communicate by telling S2 (..) you
PUssy hole huh? (.) you PUssy HOLE you (rasta) (EDcon496: 591) must be just the reverse of
what he says.
In this example, S1 must be intending to communicate more than what is said; in other words,
to exploit the maxim through irony, resulting in a conversational implicature, in order to create
an effect. Most probably, S1 is trying to show his respect and appreciation for S2s identity and
where S2 comes from.
3 See Note 1.

The same applies to S2s utterance i could bring a plate and chop your finger (EDcon496: 588). This
utterance is also a case in point. What S2 makes is an irony, and what it means is most probably
just the reverse of what is said. With this utterance, S2 tries to show affection to S1 for his
wounded finger.
Related to this particular data, Labov would say that speakers are fellow students who are
trying to prepare a presentation together, so they have no reason to offend each other. Labov
would add that the preconditions necessary to construe this utterance as an offense do not hold
in an obvious way. Labov would also say that S1 and S2 have equal power relationships. When
S1 tells S2 (..) you PUssy hole huh? (.) you PUssy HOLE you (rasta4) (EDcon496: 591), there is no
reason for S2 to get offended since S1 is not in a position to impose anything onto S2 - they
have similar power relationships.
So, S2 understands that what S1 must be trying to communicate must be something different
than what S1 is actually saying. We can see that from S2s reaction. S2 starts to laugh, and starts
to give explanations about the accent that S1 imitates, since S2 is from the region where this
accent is spoken. The utterances of S1 are not taken as an offense, considering the social factors
of the speakers effecting the communication.
5. Conclusion
To conclude, we can perhaps think of the Cooperative Principle (Grice, 1975), the Speech Act
Theory (Searle, 1969, 1979) and Labovs sociolinguistics (Labov, 1972) as essentially different
perspectives on positioning, and all concerned with the tension between the co-operative and
territorial imperatives. What all these approaches reveal is the pragmatic significance of
positioning. Another point they have in common is the assumption that P1 and P2 have a
mutual knowledge of what is customary or conventional.
When it comes to understanding how ELF users who do not have this mutual knowledge
of linguacultural conventions position themselves, this study reveals we need to analyze more
data, which I am going to undertake in a follow-up study.
About the author

Berat Baer is an instructor in the School of Foreign Languages at Boazii University, Turkey. She is currently a PhD candidate
in the Department of English at the University of Vienna, Austria, working on English as a Lingua Franca for her dissertation.
She holds an MA degree in English from the same department. She also holds a BA degree in Foreign Language Education
from Boazii University, and a BA minor in American Studies from the Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences at
Boazii. Email: berat_baser@yahoo.com
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4 See Note 1.

Searle, John R. (1979). Expression and meaning: Studies in the theory of speech acts.Cambridge: Cambridge
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Publishing.
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ELF AND MULTILINGUALISM
Harushige Nakakoji presents the initial data from a study of

plurilingual language use in an English-medium degree programme in
Japan. Veronika Quinn Novotns study reports on successful and
extensive use of ELF in an international school in the Czech Republic,
which derived from open and flexible attitudes to language use by both
teachers and students.

Nakakoji, H. (2016). Plurilingual communication in science laboratory classrooms: A preliminary report on students
interactive discourse in an English-medium degree programme in Japan. In N. Tsantila, J. Mandalios & M. Ilkos
(Eds.), ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives (pp. 104-111). Athens: Deree The American College of
Greece.
Plurilingual communication in science laboratory classrooms: A preliminary

report on students interactive discourse in an English-medium degree
programme in Japan
Harushige Nakakoji
Abstract
With a growing number of universities offering English-medium degree programmes worldwide, the role of English as an academic
lingua franca seems to be expanding in the realm of higher education in various countries including Japan. This study highlights the
distinct features of the interactive discourse by the first-year undergraduate students during laboratory sessions of an English-
medium degree programme in science and engineering at a Japanese university. While the students in the programme are from a
wide range of lingua-cultural backgrounds, the study mainly explores the plurilingual features of the language use by Japanese
returnees and Chinese-speaking students in the programme. In the laboratory sessions, the students were engaged in tasks to work
mostly in pairs on scientific experiments, and condensed edited audio-recordings of 227 minutes from nine pairs or triads in
interaction with their peers, the lecturers, and the teaching assistants are analysed in this study. In particular, it illustrates the language
choice and code-switching by the students in the contact situations where they tried to solve problems in completing tasks assigned
in their pair or small-group work or understanding related academic content by communicating with their partner(s) or the
instructor. Based on the preliminary findings from the data, this study highlights the roles played by English, the L1s, and L2s of
the students in this lingua-culturally diverse community of learning where English functioned as a lingua franca to some extent, but
the other languages, especially another common language among interactants (i.e., Japanese or Chinese), also served to the mutual
understanding and meaning construction between them. Code-switching by Chinese speakers in a triad and the use of English for
academic and technical terms in the interaction between a Japanese-speaking pair are also examined with specific examples from
the transcribed data.
Keywords discourse analysis, ELF, EMI, plurilingual communication
1. Introduction
The world-wide spread of English-medium instruction (EMI) and English-medium Content and
Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) programmes is certainly one of the most remarkable phenomena
characterising the past few decades in language education and related fields of study (Chang, 2010;
Dalton-Puffer, Nikula, & Smit, 2010; Gill & Kirkpatrick, 2013; Hazel & Mortensen, 2013;
Kirkpatrick, 2013; Smit & Dafouz, 2012; Wchter & Maiworm, 2008). With the introduction of
new EMI or CLIL programmes, partly promoted by the governmental initiatives for the
internationalisation of tertiary education, Japan is not an exception for this trend (Global 30, 2014;
MEXT, 2008, 2014; Sasajima, 2011). These new programmes have resulted in the creation of
lingua-culturally diverse classrooms, or space of learning, in Japanese institutions where students
from a broad range of lingua-cultural backgrounds come together to study specific academic
disciplines and communicate with one another using the plurilingual linguistic resources available
to them.
Unlike some precedent studies on English as a lingua franca (ELF) (Jenkins, 2011; Seidlhofer,
2011) or as An academic lingua franca (Bjrkman, 2013) which focused on European institutions (e.g.
Bjrkman, 2009; Hynninen, 2012; Smit, 2010), the present study conducts a case study at an
English-medium undergraduate programme in science and engineering at a Japanese tertiary
institution. Focusing on such linguistic phenomena as code-switching and language choice, and on
problem-solving sequences in the university students communication, this paper will try to
illustrate the features of the ELF and plurilingual communication performed by these students
during interaction in science laboratory sessions. Since this study is conducted in a Japanese
context, it is also investigated whether Japanese, the local language, functions as a lingua franca
(Ikeda & Bysouth, 2013) among non-native speakers of Japanese in this community.
The University of Vienna.: a1263764@unet.univie.ac.at

Plurilingual communication in science classrooms Nakakoji
In this section, the underlying concepts and ideas important for this study are examined. The
analysis of the audio- and video recorded data in this research project is partly based on Conversation
Analysis (CA). It is employed in this study for its suitability for the detailed sequential analysis of
naturally occurring classroom interaction, and its repair trajectories of trouble - repair initiation - repair
proper are applied to those of the problem-solving sequences analysed in this study (Dalton-Puffer, 2007;
Ikeda & Bysouth, 2013; Seedhouse, 2004; Smit 2010).
In regard to the terminologies in this paper, the term language choice refers to the speakers
deliberate selection of language code in contact situations with the interlocutor(s). The term code-
switching is defined in this paper as an umbrella term for describing the phenomena of more than
one language being used by a bilingual or plurilingual speaker in the same sentence or conversation
(Deuchar, 2013).
Code-switching is distinguished from lexical borrowings, which are words or short expressions
taken from another language and integrated into the base language through phonological
modifications (Cantone, 2007). Nonce borrowings, or unassimilated loan words in some literature, are the
borrowings uttered by bilinguals which are not accepted as established words or expressions in the
base language. It could be hard to distinguish this type of borrowings from code-switching
especially when they are not modified into the phonological system of the base language, but
pronounced as in the original language (Bullock & Toribio, 2009; Cantone, 2007). However, in the
cases where an individual word (e.g., a technical term) is used in isolation from other words in the
original language, it is decided in this paper that it is generally categorised as a nonce borrowing.
Lin & Li (2012) present three major functions of code-switching ideational, textual, and
interpersonal functions pursued by the teacher and other participants in classroom settings (Lin & Li,
2012, p. 474-475). Ideational functions are pursued when the speaker tries to give some aid to those
who are limited in their L2 proficiency through switching into their L1 or stronger language. The
textual and interpersonal functions seem to have overlaps with the concept of situational code-
switching as a contextualisation cue in Gumperz (1982) in the sense that they are used as a signal for a
shift in topics, situations, and so forth.
In the domains of ELF research, Klimpfinger (2009) examines four functions of code-switching
in audio-recorded data from an academic conference. The four functions categorised in her study
are specifying an addressee, signalling culture, appealing for assistance, and introducing another idea.
The concept of plurilingualism in this paper is based on the definition given in Common European
framework of reference for languages: learning, teaching, assessment published by Council of Europe in 2001.
In contrast to multilingualism, plurilingualism is conceptualised in this document as a type of
linguistic or communicative competence in which all knowledge, skills, and experience in various
languages that one speaks are integrated in order to fulfil ones communicative needs. This is
achieved by the flexible use of linguistic resources across languages according to the interlocutor
or situation in which the communication occurs (Council of Europe, 2001, p. 4).
This integral view of linguistic competence and language use seem to have some overlapping
features with the concept of translanguaging as it celebrates and approves flexibility in language use
and the permeability of learning through two or more languages (Lewis, Jones, & Baker, 2012, p.
659). In this study, hence, the use of English, the L1s, and the local language (i.e., Japanese) by the
students is to be explored in the light of these concepts of plurilingualism and translanguaging.
Finally to add, various sociolinguistic studies including Bell (1984, 1991), Broner (2001), Giles,
Coupland, and Coupland (1991), and Nakakoji (2014) suggest that the choice or use of language
by the speaker is affected by the context or the interlocutor (or audience) of the speech.
Based on the points presented above, the following research questions are formulated:
In interaction with other students or the instructors during science laboratory sessions of an
English-medium undergraduate programme in science and engineering at a Japanese university,

Q1: how are the L1 and L2s, including the local language (i.e., Japanese), used by the first-year
students from various lingua-cultural backgrounds when they attempt to solve problems in
understanding academic content or completing the assigned tasks?
Q2: what kind of impact do the homogeneity and heterogeneity in the language repertoires of
interactants have on their language choice and use in communication? How does the use of L1 or
L2s by the students differ in these two types of settings?
2. Methodology
This study is based mainly on qualitative analysis of transcribed audio-recorded data from
laboratory classroom interactions by students of the English-medium programme. A simple
demographic information sheet and a closed-ended questionnaire with 24 question items were also
collected from the students to obtain the demographics including their native language(s) and self-
evaluated proficiency in each language they spoke. The data used in this paper derive from a
research project for my PhD study pursued at the University of Vienna, and the data collection
was conducted in conjunction with a professor of the English-medium programme investigated in
this project.
The data collection was conducted at laboratory experiment sessions of a laboratory module in
the English-medium programme over a semester. In the module, the students had to attend a
laboratory session on a different scientific topic each week, which lasted for around six to seven
hours in each day. They were divided into two groups to attend one of the sessions held in two
different classrooms. The classroom interactions of the participating students with their peers, the
lecturers, and teaching assistants during the sessions were audio- and video-recorded on five days
in total, with field notes taken each day.
The number of students who agreed to take part in the data collection of the entire research
project was 38 out of 42 first-year students of the programme. The participating students were
from various lingua-cultural and educational backgrounds including native Chinese speakers who
formed the biggest group, constituting around half of the whole group. Native or near native
Japanese speakers with Japanese nationality remained a minority group of seven, and most of them
had long experience of living and studying abroad.
In each laboratory session, the students had to engage in tasks to work on mostly in pairs, and
they were assigned a different partner by the administrator on each day. An audio-recorder was
used to record the language use by each selected pair or triad, and one or two video cameras were
also placed in each classroom most of the days in order to record the activities and interactions by
these selected pairs or triads.
In the entire research project, 48 audio-recordings were collected from 48 pairs or triads from
two laboratory classrooms on five days. One audio-recording consists of a recorded data from a
pair or triad in one days laboratory session, which often involves their interaction not only with
their partner(s), but also with other peers and the teaching staff. In most cases, each recording has
a length of approximately four hours in the original audio files. The selection of pairs and triads to
record was largely decided by the native language(s) indicated in the demographic information sheet
filled in before the first day of the recording.
The audio-recorded data used in this paper have been edited for noise reduction and shortening
the length by removing mainly non-interactive parts with the focused pairs or triads. Then, the data
have been transcribed according to transcribed conventions based on VOICE Transcription
Conventions [2.1] (VOICE Project, 2007) with modifications made in some part. Consequently, nine
recordings of 227 minutes in edited audio files, which equalled to approximately 680 minutes in
the original audio files, were used in this study.
In the analysis of the transcribed audio-recorded data, the portions which relate to problem-solving
sequences are mainly focused. The problem-solving sequences analysed in this study owe their

structure to the repair trajectories in CA, and the sequences are most typically formulated when the
speaker has a problem in solving an assigned task or understanding something (e.g., understanding
the meaning of a maths equation or of a technical term), then asks a question to her or his peer or
a teaching assistant, and finally the one who was asked the question answers it or provides help.
The major points in the preliminary findings based on the transcribed data from selected
participants and the classroom observation in this study are presented below.
The following five points are found as general tendencies. (1) English was used as the most
commonly used language of communication among students except the cases where another
common language (i.e., Chinese or Japanese) was shared by the students from a Chinese or
Japanese background. (2) Frequent code-switching between Japanese and English was found in
some communication between native or near native speakers of Japanese. (3) The use of Japanese
between non-Japanese students seems to have been very limited in amount. (4) English was used
almost exclusively, if not entirely, throughout the interactions between the lecturers (all of whom
were non-Japanese) and the students regardless of their language backgrounds. (5) With Japanese
teaching assistants who did not have good command of English, both non-Japanese and native or
near native Japanese-speaking students tended to use Japanese.
The following specific points were also found. (i) The use of English for academic or technical
terms was observed even in the instances when two Japanese speakers were mainly speaking in
Japanese. (ii) English switches were made by Chinese students when a Japanese-speaking member
of the triad joined the conversation. (iii) While Chinese was used fairly dominantly in
communication between Chinese participants, an exceptional case was found in the pair interaction
between a native Mandarin Chinese speaker and a native Cantonese speaker even though the
Cantonese speaker had good command of Mandarin.
The following excerpts are displayed for the qualitative analysis of the points (i) and (ii) above.
The examples of the use of English for academic or technical terms are found in Excerpts 1 and 2
from an interaction in a physics laboratory session between S1 (male) and S2 (female), both of
whom are native or near native Japanese speakers with long experience of living outside Japan.
Italicised in brackets is an English translation of the original utterances.
Excerpt 1
6. S2: (.) [LNjap] chotto ma tte kore dou ya tte kore suru no [/LNjap]
7. {wait a second this how to do this}
8. S1: [LNjap] (de) [/LNjap] (lower) the axis [LNjap] tsukeru (.) de okkei (.) rashii [/LNjap]
9. {then it seems OK to (lower) and put the axis}
10. S2: [LNjap] hun [/LNjap]
11. {yeah}
12. S1: point (the) axis [LNjap] (de) kuso ganba tte run dakedo [/LNjap]
13. {point (the) axis and Im working so hard}
The lines 8 and 12 in this excerpt show code-switching between English and Japanese by S1. It is
hard to completely judge the reason for his use of the underlined English phrases in these lines,
but it might have been for filling lexical gaps he had or his preference of using the original English
expressions as used or learned in the class. The following excerpt is taken from a conversation that
occurred only a little later in the same interaction as Excerpt 1.
Excerpt 2
19. S1: thats (it) numerical calculations of [un] par xx [/un] (.) monte carlo

20. S2: (it) increases until five

21. S1: [LNjap] koko ni sa: [/LNjap] monte carlo [LNjap] kaite nai n da kedo [/LNjap]
22. {monte carlo isnt written down here}
23. S2: monte carlo [LNjap] tte (.) nan da kke [/LNjap]
24. {whats was monte carlo}
25. S1: [LNjap] are dayo hora [/LNjap] statistics [LNjap] de i tte ta (yatsu) [/LNjap]
26. [un] xx [/un]
27. (draw) one (.)
28. {oh yeah its that the one mentioned in statistics xx (draw) one}
In this excerpt, the English term Monte Carlo is uttered by S1 in lines 19 and 21, and also by S2 in
line 23. It is the name of a method used in the fields of numerical analysis and simulation, and it is
interesting to see that the English term is uttered in predominantly Japanese sentences in lines 21
and 23. It could be interpreted as being articulated as a Japanese word if the pronunciation had
been adapted into the Japanese phonological system, but it is considered as an English word here
due to the pronunciation of the word by these speakers retaining mostly, if not completely, the
features of the original English word. It is judged as a nonce borrowing for the retention of its
original English pronunciation and for it is an academic term used in isolation from other English
words.
The word statistics is uttered in the middle of a Japanese sentence in line 25. Speculating from
the Japanese words that follow it, the word seems to refer to the title of a module or class which
these participants had taken in prior to this laboratory session. Hence, it is probably used here as a
familiar proper noun rather than an ordinary noun, and is not judged as a lexical borrowing.
The next excerpt is from an interaction among two native speakers of Chinese (S3 = male, S4
= female) and a native speaker of Japanese (S5 = male) in a chemistry laboratory session. It is an
example of code-switching by Chinese speakers when a speaker of another language background
took part in the conversation. An English translation of Chinese utterances is shown in italics with
brackets. SX indicates an unidentified speaker.
Excerpt 3
17. S4: er [un] x x xx xxx xx </un> (something) but we dont know how to put [un] xx [/un]
18. S5: I also dont know
19. S4: oka:y ask [un] xx [/un]
20. ((Silence))
21. SX: I dont know
22. S4: erm [un] x xx [/un]
23. ((loud noises))
24. S3: erm
25. S5: o:h what?
26. S4: wow <un> xx x </un> (3) [LNchi] ni yue chen zai lai a? [/LNchi]
27. {wow xx x are you sure/willing we do it again?}
28. (S3): here
29. S4: [LNchi] zhe yang zhi jin? zhe yang zhi ma? [/LNchi]
30. {is this how you put it in? like this?}
31. S3: a:h (1) [LNchi] xxx tang wo zi jie (cai ke yi ma) [/LNchi]
32. {a:h xxx have to wait for mine to finish}
33. S4: a:h okay okay
34. S5: how do we put this one to here
35. S3: just (.) <2> mhm </2>
36. S5: <2> how do we </2> put this [un] xx [/un] to here
37. S4: four?

In lines 17 and 19, S4 directs her speech to S5, a Japanese participant, using English. But, S4
switches into Chinese in line 26, probably addressing to S3, and continues her use of Chinese in
line 29. She seems to switch into English in line 33, but, considering its widespread use as a (nonce)
borrowing across languages, it is arguable to what extent the use of the word okay alone should be
regarded as English switches in this line. Nonetheless, S4s utterance in line 37 with the word four
would be an English utterance since it is unlikely that such a word is used as an English borrowing.
It is uttered here perhaps in response to S5s repeated question in lines 34 and 36. In any case, S5s
turn-taking in English in these lines seems to have triggered the use of English by S3 and S4 in
lines 35 or 37. Examining the language choice and code-switching observed in this excerpt, it seems
that these Chinese speakers, S4 in particular, select their language code according to the interlocutor
to whom they direct their speech.
4. Discussion
In this section, the general tendencies and specific points reported in the preliminary findings in
the previous section are discussed.
In the points (1), (4), and (iii) in the previous section, frequent use of English was reported in
the communication among students and also between students and the lecturers. This can be seen
as pieces of evidence that English is truly functioning as a means of communication or an academic
lingua franca in the classrooms of this EMI programme. However, the frequent use of Chinese or
Japanese between Chinese- or Japanese-speaking students reported in the points (1) and (2), and
the preferred use of Japanese by both Japanese and non-Japanese students in interaction with
Japanese teaching assistants in the point (5) seem to require some modification to an English-only
monolingual view of the classroom communication in this EMI programme. The reason for the
very limited use of Japanese as a lingua franca among non-Japanese students as reported in the
point (3) is yet to be explored, but it might have been due to their limited command of Japanese,
especially in comparison to that of English or the L1.
The code-switching between English and Japanese and the English lexical borrowing identified
in Excerpts 1 and 2 in Section 3 illustrated the plurilingual characteristics of the communication
between the Japanese-speaking pair. In excerpt 3, the L1 or the language repertoire of the
interlocutor seems to have influenced the language choice by S3 and S4 when they switched their
language into Chinese or English. The code-switching by these Chinese speakers should be taken
as examples of its function of specifying the addressee in Klimpfinger (2009). The other functions
of code-switching in Klimpfinger (2009), Gumperz (1982), and Lin & Li (2012) are yet to be
examined in the course of the research.
Summarizing the points discussed above, the preliminary findings of this study seem to illustrate
the reality of the communication by the students in the EMI programme in which they use their
plurilingual linguistic resources in order to achieve their communicative goals in different situations
or with different interlocutors. Nonetheless, the preliminary findings presented in this paper are
based on limited portions of all the audio-recorded data collected, and therefore the analysis of the
rest of the relevant data is awaited for more profound research results. Furthermore, the scope of
the whole study is limited only to a relatively small number of participants in one grade level at a
single institution, which would be still too small in size to produce highly generalizable results. It
should also be noted that it is possible that the very presence of the researchers in the process of
data collection and the very act of using devices for audio- and video-recording might have violated,
to some extent, the authenticity of the data used in the study.
5. Conclusion
Based mainly on the preliminary findings from the audio-recorded data, this paper reported on the
language use by the students in an English-medium programme in science and engineering at a

Japanese university. The plurilingual characteristics of these students communication are

highlighted with the analysis of such linguistic phenomena as language choice, code-switching, and
lexical borrowing. The full analysis of the data is still awaited in the progress of the study.
About the author

Harushige Nakakoji is a part-time lecturer at Bunkyo University in Japan where he teaches courses in English. He also pursues
his doctorate in the Department of English and American Studies at the University of Vienna. Previously, he worked for Tsukuba
University of Technology and a private high school in Japan. Email: a1263764@unet.univie.ac.at.
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Quinn Novotn, V. (2016). Pedagogical implications of teaching through ELF: A case study of United World
Colleges and the 1st International School of Ostrava. In N. Tsantila, J. Mandalios & M. Ilkos (Eds.), ELF:
Pedagogical implications of teaching through ELF: A case study of United

World Colleges and the 1st International School of Ostrava
Veronika Quinn Novotn
Abstract
This paper is to serve as a synopsis of research findings presented at the ELF7 conference in Athens of an on-going case study of
the use of English at the United World Colleges (UWCs). UWCs are globally based, pre-university schools educating students from
over 140 countries through the medium of English (Content and Language Integrated Learning; CLIL). To provide a comparison
with a local context, we surveyed the 1st International School of Ostrava (the 1st ISO) in the Czech Republic. The methods employed
are both qualitative and quantitative in nature. We report results of two questionnaire surveys among UWC and the 1 st ISO students
and teachers and direct observations of teaching practices. Analysis of the results reveals that due to the linguistically and culturally
liberal school culture, written and unwritten language policies and classroom techniques employed by both teachers and students,
UWC students possess a high a level of linguistic awareness (LA) and linguistic sensitivity. We explore what attitudes to language
use and (non)-native speakers and other factors foster the overall efficient use of English as a lingua franca (ELF) in this international
multilingual setting. Finally, the pedagogical implications of our findings and their applicability at other international and
monolingual institutions are discussed.
Keywords: ELF, CLIL, language awareness, IB programme, language policy, (non)-native speakers, multilingualism, teacher
training, international schools
1. Introduction
This paper provides a synopsis of the research findings presented at the ELF7 conference in
Athens of an on-going study focused on how English is viewed and used as the main means of
instruction and a chief tool of social and academic communication among international students
and staff at United World Colleges (UWCs). UWCs are post-secondary schools with a standardized
curriculum geared towards the International Baccalaureate (IB) diploma. UWCs have been selected
for this study since they represent a globally based institution where English especially in its lingua
franca (LF) function plays a crucial linguistic and social role and because they are marked not only
by their unique language management and language policies but also by very inspiring general
school philosophy. In the light of current political events the institutions goal posted on their
website to unite people, nations and cultures for peace and a sustainable future resonates more
than ever.
To provide a comparison with a local context, we also surveyed the 1st International School of
Ostrava (the 1st ISO), which is an IB-providing institution located in a largely monolingual area of
the north-eastern part of the Czech Republic.
In line with current efforts of ELF researchers, we aim to formulate pedagogical implications
for teaching through ELF and to provide recommendations for integrating CLIL with ELF both
at multilingual and monolingual teaching institutions. We also comment on the thus far somewhat
overseen areas, such as the specific teacher and learner practices and techniques used to promote
language awareness (LA). Furthermore, we analyse what particular language policies applied at
UWCs help to co-create successful ELF environment.
The chapter is divided into three parts. The first part briefly describes the background of the
International Baccalaureate (IB) programme, the UWCs and the 1st ISO; it also introduces the
key theoretical concepts. The second part of the study presents the method of data collection, i.e.
questionnaire surveys and direct on-site observations, and an overview over the data set. The final
section summarizes the pedagogical implications of our findings and key tendencies of ELF usage
at the schools.
Department of English Language and ELT Methodology,Faculty of Arts, Charles University, Prague: veronika.elt@gmail.com

Pedagogical implications of teaching through ELF Novotn
2. Global context - IB and IBDP
The International Baccalaureate (IB) offers four different high quality international education
programmes to more than one million students aged 3 to 19, in 146 countries. According to
information provided on the IB website, originally, IB was founded in 1968 in Geneva. The UWC
Atlantic College was the first school to abandon the national curriculum in favour of the
International Baccalaureate Diploma Programme (IB DP).
2.1. UWC background

World-wide there are fourteen United World Colleges (UWCs). The Colleges are pre-university
schools that reside on four continents and they provide education for students from over 140
countries.
Based on the official UWC website and on the information our interviewees provided, the
admission process to the colleges is mostly done through national committees; it is designed so as
to provide an equal opportunity of receiving the UWC educational experience for everyone.
Once admitted to a UWC, students live a residential life at their college. It is not only education
that is supplied by the colleges, but extracurricular activities are organized and provided as well,
including exchanges, and community and volunteer programmes. Consequently, the institutions
aim to provide truly holistic experience to each of its attendees, and offer countless opportunities
for the students to socialize with each other and to build on their relationships within a
multinational and multilingual community. This aspect will be discussed in detail below since the
social involvement seems to play a crucial role in the students engagement through ELF.
2.2. IBDP and English

The online posted IB language policy (LP) clearly states that English is the organizations internal
working language []; it is also the language of its governance, management and academic
committees.1
Based on our findings, interaction in the students mother tongues (L1s) is not explicitly
prohibited, but it is avoided or prevented by the fact that the number of students that speak the
same language at any given institution is usually rather low. 2
UWC students and teachers come from vastly different educational and cultural backgrounds
and are speakers of dozens of different mother tongues3.
Clearly, also the level of English command significantly varies on a scale from native speakers
to speakers with fairly low English command.
Fluency in English is not stated as a necessary requirement for enrolment to the UWC
programme, the second round of the admission process, however, usually includes an interview
both in the applicants MT and in English.
3. Local context The 1st ISO background
The IB programme in the Czech Republic is offered through seven different secondary institutions.
All of them offer the International Baccalaureate Diploma Programme (IB DP) and the 1 st
International School of Ostrava (ISO) is also authorised to teach the Middle Years Programme
(MYP). During our research we approached six schools in the Czech Republic. The 1st ISO decided
to participate in this research project.
1 The IB has three working languages of Level 1 (the highest level offering the widest range of services and materials) and those
are English, French and Spanish.
2 However, there may be exceptions such as the UWC Atlantic College in Wales, or the UWC Li Po Chun in China, where there
are higher numbers of local nationality students
3 For a more detailed respondent profile see also Quinn Novotn, Dunkov (2015).

The 1st ISO website lists various reasons why they decided to start offering the IB programmes.
Probably the strongest and most repeated one is to provide high quality education for the local and
international students living and working in the Moravian-Silesian region of Central Europe. This
region suffered large-scale decrease in work opportunities since the 1990s due to the gradual decline
in its main industry mining. This has been followed by calls to revive the region and significant
investment, including from abroad, in it.
The school, moreover, endorses one of the core IB principles of the development of
intercultural awareness and understanding among young people. In alignment with the IB
ideology, hence similarly to UWCs, the 1st ISO emphasises holistic education, and higher-order
cognitive skills such as critical thinking, analysis, problem-solving and creative thinking.
With respect to language policy (LP) the language of instruction at the 1st ISO is primarily
English; the school, nevertheless, is committed to additive bilingualism (where another language
and culture does not replace that of the mother tongue). Hence, the local language ad students
mother tongue, i.e. Czech, is officially promoted. Lastly, the 1st ISO regards their LP as a working
document, and as such it is always open to an annual review.
4. Theoretical concepts
When analysing concepts pertinent to English as a Lingua Franca in multilingual environments, we
ground our approach in two key methodological topics and theoretical concepts. First, we observe
in UWCs a high level of language awareness (LA) (see also Quinn Novotn, Grosser, & Dunkov,
2013; henceforth Study I). Language awareness is a concept the approach to which differs in the
literature and is hence somewhat fuzzy. Nevertheless, it is, essentially, understood as increased
sensitivity towards language and the ability to reflect upon language use, culture, creativity and
meaning and to act accordingly (see Andrews, 2007; Carter, 2003; Edmondson, 2009; James &
Garret, 1991).
Second, we concentrate on various aspects of Content and Language Integrated Learning
(CLIL). CLIL is an educational approach with a dual focus, which employs a vehicular language
through which the content is learned. According to CLIL research the emphasis should be put
equally on both content and language. Further, it stresses multi-lingual and multi-cultural education
(see Coyle, Hood, and Marsh, 2010; Dalton-Puffer, Nikula, and Smit, 2010; and Georgiou, 2012).
5. Previous research
On the question of whether UWC schools represent an ideal English as a Lingua Franca 4 (ELF)
environment, we had come to the conclusion in our previous work (Study I) that indeed UWCs
provide an example of best practice in Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) and a
stimulating setting for the development of heightened language awareness (LA). In the previous
studies we focused on the interdependence of the following key variables:
linguistic proficiency, knowledge of language forms, language models, efficient (LF)
communicative strategies; language confidence;
linguistic identity; personal and professional attitudes to language use;
metalinguistic skills - general linguistic sensitivity, ability to reflect upon language;
general study skills - studying through the medium of a FL;
school language policy.
In this paper we expand chiefly on how all these variables relate to students and teachers LA and
to teaching and learning via the medium of English in a multilingual environment.
4 For terminological issues, especially the difference between ELF, WEs, EIL, GEs, see also Quinn Novotn (2012: 31) and
Quinn Novotn et al (2013).

6. Method and data set
Our study included both a quantitative and a qualitative part. The quantitative component consisted
of an eleven-question survey for students and a ten-question survey for teachers. In order to
compare and contrast their answers regarding similar topics, our survey targeted both UWC and
1st ISO students and teachers. The on-line questionnaire was designed in SurveyMonkey. Upon
approval of UWC and the 1st ISO representatives, the link was sent to all students and teachers
attending or working at the particular institution that academic year. The questionnaire was
voluntary and anonymous.
The qualitative aspect was first embedded in the character of the questions, which combined a
multiple-choice character with space for more extensive comments and explanations. Secondly,
our research team performed on-site classroom observations at UWC Atlantic College in Wales
(five lessons and four semi-structured interviews) and at the 1st International School of Ostrava
(11 lessons and three interviews)6. The observations were designed to be as unobtrusive as possible
and were recorded in a form of field notes in specifically devised Observation sheets.
In setting out the results, where relevant, we juxtapose the quantitative findings with data of
qualitative nature, which are a focal point of this study.
6.1. Sociolinguistic background of respondent groups

To assemble as broad a scope of novel data as possible, we contacted all twelve UWC colleges. We
collected in total responses from 314 UWC students, 64 UWC teachers from nine different UWC
institutions based on four continents. At the 1st ISO we collected responses from 11 teachers and
19 students.
The sample size is, of course, incomparable; hence no major generalizable conclusions of
comparative nature can be drawn. Nevertheless, by conducting the small-scale research in the
Czech Republic we hope introduce a novel glocal perspective on the phenomena under
investigation. Looking at potential parallels between global and local teaching contexts may help to
infer recommendations for good teaching practice in both multi- and monolingual contexts, and
especially in IB programmes.
The survey yielded a vast amount of sociolinguistic information7; in this short overview of the
study we only report information relevant to the points discussed.
The multilingual and international character of UWCs is given by the fact that the 315 students
who responded were of 87 nationalities and spoke 71 declared mother tongues (MTs)8. The 64
participating teachers were of 20 nationalities and had 18 different MTs.
The monolingual character of the 1st ISO is given by the fact that regionally the school is placed
in a monolingual area9; also, this area, unlike the countrys capital, is not characterized by an
extensive expatriate community. Based on our results, more than half of the teachers and students
are Czech (11 participating teachers were of three different nationalities and two MTs; 19
participating students were of four different nationalities).
Mostly because of logistical and financial constraints we were only able to personally visit UWC Atlantic College. We would like
to thank Julie Harris from UWC Atlantic College for her kind assistance with organizing our observations in Wales. We would
also like to thank David Grosser for helping to collect and analyse some of the data. Special thanks also belong to Dr. Tamah
Sherman from the Faculty of Arts, Charles University, who provided her invaluable expertise regarding socio-linguistic aspects
and language management.
6 I would like to thank Jiina Dunkov, MA for helping me to design this project and for carrying out most of the research
targeted at the 1st ISO

7 The sociolinguistic profile derived from answers to questionnaires from UWC respondents can be referenced in Quinn
Novotn & Dunkov (2015).
8 Students were left freely to interpret and report what they feel is their mother tongue. Interestingly, some students stated that
they have up to three different mother tongues. Therefore, at least some of the students attending the UWCs appear to be
accustomed to multilingual, and probably multicultural, environment from their birth. Also it suggests that their language
abilities are varied and that they have one, two or three other languages as resources for their ELF interactions.
9 Many speakers from this region, however, have a functional command of Polish, Slovak and German.

7. Institutional teaching implications
The findings that surfaced from the analysis of the data we collected may be translated into a set
of teaching implications and recommendations that are summarized in the next section.
7.1. Multilingual institutions

First, we observe at these schools an overall focus on content, on communicating ideas and
conveying message. The focus on content is expressed by the teachers self-reported fairly strict
attitudes towards the knowledge of the subject matter on the one hand, and quite relaxed or liberal
attitudes to language form on the other. Based on classroom observations, the focus on content is
underscored by the fact that neither teachers nor peers pointed out non-standard linguistic
behaviour, i.e. grammatical and pronunciation variations were passed in silence.
Second, crucially, we detected a thread running through most of all answers and throughout all
observations, i.e. a strong focus on (subject specific) vocabulary (see also Study I: 65, 68-70). It
is argued here that the importance of the precise and extensive knowledge of terminology goes
hand in hand with the focus on subject matter.
Third, a linguistically friendly and stimulating environment is enhanced by the help and
support provided from teachers and peers, e.g. by offering tutorials. UWC teachers also seem to
possess a marked ability to accommodate to students with different language proficiencies. Also,
fair10 treatment especially towards NNS students is stressed by several respondents, as shown by
comments such as students [] aren't favoured if they know English and the teachers do their
best to be fair, or [t]eachers treat all their students equally.
Fourth, the amount of language exposure to English plays a vital role in the usage of English
at UWCs. Almost all teachers (89.1%, 57) agreed that they observe massive, noticeable,
marked, dramatic difference in the students English over the course of the two years of study.
Indeed with respect to English, the IB programme run at UWCs and the immersion in the use
of English it offers seems to have a transformational effect on the students. Further, a key
observation based on teachers comments is that it is not only the curriculum itself that contributes
to the overall improvement of students proficiency but how much the students improve also may
have something to do with how socially involved they become here at school; the progress is
much more marked in those who are socially more active. The [l]anguage immersion offered at
UWCs enhanced by the increased access to extracurricular activities and social
involvement leads in turn to increased motivation and intensifies language acquisition.
Fifth, students and teachers linguistically sensitive attitudes, i.e. its wide array of
communicative strategies, liberal and varied linguistic behaviour and linguistically open attitudes,
and the ability to draw on multilingual resources allow for efficient communication in English
and facilitate the process of learning.
Sixth, official language policy may be in place but it is not explicitly enforced. It is presented
and demonstrated in more implied and suggestive ways, or made clear through its practical
application in the school. The rule that English is the main medium of communication and
instruction seems to be of a rather implicit nature at all participating institutions, i.e. teachers speak
of a(n) understanding, assumption, default, of being aware of a policy, or report that it
seemed obvious, or mention it was done unofficially.
Seventh, studying through the medium of a foreign language (CLIL) poses extra challenges
to NNS students. When asked if they ever felt disadvantaged in their studies because of their non-
native status, 41.6% of UWC students felt disadvantaged, whereas 26% did not11. In the 1st ISO
there were eight students who felt disadvantaged by their NNS status, eleven did not; 89.47%
reported that their level of English affects their grades. Students reported challenges of linguistic,
10 Double quotation marks are used to indicate the students verbatim quotes.
1132.38%, selected the option Not applicable

temporal, socio-cultural, psychological and emotional nature; these included e.g. lack of vocabulary,
difficulty to express ideas, difficulty to write essays, not having enough time for tests and
homework, and difficulty in making friends and conveying culture-specific humor. Also, several
subjects, such as biology and history, seem to be more difficult than others. With respect to this,
the recognition that these areas and subjects are more challenging implies that more pedagogical
focus should be given to them.
7.2. Monolingual institutions

In this section we attempt to apply the above recommendations to monolingual teaching settings.
Each teaching context is very specific. Therefore, we narrow our scope and provide tentative
recommendations solely for our target group, i.e. secondary schools educating students of the age
group 15 20 years geared towards a school leaving examination and/or the IB diploma.
The key question that needs to be addressed is how the intense exposure to English found at
institutions such as UWCs can be replicated in monolingual settings. Below we discuss ways how
to achieve this.
First, we believe that the above guidelines that work at multilingual schools can also be followed
at monolingual institutions. Crucially, the focus on content and vocabulary in classes geared
towards the school leaving examination should be stressed. With respect to this, students and
teachers would be expected, for example, to shift their focus to small c culture pertinent to EC
countries.
Secondly, we recommend for monolingual schools to reach out. In the Central European
context, reaching out to other monolingual teaching institutions in the neighbouring countries can
provide contact with SOLs. Furthermore, the geographical proximity makes it easier and cheaper
to launch school partnerships. Teachers can organise mutual school visits, establish on-line
discussion forums and/or blogs on selected topics with partner schools, and swap ideas regarding
the factual and linguistic content that makes up the local maturita examination.
Thirdly, we propose to draw on multilingual resources at hand. For example, teachers can
invite guest speakers, i.e. SOLs, LF users, to schools, e.g. a German businessman or a French back-
packer to talk about their work and experience in English.
Fourthly, we think that it is crucial to select the right teaching materials. Selecting textbooks
that are EIL / WEs / ELF informed (see e.g. Alsagoff, McKay, Hu, & Renandya, 2012; Matsuda,
2012; or Quinn Novotn, 2013, 2014) may slowly lead to a change of perception of English and
hence linguistic attitudes in general.12
Fifthly, we see a big potential in adopting CLIL, even if schools were to implement teaching
of just one subject through English. In spite of the presumed initial difficulty, students may find
this beneficial in the long run.
All the above requires extra resources, effort and work but even slight modifications and
inexpensive solutions can make a difference in improving teaching English and increase motivation
for learning.
8. Summary and conclusions

In this paper we provided a brief overview of a case study focussed on the use of English at two
IB diploma-providing institutions, i.e. at the United World Colleges (UWCs) and the 1st
International School of Ostrava (the 1st ISO).
UWCs were found to provide a unique multilingual setting, which enables English in all its
forms, varieties and functions to thrive and flourish and become a mutually shared code of
understanding and an efficient vehicle of learning regardless of individual particularities and
idiosyncrasies of its many users.
12 For more about global paradigmatic changes see Quinn Novotn (2012: 110).

The factors that foster the overall efficient use of what can be expertly identified as English as
a lingua franca (ELF)13 (even though the UWC practitioners may not always call it that) in this
international multilingual setting include a combination of linguistically and culturally liberal school
environment, open and flexible attitudes to language use combined with demanding attitudes when
it comes to subject content, written and unwritten, official and unofficial language policies and
classroom techniques employed by both teachers and students. Also, crucially, UWC students and
teachers are found to possess a high a level of linguistic awareness (LA) and linguistic sensitivity,
which facilitates multilingual and multicultural communication14.
Consequently, based on these findings and drawing on the comparison of the two selected
institutions, we find that the following teaching recommendations are essential for best practice in
international multilingual post-secondary institutions: focus on content; focus on (subject specific)
vocabulary; help and support provided from teachers and peers; high level of language exposure
to English; developing linguistically sensitive attitudes and the ability to draw on multilingual
resources; liberal language policies; focus on extra challenges that NNS students may experience
when studying through English (CLIL).
In monolingual contexts teachers may find it beneficial to model, or simulate the multilingual
setting, e.g. by reaching out, employing multilingual resources at hand, selecting the right materials,
and adopting CLIL.
In sum, we conclude that the mixture of liberal and relaxed attitudes, help, support, sensitive
approach, enhancing students confidence, focus on learning, on content, on ideas, encouraging
thinking, expressing ideas freely and asking questions all go hand in hand with heightened
language awareness and have impact on increased proficiency and enhanced linguistic and study
performance. As one teacher commented: Students should feel comfortable expressing
themselves but should be gradually given the toolkit to express themselves with more precision.
Language should be used to embolden not to intimidate.
About the author

Veronika Quinn Novotn has a PhD in English Linguistics. She teaches at the Department of English Language and ELT
Methodology, Faculty of Philosophy and Arts, Charles University in Prague. She also specializes in teaching English to students
with special needs (visual and hearing impairment). Her current research interests include World Englishes, pedagogical
implications of ELF, language attitudes, linguistic identity and CLIL. She also works as a freelance teacher, translator, teacher
trainer and tutor of academic writing. Email: veronika.elt@gmail.com
References
Alsagoff, L., McKay, S. L., Hu, G., & Renandya, W.A. (2012). Principles and practices for teaching English
as an international language. New York: Routledge.
Andrews, S. (2007). Teacher language awareness. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Carter, R. (2003). Language awareness. ELT Journal, 57(1), 6465.
Coyle, D., Hood, P., & Marsh, D. (2010). CLIL: Content language integrated learning. Cambridge:
Dalton-Puffer, C., Nikula, T., & Smit, U. (Eds.). (2010). Language use and language learning in CLIL
classrooms. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company.
Edmondson, W. (2009). Language awareness. In K. Knapp, B. Seidlhofer & H. Widdowson (Eds.),
Handbook of foreign language communication and learning (pp. 163190). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
Georgiou, S. I. (2012). Reviewing the puzzle of CLIL. ELT Journal, 66(4), 495504.
IB DP general information. Retrieved from: http://www.ibo.org/diploma/.
IB DP history. Retrieved from: http://www.ibo.org/history/.
IB language policy. Retrieved from: http://www.ibo.org/mission/languagepolicy/.
13 For UWC students definitions of ELF see Study I.

14 For more details about all of these factors see Study I and Quinn Novotn & Dunkov (2015).

IB language policy - Information on the International Baccalaureates support for languages, language courses and
languages of instruction. Retrieved from: http://www.ibo.org/globalassets/ib-language-policy-
en.pdf.
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ostrava.cz/secondary/userfiles/file/Documents/1st%20IS-
Ostrava%20Language%20Policy.pdf.
James, C., & Garret, P. (1991). Language awareness in the classroom. London: Routledge.
Matsuda, A. (2012). Principles and practices of teaching English as an international language. Bristol:
Multilingual Matters.
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paradigmatic changes in the Czech Republic. Unpublished doctoral thesis, Faculty of Arts,
Charles University, Prague.
Quinn Novotn, V., Grosser, D., & Dunkov, J. (2013). UWC schools: An ideal ELF environment?
Boazii University Journal of Education, 33(1), 5176.
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perspective, Part I. Lingua Viva, 17, 2231.
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perspective, Part II. Lingua Viva 18.
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institutions. A case study at United World Colleges. In H. Bowles & A. Cogo (Eds.), International
Perspectives on English as a Lingua Franca: Pedagogical insights. Hampshire: Palgrave.
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List of abbreviations
CLIL Content Language Integrated Learning

EFL English as a Foreign Language
ELF English as a Lingua Franca
FL Foreign language
IB International Baccalaureate
IB DP International Baccalaureate Diploma Programme
IC Inner Circle
IE International English
ISO International School of Ostrava
L1 First language
LA Language awareness
LP Language policy
PEU Proficient English user
LF Lingua Franca
MLS Multi-lingual speaker
MT Mother Tongue
N Number
NS Native speaker

NNS Non-native speaker

SOL Speaker of other language(s)
UWCs United World Colleges
WEs World Englishes

ELF AND LANGUAGE POLICY
In this section, Telma Gimenez & Taisa Pinetti Passoni problematize the
attitudes towards English in the English Without Borders programme in Brazilian
universitites, finding evidence that current policy seems to show an aversion to ELF
perspectives. Sophia Kitsou analyzes the findings of a Eurobarometer survey on
ELF learners in France and Germany, and their profile and attitude toward
Anglophone countries while projecting the language and cultural policies developed
toward ELF. Laurie Anderson discusses the importance of local context in
English Medium Instruction (EMI) institutions profiling examples in Italy where
ELF is one strand of the multilingual educational repertoire of students and staff.
Dimitra Karoulla-Vrikki reviews two parliamentary bills aimed at regulating the
languages utilized in public spaces in Cyprus and examines todays linguistic
landscape in the streets of Lidras and Onasagorou in Lefkosia.

Gimenez, T., & Passoni, T.P. (2016). Competing discourses between English as a Lingua Franca and the English
without Borders program. In N. Tsantila, J. Mandalios & M. Ilkos (Eds.). ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary
perspectives. ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives (pp. 122-128). Athens: Deree The American College of
Greece.
Competing discourses between English as a Lingua Franca and the

English without Borders program
Telma Gimenez
Taisa Pinetti Passoni
Abstract
Discourses around the English language in developing countries have stressed that being able to use this language is fundamental
to effective participation in a global world. Driven by the internationalization of the economy, the internationalization of universities
is now considered inevitable. Many Brazilian institutions have been encouraged to strengthen the teaching of English in order to
facilitate this process. In the context of the program Science without Borders, whose pillar is student mobility, English became
the object of desire, as university students struggle to obtain one of 100.000 scholarships offered from 2011-2015. Due to the
lack of language proficiency of the potential candidates, an ancillary program was created: English without Borders. This program,
while aiming at preparing the candidates to pursue studies abroad, unintentionally promotes the ideology that English belongs to
the native speakers from the Inner Circle. Although not explicitly adopting a language model, the practical decisions suggest that
English belongs to the Americans, since TOEFL ITP is the test widely administered. This paper will address the dilemma faced by
the academic community as university teachers engage with the English without Borders program and, at the same time,
acknowledge that understandings of the English language as a lingua franca (ELF) have provoked the need to move away from a
close association with a particular country. The focus is on the discourses in the ELF literature and on the justifications offered by
the team in charge of the program.
Keywords: English without borders, internationalization of higher education, language policy
1. Introduction
In the last few years there has been an intensification of university initiatives in many parts of the
non-speaking world to internationalize its course offerings (Chowdhury and Phan, 2014), what has
further promoted the strengthening of the English language as the medium of instruction (EMI)
(Dearden, 2014). Likewise, discourses around the English language in developing countries have
been drawing on the notion that being able to use this language is fundamental to effective
participation in a global world.
Driven by the internationalization of the economy, the internationalization of universities is
now considered inevitable. Many Brazilian institutions have been 1encouraged to strengthen the
teaching of English in order to facilitate this process. In the context of the program Science
without Borders (SwB), whose pillar is student mobility, English became the object of desire,
as university students struggle to obtain one of 100.000 scholarships offered from 2011-2015.
Due to the lack of language proficiency of the potential candidates, an ancillary program was
created: English without Borders (EwB). This program, while aiming at preparing the candidates
to pursue studies abroad, unintentionally promotes the ideology that English belongs to the native
speakers from the Inner Circle. Although not explicitly adopting a language model, the practical
decisions suggest that English belongs to the Americans, since TOEFL ITP is the test widely
administered2.
This paper addresses the dilemma faced by the academic community as university teachers
engage with the EwB program and, at the same time, acknowledge that understandings of the
English language as a lingua franca (ELF) have provoked the need to move away from a close
Universidade Estadual de Londrina: tgimenez@uel.br
Universidade Tecnolgica Federal do Paran:taisapassoni@utfpr.edu.br

1
http://www.cienciasemfronteiras.gov.br/web/csf-eng/.
2 Source:Programa de ensino de ingls vai atender 500 mil alunos at 2014 [Program aimed at teaching English will reach 500
thousand students by 2014]. Available at: < http://portal.mec.gov.br/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=18321>

Access: 10 Nov 2014.

Competing discourses Gimenez & Passoni
association with language varieties associated with a particular country. As Chowdhury and Phan
(2014, p. 7) write: [] many scholars have pointed out that although English has become a global
language, native speaking English varieties from North America, the UK, Australia and New
Zealand are still often regarded as the desired standards for international education. They continue
by stating something that rings especially true in the case of Brazil: Consequently, the
internationalization of higher education is still largely geared towards importing and exporting
English-language products and services from the English-speaking West. (Chowdhruy and Phan,
2014, p. 7-8).
By adopting Faircloughs view of discourses (Fairclough, 2006), the focus is on the contrast
between what some scholars writing within the ELF paradigm have argued for and the ideology
underlying the decisions adopted by those in charge of the program.
2. ELF as discourse
We take the view that globalization is in part a discursive process, involving genres and discourses
(Fairclough, 2006, p.13). One of such discourses is ELF, understood as a particular way of
representing some aspect or area of social life, and in this case, about the role of the English
language in the context of globalization. From our perspective, ELF is a representation of English
that shares some of the characteristics associated with globalization, such as:
1) De-territorialization3and elimination of borders (ELF is language usage that has travelled away
from native speakers countries and can no longer be geographically located):
the very fact that English is an international language means that no nation can have custody over
it. (Widdowson, 2000, p. 42).
If there is one predictable consequence of a language becoming a global language, it is that nobody
owns it any more and that everyone who has learned it now owns it and has the right to use it in the
way they want.(Crystal, 2003, pp. 23).
2) Mobility, adaptability and fluidity (interactions in ELF are hardly predictable, and many of its
features are produced ongoing)
[] the consequence of increased mobility and the global interconnected system of social
organization it gives rise to is that it is has a profound effect on the way that people interact and on
the cultural practices which mediate this interaction.(Seargent, 2012, p. 159)
ELF involves online modification of English language resources to suit the particular
communicative needs of interlocutors, resulting in innovative uses of lexicogrammatical, pragmatic
and sociocultural forms (and so is a legitimate manifestation of English in its own right). (Cogo and
Dewey, 2012, p.18).
One of the predominant notions among ELF scholars is that we need new lenses to frame the type
of communication taking place among speakers from communities where English is neither a
native nor a second language. The adoption of native speakers norms as a guiding referent for
judgment about ones communicative performance is questionable (Widdowson, 2012). Actually,
one of the main arguments in ELF is to show how speakers who are able to use English for
communicative purposes do not need to depend on native speakers standard norms. Moving away
from strict adherence to standards and judging success on other grounds, the ELF literature has
managed to present good arguments about alternative ways of thinking about language use. This
does not mean it has not met criticisms (ORegan, 2014; McKenzie, 2014; Park and Wee, 2014),
3Accordingto Blommaert (2010, p. 42) deterritorialization stands for the perception and attribution of values to language as
something which does not belong to one locality but which organizes translocal trajectories and wider spaces.

but we take the view that as one representation of English in a globalizing world, ELF studies merit
special attention in countries like Brazil, for our communicative needs go beyond interaction with
native speakers. Emerging economies establish particular connections between English and
participation on a global scale, and this is not different in our case, as de Mejia (2012) points out in
relation to South America.
Developing countries are being pushed toward internationalization. The design of educational
policies follows international trends and that is the case of the EwB program.
Given our understanding of ELF and globalization as discursive constructions that share
features, it would be expected that internationalization (as one feature of globalization) would adopt
an ELF perspective. However, this is far from what is happening.
3. English without borders
The terminology that suggests a world without frontiers has been adopted rampantly. In 2011 the
Brazilian government created the Science without Borders, described as a mobility program that
could revolutionize the R&D system, the Brazilian students and researchers exposed to an
environment of high competitiveness and entrepreneurship (CNPQ4, 2014). It offers
scholarships to undergraduate and postgraduate students, as well to established researchers. The
rationale for the initiative is presented on the program website as follows:
Every highly qualified academic or research center around the globe is experiencing an
intense process of internationalization, increasing its visibility and addressing the needs of
today's globalized world. Brazilian institutions need to rapidly engage in this process since
several factors still hinder a more international view of the Science made in the country. The
educational system, for instance, has no current actions aimed to effectively amplify the
interaction of native students with other countries and cultures.
Because many Brazilian academics do not have the required level of proficiency to apply for the
scholarships, an ancillary program was created: the English without Borders 5
(http://isf.mec.gov.br/o-programa). One of the main aims of this emergency program was to
enable applicants to succeed in obtaining the necessary language proficiency scores to receive a
scholarship to attend or participate in academic activities in institutions abroad; hence the program
focuses on international mobility. In addition to administering proficiency and placement tests, the
program also offers language courses (online and face to face).
The majority of the universities partnering with SwB and other mobility programs accept the
TOEFL ITP results as evidence of English language proficiency. According to the ETS6 website,
the TOEFL ITP tests can be used for placement, progress, evaluation, exit testing and other
situations. In the case of EwB it was adopted to provide a diagnostic of the language proficiency
of potential candidates. The TOEFL ITP tests are paper-based and use 100 percent academic
content to evaluate the English-language proficiency of nonnative English speakers, giving them
confidence about their own ability in a real-world academic setting. All questions are multiple
choice and students answer questions by filling in an answer sheet. The tests evaluate skills in three
areas:
4Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Cientfico e Tecnolgico - "National Counsel of Technological and Scientific
Development"
5In 2014 other foreign languages were included as an amplification of the program is under development (Languages without
Borders), including the Portuguese language (Portuguese without Borders).

6 English Testing Service, organization in charge of the tests (www.ets.org).

Listening Comprehension measures the ability to understand spoken English as it is

used in colleges and universities
Structure and Written Expression measures recognition of selected structural and
grammatical points in standard written English
Reading Comprehension measures the ability to read and understand academic
reading material in English
The choice for TOEFL ITP (level 1), although justified in terms of hosting universities
requirement, seems to reinforce the view that the language is Standard American English, since
these parameters are defined according to that variety. The same is true of the online course, My
English Online (http://www.myenglishonline.com.br/), developed by National Geographic
Learning in partnership with Cengage Learning. The ideology of the English language belonging
to native speakers from the United States is also reflected in the support given by the Fulbright
English Teaching Assistants (ETAs), by placing 90 native speakers of English to help with EwB.
The ETAs are in charge of giving support to EwB as well as to develop other activities at the
Brazilian public universities which necessarily involve their home country language and culture;
however, having a teaching degree or experience is not a requirement for their recruitment.
Research studies on the program are at beginning stages and it remains to be seen to what extent
the classes given in the 43 federal university language centers7 as part of the program resist or
reinforce this ideology. Our suspicion (to be confirmed by further research) is that the tendency
will be to reiterate it, since the goal is to complement the teaching provided by the online courses.
With courses lasting for a maximum of 64 hours, it is highly probable that the TOEFL ITP test
will exert a strong influence on teaching.
From what we have exposed so far, it seems that the ELF discourse and the EWB actions go
in opposing directions: one challenging and the other apparently strengthening the notion that an
American variety of English is internationally intelligible.
However, we wanted to understand the rationale for those decisions related to the
implementation of the EWB program and in 2014 sent a questionnaire to the Management Team
in Braslia, headed by academics with large experience in Applied Linguistics. Their written
response (translated from Portuguese) is presented next.
4. EWB choices
One of the questions we asked related to the reasons for choosing TOEFL ITP:
An initial assessment test was necessary for diagnosis. The EWB Program establishes that a
placement test must be administered. TOEFL ITP was chosen for the following reasons:
a) The EWB program came to aid the CSB program and 60% of the places for undergraduate
applicants are from American universities. The rule is that the university of destination determines
which kind of test to accept in order to enable the students mobility. The American universities
accept, primarily, TOEFL IBT, and because of that CAPES negotiated with the Institute of
International Education (IIE) that for undergraduate candidates, a Placement test would be
accepted instead of a proficiency test. Thus, the TOEFL ITP was the naturally accepted choice by
the American universities;
b) TOEFL ITP is a paper based placement test, and therefore easier to apply considering the structure
of Brazilian universities and the number of students with whom we needed to make the survey;
7 At the time of writing (2015), this number had increased to 63.

c) It is a test which allows the student to have his or her placement established by it. It is not a test
for which the student must enroll to be certified at a specific level, as it is the case of other kinds
of assessments. For diagnosis, such format would not be adequate;
d) It is an international acknowledged test, which made it also accepted by other universities apart
from the American ones.
From this response, it is clear that the internationalization of tests is integral to internationalization
of higher education, as one imposes a universally accepted form of assessment on prospective
applicants. Here we see one example of the powerful effect of the testing industry, as pointed out
by Gray (2012, p. 157) when he discusses tests such as TOEFL, TOEIC and IELTS in relation to
the diversity of the English language:
Canagarajah is not alone in suggesting that the testing industry needs to become more sensitive to
the sociolinguistic realities of the multiplicity of ways in which English is used in todays world. He
argues that, in a globalised world, varieties of English are no longer so geographically sealed off from
one another. In turn this means that proficiency in many settings entails some kind of shuttling
between dialects or ability to cope with plurality.
Perhaps somewhat obviously, we can establish links between decisions made by the Brazilian
authorities and the availability offered by the market. The justification by the EwB Management
Team is a practical one, although not without implicit ideological consequences, as Shohamy (2007)
has already alerted.
The next question was about the choice of the online course:
The didactic material to be used was not a choice made by EwB program. CAPES8 had
already purchased many resources from Cengage Learning and from National Geographic
to feed the Portal de Peridicos (Scientific Journals Gateway) and the passwords for My
English Online were offered as part of that deal.
Here we can see what in the market is called tie in sales. Because one of the government funding
agencies was already a buyer of other products offered by Cengage Learning and National
Geographic Learning, it made sense to include an online course.
Regarding the varieties to be privileged, the response was:
The choices are made depending on the partnerships established by the Program. The aim of the program is
not to privilege any variety of English. All the English language speaking countries embassies, governments
and universities are in touch with the EWB managing team in order to set new partnerships. A single
partnership with only one country could not take into account all of our needs. There are ongoing negotiations
with other countries, but due to the worldwide crisis, it hasnt been easy for the partners to contribute with the
program.
It is interesting to note that all the embassies of English speaking countries were contacted, thus
revealing that the Inner Circle countries might have been privileged by this decision, what
reinforces the view that English is seen primarily as a native speakers language within a
monolingual orientation (Canagarajah, 2013).
The final question was about the potential washback effects of those decisions. The response
was that there was awareness about it:
8Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel

For every established examination/assessment there is a washback effect. The program

involves a group of academics who are constantly re-evaluating it. However, we believe that
one test is better than none and the process has to start somewhere. It doesnt necessarily
mean that we must keep the current tool as a standard. The program requires a placement
test as a tool to make diagnostic assessment and to assist the internationalization initiatives.
These considerations are made to illustrate the tide ELF is against. The pragmatic decisions taken
at a national level for a program of such dimension show some of the mechanisms through which
ideology operates: thanks to its successful ability to generate products that can be universally
consumed, a standard variety of English finds its ways into the world of policy-making.
5. Final remarks
Given the internationalization of higher education, it is likely that academics participating in the
Science without Borders program will be involved in lingua franca communication in at least two
different contexts: where English is a native language (such as in the United States) and where it is
a medium of instruction (such as in Japan, Germany or Italy). In both cases, given the trend towards
internalization worldwide, Brazilians are likely to encounter non-native speakers irrespective of the
country they go to. The fact that the tests administered do not measure the applicants ability in
negotiating online, as ELF proponents suggest, may cripple the good intentions of decision-
makers.
Paradoxically, a world without borders (and ELF) is a discursive construction that currently
finds no resonance in actual policy decision- making, largely (and understandably) dictated by
practical concerns. As such, the internationalization of higher education highlights the tensions
between English Native Language and ELF as it reinforces the varieties of English that have been
more successful in creating and selling products widely accepted as the norm. In that sense it tends
to promote the varieties of English that have successfully crafted technologies (such as dictionaries,
grammar books, tests, coursebooks, online courses) that support classroom teaching.
The challenge for ELF is, of course, how to promote its values (e.g. innovation, creativity,
pragmatic strategies) in contexts such as this. In relation to the EwB program, it seems that the
ELF discourse is viewed as a representation of English that has little relevance in the real world
of policy-making. Given the dynamicity of the program, it is hoped that the research on its impact
will bring considerations of an ELF perspective.
In this text we hope to have illustrated the gap between the competing discourses of EFL and
ELF; i.e. between the teaching of English heavily dependent upon the notion of standard language
and prestige variety, and the one that pushes for alternative ways of conceptualizing successful
communication in lingua franca settings.
About the authors

Telma Gimenez is an Associate Professor at Universidade Estadual de Londrina (UEL), with a PhD from Lancaster University
(UK). Her research interests are in the areas of English language teacher education, globalization and educational policies. Currently
she is a Visiting Academic at the Institute of Education, UK, with a scholarship from the Brazilian Ministry of Education (CAPES).
Email: tgimenez@uel.br
Taisa Pinetti Passoni is an Assistant Professor at Universidade Tecnolgica Federal do Paran (UTFPR/PB). She has a BA in
Language Teaching (Portuguese and English) and holds a Masters degree in Language Studies (UEL-PR). Currently she is
developing research at doctoral level on foreign languages policy and planning in Brazil. Email: taisapassoni@utfpr.edu.br
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Kitsou, S. (2016). English as a Lingua Franca: A weapon or a tool? In N. Tsantila, J. Mandalios & M. Ilkos (Eds.).
ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives (pp. 129-135). Athens: Deree The American College of Greece.
English as a Lingua Franca: A weapon or a tool?
Sophia Kitsou
Abstract
The English language has shifted from being a language that was originally used to serve native speakers needs to becoming a
communicative tool also used among non-native speakers in their interactions. The term English as a lingua franca (ELF) refers
to communication in English among speakers with different first language backgrounds across all three Kachruvian circles without,
however, precluding the participation of English native speakers (Seidlhofer, 2011). In its purest form, ELF is a contact language
used only among non-native speakers, and for whom English is the chosen foreign language of communication (Firth, 1996), thus
implying that English is a neutral, free-choice, instrument for international communication. Languages, however, are not just
different word systems but different systems of values. Learning to communicate in another language entails developing an
awareness of the ways culture and language interrelate (Liddicoat, 2003). Foreign language learning is believed to contribute to the
better knowledge of other cultures, to the improvement of understanding of other people as learners decentre from their own
culture-based assumptions and the borders between the self and the other are explored and challenged. In this context,
countries take great interest in promoting their own national languages abroad as these enhance their soft power that is, their ability
to get the outcomes they want through attraction rather than coercion (Nye, 2004). ELF is a critical instrument, for others a weapon
still in the hands of Anglophone countries, in the ongoing process of globalization. But can ELF be a source of soft power and
influence positively ELF learners toward the inner circle countries? This paper critically discusses these issues by exploiting the
findings of a Eurobarometer survey on ELF learners in France and Germany, their profile and attitude toward Anglophone
countries while projecting the language and cultural policies developed toward ELF.
Keywords: ELF, linguistic imperialism, language policy, cultural policy, soft power.
1. Introduction
English is the lingua franca of our globalized world. The global spread of English has to do with
power, the power of the people who speak it as their mother tongue (Crystal, 2003, p.9). The
English language was sent around the globe by British political imperialism during the nineteenth
century and managed not only to maintain but also to expand its world presence in the twentieth
century through the growing economic and cultural influence of the United States and its
emergence as a global superpower (Crystal, 2003, p. 10). This spread of English is described by
Kachru (1985, pp.12-13) in terms of three concentric circles: the Inner, the Outer and the
Expanding Circle with the Inner Circle including countries where English is said to be spoken and
used as a native language (ENL), the Outer Circle comprising countries where English plays an
important 'second language' role (ESL), whereas the Expanding Circle refers to the territories
where English is learnt as a foreign language (EFL), as the most important means for international
communication (EIL), or else known, as a lingua franca (ELF). Despite its limitations and being
strongly criticized for oversimplification, Kachrus model will be used, for the purposes of this
paper, as a schema in order to examine whether ELF can be a source of soft power and influence
positively ELF learners in France and Germany (expanding circle countries) toward the inner circle
countries and more specifically, the USA. The terms ELF and ELF learners will be used because
as it was already mentioned and will become evident in this paper one of the main reasons why
English is learned in France and Germany is because of its magnitude as the most widely spoken
language in the world.
Zanneio Model Experimental Junior High School of Piraeus skitsou@hotmail.com

ELF: Weapon or tool? Kitsou
2. English as a Lingua Franca and soft power
ELF as a term has arisen to refer to communication in English among speakers with different first
language backgrounds across all three Kachruvian circles without, however, precluding the
participation of English native speakers (Seidlhofer, 2011, p.7). In its purest form, ELF is a contact
language used only among non-native speakers, and for whom English is the chosen foreign
language of communication (Firth, 1996, p. 240), thus implying that English is a neutral, free-
choice, instrument for international communication. Languages, however, are not just different
word systems but different systems of values. Every national language is another taxonomy of the
world, another approach, a total of choices that give a distinctive value to each language, the value
of the collective expression of a whole nation (Babiniotis, 2009). As George Babiniotis claims
there is no other way, more direct, more substantial, no shorter way to get to know a people than
by learning their language(Babiniotis, 2009). Language is the most salient feature of the culture of
a people as it not only represents it but it also reproduces it.
For Phillipson (1992), English has been actively promoted as an instrument of foreign policy
and is a deadly weapon, still in the hands of Anglophone countries, which poses a serious threat to
national languages and to multilingualism. It does not only replace but also displaces other
languages (Phillipson, 1992, p.27). Language displacement leads to language shift which eventually
can end up in language death or, rather, in language murder or linguicide, a more accurate term,
according to Tove Skutnabb-Kangas (1999, p. 65), since linguicide, in contrast to language death,
implies that there are agents involved in causing the death of the languages.
It is true that states have always taken great interest in promoting their national languages and
cultures abroad as these enhance their soft power, that is, their ability to get the outcomes [they]
want through attraction rather than coercion (Nye, 2004, p. x). Lingual power is such a particularly
effective means of spreading ones influence that states spend millions on networks such as the
British Council, the Alliance Franaise, the Goethe Institute, etc. (Johnson, 2009, p. 137). The
British Council is not only the UKs key agency for promoting the teaching of English worldwide
but, above all, it is its leading cultural relations organisation building overseas influence for the UK
by developing mutual understanding between peoples, societies and countries. Its activity and
programmes deliver benefits for Britain at home and abroad. Similarly, the USA has a variety of
government and private organisations exercising a corresponding range of functions, and slightly
different constituencies at home and abroad (Phillipson, 1992, p.136).
Joseph Nye (2004) one of the most influential international relations scholars of our era, who
was the one to coin the term soft power argues that a countrys soft power rests primarily on
three sources: its culture, its political values and its foreign policies. Americas soft power
undoubtedly comes through its culture. U.S. cultural power is its greatest weapon in the era of
globalization and is even larger than its economic and military assets (p.11). According to
Zbigniew Brzezinski, another prominent international relations scholar, U.S. world cultural
attractiveness is, inter alia, facilitated by the rapid spread of the English language as the international
common language (2004, p.185). In fact, the language that now dominates the world is called
English, the culture, however, carried with it is American (The triumph of English, 2001). ELF
is a critical instrument in the ongoing process of globalization. As Warschauer (cited in Mydans,
2007) claims, English and globalization have spread hand in hand through the world. Having a
global language has assisted globalization, and globalization has consolidated the global language.
Nevertheless, there is widespread disagreement on whether the rise of ELF should be viewed as a
positive development (tool) or as a negative one (weapon).

3. English as a Lingua Franca: A language of communication or a language of

identification?
For linguists, such as Hllen (1992) there is a distinction between a language of communication
(Kommunikationssprache) and a language of identification (Identifikationssprache) with the
latter having a symbolic function by enabling the speaker to identify with a language and through
it with a culture to which s/he feels a sense of belonging whereas the former, as is the case with
ELF, is a language selected for communication only and thus, the culture associated with this
language is not activated by its users. Hllen (as cited in Phillipson, 2009), years later, however, to
some extent distances himself from this earlier position by admitting that seeing English as neutral,
with nothing to do with the cultural identity of speakers, is problematical, since we are in an age:
with the United States as a kind of new empire. This makes it difficult to believe in the hypothesis
that English as a national language and English as an international language are two separate systems,
the latter being equidistant to all other languages and cultures (p. 97).
Learning to communicate in another language, however, inevitably entails developing an awareness

of the ways culture and language interrelate (Liddicoat et al., 2003) as the knowledge of a languages
culture is thought essential for a thorough understanding of a languages nuances of meanings and
necessary for avoiding experiencing misinterpretation and miscommunication. Still, Hoffman
(2000, p.20) separates communication and culture by arguing that being proficient in English does
not mean that one has to be bicultural: a superficial knowledge of Anglo-Saxon culture is sufficient,
there is no need to develop feelings of dual identity and shared
loyalties. Brumfit (2003), on the other hand, claims that learning a language even simply as a means
of communication involves, opting for a relationship with some kind of language-using community
and thus, involves a two-way process with the language both a bearer and a mediator of that
communitys socio-cultural attitudes, values and beliefs. Kramer (1993) also argues that foreign
language learning is a hermeneutic process where learners expose their own cultural identity to the
contrasting influences of a foreign language and culture. It is in this context that foreign language
learning is believed to contribute to the better knowledge of other cultures, to the improvement of
understanding of other people, to the breaking down of stereotypes and to the development of
tolerance as learners not only decentre from their own culture-based assumptions but also the
borders between the self and the other are both explored and challenged.
Thus, it is interesting to investigate whether learning English, the lingua franca of our globalised
world, can influence positively those who learn it toward the inner circle Anglophone countries
and more specifically, the USA.
4. The study: Attitudes of ELF learners in France and Germany toward U.S.A.
4.1 The context

Our case study draws on a Eurobarometer survey (EB 63.4) which was carried out in May-June
2005 and investigated, inter alia, English language knowledge. At that time, the percentage of
English language knowledge turned out to be 33.2 percent (336 out of 1012) in France and 47.6
percent (723 out of 1520) in Germany. This Eurobarometer was mainly designed to inquire about
European citizens knowledge and opinions on issues such as the European Union policies, their
fears concerning the loss of their national identity and culture, etc.; however, another issue tackled
was their attitude toward U.S. role in major international issues such as world peace, the fight
against poverty, environment protection, etc. This survey took place two years after the
transatlantic rift created between traditional partners such as the United States and the Franco-
German Axis because of the U.S. unilateral decision to go ahead with the war in Iraq in 2003.
Foreign positive perceptions of the United States had greatly declined and consequently, it seemed

quite intriguing to divide the French and German respondents of this Eurobarometer survey into
two categories English-speaking and non-English speaking ones and examine their perceptions and
attitudes toward U.S. role in: world peace, world poverty, environment protection, etc.
4.2 The findings

Interestingly enough, it became evident that those French and Germans with English language
skills did not have a more positive opinion and attitude toward the United States than those who
did not speak English (see Tables 1 & 2 below). What is more, in certain cases they were even more
critical (see Tables 1 & 2 below). For instance, of the 336 English-speaking French, only 41 people
(12.2 percent) responded that the United States play a positive role in world peace. On the other
hand, of 676 non-English speaking French, 117 people, that is, 17.3 percent answered that U.S.
role in world peace is positive. In Germany, of the 723 English-speaking Germans, only 132 people
(18.3 percent) perceived the U.S. role in this issue as positive whereas of the 797 non-English
speaking Germans, 187 people (23.5 percent) viewed the U.S. role as positive.
Table 1. English-speaking and non-English speaking French and Germans attitude toward US role in world
peace
Neither positive
Country Positive Negative DK Total
nor negative
41 256 36 3 336
English-speaking
12.2% 76.2% 10.7% .9% 100.0%
France
117 406 116 37 676
Non English-speaking
17.3% 60.1% 17.2% 5.5% 100.0%
132 516 70 5 723
English-speaking
18.3% 71.4% 9.7% .7% 100.0%
Germany
187 482 109 19 797
23.5% 60.5% 13.7% 2.4% 100.0%
Table 2. English-speaking and non-English speaking French and Germans attitude toward US role in the
fight against poverty in the world.
Neither positive
Country Positive Negative DK Total
nor negative
27 259 39 11 336
English-speaking
8.0% 77.1% 11.6% 3.3% 100.0%
France
81 449 97 49 676
12.0% 66.4% 14.3% 7.2% 100.0%
79 483 144 17 723
English-speaking
10.9% 66.8% 19.9% 2.4% 100.0%
Germany
131 474 152 40 797
Non English- speaking
16.4% 59.5% 19.1% 5.0% 100.0%
Furthermore, the English-speaking French and Germans were not afraid of losing their national
identity and culture within the EU contrary to their compatriots with no English skills who seemed
rather worried (see Table 3).

Table 3. English-speaking and non-English speaking French and Germans attitude toward the fear of losing their
national identity and culture within the EU
Country Currently afraid Not currently afraid DK Total

93 241 2 336
English-speaking
27.7% 71.7% .6% 100.0%
France
296 348 32 676
43.8% 51.5% 4.7% 100.0%
187 518 18 723
English-speaking
25.9% 71.6% 2.5% 100.0%
Germany
346 428 23 797
43.4% 53.7% 2.9% 100.0%
5. Discussion and conclusions
Why does the power influence wielded by the United States through the English language and their
culture not produce the desired outcomes?
Joseph Nye who pioneered the theory of soft power warns that soft power - like all power -
must be taken in context (2004, p. 16). In our case, France and Germany are two states with bulk
of power in economic, political and cultural terms. In this strong cultural context, it is inevitable
that both French and Germans have built strong national and cultural identities. What is more,
with regard to foreign language learning, they take a utilitarian approach. When inquired in another
Eurobarometer survey (EB 64.3) about the reasons why they think it is important that young people
should learn a foreign language, the culture associated with the language was ranked as the ultimate
reason among French respondents; the Germans did not consider it as an important reason, either
(see Table 4).
Table 4. Reasons why it is important that young people learn other languages at school or University. November
December 2005 (64.3:QA4 )
For what reasons do you think it is important that young people learn other Country
languages at school or University? France Germany
To understand what life is like for people in other countries 27.7% 35.4%
To improve their job opportunities 75.5% 86.6%
Because the language is widely spoken in Europe 21.2% 35.1%
Because the language is widely spoken around the world 47.2% 52.2%
To be more tolerant and accepting toward people from other cultures 26.0% 41.4%
Because of the culture associated with the language 13.0% 21.0%
To be multilingual 19.8% 36.0%
To be able to communicate with family or friends in a region where the
23.7% 20.9%
language is spoken
To feel more European 18.1% 14.0%
To feel more comfortable when going on holiday to a region where the
22.9% 32.1%
language is spoken

Not only that but also the status ascribed to English as a foreign language within the national
education system and the existence of an institutional framework for the protection of national
language use, as is the case with France, seem to be some other factors explaining the ineffective
power influence wielded by the English language and U.S. culture. While in most E.U. countries
the learning of English is obligatory at a particular stage of compulsory education and this is the
case with Germany, in France, the status of English within the national education system does not
differ from that of the other languages included in the curriculum: it is optional (Eurydice, 2005).
Additionally, in France, the Toubon law mandates the obligatory use of the French language in
certain circumstances of the French citizens daily lives in order to guarantee their right to use their
national language.
Moreover, the policy of cultural exemption that allows E.U. member-states to limit cultural
imports of non-European audiovisual products and the adoption of dubbing for audiovisual
products, a practice which is regarded as an ethnocentric adaptation of the foreign to the target
countrys cultural values, a process which eradicates foreignness and weakens the power of the
source countrys cultural images, further moderate the power of the English language and U.S.
culture. Actually, in 1989, the European Union passed the Television Without Frontiers directive which
requires that E.U. member-states reserve a majority (51 percent) of entertainment broadcast
transmission time for programs of European origin (Rinaman, 1996). France has since adopted the
strictest quotas and in Germany, although there are no official quotas that the broadcasters must
observe, relevant legislation ensures that television broadcasters comply with the European
directive.
As it becomes evident, English is just a tool and cannot induce empathy toward inner circle
Anglophone states especially in states such as France and Germany which have outer and
expanding circles of their own. English is undoubtedly an asset for Anglophone countries but there
are constraints to its use as soft power source. Its use as a weapon needs a more concentrated effort
on the part of Anglophone countries while it depends largely on the context. At the moment, for
the countries examined, English is just a tool toward an end, a communication language and by no
means, an identification language. Similar empirical research in countries with less powerful
national languages could give us more valuable insights on the role of English as a source of soft
power and as to whether it is still a weapon in the hands of Anglophone countries.
About the author

Dr. Sophia Kitsou received her Ph.D from the Ionian Universitys Department of Foreign Languages, Translation and Interpreting
where she completed her thesis, The Anglophony in France and Germany: geocultural analysis in the first decade of the 21 st
century. She holds an MA in Translation from the Surrey University and a BA in English Language and Literature from the
University of Athens. Her research interests include ELF, ELT, language and cultural policies. She is a board member of the
Panhellenic Association of State School Teachers of English and she teaches English in Zanneio Model Experimental Junior High
School of Piraeus. Email: skitsou@hotmail.com
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Anderson, L. (2016). Why context matters in English-medium instruction (EMI): Reflections based on experience in
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Mandalios & M. Ilkos (Eds.), ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives (pp. 136-144). Athens: Deree The
Why context matters in English-medium instruction (EMI):

Reflections based on experience in the Italian university system and in
an EU-funded programme for early-career scholars
Laurie Anderson
Abstract
This paper presents and motivates a framework for analysing English-Medium Instruction (EMI) in higher education from a
comparative perspective with a focus on teaching by disciplinary specialists in non-immersion (lingua franca) settings. Drawing on
a dual notion of context (societal, top-down; emergent, bottom-up) three contextual factors are discussed and their pertinence to
EMI illustrated: language repertoires and language ideologies (what other languages are present in the context; what value is
attributed to these languages and to English), cultural expectations about the teaching-learning process (how students and teachers
expect themselves and others to act in pedagogic interactions), and the degree to which educational and hiring policies (national,
institutional) reflect a market orientation to HE (this last discussion draws on the GATS, 1995, definitions of modes of cross-
borders exchange in order to recast EMI as part of the broader process of the international provision of educational services). A
typology of types of students and teachers that can be found in EMI classrooms is then presented; this typology draws on Smit
(2010) and Fontanet-Gmez (2013) but takes students and faculty members institutional status explicitly into consideration, thus
taking the three contextual factors identified as pertinent to EMI more systematically into account. The final section of the paper
illustrates the utility of the proposed framework for the comparative analysis of English-Medium Instruction by using it to highlight
variation in EMI within the Italian context and continuities across European settings with similar contextual characteristics.
Keywords. (EMI), (ELFA), language policy in higher education, language diversity in higher education, English in Continental
Europe, (ICLHE).
1. Why worry about context in the English-medium classroom?
Recent work has begun to shed light on English-medium instruction in higher education from a
variety of perspectives and on how it intersects with broader issues regarding the use of English as
a lingua franca in international academia. One line of inquiry involves the analysis of language
policies and how they are implemented in various national contexts and specific institutions; recent
contributions in this area include Doiz, Lasagabaster and Sierra (2013), Fortanet-Gmez (2013)
and Jenkins (2014). A second line of inquiry focuses on processes of classroom interaction in
settings in which faculty and/or students are speakers of English as a Lingua Franca (ELF); recent
publications on this topic include Smit (2010) and Smith and Dafouz (2012). Drawing on these
two strands of research and on the authors involvement in research on and training for English-
medium instruction in two contexts one regional (an EU-funded training scheme aimed at early-
career faculty in the European Higher Education Area), the other national (the Italian university
system) the present contribution outlines a framework for examining English-medium
instruction (EMI) in higher education (HE) from a comparative perspective. The focus is on
curricular teaching through the medium of English by disciplinary specialists (lecturers, professors,
instructors) in non-immersion settings, i.e. in contexts in which English is being used as an
academic lingua franca.1
The notion of context in educational research has a long and illustrious history, ranging from the
rather deterministic view that informed early work on comparative education (e.g., Noah &
Eckstein, 1969) to more recent theorizations taking a constructivist approach to the teaching-
learning process (cf. Larochelle, Bednarz & Garrison, 1998). The former strand of research tends
University of Siena (Italy).laurie.anderson@unisi.it

1 The special case of curricular teaching through the medium of English by EAP specialists is not dealt with here. However,
readers interested in this form of EMI should find the observations about contextual factors and the student typology proposed
useful.

Why context matters Anderson
to conceptualize context in top-down terms, focusing on how cultural and political factors
together with specific aspects of institutional design and policy contribute to shaping educational
processes. The latter body of research tends to view context as an emergent property of face-to-
face interaction, focusing how teachers and learners in specific local contexts and individual
classrooms co-construct what Holliday (1994) has termed the small culture of the class. Both
approaches focusing, respectively, on context writ large and context writ small have in my
opinion much to contribute to the current reflection on the role of English as a lingua franca in
the international classroom.
In section 2 I highlight three factors that affect the reception of EMI in different national and
local contexts and the way in which English is actually used in the classroom when the decision is
made to implement it. These factors are not the only ones that influence language use in classroom
settings, but in my view their impact is significant and has not been sufficiently emphasized in some
discussions of EMI. Section 3, which draws on the preceding discussion, proposes a typology
designed to help identify salient features of the student-teacher mix in specific EMI classrooms.
Section 4 briefly illustrates how reference to the contextual factors discussed can provide insights
into EMI, in terms of both variation within national contexts and continuities across different parts
of Europe.
2. Some reflections on context writ large: societal and institutional factors impacting
EMI
2.1 Role of multilingualism in the socio-political context: language repertoires and language ideologies
Language constitutes an important socio-political reference point in all societies due to its dual
function as a vehicle of communication and as a marker of social identity. The latter function is
often mentioned in connection with language debates within the European context in reference to
the Romantic concept of one language, one nation.2 In reality, however, many contemporary
European countries are highly multilingual. These include not only countries traditionally
considered as such, in which national or regional languages are typically distributed on a territorial
basis for example, Belgium (French, Dutch), Switzerland (French, German, Italian) and Spain
(Castilian Spanish, official throughout Spain; Catalan, Basque, Galician, co-official in the regions
in which they are traditionally spoken). They also encompass countries usually thought of as
monolingual but which now contain substantial numbers of residents who speak migrant languages
due to immigration from outside Europe and to the increasing integration of the European labour
market. In this second group of countries, the geographical distribution of plurilingual speakers
differs, with most concentrated in urban or industrial areas. In recent years, an increasing number
of settings in Continental Europe (in particular major cities) are characterized by both heritage
multilingualism and multilingualism linked to migration.
This brief panorama highlights how patterns of language diversity differ considerably from one
country to another and from one part of a country to another. It also highlights how different
patterns of multilingualism may reflect different historical processes and hence the meaning that
language choice and language diversity assume in given national and local contexts. This ideological
dimension of language use, I would suggest, is pertinent to a comparative analysis of EMI. Where
language carries with it a strong identity function (whether national, as in France or Italy, or
regional, as in Catalonia), one would expect language choice in public settings such as higher
education to have a high symbolic value and proposals for introducing English-medium instruction
to be more intensely scrutinized. Where minority heritage languages are present (such as Catalonia
in the Spanish context), concerns about possible crowding out of such languages within the public
sphere may make this scrutiny even more intense. This does not mean, as I will highlight below,
2Cf. Blackledge (2000) for some interesting reflections on how this monolingual ideology surfaces in the media and in public
debate, even in officially multilingual polities.

that EMI does not get implemented in such settings; my claim is, rather, that linguistic repertoires
and the ideological dimension that language choice assumes may be more or less pertinent in
different contexts, and that this will affect both how EMI is received and put into practice.3
2.2 Role of national pedagogical traditions and practices

A second factor I feel is frequently underestimated in discussions of English-Medium Instruction
is the role of pedagogical traditions and practices. Expectations about what is normative in
classroom interaction can vary considerably from one national context to another, and even what
may appear to be the same pedagogical genre for instance, a lecture or a seminar session
can involve different interaction patterns in different settings.
Research carried out with colleagues from Italian and British universities a number of years ago
(and validated by more recent observation in the Italian context) drives home this point (Anderson
& Piazza, 2005; Ciliberti & Anderson, 1999;). Classroom observation showed lectures to be more
monologic in Italy than in Britain, where the notion of interactive lecturing (although often
honoured in the breach) tends to hold sway. The structure of the lectures collected in Italian
universities was also more additive and accretional, with frequent digressions (Zorzi, 1999), quite
different from the British tendency to announce the lecture structure beforehand and to organize
it in blocks. Differences in interaction patterns were also found in seminar settings, even when the
activity underway was nominally the same. For instance, in undergraduate reading seminars in
which students and instructors were discussing preassigned texts, student participation in the Italian
context was almost always initiated by the instructor, who called upon a specific student to
intervene; in the British seminars, instead, students frequently volunteered (Anderson, 1999).
Differences even extended to the way in which texts were read and critiqued, with citations from
the readings generally much more faithful to the original in the British setting and greater liberties
taken with the text in Italy (Anderson & Piazza, 2005). These examples highlight how teaching and
learning in higher education classrooms in different national settings is permeated by a series of
subtle differences in terms of interaction norms.4 In conducting a comparative analysis of EMI, it
is important to keep in mind the potential impact of such normative expectations about appropriate
language use in the university classroom.5
2.3 Openness of national university systems and individual institutions to foreign staff and students
In todays increasingly globalized academia, a prime reason for offering study programmes in
English is to attract international students and domestic students interested in an international
dimension (internationalization-at-home). Viewed in this light, EMI is a particular service for
particular types of consumers: a tradable commodity. A third contextual factor to take into
account are thus economic considerations. To grasp the significance of this fact, it is useful to
situate EMI within the more general scenario of cross-borders provision of services. To do so, it
is helpful to consider how EMI fits into the framework of the General Agreement on Trade in
Services (GATS, 1995), which identifies four types of cross-border exchange (Table 1 below).
3 In support of this claim, see P. van Parajs (2011) for a provocative discussion from a political philosophy perspective of how
vehicular and identity functions of language come into play in the reception of English as a lingua franca in the current
European context.
4 Cultural differences in university teaching have been documented by similar research carried out in other national contexts; for
a recent comparison of Italy and Germany, for example, see Hornung, A., Carobbio, G. & Sorrentino, D. (2014).
5 In support of this view, see a recent empirical study by Brown and Adamson (2014) which highlights how the EMI classroom
culture in Japanese universities remains rooted in local academic norms.

Table 1. Cross-borders educational provision viewed through the lens of GATS, 1995
Table 1 draws attention to the existence of a market economy in international HE. It invites us to
consider, for example, how pressure to recruit students from abroad may relate to the size of a
country, the number and size of the institutions of HE within it, and particular characteristics of a
given institution (for example, its geographical position with respect to neighbouring countries).
The utility of a political economy perspective on EMI finds confirmation in an interesting
retrospective article by Wilkinson (2013) focusing on Maastricht University, in which the author
identifies five phases and motivations for the expansion of EMI in this Dutch institution over a
period of 20 years: cross-border (practical); Europeanisation (idealist); consolidation (educational);
globalisation (survival); monetisation (financial). The birds-eye view of the process he provides
underlines the role played by specific economic considerations, such as the institutions position
near the Belgian and German borders and the presence of a stagnant home market for HE.
The table also draws attention to the impact on EMI of structural characteristics that are linked
to the other three modes of exchange. Curricular teaching in English, for example, is affected not
just by the presence of international students but also by the recruitment of foreign staff. National
HE systems in Europe vary widely in this respect. As documented by various contributions (i.e.,
Gagliarducci, Ichino, Peri & Perotti, 2005; Kim 2010; Marimon, Lietaert & Grigolo, 2009; among
others), some national university systems are relatively receptive to foreign academics (e.g. the UK
and the Netherlands), while others are relatively impenetrable (e.g. France, Italy and Spain).
Moreover, in countries in which both public and private institutions of HE exist, the latter usually
have more flexible recruitment policies (Marimon et al., 2009), a fact that generally translates into
higher concentrations of English-speaking teaching staff (e.g. Bocconi, a business university in
Italy; Central European University, a private institution in Hungary). The result of these differences
across countries and institutions is that the actual faculty-student mix in the English-medium
classroom may vary greatly from one setting to another. The following section briefly considers
the implications of this fact for the comparative study of EMI.
3. Some reflections on context writ small: variation in the faculty-student mix in English-
medium classrooms
In the preceding section, I have argued that contextual factors have an impact on EMI. Among
these, I have suggested that of particular importance are language repertoires and language
ideologies (what other languages are present in the context; what value is attributed to these
languages and to English), cultural expectations about the teaching-learning process (how students
and teachers expect themselves and others to act in pedagogic interactions), and the degree to
which educational and hiring policies (national, institutional) reflect a market orientation to HE. If
these factors are important to investigating EMI in a comparative perspective, then it is clearly

necessary to understand who is in a particular classroom (what type of students? what type of
teachers?).6
As regards students, a useful point of departure is the classification of the types of students that
can be found in multilingual university classrooms proposed by Smit (2010, pp. 35-36) and taken
up and expanded by Fontanet-Gmez (2013, pp. 154-55). The following classification draws on
these two authors proposals but has been reorganized in order to take the institutional and
sociolinguistic status of students more systematically into account. It has also been adjusted so as
to refer specifically to EMI in non-immersion contexts (such as Continental Europe):
1. Home students majoring in modern languages, among which English, attending curricular
courses in English:
a. with majority language backgrounds
b. with ethnolinguistic minority backgrounds
c. with immigrant backgrounds
2. Home students in other areas of study, attending curricular courses (or entire study
programmes) in English:
a. with majority language backgrounds
b. with ethnolinguistic minority backgrounds
c. with immigrant backgrounds
3. Foreign students participating in short-term mobility programmes (e.g., Erasmus);
4. Foreign students who have enrolled on an individual basis to follow undergraduate or graduate
courses of study taught entirely or partially in English:
a. intra-regional, i.e. from other European countries
b. across regions (international students), i.e. from Asia, Africa, Americas
The first level of this reorganized typology allows us to see more clearly what sort of relationship
students have towards the institution, both in terms of time frame (long or short-term) and level
of commitment, including financial (nationally subsidized, wholly or in part; EU-funded;
individually funded). It also highlights the role of English as a component of their studies (core,
instrumental). These elements are useful to predict what expectations about the teaching-learning
process students may have. The second level highlights the different linguistic repertoires that
students may bring into the classroom and the social value that these may be attributed, both by
themselves and by other class participants.
Categories regarding institutional and sociolinguistic status can likewise be used to classify
teachers. A possible breakdown is as follows:
1. Part of institutions staff (tenured or fixed term)
a. nationals (recruited from within national system/setting)
i. with majority language backgrounds
ii. with ethnolinguistic minority backgrounds
iii. with immigrant backgrounds
b. international (recruited from abroad)
i. native-speaker of English
ii. native speaker of other language (not national majority or minority
language(s), nor English)
2. temporary (e.g. involved in short-term mobility, such as Erasmus teaching exchange)
6
Referring to what she terms The Human Factor, Fortanet-Gmez (2013) identifies three groups of actors who participate in
the higher education process: students, academic staff and administrative staff. Here I focus only on the first two categories,
students and teachers, as it is ultimately through interaction between these two groups in specific pedagogic settings (lecture
halls, seminar rooms, laboratories) that EMI takes place.

Again, the first-level division in terms of institutional status makes it possible to distinguish this
second actor in the pedagogic process in terms of time frame (long or short term) and level of
institutional and personal commitment.7 The second level helps capture contextual variation in the
market structure of academic recruitment. Finally, the third level helps delineate the sociolinguistic
profile of teachers, although it is evident that some of the categories proposed (such a native
speaker) are difficult to pin down and subject to controversy. It will be observed that a third aspect
often present in discussions of EMI, i.e. that of language proficiency (in English, in the national or
host institutions language), has not been explicitly incorporated into the two classifications
proposed. This decision can be motivated on two grounds: practical and theoretical. On the one
hand, language proficiency is a continuous variable that cuts across all groups. Secondly, and more
crucially, what constitutes successful communication in ELF contexts is, as has amply been
documented in the literature, linked to the full range of language resources mutually available to
participants. Proficiency, in other words, is not only a question of individual ability, but is also
and perhaps more importantly relationally defined. In this sense language skills are perhaps best
thought of not as a contextual factor writ large that can help explain certain characteristics of
interaction in EMI classrooms, but rather as an emergent quality of that interaction itself.
4. Putting EMI in European higher education into perspective: The case of Italy
The contextual factors outlined above and the suggested categorizations of types of students and
teachers constitute, I argue, a useful framework for comparing curricular teaching in English in
different national and institutional contexts. They resonate with both personal experience in the
classroom in the Italian university context and with extensive observation of EMI teaching in Italy
and abroad. As I have had ample occasion to observe over the last few years in my role as academic
communications consultant for the training component of the EU-funded Max Weber
Postdoctoral Programme for the Social Sciences,8 references to such factors in some shape or form
are recurrent when scholars and teachers of different backgrounds discuss their experiences in the
EMI classroom. In closing, I will therefore try to illustrate the utility for a comparative analysis of
the perspective proposed, by offering a brief reflection on EMI in Italy against the backdrop of
English-medium teaching in Europe in general.
EMI has rapidly increased in Continental Europe in recent years, although levels of diffusion
and rates of growth vary greatly from one country to another. Generally speaking, curricular
teaching in English started earlier and is much more widespread in Northern European countries.
However, a 2013 study of EMI masters programmes (Brenn-White & Faethe, 2013) indicates a
steep increase in such programs in Spain, Italy and France in the last five years. In Italy the number
of EMI Masters programs increased over 40 times from 2007 to 2013 (from only 7 programs in
2007 located in a handful of universities to 304 programs in 2013).
This strong surge in EMI in the Italian context has sparked a highly charged debate, both in
academic circles (Maraschio & De Martino, 2012) and in the media; in this debate, a leading role
has been played by the Accademia della Crusca, the language academy dedicated to the conservation
and promotion of the Italian language (for further details, see Tosi, 2011). The issue of EMI
received particular attention in 2013 in occasion of a court ruling against one of Italys leading
public technical universities, the Milan Polytechnic, following its decision to teach all of its masters
programs in English in order to increase its attractiveness to international students. The ruling
7 Other institutional distinctions of potentially relevance do of course exist. For instance, it is conceivable that teaching style may
vary systematically with institutional status. Fontanet-Gmez (2013: 162-64) distinguishes between content lecturers and
language lecturers (i.e. between those who are expected to teach the discipline and teach language). Furthermore, teaching
roles are ordered hierarchically (instructor/associate professor/full professor; junior/senior lecturer etc.).
8 http://www.eui.eu/ProgrammesAndFellowships/MaxWeberProgramme/Index.aspx

invoked the constitutionally-recognized status of Italian as the national language and the principle
of equal access to higher education by domestic students as the rationale for its decision to suspend
the universitys decision.9 The debate exposed a number of broader concerns, ranging from issues
of domain loss to worries about the potential impact of a shift towards EMI on the already
declining literacy skills of Italian students. Observing this debate through the lens provided in
Section 2 of this paper, one can discern how ideological and pedagogical factors played a central
role.
Shifting our attention to the actual distribution of English-medium courses of study within the
Italian context, economic concerns come to the fore. A first point of interest is the fact that second-
cycle (two-year masters) degree courses taught in English outnumber first-cycle (Bachelors)
courses by about three to one.10 The bulk of undergraduate teaching, in other words, takes place in
the national language and is addressed to home students. In addition to pedagogical concerns
about the English language proficiency of incoming Italian students, this relatively limited interest
in promoting EMI at this level may be linked to the existence of a sufficient domestic market for
undergraduate education within Italy itself. As regards EMI at the second-degree (masters) level,
one can note high levels of implementation in elite business and technical universities located in
the North. These institutions include both private universities such as Bocconi (a private, high-
ranking business university in Milan) and public universities with closed admissions policies (e.g.
the Politecnici in Torino and Milano). In contrast, the number of EMI programmes is still limited in
less research-intensive public universities with open admissions, in particular in the South or
outside of major metropolitan areas or areas of touristic interest. These differences are clearly
linked to the different capacity of the institutions in question to attract students from abroad and
have important repercussions in terms of the actual teacher-student mix in the classroom in
different settings.
The above, necessarily brief overview of the Italian situation illustrates how an attention to
contextual factors can help illuminate variation in EMI within a particular national context. In
closing, I would like to provide a brief example that highlights the utility of the framework
proposed for the comparative analysis of EMI across countries.
In talking with colleagues and policy makers and in observing classroom interaction over the
last few years, I have at times been struck by similarities in how EMI has been implemented in
apparently disparate contexts. Pompeu Fabra University in Barcelona and the Universit di
Bolzano/Bozen, located in the Alto Adige/South Tyrol region of Italy close to the Austrian border
are a case in point. Both universities are located in areas characterized by the presence of one or
more heritage minority languages (Catalan, on the one hand, German and Ladin a Rhaeto-
Romance language spoken some remote mountain valleys on the other) and both have highly
developed trilingual language policies that take the pedagogical implications of multilingualism
explicitly into account (at Pompeu Fabra, for example, students following a course taught in one
language have the option of being tested or writing term papers in the language of their choice). In
both settings, rather than emphasizing the presence of English-medium instruction in promoting
course offerings, the emphasis in on the multilingual nature of instruction and of interaction among
students and staff (for example, the Faculty of Economics and Management at Bolzano/Bozen,
which teaches in Italian, German and English, advertises itself as trilingual and intercultural). In
these two settings, in short, the international character of education is not associated with EMI but
rather with the active presence of linguistic diversity. In the panorama of HE in the European
9 In the current academic year (2014-15), the university in question has 24 two-year masters degrees taught in English, 5 in
Italian, 9 partly in English and partly in Italian.
10 It should be noted that these estimates should be approached with caution, as they are based on an on-lin10 In the current
academic year (2014-15), the university in question has 24 two-year masters degrees taught in English, 5 in Italian, 9 partly in
English and partly in Italian.
10 It should be noted that these estimates should be approached with caution, as they are based on an e portal, StudyPortals,
rather than on an analysis of the individual websites of each university.

context, these examples provide some interesting food for thought, including how to recast English
as a lingua franca for academic purposes as part of a broader repertoire of language skills. It is my
hope that the analytic tools suggested in this paper may contribute to this endeavour.
About the author

Laurie Anderson is professor of English at the University of Siena (Italy). Her research engages with issues related to English as
a lingua franca (ELF) in Continental Europe, with particular reference to higher education. Her recent publications include
Publishing strategies of young, highly mobile academics: The question of language in the European context, Language Policy, 12/3:
273-288 (2013). She collaborates with the Max Weber Post-doctoral Programme at the European University Institute (Florence)
and is a founding member of the FIESOLE Group, a network of applied linguists from various European institutions dedicated to
developing a reflexive, transnational approach to training for academic practice. Email:laurie.anderson@unisi.it)
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.Karoulla-Vrikki, D. (2016). English as a Lingua Franca: The linguistic landscape in Lidras and Onasagorou street,
Lefkosia, Cyprus. In N. Tsantila, J. Mandalios & M. Ilkos (Eds.), ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives.
(pp. 145-154). Athens: Deree The American College of Greece.
English as a Lingua Franca: The linguistic landscape in

Lidras and Onasagorou Street, Lefkosia, Cyprus
Dimitra Karoulla-Vrikki
Abstract
The paper first reviews the 1990s parliamentary discussion of two bills aimed at regulating the languages utilized in public spaces in
Cyprus. In order to decrease the dominance of English, the bills promoted Greek as mandatory and placed English on an optional
basis. The protection of Greek language and Greek ethnic identity in Cyprus, the freedom of speech and expression, the promotion
of the identity of Cyprus as an independent state, the boosting of the islands economy and tourism were some issues raised in the
parliamentary debate suggesting symbolic-versus-pragmatic perspectives of language planning. The bills were never enacted into
laws. Currently, that is, two decades later, the linguistic landscape expresses freedom of expression for some people, while for others
it reflects a linguistic chaos. The paper proceeds to the examination of todays linguistic landscape in Lidras and Onasagorou, the
two high streets in the old town of Lefkosia (Nicosia), Cyprus. The examination demonstrates the visibility of English as a lingua
franca through a quantitative analysis of data deriving from 600 photos of all written signs. Linguistic items involve signs in English,
signs in Greek, signs presenting Greek words and names transliterated into the Latin alphabet, bilingual signs in which the Greek
inscription is either followed or preceded by a word-for-word translation in English, signs showing code switching between Greek
and English, that is some words or phrases may be in English and others in Greek often suggesting dominance in one of the two
languages, signs presenting registered trademarks in English, and signs in other languages (e.g., Turkish, Italian, Russian). Finally,
these linguistic tokens, such as road signs, commercial shop signs and advertising signs as well as names of streets, buildings and
shop owners suggest a public space of variation associated to economic, political, cultural and social developments on the island.
Keywords: ELF, linguistic landscape, symbolism, pragmatism, public and commercial signs, English, Cyprus.
1. Linguistic landscape (LL)
The notion of linguistic landscape (LL) as defined by Shohamy, Ben-Rafael & Barni (2010) refers to
linguistic objects, that mark the public space (p. xiv). It includes any written sign found outside
private homes, from road signs to names of streets, shops and schools. The study of LLs focuses
on analysing these items according to the languages utilized, their relative saliency and syntactic or
semantic aspects (p. xiv). These language tokens are facts of language that relate to cultural,
social, political and economic circumstances (p. xi).
According to the same authors, the core of the public space usually refers to urban
metropolitan space, that is, the areas designated as center or downtown where one now finds
fashion boutiques, cafs, restaurants, fast-food places, offices, municipal buildings, theatres,
movie houses and above all huge department stores (pp. xiv-xv). This LL of contemporary
urban-metropolitan spaces may be seen as a heterogeneous whole which is marked by a
multitude of LL items mostly offering the image of a genuine jungle of signs an extreme example
of disorder.a chaos. It is also marked by an instability caused by the sprouting of new items,
the inauguration of new institutions and stores, the launch of new gadgets and products, the
changing window displays, and the disappearance of old LL items, as well as personal
preferences, fashions originating from outside, linguistic innovations and borrowings from
diverse tongues (Shohamy, Ben-Rafael & Barni, 2010, p. xv). It is worth noting, however, that this
heterogeneous whole, these diverse and intrinsically incoherent and independent
contributions to the totality of the LL may also be perceived as one whole that is, as a gestalt (a
configuration) and may be viewed as the centre, or downtown. In this sense, gestalt and chaos are
two sides of the same reality (p. xvi).
Associate Professor of Linguistics European University Cyprus. D.Karoulla@euc.ac.cy

ELF: The linguistic landscape in Cyprus Karoulla-Vrikki
In parallel, linguistic landscape is linked to globalisation and the importance of English as the
language of globalisation in the present era. The anglicization of public signs, and the wide
occurrence of English in non-English-speaking societies independent of immigration or the
presence of English speakers- is marked and is rather related to the flows of tourists or the
current status of the language in the eyes of the locals (Shohamy, Ben-Rafael & Barni, 2010, p.xx).
2. Language policy aimed at public and commercial signs in Cyprus
The present study presents the first results of a research project on the linguistic landscape in the
two main streets of the centre of Lefkosia (Nicosia), namely Lidras Street and Onasagorou Street.
It aims at showing the extent to which this linguistic landscape appears as a chaos and disorder on
the one hand, or as one whole and an expression of freedom of speech, on the other. It also aims
at showing the visibility of English as a lingua franca and the extent to which the languages utilized
relate to cultural, social, political and economic circumstances on the island.
Traditionally, these two parallel streets have been shopping areas, but they have recently
developed into entertainment areas too. The two streets have political significance. They are close
to the UN buffer zone and the dividing line that separates both the capital of Lefkosia and the
entire island into the north, which is occupied by Turkish army, and the south which is controlled
by the Republic of Cyprus. The barricade was removed in April 2008 and Lidra Street became the
sixth crossing point through which citizens can move to and from the southern and northern parts
of Cyprus.
To better understand the present linguistic landscape, however, we need to review the 1990s
parliamentary discussion of two bills that aimed at regulating the languages utilized in public spaces
in Cyprus. The bills seem to have been drafted on the basis of the language policy adopted in
Quebec in the 1970s. This language policy aimed at limiting the use of English. It favoured the
Francization of Quebec through legislative measures to make French dominant and protect the
ethnocultural French-Canadian identity of Quebec (Bourhis, 1984; Oakes, 2004). The French
language became mandatory on public signs, shop names and commercial signs. Any foreign
language inscription had to appear along with the corresponding French one, but the French
inscription had to be dominant. As a result, the linguistic landscape became overwhelmingly
French.
A similar effort to decrease the dominance of English in Cyprus took place in the 1990s
(Karoulla-Vrikki, 2013b). The two bills were submitted to the parliament by MP Rina Katselli to
promote Greek as mandatory and place English on an optional basis. The first bill was: The 1991
law on the obligatory inscription in one of the official languages of the Republic of names,
advertisements and other signs placed in public places. The second bill was: The 1991 law on the
display of advertisements (Control) (Amending Law). The bills provided for the obligatory use of
one of the two official languages (either Greek or Turkish) in the names of products, shops,
businesses and companies, commercial advertisements and other signs placed. Like in Quebec, the
inscription in a foreign language would follow the inscription in the official language and have
characters of equal or smaller size. In fact, the bills would promote Greek as dominant in the
linguistic landscape. The other official language, namely Turkish, would be out of use due to the
unresolved political Cyprus problem which kept Turkish-Cypriots in the occupied areas in the
north of Cyprus. At the time no crossing through the checkpoints was possible.
The bills on public signs were never enacted into a law even though the 1990s was a landmark
pro-Greek period for language policy in Cyprus (Karoulla-Vrikki, 2013b). Language policy
strategies at the time involved a succession of government decisions and interventions that led to
the replacement of English by Greek in the law courts and the civil service (Karoulla-Vrikki, 1991,
2005, 2009, 2013a). English was replaced by Greek, or it remained as a foreign language along with
Greek, on passports, driving licences, government salary slips, instructions and descriptions on

medicines and products, on hospital documents, on restaurant menus, on second-hand vehicle

manuals and in the correspondence of government departments with citizens.
The parliamentary debate revealed the symbolic-versus-pragmatic perspectives of the decision
that would regulate the languages utilized on public signs (Karoulla-Vrikki, 2013b). The symbolic
perspective involved the protection of the Greek language and Greek ethnic identity in Cyprus or
the promotion of the identity of Cyprus as an independent state. The pragmatic perspective
involved the boosting of the islands economy and tourism.
There were also ideological aspects affecting the discussion: Hellenocentrism and
Cyprocentrism. The Hellenocentrists, on the one hand, believed that the primary identity of the
Greek-Cypriots was the Greek ethnic identity and stressed the primordial cultural, religious and
linguistic commonalities between the Greek-Cypriots and mainland Greeks. On the other hand,
the Cyprocentrists placed emphasis on the fostering of Cypriot state identity among all
communities in Cyprus (Mavratsas, 1989; Peristianis, 1995). According to the hellenocentric
language policy, laws should strengthen the Greek language and Greek ethnic identity and replace
English with Greek. On the contrary, the Cyprocentric language policy placed emphasis on the
fostering of Cypriot state identity. It promoted the two official languages Greek and Turkish, as
well as the Cypriot-Greek dialect, whenever possible. In parallel, it permitted the prolonged use of
English due to its international status and its use on the island during the British rule and after the
island became an independent state.
2.1.The parliamentary debate 1

Discussions in the parliament involved the members of parliament and representatives of
ministries, organisations and associations. They were held in the Interior Committee of the
Parliament and in one plenary session meeting. In these discussions also present were
representatives of the Ministry of the Interior, the Ministry of Commerce and Industry, the Ministry
of Education and Culture and the Office of the Attorney-General. In addition, representatives of
organisations and associations expressed their views before the Interior Committee, functioning as
pressure groups in favour or against the two Bills.2
When the issue was discussed in the plenary session of the Parliament in 1994 (M.H.R., 1994), the
Members of the Parliament agreed in general that there was a need of protecting Greek in Cyprus, but
they asked for further investigation of the issue and postponed the enactment of the law.
Before this conclusion, the symbolic and pragmatic perspectives of the arguments had become
distinct. Those in favour of the bills, such as the Cyprus Language Association, believed in the
symbolic value of the Greek language which they considered as inextricably linked to the Greek
civilisation, the Greek identity of Cyprus and the cultural survival of Greek-Cypriots. They
expressed a Hellenocentric view. On the contrary, those who placed themselves against the
enactment of law, such as the Institute of Certified Public Accountants of Cyprus and the Cyprus
Hotel Association, adopted an instrumental approach as their arguments were governed by pragmatic
considerations. They valued the functional quality of English, seeing it as a tool of international
communication and a means to the economic and tourist survival of the Cyprus state. They expressed
a Cyprocentric view.
In particular, the supporters of the bills put forward several arguments (Karoulla-Vrikki, 2013b).
Greek needed to be protected while foreign language signs constituted a threat to the Greek culture
and ethnic identity of Cyprus. They also argued that Greek-Cypriots needed to break free of British
colonial identity, which promoted English, and that the avoidance of using Greek derived from
1For an extended presentation of the parliamentary discussion, see Karoulla-Vrikki (2013b).

2These were, for instance, the Cyprus Language Association, the Institute of Certified Public Accountants of Cyprus, the Cyprus
Chamber of Commerce and Industry, the Cyprus Consumers Association, the Pancyprian Organisation of Professional Craftsmen
and Shopkeepers (P.O.V.E.K.), the Municipality of Engomi, the organizations of primary and secondary schools (P.O.E.D,
O.E.L.M.E.K., O.L.T.E.K.) and labour federations of various political parties (S.E.K., P.E.O., D.E.O.K.).

psychological insecurities that Greek-Cypriots needed to rid themselves of. They referred to the
invasion and the occupation of 37% of Cyprus by the Turkish troops as the source of insecurities
among Greek-Cypriots. For the supporters of the bills, not using Greek on public and commercial
signs was also a question of mentality, rather than cost. Similarly, they believed that foreign language
signs (mainly English signs) constituted downgrading of the state entity and the political
independence of Cyprus.
Moreover, the proponents of the enactment of the law believed that the use of Greek would
have positive effects on tourism and trade. They also stressed that Greek is a language of high value
and that the state had the right to determine the language on public signs in accordance with the
United Nations committee on Human Rights. Finally, they argued that the enactment of the law
would secure the human and constitutional rights of the Greek-Cypriots.
The arguments against the two bills were equally valid. The MPs who were against the enactment
of the law involved translation difficulties. Reservations about translating commercial registered
trademarks into Greek such as Coca Cola, Seven-Up and the World Cup were expressed and
difficulties were predicted in regard to the translation of foreign language names and their
transcription to the Greek alphabet. There were some amusing questions like the one applying to
the signs of shops selling sandwiches: What is the translation of Hot Dogs in Greek? an MP
wondered (M.H.R., 1994, p. 2248).
The MPs opposing the enactment of the law also predicted negative effects on the economy of
Cyprus. In view of the globalisation of economy, they foresaw the prevalence of English as the
global and international language. Moreover, they argued that the liberalisation of economy was
incompatible with enforcing linguistic restrictions. In their view, such a law would have negative
effects on tourism on the island. It would mean unnecessary expenditure too, since the majority of
the signs would have to be modified. Finally, they believed that the law constituted a violation of
constitutional rights, specifically a violation of the right to freedom of speech and expression in
any form, as stipulated in article 19 of the Constitution of the Republic of Cyprus.
The bills were not enacted into a law. The legal opinion of the Attorney-General, Michalakis
Triantafyllidis determined the outcome of the debate. He considered the law as violating both the
provisions of the Constitution of Cyprus and the European Convention on the Protection of the
Human Rights. In his view, Article 19 of the Constitution safeguards the right of freedom of
speech and expression which includes the right of an individual to use the language of their choice.
Any direct or indirect state order, prohibition, acknowledgement, or punishment concerning the
use of a particular language is incompatible with the freedom of expression there is no obligation
by individuals to use any of the official languages of the Republic during their personal dealings or
activities (Triantafillidis, 1992).
Another reason the law was not enacted, was the position of the Department of Registrar of
Companies, according to which, registered trade-marks should always be used the way they are
registered and not in any translated form.
Today, the language on public signs for some may reveal freedom of expression, but for others,
a linguistic chaos.
3. The linguistic landscape project in Lidras and Onasagorou street
The present project in progress involves the study of the linguistic landscape composed of the first
600 out of about 1000 pictures taken in Lidras street and Onasagorou Street, the two main streets
of the old-city centre of Lefkosia (Nicosia), on 16th February 2014 and 1st November 2013
respectively. The data include every linguistic token exposed to the public eye, such as street names
and road signs, shop and offices signs, building names, names of cafeterias and restaurants, notices on

shop windows, and commercial and advertising signs.3 These linguistic items are separated into the
following eleven categories:
1) Items exclusively in English, such as shop signs, notices, restaurant menus (Appendix 1)
2) Items exclusively in Greek (Appendix 2).
3) Items presenting Greek words and names transliterated into Latin characters. For example, a
shop sign may bear the name of the shop owner transcribed into Latin, e.g., Papadopoulos.
Similarly, the shop sign caramelotopos presents the transcription of the Greek word
(the candy place) (Appendix 3).
4) Items presenting Greek names transcribed into Latin characters but followed by English
inscriptions. For instance, the shop sign may present the name of the owner in Latin letters
followed by the English phrase Italian leather, suggesting the product on sale.
5) Items presenting names in both the Greek and the Latin alphabet, e.g. - Andreas
Nikolaidis, - Lidras, - Helenios Stoa (Appendix 4)
6) Bilingual signs in which the Greek inscription is preceded or followed by a word-for-word
translation into English. There is equal dominance between the two languages. For example,
the shop sign featuring the menu of snacks on sale presents all items in both Greek and English
e.g., followed by cheese pies, followed by olive pies. Similarly, the sign
presenting the working hours of the shop presents the timetable as , -
11-11 etc. followed by its English translation Opening Hours, Monday- Thursday
11am-11-pm etc.(Appendix 5).
7) Bilingual signs presenting items in both Greek and English, but the Greek language is dominant.
This dominance is suggested by the fact that items written in Greek on the sign bear bigger
characters or the Greek version of the translation is more explanatory and contains more words.
8) Bilingual signs presenting items in both Greek and English, but the English language is dominant.
Items written in English on the sign are dominant because they bear bigger characters or because
the English version of the translation is more explanatory and contains more words.
9) English registered trademarks, such as Coca Cola and Mc Donalds, which appear without any
translation.
10). Items presenting code-switching (or mixing of linguistic codes), that is, some words or phrases
on the sign may be in English and others in Greek, without translation of each item (Appendix
6).
11). Items in other languages (items in Italian, Arabic, Turkish, Romanian, Russian or French).
3.1 Results
The quantitative analysis of the data on written linguistic items demonstrates the visibility of
English as a lingua franca. As shown on Graph 7, signs exclusively in English hold 37,83% of the
total signs as opposed to signs exclusively in Greek that make up 20,17%. However, the visibility
of English increases as it is present in combination with inscriptions in other languages or
characters. For instance, the mixed-code signs, which hold 11.67%, and present to their majority
codeswitching between Greek and English. Moreover, English is present in English registered
trademarks (10%) and on items of balanced translation between English and Greek (6.67%). It is
also visible on signs presenting Greek and English translation, with English being dominant
(3,83%), on signs presenting Greek names transcribed into Latin characters, followed by English
words (1.50%) and finally on signs presenting translation between English and Greek, even though
Greek is dominant (1.83%).4 In parallel, it becomes evident that the presence of languages other
3
A warm thank you to my BA English Language and Literature students Constantinos Tsiartas, Nicolas Zavros and Vassos Kyriacou
who enthusiastically assisted in the collection of the photo data.
4 To note here that the Latin transcription of Greek names is often anglisized. For instance, the Greek name is transcribed
as Philippides and not as Filippidis, which reflects a transcription on the basis of the Roman alphabet.

than Greek and English is minor (4.67%).5 Most of these are commercial signs/registered brand
names in Italian (e.g., fashion boutiques). Finally, the use of Greek only, holds 20,17% of the items,
but it is present in other categories too in combination with other languages.
4. Conclusions
The present investigation of the linguistic landscape in Lidras and Onasagorou, the two main streets
in the old town of Lefkosia (Nicosia), presents the results drawn from the study of 600 out of
around 1000 pictures. The investigation has not come to its completion yet. However, it becomes
evident that the examination of the items on the basis of the languages utilised reveals the
prevalence of pragmatic aspects over symbolic ones. That is, the market itself determines the
languages chosen. English as a lingua franca is dominant in various ways (either as English-only
items or as English combined with other languages). In parallel, the visibility of Greek is lower than
English, but Greek is visible enough to reflect the local culture and identity of the largest
community on the island, namely the Greek-Cypriots who reside in the southern part. The study
also demonstrates that the political aspects of linguistic landscape are reflected in the very limited
visibility of Turkish, which can be seen in the category of other languages holding only at 4,67%.
Although Turkish is an official and national language along with Greek, it is scarcely present in the
area of the Republic of Cyprus, due to the de facto 1974 division of the island into the north Turkish-
speaking part and the south Greek-speaking part. Since 2003, crossing between the two parts has
been possible, but contacts between the two communities are still limited, a fact that is reflected in
the linguistic landscape. Finally, this chaos and disorder in the centre of the old city can be
considered as one whole a gestalt. It is the illustration of the right to the freedom of speech and
expression, which was put forward at the parliamentary debate of the 1990s.
About the author

Dimitra Karoulla-Vrikki is an Associate Professor of Linguistics and the Chair of the Department of Humanities at European
University Cyprus. Her teaching interests include Sociolinguistics, Applied Linguistics, English as a Global Language and World
Englishes. Her research focuses on language policy and language planning, the linguistic landscape, and the role of Greek and
English in Cyprus. She co-ordinates the MA English Language and Literature programme and the Lecture Series in Linguistics
Invited Local Linguist. She is also the secretary of the Cyprus Linguistics Society and a member of The Cyprus Permanent
Committee for the Standardization of Geographical Names. Email: D.Karoulla@euc.ac.cy.
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5 Worth noting is that in coastal tourist areas on the island the use of Russian is widely visible, while Chinese is currently being
introduced to the linguistic landscape.

Karoulla-Vrikki, D. (2001). English or Greek language? State or ethnic identity? The case of the
courts in Cyprus. Language problems and language planning, 25(3), 259-288.
Mavratsas, V. C. (1998). Aspects of Greek nationalism in Cyprus [
]. Athens: Katarti.
M.H.R. 1994, Minutes of the House of Representatives. Parliamentary Committee on Internal
Affairs. Report of the Parliamentary Committee on Internal Affairs on the bill: The 1991 law on the
display of advertisements (Control) (Amending Law). [in Greek]. Parliamentary period F, Session C:
2245-2252. June 23.
Peristianis, N. 1995. Right-Left, Hellenocentrism-Cyprocentrism: he pendulum of the collective
identifications after 1974 [ , :
1974]. In N. Peristianis & G. Tsangaras (Eds),
Anatomy of a metamorphosis. Cyprus after 1974 society, economy, politics, culture [
. 1974 , , , ] (pp.123-156).
Nicosia: Intercollege Press.
Oakes, L. (2004). French: A language for everyone in Qubec? Nations and nationalism, 10 (4),
539- 558.
Shohamy, E., Ben-Rafael, E., & Barni, M. (2010). (Eds). Linguistic landscape in the city. Multilingual
Matters.
Triantafyllidis, A.M. (1992). Letter to Director General of the House of Representatives.[in
Greek] File: C.E.62/38/III 50/89/N33. Law Office of the Republic of Cyprus, Republic of
Cyprus. March 26.

Appendix 1: Linguistic items exclusively in English (Category 1).
Appendix 2: Linguistic items exclusively in Greek (Category 2)
Appendix 3: Greek words / names transliterated into Latin characters (Category 3)
Appendix 4: Names in Greek and Latin characters (Category 5)

Appendix 5: Greek-English Translation- Equal dominance (Category 6)
Appendix 6: Codeswitching (Category 10)

Appendix 7: Percentage of types of signs

ELF AND INTERCULTURAL
COMMUNICATION
In this section, Maria Grazia Guido, in her keynote talk, explores the cognitive and
communicative processes involved in situations of unequal encounters between non-
western supplicants and western experts in authority and recommends that
accommodation strategies among the multi-cultural, multilingual interactants should
be developed for effective communication to be achieved. Derya Duran looks at how
the attitudes of Turkish students of English towards ELF were affected by their
experiences of studying abroad. Faruk Kural & Yasemin Bayyurt investigate
intercultural competence needs of government-sponsored Turkish international
graduate students from an ELF perspective. Faruk Kural & Zeynep Koolu present
a critical view on normative based study-abroad preparatory programs, their
deficiencies in the area of intercultural competence development, and ELF awareness
needed for successful interaction in the ELF context of English L1 countries. Iren
Hovhannisyan examines Armenian adult speakers attitudes towards English, the role
of English within Armenia and outside its boundaries, the importance of English and
usage in daily life and whether English is perceived as a Lingua Franca in Armenia.
Ratchaporn Rattanaphumma aims to study the use of English refusal speech acts
employed by undergraduate ELF learners in Thailand. Bill Batziakas looks at the
naturally occurring audio-recorded discourse from a group of international students at
the University of London and observes how they drew on on flexible ELF strategies
to achieve politeness. Joshua Lee & Claudia Kunschak report on a blog project of
two university level English classes in Japan and Macau and focus on topics, stance
and linguistic gambits used by students. Ana Monika Habjan examines linguistic
rules and norms from an interdisciplinary perspective and discusses parallels between
the roles played in sociolinguistics and philosophy of language. George ONeal
examines the repair of the intelligibility of pronunciation in English as a Lingua Franca
interactions in Northeast Asia. Marta Tryzna problematizes the content of ESL
textbooks in the Kuwait school system, arguing for greater inclusion of intercultural
content and skills.

Guido, M. G. (2016). Unequal encounters in ELF immigration contexts: Failure and success in social, political and religious
negotiation. In N. Tsantila, J. Mandalios & M. Ilkos (Eds.), ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives (pp. 156-177).
Athens: Deree The American College of Greece.
Unequal encounters in ELF immigration contexts:

Failure and success in social, political and religious negotiation
Maria Grazia Guido

[KEYNOTE PRESENTATION]
Abstract
The cognitive and communicative processes involved in situations of unequal encounters between non-western supplicants (i.e., African
immigrants and asylum seekers) and western experts in authority shall be explored through a number of case studies aimed at illustrating
that the ELF variation that each contact group uses obeys different linguacultural conventions entailing a detachment of ELF from ENL,
since ELF is seen as developing from non-native speakers processes of transfer into their English uses of their L1 typological, logical,
textual, lexical-semantic and pragmatic structures. A number of case studies will illustrate how the lack of acknowledgement of other ELF
variations due to the fact that they are often perceived as formally deviating and socio-pragmatically inappropriate in intercultural
communication may have serious consequences in contexts involving social, legal, health and religious matters, thus giving rise to
misunderstandings that often raise ethical issues about social justice. It is therefore argued that principled pedagogic initiatives aimed at
making western experts in authority aware of the strategies for achieving a mutual accommodation of ELF variations could, on the one
hand, protect the social identities of the participants in unequal encounters and, on the other, facilitate the conveyance of their culturally-
marked knowledge, thus fostering successful communication in cross-cultural immigration encounters with the ultimate aim of developing
a hybrid ELF mode of cross-cultural specialized communication that can be acknowledged and eventually shared by both interacting
groups.
Keywords: ELF immigration encounters; ELF variations; ELF accommodation; L1 typological and pragmalinguistic transfer.
1. Research context and topic
This paper intends to enquire into the extent to which ELF used in immigration domains typically reflects
the power/status asymmetries between the participants in cross-cultural interactions (Guido, 2008),
which are here explored with reference to legal, social, health and religious contexts. It will be argued that
in such contexts, the conditions for achieving successful communication through ELF may not occur
because of the difference in the participants native linguacultural backgrounds from which they
appropriate English without conforming to native-speaker norms of usage (Seidlhofer, 2011). Such a
communication failure, together with possible solutions for successful interactions, will be explored by
means of a number of ethnographic case studies investigating the cognitive and communicative processes
of ELF use in unequal encounters between (a) non-western (African) immigrants coming from the so-
called outer circle (Kachru, 1986) namely, from former British colonies where English is a second
language used for institutional/interethnic communication and speaking ELF variations that make
endonormative reference to sanctioned non-native grammar codes, and (b) western (Italian) experts in
authority from the expanding circle (ibidem), speaking ELF variations typical of countries (like Italy) where
English is a foreign language that is used for international communication and that, as such, makes
exonormative reference to the native inner-circle (ibidem) Standard-English code. This explains the fact that
western experts perceive the immigrants ELF variations as defective inner circle ones in fact, they evaluate
such variations against the native Standard English code and, therefore, they consider ELF deviations as
errors. This is so because it is common belief in Global-English research (Brumfit, 1982; Trudgill &
Hannah, 1995; Crystal, 2003) that the Standard-English grammar code and the pragmatic behaviours
conventionally ascribed to the English as a native language (ENL) variation are shared norms in ELF
intercultural interactions and international transactions. The contention in this paper, instead, is precisely
University of Salento, Italy. mariagrazia.guido@unisalento.it

Unequal encounters in ELF immigration contexts Guido
that the enquiry into the Global English has so far actually eluded the full acknowledgement of different
non-native speakers unconventional ELF uses and of their consequent non-conformity to ENL
specialized conventions.
At the grounds of the present research there are the notions that ENL is not the authentic English variety
against which non-native registers and interlanguages are assessed, and that ELF is not a unique and
shared international English variety meant as a pre-constructed foreign language for efficient interaction
(Pennycook, 1994; Firth, 1996; Bhatia, 1997; Knapp & Meierkord, 2002). On the contrary, ELF is viewed
principally as developing from the transfer of the speakers L1 structures into L2-English. Differently
from the notion of L1L2 transfer in Interlanguage research (Selinker, 1969, 1992), which justifies L2-
speakers syntactic errors (Corder, 1981), in ELF research it entails instead the speakers L1 schemata
interfering with L2-English grammar, thus generating ELF variations. By schemata is meant the
background knowledge of the L1 social-semiotic (Halliday, 1978), its grammaticalization, and the
sociopragmatic behaviours shared by a speech community (Carrell, 1983). The focus of this paper,
therefore, is on different ELF variations in contact, regarded as the speakers processes of language
authentication (Widdowson, 1979) or appropriation by means of their different native linguacultural
conventions. Consequently, ELF variations are here regarded as:
(a) independent from and not approximating to ENL (Widdowson, 1994, 1997; Jenkins, 2000, 2007;
Seidlhofer, 2001, 2004, 2011; Guido, 2008, 2012);
(b) inclusive of fossilized interlanguages and pidgin/creole Englishes, all of them considered as diatopic
variations;
(c) not accounting for interlanguage errors in need of defossilization and for code deviations
produced by uneducated L2-speakers;
(d) also inclusive of ENL that, when dislocated in non-native contexts of intercultural communication,
becomes just one among other ELF diatopic variations which are likewise liable to cause
misunderstandings.
An instance of the lack of acknowledgement of ELF variations is contained in the Italian Ministry of
Educations TFA test for the admission of ESOL school-teachers to attend in-service training courses.
The specific question was:
The non-native speakers language system that contains features of his/her mother language, features
of the target language, and features that are peculiarly his/her own is defined as:
(a) interlanguage
(b) idiolect
(c) dialect
(d) lingua franca
The expected answer was interlanguage, not lingua franca, as the reference was still to the native
speakers target language, which would entail disregarding any possibility of teaching lingua franca
variations and, thus, of preventing misunderstanding by promoting ELF accommodation strategies in
intercultural communication.

3. Research rationale and hypothesis
Misunderstandings in ELF intercultural interactions are here held to be less frequent when the
participants L1 grammar structures are typologically similar (Greenberg, 1973), hence, once transferred
to ELF, they are perceived as cognitively shared, linguistically convergent and, thus, familiar and
unmarked (Eckman, 1977), and therefore facilitating pragmatic accommodation. Misunderstandings,
instead, are here deemed to be more frequent when the participants L1 grammar structures are
typologically different and thus, when they are transferred to ELF, they come to be perceived as
linguistically divergent, unfamiliar and marked (ibidem), formally unavailable and conceptually
inaccessible to the participants respective L1 schemata, and pragmatically inappropriate (Scotton, 1983;
Kasper, 1992) with reference to the participants respective ELF variations. The hypothesis, in this study,
is that to non-western immigrants native schemata, also the western conventions of Standard-English
specialized discourses may be perceived as cognitively and linguistically inaccessible, conceptually
unavailable (Widdowson, 1991), and socio-culturally and ethically unacceptable thus affecting the
immigrants own pragmalinguistic behaviours and interpretative strategies, ultimately leading to
communication failure (Thomas, 1983; Hymes, 1996).
4. Research objectives and case-study method
The objective of the research reported in this paper is instead the possible achievement of a mutual
intelligibility (House, 1999) also in such power-asymmetry cases of interaction with non-western
immigrants, and this can be attained by developing in western experts in charge of the interactions an
awareness of ELF variations at different levels of markedness more precisely, in the cases in point,
between: (1) two different L1 typologies in contact through ELF, i.e., Accusativity and Ergativity; (2) two
different culture-bound textual typologies in conflict, i.e., western forensic and non-western
ethnopoetic patterns; (3) specialized lexis (i.e., in conventional psychiatric discourse) and native idioms
(i.e., idioms of distress); (4) different uses of epistemic and deontic modality; (5) culturally-marked,
divergent notions of counterfactual and factual logic; and (6) opposite schemata (i.e., utopian vs.
dystopian socio-political schemata in responsible tourism). The ultimate aim is in fact a co-construction
of ELF specialized discourses that groups in contact may find accessible and acceptable. For this reason,
some case studies will enquire into possible hybridization strategies of reformulation aimed at making
ELF discourse conform to the immigrants different native linguacultural backgrounds in order to protect
the social identities of participants in unequal encounters, facilitate the mutual conveyance of their
culturally-marked knowledge, foster successful intercultural communication through ELF, and finally
promote the social inclusion of marginalized immigrants.
The method adopted in the case-study enquiries has initially entailed an ethnographic data collection,
consisting in recording exchanges in unequal encounters to explore how western experts and non-western
migrants interact through ELF and make sense of the situations they are involved in. The investigation
followed the procedure of protocol analysis (Ericsson & Simon, 1984) when transcribing the taped
exchanges. To this purpose, a Conversation Analysis (Moerman, 1988) was then applied1, consisting in
annotating the transcribed exchanges by using both formal and pragmatic tags, such as:
Pref/Dispref M Preferred/Dispreferred Move

Acc-St / Erg-St Accusative/Ergative (typological) Structure
1 The following conversation symbols are also employed in transcription (Edwards 1997): [ ] overlapping speech; underlining
emphasis; quieter speech; (.) micropause; (..) pause; :: elongation of prior sound; hhh breathing out; .hhh breathing
in; > < speed-up talk; = latching.

NPE-ELF Nigerian Pidgin English as ELF variation

Krio-ELF Sierra Leone Krio English as ELF variation
It-ELF Italian-English as ELF variation
(NPE/Krio) TM (NPE/Krio) pre-verbal Tense Marker
(NPE/Krio) AM Perfect/Continuous/Habitual (NPE/Krio) pre-verbal Aspect Marker
[MentMat] Mental processes Material processes
5. Case study 1: Accusative and ergative L1 typologies in contact through ELF
Case study 1 is an instance of ELF accommodation failure. It consists in an Italian intercultural mediator
(IM1) interrogating a Nigerian asylum seeker (AS1), who is an illegal immigrant suspected of hiding the
identity of the smuggler who brought his boat to the Italian coasts. Here, miscommunication is caused
by the two participants unawareness of their respective L1ELF transfer processes. The focus is
precisely on two event conceptualisations in contact, transferred from the participants typologically-
different L1s (NPE-ELF and domain-specific Italian-ELF) into their respective ELF variations.
On the one hand, there is the Italian intercultural mediators Accusative L1, where the animate Agent
is grammaticalized as a dynamic cause foregrounded in Subject position. This is the typical transitive
SV[O] structure that emphasizes the Agents responsibility in determining the action, as in the examples
that follow:
Active transitive clause:

The smuggler sailed the boat
Subject: Agent Object (Medium)
Passive transitive clause:

The boat was sailed [by the smuggler]
Subject: Medium Agent (in the background)
On the other hand, there is the African immigrants Ergative L1, where the inanimate Object, or Medium
(e.g., the boat, the car), is grammaticalized as animate Agent in Subject position in the typical OV[S]
structure, in which the dynamic cause of the illegal journey is not represented by the actual animate
Agent (i.e., the smuggler), as in the following example:
Ergative clause:
The boat sailed
Intransitive Subject: Medium (action as self-caused)
The point is that Ergative structures do not deliberately leave Agents unspecified (as in transitive Passive
clauses). This is due to the fact that Ergative conceptualizations of events, which are typical of Proto-
Indoeuropean and Proto-Afroasiatic languages, are believed to have evolved from the primordial
experience of perceiving natural inanimate objects as animate agents with their own autonomous force
controlling peoples lives. The Ergative account of facts as epic events can be found in ancient oral
narratives that report the early human beings unsettling sensations of being at the mercy of natural
phenomena which is also reflected in todays animist belief that every natural element has its spirit (as
in African animist religions). Indeed, Ergative structures are still evident in Central Saharian and West-
African languages (DeLancey, 1981).

A emblematic past example of Ergative journey reports, which today is considered as epic poetry, is
represented by Homers Odyssey. What follows is an extract from Book XII, translated from Ancient
Greek into English2. This is the episode in which Ulysses and his crew are going through the Scylla and
Charybdis Straits between Sicily and Calabria and, like todays immigrants, feel at the mercy of natural
elements i.e., a huge tsunami wave, a vortex in the rough sea, the furious wind, the lightening, and the
ship struggling against them which are all personified in Ergative Subject position (underlined in the
extract) within the clauses:
Then we entered the Straits in great fear of mind, for on the one hand was Scylla, and on the other
dread Charybdis kept sucking up the salt water. As she vomited it up, the spray reached the top of
the rocks on either side. [] While we were taken up with this, and were expecting each moment to
be our last, Scylla pounced down suddenly upon us and snatched up my six best men, and in a
moment I saw their hands and feet struggling in the air as Scylla was carrying them off. [] Then
Jove let fly with his thunderbolts, and the ship went round and round, and was filled with fire as the
lightning struck it. The men all fell into the sea. The wind got into the South again and the waves
bore me along all night.
Another typical past example of Ergative journey reports that today is considered as poetry is the
anonymous Anglo-Saxon verse tale The Seafarer, where again natural elements threatening the seafarers
life are in Ergative Subject position. Here is an extract translated into Modern English3:
I can tell the true riddle of my own self, and speak of my experiences how I have endured cruel
anxiety at heart and experienced the terrible surging of the waves. [] There storms would pound
the rocky cliffs whilst the tern, icy-winged, answered them; very often the sea-eagle would screech,
wings dappled with spray. [] The shadow of night would spread gloom; it would snow from the
north, rime-frost would bind the ground; hail, coldest of grains, would fall upon the earth.
Modern reproductions of such early Ergative journey narrative are, in western cultures, cast into the
literary category of epic poetry, thus losing their characteristics of ordinary oral reports of emotionally-
charged events, as in S.T. Coleridges ballad The Rime of the Ancient Mariner (1834), where, again, the natural
elements are personified in an Ergative Subject position as in the extract reported below:
And now the STORM-BLAST came, and he

Was tyrannous and strong:
He struck with his oertaking wings,
And chased us south along.
With sloping masts and dipping prow,
As who pursued with yell and blow
Still treads the shadow of his foe,
And forward bends his head,
The ship drove fast, loud roared the blast,
And southward aye we fled.
And now there came both mist and snow,
And it grew wondrous cold:
And ice, mast-high, came floating by,
As green as emerald.
2 http://www.online-literature.com/homer/odyssey/12/
3 http://www.apocalyptic-theories.com/literature/seafarer/mesea1a.htm

This typical feature of the Ergative clause structure can be identified in case study 1. In it, the
Conversation Analysis is aimed at identifying whether, on the one hand, the Nigerian immigrants oral
report in Nigerian Pidgin English (NPE) as ELF variation contains Ergative structures transferred from
his L1 (Igbo cf. Nwachukwu, 1976) as well as phonetic traits of African speakers (reproduced in the
phonetic transcription (Faraclas, 1996), with the interdental fricatives // // replaced by the alveolar
stops /t/ /d/; with no indefinite schwa // sound; and with the addition of the pronoun dem (them)
after nouns to mark the plural. Other NPE features are: the all-purpose preposition fo (for) indicating
all directions in spatial orientation, and the use of pre-verbal markers to signal Tense and Aspect in place
of the modal auxiliary verbs and suffixation of the Standard-English code. On the other hand, the Italian
intercultural mediator associates Ergative features transferred by the African migrant to his NPE-ELF
variation with his own Accusative use of Passive constructions in Italian. Hence, he misinterprets the
immigrants report as a deliberate attempt to shift responsibility away from the Agents (smugglers) who
made his illegal journey possible. It is important to remark that, although English is an Accusative
language, it possesses a flexible clause structure that allows also the expression of Ergative structures.
What follows is the transcription of Exchange 1 an interaction between the Nigerian asylum seeker
(AS1) and the Italian mediator (IM1). Since the NPE-ELF and Italian-ELF variations used by the
participants in this exchange may sound unfamiliar, their cues are here also reformulated into Standard
English for a better understanding of the conversation development:
Exchange 1
(1) IM1: .hhh who bringed you to Italy? [Who brought you to Italy?] [Elicit-M Pref; It-ELF: Acc-St.]
(2) AS1: a-after (.) after di waterwork dem (.) for Libya (.) hard work o o (.), for money. .hhh di ca::r
bin don drop for Al Zuwa::rah. (.) .hhh di b-boat bin sai::l against won stro::ng wind. .hhhh won
night (.) di se::a bin swe:::ll (.) bi::g big round di boat, =di boat bin sink (.) heavy (.) and dee:::p o o.
(.) .hhhh di boat bin don fight di sea and di::ve = and fight (.) til i bin stop >mek water cold cold bin
break against di boat< .hhh water don de kom for di boat every wie, no use di hand dem bin de throw
dat water out, out, out, o o.= [After the waterworks in Libya, a very hard work, for money, the car had dropped
at Al Zuwarah. The boat sailed against a strong wind. One night the sea swelled tremendously around the boat, the
boat sank, heavy and deep! The boat had fought against the sea and dived and fought till it stopped so that the freezing
water broke against the boat. Water started entering from everywhere, it was no use that the hands were throwing it out,
out, out.] [Inform-M Dispref; NPE-ELF: Erg-St.; TM Past (bin) AM Perfect (don]
(3) IM1: =sorry (.), dyou mean that the pilot stopped the boat in the mi::ddle of the big sea? (.) or
that the boat (.) uh b- was stopped (.) itself (.) to him (.) who is he [Sorry, do you mean that the pilot stopped
the boat in the middle of the rough sea? Or that the boat got stopped on him? Who is he?] [It-ELF; Acc-St; Focus-
M; Elicit-M]
(4) AS1: (.) di boat (.) .hh di all boat bin stop (.) for di sea (.) >big big<. [The boat, the whole boat stopped
for the tremendous sea.] [Inform-M Dispref.; NPE Erg-St.]
IM1, as the participant in authority (assisting the police officers in their questioning), starts this exchange
in cue (1) with an Elicit Move that is preferred in the official interview register as he is enquiring into the
identity of the smuggler which is done in a straightforward way by means of the Accusative structure
built on a cause-effect Active-Transitive clause in which the animate Agent (who) is in Subject position.
In fact IM1 uses an Italian-ELF variation, marked by a standardization of the irregular verb (brought)
turned into its deviating regularized form (bringed). In cue (2), AS1 replies with an Inform Move which is
perceived as dispreferred from IM1s perspective, because AS1 does not provide the required information
(i.e., revealing the smugglers identity). This is so, however, not because IM1 is reticent, but simply

because the clause structures that shape his journey report are formulated in a NPE-ELF variation that
accounts for AS1s transfer of his L1 (Igbo) Ergative structure in which the Subject is the inanimate
Medium represented as an animate Agent (car, boat). Such a variation is also characterized by the use of
the pre-verbal Past-Tense marker (bin), and of the pre-verbal Perfect-Aspect marker (don), which signal
the recollection of past events marked by a high emotional intensity, strengthened by the use of the
metonymic image of the immigrants who perceive only their hands as if they were endowed of a life of
their own, in their frantic action of trying to remove the sea-water from the sinking boat. Such an
emotional intensity is also emphasized by the adjective and adverbial reduplication (big big; cold cold; out out
out), and by the Igbo interjection (o o) as emotional intensifiers. IM1 interrupts AS1 in cue (3) with a Focus
Move aimed at making AS1 concentrate on the required information though his use of the Italian-ELF
variation makes the clause structure almost convoluted in the attempt to transfer the Italian structure of
the Reflexive Passive. Indeed, such a Focus Move is also deceptive insofar as it conceals an Elicit Move
aimed at inducing AS1 first to blame the smuggler for his inability as a sailor and, then, to reveal his
identity. But AS1 reply in cue (4) is again perceived as dispreferred by IM1 because with the Inform Move
AS1 indicated the boat as the animate cause of the difficulties experienced in the journey. To express this,
AS1 makes once again use of the NPE-ELF Ergative structure with the inanimate Medium as the animate
Agent (boat) in Subject position. Noticeably, The final outcome of this exchange is communication failure.
6. Case study 2: Culture-bound forensic and ethnopoetic textual patterns
Case study 2 is about two different culture-bound textual typologies in conflict i.e., western forensic
and non-western ethnopoetic patterns which are here shown to cause, respectively, ELF
communication failure and success. The topic regards an ELF-mediated welfare interview between, on
the one hand, a Sierra Leonean asylum seeker (AS2) the interviewee held in a reception camp in Italy,
who typically transfers into his Krio-ELF variation the metaphors of mental processes rendered as
material processes (Halliday, 1994; Guido, 2008) which are typical of his native L1 (Fula), in order to
express his perception of the Italian legal procedure as being instead an example of the Reception-Camp
Staffs psychological abuse of him. Indeed, the Camp Staff had only tried to make AS2 understand the
Italian immigration law, but AS2 did not appreciate this fact, considering their attempts as a cause of
inner anguish and acts of psychological torture against him. On the other hand, and Italian intercultural
mediator (IM2) the interviewer in authority who, in his forensic reformulation, or entextualization
(Urban, 1996), tries to disambiguate AS2s report but, in doing so, misunderstands it as an account of
physical abuse because he misinterprets the metaphors of mental processes literally, as actual material
processes, thus running the risk of giving rise to in such asymmetric circumstances undesirable socio-
political and ethical consequences.
The focus of this case study is, therefore, on non-western immigrants ELF variations as displaced
and transidiomatic (Silverstein, 1998) due to the fact that their culture-bound systems of metaphors and
idioms come to be dislocated from their original contexts of use and, once relocated in a western
context, come to be reinterpreted and indeed, misinterpreted according to the different cultural
schemata. Furthermore, misunderstanding in this case study 2 is also due to the Krio lexis and pre-verbal
Tense and Aspect markers that IM2 erroneously assumed to be phonetically-deviating Standard-English
forms because of assonance, as well as use of pre-verbal particles similar to those typical of NPE thus
misidentifying AS2s nationality, taking him to be a Nigerian economic migrant who would be repatriated
according to Italian law, rather than as a Sierra-Leonean asylum seeker fleeing from a civil war and, as
such, eligible for refugee status.
Another cause of communication failure in case study 2 is represented by IM2s adoption of a
traditional entextualization based on the application of parameters of coherence and cohesion typical of

the western forensic editing process carried out according to the textual structure of the paragraph
(Blommaert, 1997), with no recognition whatsoever of other non-western entextualization parameters
that immigrants may transfer from their L1s into their ELF reports. This case study intends to illustrate
that accommodation strategies capable of hybridizing divergent textual structures are possible, and the
strategy that is proposed here is Ethnopoetic entextualization (Hymes, 1994, 2003), consisting in the
editing of ELF oral reports that reveal non-conventional verse patterns of relevant information. In the
context of this specific case study, the application of the Ethnopoetic approach entails the recognition
of the experiential origins of material processes expressing mental ones in some African languages. This
is due to the fact that early human beings started making sense of the world by physically exploring it
and, later, expressing related thoughts and emotions through concrete, embodied metaphors (Sweetser,
1990). Such primary metaphors, indeed, still persist in a deactivated form in todays languages they are
the so-called metaphors we live by (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980). Also Ethnopoetics can be regarded as a
kind of deactivated poetics because, in todays native oral narratives, verses are not used for deliberate
aesthetic effects, but they actually reflect the earliest human experiences of sequences and rhythms of
bodily actions and perceptions of natural phenomena. Hymes (2003) identifies in the native-American
oral journey narrative (a) three-&-five verse patterns, reproducing the sequence he went he went on
he arrived, and (b) two-&-four verse patterns, reproducing the perception of this action & that action. A
sonnet-like pattern of 5-line & 3-line verses has been identified in the corpus of West-African ELF oral
reports upon which the present analysis is grounded (Guido, 2008).
What follows is Exchange 2, initially reported in its original tagged transcription with a Standard-
English version of AS2s Krio cues facilitating accessibility to this ELF variation for those readers who
may be not familiar with it. This is then followed by a proposal of ethnopoetic entextualization. Finally,
IM2s forensic entextualization of the exchange into a paragraph is reported, showing misinterpretation
evidence. To this purpose, a comparison between the original and the entextualized versions of AS2s
report will be carried out to show how the IM2 omitted to account for any native metaphorical usage,
thus encouraging in readers the inference of presuppositions that were absent in the original version. The
following Extract 2 contains cues from the entire interview-protocol and it is meant to be illustrative of
an unequal encounter where what the weaker participant (AS2) says is systematically taken out of its
context and misinterpreted by the more powerful one (IM2) (cf. Sarangi & Slembrouck, 1996). The
ultimate purpose is to suggest a possibility for ELF accommodation by applying the Ethnopoetic
approach. Hence, Exchange 2 is provided first in its original transcript (A)4, then in a possible
Ethnopoetic entextualization (B), and finally in an extract from a version provided by IM2 (C).
Exchange 2
(a) Original field transcript
(1) IM2: so (.) you are oka:y here? [It-ELF; reference to present time & place]
(2) AS2: [1] o (.) hhh dehn de blow blow mi / [[1] Oh, they give me many blows /] [Krio-ELF; [1] AM
Continuous (de); [MentMat]]
(3) IM2: how say (.) they blow you?= [It-ELF; literal-sense misinterpretation]
(4) AS2: [2] =yeah, dehn se >lehk pipul lehk mi na awtloh< dehn foh go bak na dehn Khntri / [3]
hhh dehn kin de push mi te a lehdohn >kpata-kpata shatta na grohn< / [[2] Yes, they say like, those like
me are outlaws, they must go home/ [3] they go on pushing me till I lie down completely shattered all over the ground
4The metaphorical meaning of some idiomatic expressions in Krio-English has been identified thanks to the precious help of a number of
native-speaker mediators. Thanks are also due to Professor Malcolm Awadajin Finney (California State University Long Beach) for his most
helpful comments on the Krio field transcriptions.

/] [Krio-ELF; [2] awtloh = outlaw; foh = deontic must; [3] [MentMat]; AM

Habitual/Continuous (kin de); lehdohn = lie down; [MentMat]]
(5) IM2: uh (.) they push you? [It-ELF; literal-sense misinterpretation]
(6) AS2: [4] hhh dehn se >bega-bega noh de pik ehn chuz> / [5] (.) dehn no noh se pohsin dehn
we noh de tot lod no noh se lod hebi (.) / [[4] they say that a beggar cant pick and choose / [5] they dont
know that people who are not carrying the load dont know that the load is heavy /] [Krio-ELF; [4]
[MentMat]; [5] [MentMat]]
(7) IM2: [have you (.) have you (.) uh] pain in your body? [It-ELF; literal-sense misinterpretation]
(8) AS2: [6] o (.) a kin geht pain insai tu fut dehn joint ehn leg dehn masl / [7] .hhh we dehn bin
kam na mi ples dehn bin tek mi wit dehn bay fo::s ehn dehn bin fos mi foh tot wata, ebi lod (.) foh
[feht wit dehn]/ [[6] Oh I have pains in the joints of my feet and the muscles of my legs / [7] when they came
to my place, they took me with them by force and they forced me to carry water, heavy loads, to fight with them /] [Krio-
ELF; [6] literal sense; [7] reference to past time & place; TM Past (bin]
(9) IM2: [you must refu::se] to work for them, you know? [It-ELF; reference to present time &
place]
(10) AS2: [8] (.) afta a bin dohn rohn frohm rebel dehn a bin mit di Nigerian a::rmi (.) boht mi nohto
Nigerian lehk we dehn say na ya >a kohmoht na Salone< / [[8] After I had run from the rebels I met the
Nigerian army, but I'm not Nigerian like they are saying here, I come from Sierra Leone /] [Krio-ELF; [8]
reference to past time & place; T/AM Past Perfect (bin dohn); kohmoht = come out/from;
Salone = Sierra Leone]
The opening cue (1) shows IM2 using his Italian-ELF variation, characterized by the lack of auxiliary
fronting in the interrogative clause, and introducing the indexical co-ordinates of time (present) and place
(the reception camp) by means of the deictic adverb here, thus setting the contextual circumstances of
the whole exchange. This implies that also AS2 is expected to embed all his ensuing utterances in the
situational context of his recent experience in the reception camp. Therefore, when AS2 replies in (2) to
IM2s query about his conditions in the camp, he makes exophoric reference to the Camp Staff by simply
indicating them as implied Agents by using the pronoun dehn (they). Moreover, AS2 attributes to them
specific mental processes which he typically renders into his Krio-ELF variation as material processes.
Thus, in [1], AS2 describes the Camp Staffs continuous determination to make him understand the limits
of the Italian immigration law by resorting to the Krio-ELF Continuous Aspect marker (de), as well as to
the folk metaphor expressing the sense of undergoing insistent mental conditioning in terms of forceful
and painful tactile sensations (blow blow) (cf. Sweetser, 1990). In cue (3), IM2, still using an Italian-ELF
variation characterized by the absence of auxiliary fronting in the interrogative clause and the dropping
of the personal pronoun, misinterprets the metaphor in its literal sense. AS2, in cue (4), tries first [2] to
disambiguate the metaphorical blow through an exemplification based on relational processes of an
intensive type (i.e., those like me are outlaws, must go home), rendered through his Krio-ELF variation
(awtloh = outlaw; foh = deontic must). Then, in [3], AS2 again employs the Krio metaphorical ways of
expressing mental processes by means of actions from the material, physical domain. He conveys the
sense of an unrelenting attempt to exert an influence on a person by means of the folk physical metaphor
of pushing. This is assumed to refer back to a proto-semantic use of the vocabulary of forceful and
painful tactile sensations to express the disturbing emotional experience of undergoing persistent mental
conditioning (Talmy, 1988; Sweetser, 1990, p. 43). The sense of a continuous and insistent conditioning
is conveyed by the Krio Habitual/Continuous Aspect markers (kin de). AS2 also specifies in [3] that such
psychological pressure on him has had the effect of the tactile pressure of knocking him down
completely shattered all over the ground. This is rendered in Krio-ELF by a phrasal verb perceived and
transcribed as one word (lehdohn = lie down). Furthermore, in this way, AS2 resorts to another concrete

image informed by the proto-semantic bodily metaphor of the crushed Self (Lakoff & Johnson, 1999,
p. 276), according to which the well-balanced stable Self is perceived as an intact container, whereas a
confused crushed Self is represented as a shattered container. The presupposition, in this case, is: the
Staffs conditioning has been so persistent as to make AS2 lose the sense of his own normal Self. This is
triggered by the temporal clauses that, by introducing change-of-state verbs, metaphorically convey the
emotional effect of the pushing experience on AS2. In cue (5), IM2 poses another question (again,
characterized by a lack of auxiliary fronting) to AS2 which presupposes a literal misinterpretation of the
metaphor (they push you?). To this, AS2 replies in cue (6) with a transidiomatic expression in Krio [4]
in which the notion of the immigrant with no legal rights is metaphorically rendered into the image of
a beggar with no decisional rights. Moreover, in [5], the notion of distress is metaphorically rendered
into loads, whereas the notion of lack of distress is rendered into the metaphor of the ignorance of
physical strength needed to carry loads. In cue (7), IM2s question Have you pain in your body? not
only introduces another literal-sense misinterpretation, but it also works as a time/place-shift trigger on
AS2 since this very question suddenly prompts him to shift the indexical co-ordinates, set by IM2 at the
beginning of the exchange, from the present of the reception-camp context to the past of the Sierra
Leonean civil war. In cue (8), therefore, AS2 refers to the actual, physical perception of pain he feels in
his legs and feet [6] as the present effect of a more distant cause (Sierra Leone civil war) that he
introduces in utterance [7] by using the Krio Past-Tense marker (bin). The causal source of AS2s
persisting pain is represented by the circumstances of his past abduction and, then, reduction to slavery
and forced labour [7] through the agency of Sierra Leonean Rebel Soldiers, here cataphorically referred
to as dhen (they) (he will explicitly identify them later in his discourse). The processes that AS2 was forced
to perform in the past are, thus, actual material processes. In IM2s misinterpretation, in cue (9), on the
contrary, the situational co-ordinates of AS2s discourse remain the same as before (i.e., time = present;
place = reception camp; them = Camp Staff). This being so because IM2 fails to realize AS2s time/place
shift into past experience in his home country, as well as his deictic reference to the Sierra Leonean rebels
as the new actors of the reported material processes. In fact, IM2 still keeps ascribing agency to the
Reception-Camp Staff. In the context of such unshared indexicality, therefore, IM2 misinterprets AS2s
utterance as the painful physical effect of the Camp Staffs cruel material pushing and knocking AS2
down. Such misattribution of agency is evident in cue (9) when IM2 interrupts AS2 to inform him that
he must refuse to work for the camp staff (again, deictically referred to as them). But, as evident in cue
(10), AS2 misses IM2s reference to the present context, so he goes on, in [8], with his account of distant-
past events (signalled by the use of the Krio Past-Perfect Tense-Aspect markers bin dohn) presupposing,
by means of the temporal clause, that eventually he escaped from the rebel soldiers and managed to
reach the Nigerian Army which rescued him, finally contending that his nationality is not Nigerian like
they are saying here (thus returning to the initial time/place co-ordinates of the exchange), but he comes
from Sierra Leone expressed through the phrasal verb condensed into one word (come out/from =
kohmoht), and Sierra Leone pronounced as Salone.
In the transcription of AS2 report for forensic purposes, a possible accommodation strategy can be
represented by a form of ethnopoetic entextualization consisting in a five-line verse, referred to the
present context of AS2s report, followed by a three-line verse, referred to the past context of AS2s
report. Both contexts are respectively characterized by psychological and physical pain. The concrete
metaphors used by AS2 are here entextualized into as if similes and paraphrases in order to disambiguate
them. In the first five-line verse, there is an obsessive repetition of They at the beginning of each line,
referred to the Italian Camp Staff and emphasizing AS2s sense of distress at recalling the psychological
pressure put on him by the Staff informing him of the limitations of the Italian laws. In the last three-
line verse, instead, They refers to the RUF Rebels in Sierra Leone.

(b)) Ethnopoetic entextualization of AS2s report
5-line verse (present context)

[1] The Camp Staff give me shocking news, as if they were blowing me continuously /
[2] they say that those like me are outlaws, then they must go home /
[3] they keep on distressing me till I get a nervous breakdown, as if they went on pushing me till I lie
down completely shattered all over the ground /
[4] they say that a beggar like me cant pick and choose because I have no legal rights /
[5] they dont know that people like them who are not carrying the load, that is, who have no distress,
dont know that the load is heavy, namely, that distress is unbearable /
3-line verse (past context)
[6] I have pains in the joints of my feet and the muscles of my legs /
[7] When the Rebels came to my place, they took me with them by force and they forced me to carry
water, heavy loads, to fight with them /
[8] After I had run from the Rebels I met the Nigerian army, but Im not Nigerian like the Camp Staff
are saying here, I come from Sierra Leone /
IM2s forensic entextualization of AS2s oral report into a conventional paragraph is instead characterized
by his literal misinterpretation of the Krio-ELF metaphors, idioms and pre-verbal markers. The outcome
is the following tagged paragraph:
(c) IM2s forensic entextualization into a paragraph of AS2s report
[1] The Camp Staff hit me with many blows. / [2] They tell me that people like me must go back to
their own country [awtloh=outlaw omitted]. / [3] Then they are keen to [kin dekeen to(on)] push me
till I [literally] lie down shattered all over the ground. / [4] [5] I beg [beggarto beg] them repeatedly
not to beat me with their shoes [chuz=choose], because they dont understand that they are pushing
[pohsin=persons] me with a tough [tot=take] load and they dont know that the load is heavy [literally].
[6] As a consequence, I have keen [kinkeen] pains in the joints of my feet and the muscles of my legs.
/ [7] Some times they have come to my place and they have taken me with them by force. They have
forced me to take water and heavy loads. [feht=to fight omitted] / [8] When I did not succeed in
running away from the reception camp, and then I rebelled against the Camp Staff [rebelsto rebel], it was only
because I didnt want to go back to Nigeria, under the Nigerian army. [Salone=Sierra Leone omitted]
As evident, IM2 misinterprets the Krio-ELF metaphors of mental processes by rendering them into
actual material processes (as in [3] and [5]). in IM2s entextualization of [1], the Camp Staffs decision to
give AS2 the information about the restrictions imposed upon him by Italian immigration law is
misinterpreted as the physical action of pushing him, while the Staff members themselves are explicitly
indicated as the actors of such a reprehensible material process. AS2s specification that he is referring
to the Camp Staffs mental and verbal processes is retained in IM2s entextualization (They tell me that),
though he misses the meaning of the Krio word awtloh (outlaw), which he omits. Yet, in [3], IM2 not only
opts for the literal reading of the bodily metaphor (push), but he even misunderstands completely the
Krio Habitual/Continuous-Aspect markers kin de, preceding push in the original Krio transcript of [3], as
they are here misinterpreted by assonance as the Standard English expression keen to in they are keen to
push me, where the new presupposition is triggered by the material sense of the implicative verb they
(the Camp Staff) push me. This also justifies what, in IM2s version, appears to be the logical consequence
of such physical pushing: i.e., till I (literally) lie down shattered all over the ground. IM2s literal
interpretation of [3], however, is already evident from his question in cue (5): (they push you?). The

Habitual-Aspect marker kin is once again misinterpreted by assonance in [6] as the Standard-English
adjective keen which IM2 attributes to pains. Furthermore, IM2 renders [6] and [7] into his entextualization
as if they represented other instantiations of the inhuman treatment that the Camp Staff inflict upon AS2.
Such a misapprehension is substantiated by the addition of link expressions, as in [6] (as a consequence)
and the adverbial phrase in [7] (some times), which are absent in the original version of AS2s report. IM2s
failure to render in [6] and [7] the discursive shift that AS2 makes into his past experience is principally
due to a failure to recognize in both utterances the Krio pre-verbal Past-Tense marker bin. In fact, IM2
misinterprets bin by its assonance with been, which is a part of the Present-Perfect structure in Standard
English and thus, transferred into the context of IM2s entextualization, is seen as signalling recent actions
taking place in the reception camp, rather than past actions occurred in Sierra Leone, as in AS2s original
version. Accordingly, IM2 fails to infer also the real identity of the actors in [7] (namely, the Sierra
Leonean rebel soldiers) from the pronoun dhen (they), which he assumes to be still referring to the
reception-camp Staff. Also in [8], IM2 again misunderstands not only the Past-Tense marked by the Krio
pre-verbal particle bin, but also the Perfect Aspect marked by the particle dohn, which he associates by
assonance with the Present-Tense negative auxiliary dont in Standard English, thus presupposing
circumstances that are completely different from the actual circumstances presupposed by the original
version (When I did not succeed in running away from the reception camp, and then I rebelled against the Camp
Staff, it was only because I didnt want to go back to Nigeria, under the Nigerian army). This is due to
IM2s erroneous clarification in [8] (running away from the reception camp) and (I rebelled against the Camp Staff),
aimed at making narration consistent with his own interpretation. Furthermore, he omits some words
uttered by AS2 because he does not grasp them in their Krio pronunciation, as in [2] (awtloh), in [7] (feht),
and, crucially, in [8] (Salone). Other times, IM2 misinterprets the meaning of other words spoken with a
Krio accent because he associates them with other Standard-English words by assonance (as in the three
cases reported in [5] (chuz, poshin, tot). Then, IM2 misinterprets nouns as verbs, as in [5] (beggarto beg)
and [8] (rebelsto rebel). Hence, IM2s attempt at disambiguating AS2s report ends up in a case of
communication failure because AS2s original claim becomes completely lost.
In conclusion, the pragmatic problem of misinterpretation examined so far reveals how two different
conditions of interpretability were brought together into this cross-cultural encounter. On the one hand,
in adopting a displaced perspective and a transidiomatic code reflected in his use of Krio English as a
lingua franca, AS2 did not seem to acknowledge the official position of Italian immigration law, as
explained by the reception-camp Staff. In fact, he considered it as rather an arbitrary psychological abuse
against his person because he had not been granted refugee status. On the other hand, in preferring
concrete to abstract meanings to support his interpretation of the refugee undergoing physical abuse in
the reception camp, IM2 actually selected the context and topic of the interview on the basis of his own
ideological perspective. Accordingly, IM2 distorted the locutionary-reference plan of AS2s discourse
and, in this way, he also modified the illocutionary force of AS2s original report in order to justify the
perlocutionary effect it had on him and, ultimately, to convince his readers of the existence of cultural
and linguistic background schemata that he shared with AS2. This may explain IM2s self-attribution of
the authority to disambiguate the pragmatic presuppositions in AS2s report, which, however, turned
out to be a case of meaning imposition upon the original discourse, rather than of meaning
accommodation, revealing only IM2s own biased perspective in interpreting it.
7. Case study 3: Specialized lexis and native idioms of distress
Case study 3 introduces other instances of ELF accommodation failure and success by focusing, this
time, on the use of western specialized lexis in conventional psychiatric discourse which considerably
differs, experientially and pragmatically, from the native idioms of distress employed by non-western
immigrants, as well as from culture-based different uses of epistemic and deontic modality. The topic of

this case study is taken from a corpus of African refugees ELF-mediated PTSD reports which, on the
one hand, are informed by the structures and idioms of their respective L1 situated narratives that
acquire pragmatic and experiential significance only by reference to their native contexts of use, but, on
the other, they are entextualized by western specialists through the Standard-English registers established
by the American Psychiatric Association (APA). APA, in fact, describes clinical cases mostly by reference
to western (US) military veterans war trauma, representing it as a private, individual experience, which
may not correspond to the way other non-western cultures experience war trauma and convey it verbally
(Mattingly 1998). Indeed, with reference to non-western trauma narrative, Linde (1993) asserts that Self
narratives are unknown in many cultures. To this, Mattingly (1998) adds that non-western trauma
narratives are more about socio-political welfare than individual wellbeing, thus requiring a therapeutic
fictional coherence aimed at a community recovery through processes of socio-political reconciliation.
Hence, reducing non-western immigrants oral trauma narratives into the written APA categories of
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is indeed a case of failure in accommodating divergent
experiences through the use of a specialized English discourse that should not be intended as a hybrid
lingua franca for intercultural communication. The objective of this case study is precisely to develop
hybrid ELF registers accommodating divergent western/non-western categorizations of the trauma
experience to be used in medical encounters in immigration contexts. To this purpose, a corpus of
Standard-English scientific articles was initially selected from the US specialized journal Transcultural
Psychiatry (henceforward TP). It was observed that the use of specialized lexis not only is consistent with
the APA PTSD categories, but it is resistant to any semantic change which could comply with divergent
categorizations of the trauma experience. Furthermore, in these articles, there was noted a recurrent use
of a tentative tone, mostly conveyed by epistemic modals and hedges, which diminish the therapists
commitment to the truth of their own interpretation of other, different ways of experiencing and
narrating war trauma as evident in the following extract:
(1) Very little is known about the consequences of trauma exposure in the survivors lives. []
After exposure to some traumatic event, ones initial response may include symptoms in the
domains of physiology (e.g., rapid heart rate, body heat, sleep disturbance, appetite
disturbance, nausea, shortness of breath, dizziness and palpitations, chocking sensation,
chest tightness, shaking, sweating, chills/hot flashes and numbness/ tingling).
In a series of interviews to some Italian specialists who were asked to comment on the TP articles in the
corpus by using their Italian-ELF variation, there was observed a clear influence of the western PTSD
specialized register marked by the use of APA lexis and epistemic modality, as in the following extract
(2), which is also characterized by features of L1ELF transfer such as, the lack of the third-person
suffixation and the reduplication of the negative specifier:
(2) Well, the symptoms of trauma can be nightmares, the heart that beat very fast, suddenly,
without reason, and rage, and then depression, and often there is not no cure that work, no
remedy.
Then, to explore the register divergences between non-western trauma narratives and the way they are
reported in western specialized articles, a small corpus of West-African ELF trauma narratives was
collected and, for the purpose of this specific case study, explored in particular with reference to the
concrete metaphors that inform the West-African idioms of distress in the last three ethnopoetic lines of
the immigrants oral trauma reports. In them, it was noted that the first-person trauma effects are often
rendered as third-person animate subjects affecting the patient by deontically compelling him/her to

undergo the traumatic symptoms and, afterwards, to take a political action aimed at recovery, as in the
following extracts from the trauma narratives by, respectively, (3) a Ghanaian woman and (4) a Sierra
Leonean man:
(3) When I escaped, I saw many bodies on the side of the road and they look straight my
eyes for they want revenge / and I felt that the worms on them they started crawl up slow
slow under my skin. / I often feel the worms creep creep and must make my blood to sleep
(skin reaction loathing). (Ghanaian woman)
(4) I suffer wind sickness, fonyo kurango we say [in Mandinka], when I smell burning, like my
village burning. / Wind attack my brain and rise. I hear wind inside ears, like woo woo (blood-
pressure perception panic attack). It rise rise and press the eyes and I see black and my brain
spin and I must fall (fainting). / I must go for pick all them and burn them and them village and
them families and so wind must end. (Sierra Leonean man)
Finally, a number of Italian trainee-mediators were asked to reformulate such reports into a possible ELF
hybrid register in order to accommodate both western specialized-discourse lexical conventions and the
non-western native use of deontic modality and idioms of distress, thus disambiguating native metaphors
by as if clauses as in the following extract (5):
(5) West-African people usually somatise trauma effects and describe them as if they were
real beings that must attack them - e.g., they describe sensations like creeping flesh when they
recall disgusting views of worms on dead bodies as if worms were slowly creeping beneath
their skin to make blood numb, or like feeling woozy, sick and fainting when they recall
sensations of panic as if wind was blowing in their brain and fog dimming their eyes to make
them collapse. Such symptoms must be treated by helping patients to achieve social justice
within their communities.
However, ELF accommodation cannot always be achieved easily and in every specialized domain of
immigration discourse. In fact, the accommodation of different ELF variations in specialized domains is
particularly difficult in situations of intercultural communication where the aims of the specialists in
charge of the exchange are unclear if not, indeed, ambiguous. In such cases, miscommunication occurs
not because of L1ELF transfer processes at the syntactic, lexical-semantic and pragmatic levels, but
rather because of different culture-bound schemata respectively informing the participants discourses in
ELF, as in the last two case studies on ELF accommodation failure that shall follow.
8. Case study 4: Counterfactual and factual logic
This case study regards misunderstanding in ELF communication caused by different cultural schemata.
This will be explored in the context of the Synod convened by Pope Benedict in 2012 on the New
Evangelization [NE] for the Transmission of the Christian Faith (Synod of Bishops, 2012), focused on the ways
in which the NE in Catholic Church (Wuerl, 2013) aimed at the proclamation of the Gospel in the
contemporary world of mass migration and globalization (Pope Benedict XVI, 2012) is enacted
through ELF in unequal encounters where the Italian clergy offer practical assistance to non-western
immigrants in reception camps, often on condition that they accept their Evangelization message. This,
therefore, seems a one-way NE transmission which, however, is apparently in contrast with the view of the
NE as an inculturation of faith aimed at having the Gospel take flesh in each peoples culture (Synod

of Bishops, 2012), thus seemingly advocating a process of appropriation by embodiment by those non-western
people who want to authenticate the Christian religion according to their own cultural and experiential
schematic parameters (cf. Widdowson, 1994). And yet, again, the notion of NE transmission is instead
in line with the view of a one-way process that entails an evaluation of what is positive in every culture,
by purifying it from elements that are contrary to the full realization of the person according to the
design of God revealed in Christ (Synod of Bishops, 2012) thus, indeed, allowing non-western
receivers only to activate a mere acculturation process of uncritical acceptance of the NE message
(Schumann, 1978).
The rationale underlying this case study is therefore concerned with the Italian Catholic clergys
attempts to achieve the inculturation of the Divine Word by bringing it to migrant people from far-off-
lands (Pope Benedict XVI, 2012). Yet, the clergy do not seem to realize that the western Catholic
discourse is intrinsically metaphysical (Guido 2005), that is, constructed on patterns of possible-world
semantics (Stalnaker, 2001) characterizing its counterfactual logic. In adopting such a discourse type, the
clergy actually disregard the divergent ways by which non-western immigrants make religious sense of
their life. This justifies the reactions of a number of bishops representing non-western dioceses across
the five continents at the Synod, who warned against such an acculturation process covertly required by
the NE message5. Thus, for instance, Cardinal Pengo, from Africa, argued: Globalization introduces
rapidly undigested foreign values, making it hard for Christians on the continent to be truly Africans.
and Archbishop Reter, from Latin-America, remarked: The Church cannot ignore the very concrete
social, cultural, historical context in which its members live. It lives in very concrete social, cultural
contexts., a view which was shared by Cardinal Gracias from Asia: Traditional Asian values, much
cherished traditions, and cultures are being impacted and eroded. A position in line with a view of
inculturation as appropriation today is taken precisely by Pope Francis who, in a recent meeting with
young people in Korea, stopped reading his metaphysical speech in English to start using his
spontaneous ELF variation in order to avoid the audiences sense of estrangement caused by the
counterfactual religious discourse and to convey instead, his NE message in a new language meant as
a lingua franca for global communication (MacGabhann, 2008), as in the transcript reported below,6
with some phonetic transcriptions of his ELF pronunciation:
(Pope Francis reads his speech) [] He enter your heart [her] on the day of your [iur] baptism,
He gave you His sprite, His spirit of the day [dai] of your [iur] confirmation, and he [stre] (?)
hands you constantly [con'stantli] by his presence in the Eucharistic, so that you can be his
witnesses before the world. Are you ready to say yes? (He raises his head and looks smiling at the
audience of young people) Are you ready? (Audience: Yes! The Pope stops reading and goes on talking
directly to the audience) Thank you! Are you tired? (Audience: No!) Sure? (Audience: Yes!) aaa
our [a] beloveds [belafs] friend of mine, excuse [asku] to me [destiti] (?) (He gestures with his
arms and hands). You must cant to speech the your [dur] paper with paper (He raises his paper
showing it to the audience Audiences applause). You must (Audiences applause) you must speech,
address the your [dur] paper spontaneous, by heart [her] (He indicates His heart Audiences
applause). But, but I have a great difficult, I have a poor English (Audience: No!) Yes, yes!
(Audience: No!) But, if you desire, I can to say other things spontaneous, are you tired?
(Audience: No!) May I go on? (Audience: Yes!) But I do it in Italian.
5 Retrieved from: http://www.vatican.va/news_services/press/sinodo/documents/bollettino_25_xiii-ordinaria-

2012/02_inglese/b05_02.html
6 Retrieved from: http://youtu.be/FjQUirErPvo?t=1h15m42s (from 1:15:40 to 1:18 minutes).

Pope Francis uses adjectives as adverbs, nouns as verbs, ignores Standard-English syntax, and yet this is
an example of how the so-called poor English can work successfully as a lingua franca to communicate
the Word of God in a simple and sincere way. Pope Francis, however, generally avoids using ELF, rather
preferring for this purpose Italian which cannot, however, be considered a proper international lingua
franca since the Pope has to rely each time on consecutive translation into Standard English, which
would reduce the innovative straightforwardness characterizing his communication style.
But Pope Francis is, however, an exception. In this study, the NE discourse is in fact analyzed by
applying a through Possible-Worlds Semantic Model typical of Modal Logic (Stalnaker, 1994). The
hypothesis is that, to make sense of the NE discourse, non-western immigrants are required to activate
in their minds, on the one hand, a suspension of disbelief, as they are epistemically induced to believe that
the clergys possible-world mystical representations are logical and true and, on the other, an experiential
pliability, as they are deontically compelled to adapt their real-life experience to such counterfactual
constructions (whereas many African religions are related to the referential domain of actual, socio-
political world). This assumption is explored in the following Exchange 3, where the participants are: an
Italian Catholic Priest (P) and a Liberian (possibly animist) woman (W) whose young daughter has died
during the sea crossing to reach Italy. Both use their respective ELF variations.
Exchange 3
(1) P: can I do something for you (.) daughter?

(2) W: (.) my daughter .hhh (.) dead hhh (.) >you cannot do nothing<
(3) P: how? when?
(4) W: .hhh in the boat (.)to come here (.).hhh the sea keep her
(5) P: (.) >wheres your husband?<
(6) W: (.)killed (.) >he wanted to vote and they killed him< (.) I got no job (.) Im here for better
life >for me and my child< (.)but .hhh
(7) P: (.)dont be sad (.)have faith in God (.) you kno::w? (.) its quite (.) unbelievable (.) that God
wanted that his Son (.) >I mean Jesus< (.) he should die (.) and then he res- (.) returned to the life (.)
>with the resurrection< (.) and (.) its sure that also your dau::ghter should return to the life (.) have
faith in the Holy Spirit >thats with your daughter now
(8) W: (.)what (.) spirit (.)the ghost?
(9) P: the Holy Spirit (.) yes (.) yes (.) you can say also the Holy Ghost (.) yes (.) >you know?< (.) its
ma::rvellous that God (.) I mean (.) his spirit entered inside the body of his Son (.) Jesus (.) and
its ma::rvellous that the Holy (.) Ghost bring the Son inside every person to (.) >to give the hope<
(.) >of life eternal< (.) >you know?< this is the mystery of the Trinity (.) the Father (.) the Son (.) and
the Holy Ghost (.) >they are three [and one God<]
(10) W: [when I sleep] (.) the ghost of my daughter (.) >come inside my body< (.) and I speak with
her voice (.) she must come out the sea (.)but (.) I cannot move (.) >to go down in the sea [for take
her<]
(11) P: [but (.)] >as I said you< (.) its sure (.) >its sure< that Jesus must surely come (.) in the day of
the resurrection (.) and take your daughter >out the sea< (.) have faith (.) courage (.) believe in God
and Ill see what I can do for (.) to make you to stay here.
In Ps NE discourse conveyed through his Italian-ELF it is possible to notice a series of indexical belief
reports expressed by the use of that-clauses (Schiffer, 1996) which are set within a possible world where
propositions are true e.g., its quite unbelievable / sure / marvellous that God wanted that his Son.
/ that also your daughter should return to life. / that the Holy Ghost bring the Son. / that Jesus must surely

come. (in this last instance, the expression must surely actually conveys both deontic and epistemic
significance, thus paradoxically weakening the strength of the faith in Jesus ultimate promise). Indeed,
such that-clauses do not convey at all a direct affirmation of belief, on the contrary, they are agentless,
indirect belief reports introduced by the impersonal pronoun it as Subject placeholder. This entails that
Gods anthropomorphic image is rendered as a logical Agent, but not as a grammatical Subject (Halliday,
1994), thus distancing its concept as a fact report of a metaphysical kind. This could be an epistemic-
illocution strategy activated by P to reassure W that his discourse is objective and unchallenging yet,
Ps covert deontic-illocution strategy may instead be that of inducing W to share his metaphysical beliefs.
Furthermore, in Ps discourse it is also possible to identify instances of a false hypothetical syllogism,
specifically in the conveyance of the mystical notion of Trinity, which is built on clauses, on the one hand,
of illogical compatibility, accounting for epistemically-modalized polarities (i.e.: a positive-polarity mood
adjunct quite followed by a negative-polarity prefix -un in unbelievable) and, on the other, of illogical
contingency, accounting for contradictory concepts linked by relational processes (i.e., God as triune
namely, as one and trine at the same time).
In such a context, the possible perlocutionary effects of Ps discourse on W can be that, firstly, Ps
addressing W as daughter actually triggers in her mind the traumatic memory of her dead daughter and,
then, Ps reference to the Holy Spirit/Ghost triggers Ws animist ghost-possession schema, with the factual
representation of the metaphysical event of embodying her daughters spirit as an obligation (signalled
by the use of the deontic must) to recover her by defying an ergative personification of the inanimate
Medium of the sea which is holding her prisoner.
The next and last case study shall explore another case of ELF accommodation failure due to
different culture-bound schemata.
9. Case study 5: Utopian and dystopian schemata
This last case study shall explore ELF misunderstandings due to different migration schemata in contact,
leading to an ELF accommodation failure. The topic regards the specialized domain of Responsible
Tourism namely, an emerging branch of tourism aimed at advertising holidays that allow tourists to
experience local socio-cultural situations. To this purpose, it generally involves a hybridization between
Voluntary-Work and Place-Marketing discourses. The case study will focus on the local tourist promotion
of places often seaside resorts affected by migrants arrivals that deter tourism. The aim is to bring
tourists back, as in the emblematic case of Lampedusa, the Italian island between Sicily and Africa, where
migrants landings take place daily. In these places, administrators often have to act as tour operators,
offering tourists accommodation in voluntary-work camps where they can play the role of mediators
who help local communities and immigrants to integrate. At the same time, they can also learn how to
enhance their own sympathetic understanding of the migration experience. Parallel to the Italian
experience of Responsible Tourism can be considered the case of the Mediterranean island of Malta,
where a website advertises the need for volunteers willing to assist African refugees massively landing
there and educate them in English on European customs7. Another case in point can be found in
Africa, where an agency for Refugee-Camp Tourism provides in Rwanda life-enriching activities that
offer unique insights into the harsh lives of refugees8. Indeed, also African immigrants in Italy tend to
adapt western touristic schemata to their culture-bound ones often, however, to elude legal control,
such as for instance, in the case of family trips to Africa, which immigrants deceitfully define as holidays
but are actually aimed at forcing young daughters undergo female genital mutilation (Sperti, 2014).
7 Retrieved from: http://www.gooverseas.com/blog/volunteering-in-malta-beyond-tourism-websites

8 Retrieved from: http://newdawnassociates.com/new/signature-tours/akagera-humure-refugee-community-visit/

Lampedusa (and other seaside resorts in the South-Italian insular and peninsular regions of Sicily,
Sardinia, Puglia and Calabria can in fact be seen as an actualization of the Utopia vs. Dystopia (anti-
utopia) archetype. The term Utopia has two Ancient-Greek etymologies: eu-topos, meaning place of
good and harmony, and ou-topos, meaning no place, nowhere. Utopia in the classical literature (i.e.,
Thomas Moores Utopia, Francis Bacons New Atlantis, and to some extent Jonathan Swifts Gullivers
Travels, to name but a few) is represented as a counterfactual island of happiness and justice which is an
alternative to the Observers real corrupted society. The Observer is portrayed as a traveller who lands in
Utopia after a difficult journey, and by this literary device he adopts an estranged stance in the description
of the island. In this case study, the ancient utopian archetype has been revisited with reference to the
two opposite contemporary schemata of the social utopia, typical of left-wing political movements, and
the recreational utopia, typical of light-hearted touristic resorts, which unexpectedly come to be
reconciled in situations of intercultural communication through ELF taking place in contexts regarding
Responsible Tourism. In such situations, on the one hand, the Italian tourists who have undertaken
this experience with the aim of playing the role of intercultural mediators with immigrants and asylum
seekers consider the place they arrive at as a Utopia where they end up acting as tourist-resort
entertainers who try to brighten up the guests stay. In this way, they embody the travellers bottom-up
estranged position on the Utopian place, which is however soon reduced to a reassuring top-down
familiar stance, turning the immigrant-reception schema into a tourist-reception schema. In doing so,
they find themselves playing the Robinson Crusoe role, casting immigrants and refugees in the
supporting Friday role to make responsible tourists in the resort (as well as themselves) familiar with
the migration experience. On the other hand, the immigrants consider instead this place as a Dystopia in
which they embody the travellers top-down estranged stance on an anti-Utopia that imposes unfamiliar
roles on them. This is due to the New Touristization of the migrants, who are expected to tell their
stories every time they are asked to (as Ulysses did when he was asked to narrate his journey at each
landing) and, at the same time, to play beach games and participate in anti-racist football tournaments, to
be involved in flashmob demonstrations, disco dances, karaoke singing, card games, boat trips for tourists
to experience migration, and even in the tourist promotion of the place as in the case with Lampedusa,
where a group of African immigrants were organized into a reggae band singing songs specifically written
by local people to advertise events organized on the island to promote Responsible Tourism, as in the
brief extract from a reggae song, reported below, referring to the immigrants epic journey which also
includes the invocation to the sweet Muse who should bring them to Lampedusa9:
Row, row, to Lampedusa we go,

Go, go, for a better life we row, yeah,
O dolce Musa, portami a Lampedusa [O sweet Muse, bring me to Lampedusa]
O dolce Musa, bring me to Lampedusa, yeah []
The case-study data collected in landing places show that ELF variations used by tourists-as-mediators
and immigrants are initially aimed at co-creating a new language for successful communication, but then
they often report cases of a dystopian manipulation of semantic meanings (e.g., the migrants resigned
desperation comes to be misinterpreted as serenity and even intimate joy by the improvised mediators
dominating schemata, which alienate migrants).
Furthermore, the language issue has always been crucial in Utopian literature (e.g., Moores Utopia was
written in Latin which was the 16th/17th-century lingua franca to spread scientific and political-
philosophical works so as to reach the wider reading public of the European Renaissance humanists).
9 Retrieved from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=szZ84o6H7Qw (from the beginning to 0:23 minutes).

Dialogue, in particular, is a constant feature in the Utopian literature as it is used as a stylistic device
through which the divergences between opposite stances emerge. In this case study, the dialogue is
between an Italian female mediator (IM3) participating in a voluntary-work camp in a seaside resort and
speaking the Italian-ELF variation, and a Nigerian male asylum seeker (AS3), speaking NPE as ELF
variation. AS3 was kept in a CIE (Centre for Identification and Expulsion) after having fled from Nigeria,
due to religious persecution by Boko Haram, with his sister (caught and detained in Libya just before he
set sail, with his having heard nothing about her since) and his brother (thrown overboard by smugglers
as a warning for mutinous migrants on the boat).
Exchange 4
(1) IM3: you see (.) when I left to come here I was excited to be in a voluntary-work camp (.) we
really hoped to witness a landing (.) what you expect from this place?
(2) AS3: .hhh a no expect noting special (.) >wen a bin arrive di police bin take mi fingerprint dem<
en shut me in de CIE (.) pipul hie sometime give blanket (.) food (.) hhh but dem no help os get di
permit fo leave (.) tis strange (.) >dem tink se a migrant no lek oda pipul< [I dont expect anything
special. When I arrived, the police took my fingerprints and shut me in the CIE. People here sometimes give blankets,
food, but they dont help us get the permit to leave. This is strange, they think that a migrant is not like other people]
(3) IM3: what do you mean?
(4) AS3: .hhh dem look os lek animal dem (.) a veks we no walk wit four leg dem (.) we no eat
pipul (.) dem turn dem head fo fear we dem see os [They consider us like animals. Im vexed, we dont walk
with four legs, we dont eat people. They turn their head for fear when they see us]
(5) IM3: >but we can help them to change the idea they have of you< (.) no? (.) we had a great fun
together (.) we eat sing karaoke dance (.) play football together every day (.) this is wonderful (.) eh?
(.) an example that can help the other people >to understand the migrants<=
(6) AS3: =no (.) dem no:: understand di migrant (.) dem no understand di sea (.) >a never bin look di
sea bifo a bin get fo di boat fo come hie< (.) di sea bin >swell swell< fo kill os [No, they dont understand
the migrants, they dont understand the sea. Id never seen the sea before I took the boat to come here. The sea did swell
tremendously to kill us]
(7) IM3: but now your relation with the sea is changed (.) you dont fear it no more no? hhh we made
many baths together and you were so:: happy
(8) AS3: you know? (.) >dem bin trow mi broda down di sea< (.) fo warn di oder pipul in di boat
>so dem no go complain fo di bad journey<= [You know? they threw my brother overboard to warn the other
people in the boat, so they wouldnt complain any longer about the bad journey]
(9) IM3: =oh yes (.) >you told us< (.) Im sorry (.) he know to swim?
(10) AS3: a (.) a (.) wen a bin look in di sea mi broda bin de swim (.) yes= [When I glanced in the sea my
brother was swimming, yes]
(11) IM3: =so dont worry (.) he got safe (.) be sure
(12) AS3: .hhh a (.) a hope (.) yes (.) >hhh wen a bin come hie wit di boat dat night< (.) tourist
dem bin de dance on di beach (.) but a bin cry >because in Libya dem bin keep mi sista< (.) en a
come safe hie [I I hope, yes. When I arrived here with the boat that night, the tourists were dancing on the beach,
but I cried because in Libya they kept my sister, and I arrived safe here]
(13) IM3: .hhh yes (.) we understood more of your journeys when the organizers took us for the trip
in the boat that night and we throwed the little paper boats in the sea >in memory of the dead
migrants< (.) and when all we made the flashmob on the beach with the liberating shout >to make
tourists to understand the migration problem> (.) that was nice (.) you remember their big
appla::use?=

(14) AS3: =a tink tis cra ::zy= [I think this is crazy]

(15) IM3: =yes (.) crazy (.) wo::nderful moments (.) >like when on the beach we played the wayfarer
game< with a word on each card >that started a story< (.) eh? (.) your stories were not sad (.) you
seemed serene (.) not a victim (.) for example the story of the dolphins >that say that the sea could
not swallow you in the boat< is full of joy (.) because even if many migrants are died you arrived alive
[>to become my friends<
(16) AS3: wen dem ask mi] to tell mi story a se no (.) because dem no understand (.) but hie a tell
someting so a tink a do what dem want and so dem go help me wit di permit (.) [di asylum [when
they ask me to tell my story I say no, because they dont understand, but here I tell something so I think I do what they
want and so they will help me with the permit, the asylum]
(17) IM3: >but you see?<] we empathize with you (.) >you remember the landing that we saw
together?< (.) Im sure that I could see the joy in the eyes of the migrants even if they looked sad and
tired (.) oh I dont want to go away from this wonderful place (.) and you?=
(18) AS3: =no (.) a want go away quick [No, I want to go away as soon as possible]
As evident, here misunderstanding is not due to differences in ELF semantic, syntactic and pragmatic
features, because IM3 and AS3 understand each other very well. Misunderstanding, rather, is due to
schematic divergences on migration issues and how to deal and solve them hence, the outcome is, once
again, ELF accommodation failure as the two participants are unable to use the lingua franca to achieve
a satisfactory communication.
10. Conclusions
In conclusion, to achieve a successful communication in specialized ELF interactions, each group in

contact should, first of all, become aware of those of the other groups L1 features which are typologically
divergent from the equivalent ones in their own L1s and, as such, perceived as formally deviating and
pragmatically inappropriate when transferred to ELF. Then, they should also recover the situatedness
(Gumperz, 1982) of the immigrants displaced ELF, by recognizing the original socio-cultural and
pragmalinguistic dimensions determining sense and reference in their respective experiences. Finally, they
should develop mutual accommodation strategies of ELF reformulation and hybridization in order to
make culture-bound discourses conceptually accessible and socio-pragmatically acceptable to each others
native schemata.
About the author

Maria Grazia Guido is Full Professor of English Linguistics and Translation at the University of Salento, where she is Director of: the
Interfaculty Language Centre, the Ph.D. Programme in Modern and Classical Languages, Literatures and Cultures, and the Masters Course
in Intercultural and Interlingual Mediation in Immigration and Asylum Contexts. Her research interests are: cognitive linguistics applied to
ELF in intercultural communication and specialized discourse analysis. Her monographs include: English as a Lingua Franca in Cross-cultural
Immigration Domains (2008), The Acting Interpreter (2013), The Acting Translator (2012), The Acting Reader (1999), The Imaging Reader (2005) and
Mediating Cultures (2004). Email: mariagrazia.guido@unisalento.it.
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Use of Lingua Franca in student mobility:

A study of Turkish ERASMUS students
Derya Duran
Abstract
The purpose of this study is to reveal how study abroad experiences of exchange students in English as a lingua franca (ELF) communities
affect their perceptions on ELF. The participants of the present study were six Turkish ERASMUS exchange students as members of an
ELF community of practice in two European countries. The study drew upon three data sources: semi-structured interviews before and
after the study abroad program and controlled journals. The data was analyzed qualitatively by using thematic analysis. The results of the
study indicated that the primary concern of the participants was to reach mutual intelligibility in the only shared language available to them
with co-operative and supportive behaviors. Thus, they made use of many strategies to reach their goal such as using gestures and mimics,
drawing, code switching, simplifying language which shows the importance of accommodation skills for convergence in accomplishing
mutual understanding in ELF-resourced community. Another finding of the study was that ERASMUS students, who were initially quite
strict in teaching standard English and concerned about teaching different accents, had a more flexible stance in teaching different varieties
of English after the program. However, they were still not sure about to what extent they would integrate what they had experienced as an
ELF speaker into their future teaching practices and most of them were in favor of giving just simple examples from the ELF-resourced
community in their classes. Regarding the findings of the study, the contribution of the study is that intensive orientation programs prior to
study abroad should be provided and students should be more familiar with the term ELF and its real implications in ELF contexts.
Keywords: international students, language perceptions, English as a lingua franca
1. Introduction
Today, non-native speakers comprise about 80% of the English speakers in the world (Jenkins, 2007),
which is a fingerprint for inner circle countries, such as the UK and the USA not being able to function
as norm-developing anymore. 80% of non-native English speakers come from the expanding circle
English speakers as the largest group. In communication, the main concern of these speakers is not
formal correctness but functional effectiveness (Hlmbauer et al., 2008, p. 28). This pragmatic concern
of language use is everywhere, especially in Europe where international communication is an
indispensable part of daily life. As mobility is a part of European integration and internationalization,
there is a great need for communication to use on exchange and this need necessitates English as a lingua
franca (henceforth ELF) in the European countries.
As for the essentials of ELF communication in these multi-cultural settings, accommodation and
negotiation of meaning come to the forefront. ELF speakers resort to accommodative strategies, such as
adjusting their speech and using non-verbal behavior, in an attempt to become more approachable,
negotiate meaning and resolve misunderstandings and non-understandings. Firth (1996) states a principle
of let it pass adopted by ELF speakers which is a strategy to ignore trouble sources rather than explicitly
correcting them as long as the message is understandable. ELF communication as Haberland (2011)
points, asks for a certain tolerance since the ELF speakers frequently deviate from language norms.
Instead of labelling themselves as deficient language users, they appreciate each other for the attempts to
become intelligible.
The present study has the potential to contribute to the relevant literature by focusing on the
interaction between exchange students study abroad experiences and their perceptions on ELF. To
understand how their perceptions of study abroad can be explained by their experiences in ELF
communities, the overarching research question of the current study follows as such:
Hacettepe University. deryaduran@hacettepe.edu.tr

Lingua Franca use in Turkish ERASMUS students Duran
What are the changes in Turkish exchange students beliefs about ELF during pre- and post-study
abroad?
2. Methodology
2.1. Participants
Data for this study comes from 6 female exchange students who were in Spain and Portugal for the
2012/2013 spring semester. They were all in the department of English Language Teaching (ELT) as
sophomores. They were aged between 21-22 and their English language learning experience ranged
between 11-13 years. Of all the participants, none had been abroad before.
2.2. Data collection

The data collection instruments consisted of background information questionnaire, pre- and post-study
abroad interviews and monthly journals. The background information questionnaire inquired about
participants age, gender, English language learning experiences, and previous experiences abroad. Pre-
and post-study abroad interviews, as the name suggests were conducted just before they went abroad and
after they arrived in the home country and the questions posed to the participants were prepared in
accordance with the research question. Lastly, there were monthly journals adopted from Kaypak (2012),
participants were asked to write a journal every month; there were 4 journals for each student and 24
journals in total. For these controlled journals, there was a scale ranging from 1 representing horrible
to 7 representing excellent for the question of how is your ERASMUS going? In addition, there were
three questions to be answered as paragraphs and they were related to a) their academic life, b) social life, and
c) use of English throughout their study abroad. The academic life was related to their interactions with
their teachers and classmates in the ELF-resourced community, the social life was about their genuine
experiences in the multi-cultural settings and the use of English focused on sense of accomplishment or
failures while using English.
2.3 Data analysis

The data analysis was done qualitatively by using thematic (content) analysis as making a content analysis
helps to picture the study in more condensed form. The analysis began with reading the interview
materials carefully to find out recurring themes in the answers and in the same way the data from the
controlled journals were analyzed qualitatively by means of thematic analysis and recurrent themes were
categorized. To show it clearly, the procedure followed as such:
Pre-Belief Interviews Controlled Journals Study Abroad Perception Interviews
3. Results
3.1 Accommodation and negotiating meaning cooperatively

The primary concern of the participants was to reach mutual intelligibility in the only shared language
available to them with co-operative and supportive behaviors. Thus, they made use of many strategies to
reach their goal such as using gestures and mimics, drawing, code switching, simplifying language.
Informant 2: While using English I pay attention to English proficiency of the people I speak, which accent
she is using, word capacity, idiom and grammar usage are important to me and I accommodate in accordance
with them. For example, when my interlocutor does not know I am going to, I just say I go to. I feel like I
am high school teacher who is teaching right now secondary school students. Or if the person does not know

English, I speak in Spanish or with different English words (paraphrase) I explain what I try to tell. If a
person uses British accent, I feel mad about that, I met some friends with a great British accent and sometimes
I could not understand what they meant and seeing almost everybody can speak English to a certain extent
makes me happy and having a mutual communication language is opening many doors for you. (Journal 3)
3.2 The presence of co-participants

In a moment of word search or struggling with mutual understanding, one of the co-participants joined
in and offered the language support. When a speaker was in need of a word search or struggling with
interpreting the previous turn, one or more of the co-participants joined in and provided the assistance.
Language support in word search activities was treated by them as co-operative processes (Mauranen,
2006).
Informant 1: When I could not communicate with him or her, sometime there were people who understood
me beside him or her and in the same way when I could not understand him or her, I had a friend beside me
who understood. To give an example. I am speaking with a Spanish friend and s/he cannot speak English
well and she does not understand me, at that point a Portuguese friend comes to help by translating what I
had said to him/her. Since they can understand each other more easily as Portuguese people know also Spanish
she explained it either in Spanish or English, but as it is easier for them, they used romance languages more.
(Post study)
3.3 Integrating ELF usage into future teaching or not

The findings of the study revealed that participants took upon a monolithic point of view in their future
teaching practices before their exchange experience; most of them wanted to teach British English (BrE)
for aesthetic purposes and they considered BrE as the only correct and real variety of English. Put
differently, they elaborated on ownership of English (Widdowson, 1994) and according to them, English
belongs to British people. Generally, they held more positive attitudes toward BrE and American English
(AmE) than nonnative varieties of English.
Informant 5: Real English belongs to British, British English sounds more polite and it was born in
Britain. In American English words are more intelligible, but in British one words sound more beautiful and
both (American British English) have prestige in my eyes. (Pre study)
Informant 6: Real English seems to me like British or American English, and especially American English
as we are more exposed to that. But British English sounds more fantastic, attractive to me and they are both
real English for me. (Pre study)
In regard to exposing students to different accents, they advocated the idea that students should be
exposed to all accents (they meant BrE and AmE). Although they thought being exposed to different
accents was important to avoid misunderstandings, they insisted on the Standard varieties of English so
they contradicted with themselves. Nonnative pronunciation seemed problematic because it would be
unintelligible for the students. Some participants were totally against the idea and they claimed nonnative
accents should be prohibited in classes since native accents were the only sources students get exposed
to as most of the teachers were incompetent sounding like a British or American.
Informant 2: I think the most widely used English should be taught, I mean if you try to teach different
versions, world Englishes, it will be confusing for the students. In my classes I would give just simple examples,
but would not teach it as a complete component. I mean giving different examples from word usage can be
interesting, but otherwise there is no need. (Pre study)

Exchange students, who were initially quite strict in teaching standard English and concerned about
teaching different accents, had a more flexible stance in teaching different varieties of English after the
program. However, they were still not sure about to what extent they would integrate what they had
experienced as an ELF speaker into their future teaching practices and most of them were in favor of
giving just simple examples from the ELF-resourced community in their classes.
Informant 4: I do not want to teach the English I have used in Spain because it was a bad accent. Put
differently, it is better to say it was not the proper accent. It is necessary to teach English with pure accent free
manner. It is like to teach a few versions and expect from students to develop their own natural accent. I
would teach different greeting styles from a few cultures such as British and American. I would try to integrate
more cultures in accordance with curriculum and at the end students would create their own style. (Post
study)
The results, in general, demonstrated that participants held a monolithic perspective regarding the current
status of English by focusing on just Anglo-American parts, and they did not seem to internalize what
ELF truly means which emerged from their answers contradicting with each other.
4. Discussion and conclusion
The purpose of the present study was to see changes in the beliefs of Turkish exchange students about
ELF during pre- and post-study abroad. On the basis of the results of the research, it can be concluded
that the participants were mostly concerned with standard/native English which is in the ownership of
the UK or the USA for them. Therefore, participants were not very much concerned about the reality of
English as an international language, which shows that the participants did not have a strong ELF
perspective. Some of the participants gave conflicted answers about the issue of ELF. On the one hand,
they seemed to be in favor of ELF, but some other time they gave somehow contradictory answers which
may be the sign of their not being much familiar with the ELF perspective or they might have found it a
bit conflicting to embrace it entirely. Therefore, the coexistence of English as a native version or an
international one in the participants thinking indicates that the participants are trapped between
conflicting ideas on the issue of ELF and which also shows that there is a fluctuation in the participants
beliefs between a tolerance for non-native accents and a concern for standard English especially in their
professional lives. After the program they raised their tolerance for deviation from native norms, a
characteristic feature of an ELF speaker; they are not bothered with mistakes other learners of English
make as long as they understand each other as the message is more critical than the quality of the language
used; however, in the professional life they do not completely accept the non-native speakers and their
accents; in other words, native speaker norms were regarded more prestigious to them. Seidlhofer (2005)
formulates this duality as follows:
English is being shaped at least as much by its non-native [sic] speakers as by its native speakers.
This has led to a somewhat paradoxical situation: on the one hand, for the majority of its users,
English is a foreign language, and the vast majority of verbal exchanges in English do not involve
any native speakers of the language at all. On the other hand, there is still a tendency for native
speakers to be regarded as custodians over what is acceptable usage (p. 339).
From the findings above, the current study has yielded possible pedagogical implications for English
language classrooms. Teacher education programs play a crucial role in introducing teachers to linguistic

variation in World Englishes; as in Turkey, pre-service education in ELT programs is generally American
or British-oriented, teacher candidates should be equipped with skills of looking at Englishes and
conceptualizing English language teaching. Although the current English language teacher education
program in Turkey does not have an ELF course, with the raised awareness on the issue, it could be
possible to include it into the future curriculum so that in that globalized world, it would be more realistic
and relevant to learn varieties of English. In that way, ELF situations will be accepted as more appropriate
and practical in intercultural communication.
In addition the study indicated that there should be more intensive orientation programs prior to study
abroad so that students would be more familiar with the term ELF and its real implications in ELF
contexts since they offer an interactive situation of established turns in a particular community, they will
enlighten our most fundamental aspects of human communication, thereby broadening our horizons in
aspects of language contact and change, and of foreign language use. Moreover, as Aydin (2012) rightly
puts to overcome the communication problems with the local people, their foreign friends and lecturers,
more language courses should be provided for the native languages in the host countries since ELF is
not the only language exchange students would depend on as it is pictured in the study so vividly (Spain
and Portugal context).
The teaching materials should include a wider variety of accents to promote cultural tolerance and
equality. Although the participants in the study talked about the unintelligibility of nonnative accents in
their first days in the host countries, the lack of exposure to nonnative accents is the reason of the
difficulty in understanding them. Therefore, exposure to nonnative accents will improve learners
comprehension skills, thereby increasing their awareness of English varieties. Moreover, different accents
also should have a room in the classes to help students feel at ease in using the language so that they will
not describe themselves as deficient users of the target language, but with their own accent peculiar to
them they can collapse the privileged position of native speakers, since they can realize that they are able
to have smooth conversations with anyone through fluency and accommodation skills. This can be
achieved through the use of media texts and other written materials so that student can be exposed to
different varieties; however, these varieties are not just confined to pronunciation, but they are also related
to cultural, linguistic and other values. Therefore, there should be a variety in teaching materials in terms
of depicting different cultures (Kirkpatrick, 2010) so that exchange students will avoid stereotypes and
prejudices against other English varieties and Canagarajah (2007) supports a practice-based model which
focuses on students negotiation practices, communicative strategies, language awareness and they will
understand and appreciate hybridity, fluidity and variability of English in the context of ELF.
Last but not least, the awareness of ELF can change language users perceptions and have a positive
impact on their use of English, which will be more realistic in the globalized world where English has
gained a lingua franca status and the present study clearly depicts that it is crucial to stop accepting only
the native speakers as worth investigating but listening especially in multi-cultural settings where
intelligibility is the key.
About the author

Derya Duran is a research assistant in the department of English Language Teaching at Hacettepe University in Turkey. She graduated
from the department of Foreign Language Education at Middle East Technical University and currently pursuing her PhD in the same field.
Her fields of interest include language policy and planning, conversation analysis and English as a lingua franca. E-mail:
deryaduran@hacettepe.edu.tr

References
Aydin, S. (2012). I am not the same after my ERASMUS: A qualitative research. The Qualitative Report, 17
(55), 1-23.
Canagarajah, A. S. (2007). Lingua Franca English, multilingual communities, and language
acquisition. The Modern Language Journal, 91 (5), 923-939.
Firth, A. (1996). The discursive accomplishment of normality. On lingua franca English and
conversation analysis. Journal of Pragmatics, 26, 237-59.
Haberland, H. (2011). Ownership and maintenance of a language in transnational use: Should
we leave our lingua franca alone? Journal of Pragmatics, 43, 937-949.
Hlmbauer, C., Heike, B., & Barbara S. (2008). Introducing English as a lingua franca (ELF): Precursor
and partner in intercultural communication. Europe, 3, 25-36.
Jenkins, J. (2007). English as a lingua franca: Attitude and identity. Oxford University press.
Kaypak, E. (2012). The interconnectedness of English as a lingua franca (ELF), study abroad, and language learner
beliefs. Unpublished masters thesis, Bilkent University.
Kirkpatrick, A. (2010). English as an Asian lingua franca and the multilingual model of ELT.
Language Teaching, 44, 212-224.
Mauranen, A. (2006). Signaling and preventing misunderstanding in English as lingua franca
communication. International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 177, 123-150.
Seidlhofer, B. (2005). English as a lingua franca. ELT Journal, 59, 339-341.
Widdowson, H. (1994). The ownership of English. TESOL Quarterly, 28 (2), 377-89.

Kural, F., & Bayyurt, Y. (2016). Significance of intercultural competence development for study-abroad students. In N. Tsantila, J.
Mandalios & M. Ilkos (Eds.), ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives (pp. 184-192). Athens:Deree The American College of
Greece.
Significance of intercultural competence development

for study-abroad students
Faruk Kural*
Yasemin Bayyurt**
Abstract
This study investigates intercultural competence needs of government-sponsored Turkish international graduate students from an ELF
perspective. Being the first one to take up the opportunity of identifying IC needs of government-sponsored students undertaking an
English language preparatory program, it intends to provide remedies to potential communication problems they face in the context of
English L1 through an intercultural competence development course to equip them with the capability of communicating their own
identities, affairs, opinions and reflections in global settings as well as providing utilizable information for the stakeholders in the areas of
setting goals and objectives consistent with the students IC development needs, and developing instructional material selection/adaptation
criteria to match the recipients needs in intercultural competence. Based on e-mail interview responses of 25 subjects, 19 males and 6
females, to ten open-ended questions focusing on the assessment of their own intercultural experience in the ELF context of English L1
countries during their sojourns, the study identifies the subjects orientation to the English language, awareness of ELF and intercultural
sensitivity by analyzing their views within five overarching themes and categories that emerged from their:
perceptions of the ideal English and native speakerism;
perceptions of their own English;
views on their English learning experiences;
receptivity to ELF; and
intercultural awareness and views on intercultural development needs.
Along with a considerable shift in the subjects perceptions of the ideal English and native speakerism indicating that communication was
more important for them than conforming to the norms, the study stresses the subjects lack of intercultural sensitivity and awareness prior
to their departure, their desire for intercultural competence development training prior to their sojourns, and their propensity to ELF as
contributory factors that would contribute to their adjustment and successful communication in the host country.
Keywords: Intercultural competence; ELF awareness; native speakerism
1. Introduction
Foreign language competence has been an indispensable dimension of communication needs of Turkish
international students, like many others from all the nations throughout the world, and it has been dealt
with as an important educational issue within the states policy of modernizing the education system
(Karagzolu, 1985). Under the current provisions, those who lack sufficient language skills are required
to undertake a 6-month long preparatory language course, prior to their sojourns, offered at the
departments of foreign languages of certain state universities to be prepared for internationally recognised
exams such as TOEFL and IELTS. According to the announcement of the Ministry of Education (2012),
during the 2012/13 academic year 1475 graduate students were sponsored by the Ministry of Education
under the Act to pursue their studies in foreign countries, and 396 of them were required to undertake
preparatory courses in Turkey prior to their sojourns at eight state universities in four cities.
Despite the long history of English preparatory programs offered for government-sponsored Turkish
international graduate students, there has been scant research to date to demonstrate to what extent these
candidates could develop sufficient intercultural competence (IC) needed for their academic progress
abroad. While the success criteria of these programs are bound by the candidates sufficient preparation
for TOEFL and IELTS exams, which are also set as the primary achievement objectives by the program
providers, there has not been any academic attempt that would address the views of the students who
attend these programs on their IC needs based on their own experience and reflections.

*Yeditepe University.farukkural@gmail.com
**Boazii University. yasemin.bayyurt@gmail.com

Intercultural competence for study-abroad students Kural & Bayyurt
Furthermore, IC development has also become an inseparable dimension of communication domains in

the context of English L1 countries as cross-cultural communication in these countries is the reality of
everyones daily interaction, and thus it has to be considered in terms of the global nature of English,
from the perspective of English as a Lingua Franca (ELF), particularly for those whose first language is
other than English.
As English becomes the overwhelmingly dominant language in a large number of domains throughout
the world, the number of its non-native speakers of different L1 backgrounds who use English as ELF
in education and academic settings, also, increasingly outnumbers its native participants who take part in
such settings; and in most cases its native speakers are absent from these settings. Participants of speech
events in these settings belong to different primary lingua-cultural communities, and ELF users do not
themselves constitute a speech community with an established distinct legitimate variety that would
characterise regular local networks of interaction.
Gnutzmann (2000, p. 358) indicates that when used as lingua franca, English is no longer founded on
the linguistic and sociocultural norms of native speakers and their respective cultures. Widdowson (1994,
p. 385) claims that language learners cannot be autonomous in a learning environment where another
culture and its language are imposed upon them and which proposes to shift the emphasis away from
context of use to context of learning, and consider how language is to be specially designed to engage the
students reality and activate the learning process (p. 387).
One dimension that needs to be considered as an essential factor that is inseparable from ELF
communicative competencies is IC. Although much of the studies concerning IC have been conducted
in various fields and have been defined differently according to interpretations of the researchers
(Hoskins & Crick, 2010), a lot of recent studies in the area focuses on IC as an essential element of global
culture, global citizenship, and global communication skills and their development, and thereby, as an
inseparable aspect of ELF and the development of ELF skills.
In a broad sense, IC can be defined as a complex of abilities needed to perform effectively and
appropriately when interacting with others who are culturally and linguistically different from oneself
(Fantini, 2006). Although there is no complete agreement on the definition of IC between researchers
and scholars, a recent study conducted by Deardoff applied both survey and Delphi methods to bring a
range of intercultural experts, scholars and administrators to encapsulate the many perspectives on IC
into a single consensus definition that could serve as the compromising basis and starting point for future
IC development attempts and purposes (Deardorff, 2006).
The model was developed through identifying the aspects on which the experts reached consensus
and then being categorized and placed into a model (See Figure 1) that lends itself to understand and to
further the development of measurable outcomes. In brief terms, the model defines IC as the ability to
interact effectively and appropriately in intercultural situations, based on specific attitudes, intercultural
knowledge, skills and reflection (Stiftung, 2006, p. 5).
The model describes IC as a process orientation that is organized at two levels or stages - an individual
level and an interactional level, each containing separate steps. At the individual level, the first step
requires one to possess the attitudes of respect, value for other cultures, openness, ability to withhold
judgments, and curiosity to discover while tolerating ambiguity. The second step requires one to develop
specific knowledge and comprehension that would include cultural self-awareness, deep cultural
knowledge, and sociolinguistic awareness. Consequently, to continually acquire and comprehend this
kind of knowledge, one must possess the skills to listen, observe, evaluate, analyze, interpret, and relate.
At the interactional level, this definition of IC distinguishes between two types of desired outcomes:

internal and external. The internal desired outcomes demonstrating IC are an informed frame of reference
change that would come through adaptability, flexibility, ethnorelative view, and enthusiasm. The external
outcome desired from this process orientation is that all of these developmental gains are integrated
holistically so that the individual demonstrates effective and appropriate communication and behaviour
in an intercultural setting.
Figure 1. Process model of intercultural competence. (Deardorff, 2006)
The model is process-oriented as its focus on internal and external outcomes of IC as being based on
development of specific attitudes, knowledge, and skills inherent in IC. Given that these items are still
broad, each item can be developed into more specific measurable outcomes and corresponding indicators
depending on the context. The overall external outcome of IC is defined as an effective and appropriate
behaviour and communication in intercultural situations, which again can be further detailed in terms of
indicators of appropriate behaviour in specific contexts.
Much of the literature concerning IC development (Barnlund & Namura, 1985; Bennett, 1993; Zhao,
2002; Chen & Starosta, 2000) has noted that the more intercultural sensitivity a person has, the more
intercultural competent s/he can be (Penbek et al., 2009, p. 5). Altshuler, Sussman, and Kachur (2003)
indicated that gender and multicultural experiences could influence the level of intercultural sensitivity in
a positive way as well as attending culturally related programs (Klak & Martin, 2003). Chen & Starosta
(2000) stated that successful intercultural communication demands the interactants ability of
intercultural awareness by learning cultural similarities and differences, while the process of achieving
awareness of cultural similarities and differences is enhanced and buffered by the ability of intercultural
sensitivity (p. 6). They identified five intercultural sensitivity areas which could be used as indicators of
IC development and assessment, which are:
Interaction Engagement
Respect for Cultural Differences
Interaction Confidence

Interaction Enjoyment
Interaction Attentiveness
Focusing on the significance of the teachers role and the learners perceptual change in ELF teaching,
Bayyurt & Altnmakas (2012) reported that some significant changes were observed in the students
perspectives about native speakerism during the implementation of the ELF based oral and written
communication course designed for an English Language and Literature undergraduate program in
Turkey. They indicated that despite the students rigid view of native-speaker forms being the ideal forms
and emphasizing the primacy of learning these norms, their exposure to global varieties of English led to
the recognition of the significance of mutual intelligibility, which also was reflected on the shift in their
concepts of self and attitudes to other cultures. Emphasizing the significance of the teachers role in the
development of global culture through ELF, they reported that the students initial stereotypical images
were mainly stemmed from their high school education and their teachers lack of knowledge about ELF.
Such stereotypical attitudes developed through all stages of English language teaching based on native
speakerism is one of the main characteristics the Turkish education system (Bayyurt, 2006).
3. The study
3. The purpose of the study

The purpose of the study is to identify the IC development needs of government-sponsored Turkish
international graduate students by focusing on the communication problems they experienced during
their sojourns in English L1 countries where ELF is used as a medium of real communication, and to
provide utilizable information based on their own experience to develop an IC development course that
could equip them with the capability of communicating their own identities, affairs, opinions and
reflections in global settings prior to their departure.
3.2 Research questions
In order to identify the participants IC development needs the study seeks to answer the following
questions:
1. What are the IC needs of government-sponsored Turkish international graduate students who are
prepared to undertake studies in English L1 countries?
2. How can we design a course that could better equip and prepare these students with the capability of
communicating their own identities, affairs, opinions and reflections in global settings?
3.3. Participants
The participants of the study were 25 government-sponsored Turkish international students, 19 male and
6 female, who had completed an English preparatory program during the Spring-2013 academic term in
Turkey to pursue their studies in the U.S. and U.K. Their ages ranged from 23-27. An overwhelming
majority, 19, of them participated in the study from the U.S. with 5 from England and one from Canada.
3.4 Instruments
The Turkish versions of the following research instruments were used in order to investigate the research
questions:
Demographic Questionnaire (DQ): Based on Bayyurt (2009) and consisting of 17 items, this
questionnaire gathered data about students educational background in general with special emphasis
on their learning and experience in English.

E-mail interview questionnaire: Administered during the participants sojourn in English L1

countries after their departure upon completion of their preparatory program, it consisted of open
ended questions the participants were asked to assess their own intercultural experience in the ELF
context which included the following questions:
1. Where do you live and study?
2. Are your colleagues, close friends and lecturers native speakers of English?
3. Do you have any non-native English speaker colleagues, friends and lecturers? Where
do they come from?
4. Did you have any knowledge about their culture? Please explain briefly.
5. Did you have any adjustment problems such as language, cultural shock, differences in
body language, religion, ethnicity, nationality, gender, clothing etc.? Please explain.
6. What are the important issues required for intercultural communication (open-
mindedness, social initiative, emotional stability, flexibility, patience, humour, curiosity, ability to
deal with stress)? Please explain.
7. Since you are abroad is there any change in your perception of what the ideal English
language is and who its speakers are? Please explain.
8. What kind of advices would you give to those who will go to study abroad if they
encounter problems resulting from culture, national, ethnic and language differences?
9. In terms of these issues, do you think the English preparatory program you attended
prepared you to live and study abroad?
10. In your opinion, what can be added to the English preparatory program you attended in
Turkey in terms of its contents and subjects that would facilitate convenience for living in these
countries and ease up communication with people living in these countries?
3.5 Data collection and analysis procedures

Using the instruments stated above the data collection was accomplished from the participants about 6
months after their departure during their sojourns. The participants demographic information came
from their responses to the demographic questionnaire. The qualitative data analysis method was used
to analyze their responses to ten open-ended questions focusing on the assessment of their own
intercultural experience in the ELF context of English L1 countries during their sojourns. The strategy
employed for the analysis of the qualitative data involved thematic analysis and grouping of the responses
from different subjects to the same questions or the same points emerged from different questions. The
responses obtained through the e-mail interview questionnaire were first translated into English and the
responses were grouped up according to the research themes based on their contents for discussion.
4. Results and discussions
The results of the study have been presented according to the research questions and displayed in
consistent with the sequential order of the research themes. First, the results of the data analysis were
presented which provided an answer to the first research question, and which demonstrated the IC
development needs of government-sponsored Turkish international students in the ELF context to
pursue their graduate studies in English L1 countries. This also provided information to answer the
second research question that offered guidance to how an IC development course could be designed to
better equip and prepare Turkish international graduate students with the capability of communicating
their own identities, affairs, opinions and reflections in global settings.

In order to identify the participants orientation to the English language, awareness of ELF and
intercultural sensitivity, their responses were analyzed within the following five overarching themes
categorised and emerged from their:
perceptions of the ideal English and native speakerism;
perceptions of their own English;
views on their English learning experiences;
receptivity to ELF;
intercultural awareness and views on intercultural development needs.
Perceptions of the ideal English and native speakerism: The responses of the participants to Question 7, which
inquired whether or not their perceptions of the ideal English and its speakers had changed since their
arrival in the host country, revealed that their opinions on this issue had changed considerably since their
arrival indicating a shift away from a normative approach that considers native-American or British
English the ideal variety towards the realisation of the existence of many varieties in the host country.
The opinion shift was also evident in their responses concerning native speakerism. The participants
stated that English used in daily communication was much different in the way it was used in academic
writing and in teacher-student communication in the classroom context and that native speakers also
made a lot of mistakes in their oral interactions like non-native speakers do. Although almost half of the
participants expressed that their views on the ideal English had changed since their arrival in the host
country, they all firmly believed that communication was more important than conforming to the norms,
including those whose views remained unchanged on the issue. Some of the subjects drew attention to
the existence of a variation amongst the native speakers and difficulties posed by lack of familiarity with
such a variation.
Perceptions of their own English: The responses of participants concerning their perceptions of their own
English revealed that they had difficulties especially in their oral communication with native speakers
contrary to their expectations that native speakers would strictly conform to the rules in the way they
were instructed.
Views on their English learning experiences: As one of the enrolment prerequisites of the participants
graduate programs in the host country was to obtain a sufficient achievement result in the internationally
recognised normative exams such as TOEFL and IELTS and their English preparatory program is based
on achieving this objective, the participants did not dispute the programs contents and activities directly
related to the preparation for these exams. However, their dissatisfactions became apparent when they
viewed their English learning experiences in terms of their interaction with people of different cultural
backgrounds in the host country. An overwhelming majority (15) of them expressed their dissatisfaction
by suggesting the addition of listening and speaking classes and an interactive teaching approach to be
used in all the classes where they could have an opportunity of interaction in the classroom context.
Intercultural awareness and views on intercultural development needs: The participants responses to Question 4
revealed that only four of them had some brief, general and partial intercultural awareness of their non-
native associates in the host countries with 21 affirming that they did not have the faintest idea in the
area. The participants also stressed the significance of intercultural training prior to sojourn as a
contributory factor to adjustment problems. In some of their responses to Question 4 they suggested
that the English preparatory programs should provide some intercultural training to their candidates that
would enable them to develop sufficient awareness in the cultures that might exist in the host country
prior to their departure. They considered such training as a way to establish understanding to ease up
their adjustment process and interaction with those of other cultural backgrounds.
Receptivity to ELF: When the e-mail interviews were conducted for the purpose of this study an
overwhelming majority of the participants were attending either internationally recognised normative

English exams preparatory programs or academic English programs; and thus their success and
expectations were heavily bound by the objectives of these programs, which were contrary to the nature
and perspective of ELF which intends to develop intercultural communication skills in global settings.
On the other hand, although the host countries where they pursued their graduate studies were inner-
circle countries, they came to face to face with the reality of ELF posed by the presence of people of
different backgrounds using different varieties of English as their second languages for communication.
Although the participants, in a technical sense, did not know what ELF referred to, their responses
revealed that they had a strong propensity towards the notions related to ELF as such that the instruction
content and model they desired reflected the ELF perspective of the global communication model.
Considering their views expressed more than suggesting exposure to different varieties of English and
the cultures of the associates in the host country and their advice to those who would like to pursue their
graduate studies abroad after themselves in their responses to Question 8 clearly indicated their
receptivity to ELF, which requires attention on IC development and sensitivity in the way presented
openly, i.e. in the remarks of the majority (16) of the participants stressing the significance of the
development of IC qualities prior to sojourn such as flexibility, open-mindedness, being tolerant and
respectful, and avoidance of stereotypes. Along with a considerable shift in the subjects perceptions of
the ideal English and native speakerism indicating that communication was more important for them
than conforming to the norms, the study stresses the subjects lack of intercultural sensitivity and
awareness prior to their departure, their desire for intercultural competence development training prior
to their sojourns, and their propensity to ELF as contributory factors that would contribute to their
adjustment and successful communication in the host country.
5. Conclusion
The information gathered from the participants clearly indicates the necessity of IC training prior to their
sojourns. The process oriented IC development model of Deardorff (2006) and intercultural sensitivity
areas identified by Chen & Starosta (2000) could be used as a guideline for the development of an IC
syllabus in setting its goals and objectives, shaping up and sequencing its content layout, and the
instruction methodology to be used in its implementation. The content of the syllabus should be
conceptualised and presented as ELF topics in a sequential order spread over a semester-long period to
implement by focusing on a topic to be specified for each week.
The goals and objectives of the syllabus should be accomplished in consistency with the Deardorffs
process oriented model that defines the involvement of the participants in their attainment of the IC
development by their own involvement in in-class activities at two levels: individual and interactional.
The instruction materials should be chosen to expose the participants to the ELF varieties in the context
of English L1 countries and intercultural topics that were essential for the development of sufficient
intercultural awareness and competence needed for global communication. They should include films,
videos and written material in which ELF varieties and cultures were presented; and topics concerning
the development of sociolinguistic knowledge and intercultural awareness should be introduced for
discussion as part of in-class activities, such as linguistic variation, errors and irregularities, stereotypes,
awareness of self, native speakerism, monolingualism, multilingualism/multiculturalism. The adaptation
could be accomplished by redundancy and simplification to match the participants linguistic level and
the IC development areas identified in the syllabus.
The medium of instruction model in the implementation of the syllabus, as well as in the redundancies
and simplifications for material preparation, should be conceptualized according to Matsuda & Friedrich
(2011) who suggest that the most appropriate medium of instruction for an ELF programme for learners
from the same region or country should be based on the established variety that is dominant in these

areas as they would be consistent with the learners background in English. However, this should not
contradict and make any negative impact on the syllabus objectives which are to expose the participants
to many different ELF varieties used in their host countries and every instructor and participant to
develop their own idiolect eventually.
The participants should be guided to acquire the information presented in the materials as their own
socially-constructed knowledge through their own involvement and interaction in a process during which
they could develop adaptability, flexibility, ethnorelative view, and enthusiasm. Their involvement in the
syllabus activities and their progress are to be guided and followed by the IC development focus areas
specified for each week along with an IC development and intercultural sensitivity goals set to be
accomplished for that week. The IC development and intercultural sensitivity goals are to be
conceptualised within the frameworks and references provided by Deardorff (2006) and Chen & Starosta
(2000). The IC development goals in the syllabus should consist of withholding judgements, tolerating
ambiguity, valuing other cultures, cultural self-awareness, sociolinguistic awareness, and deep cultural
knowledge; and the intercultural sensitivity goals should consist of interaction engagement, respect for
cultural differences, interaction confidence, interaction enjoyment, and interaction attentiveness.
About the authors
Faruk Kural is a coordinator of Fine Arts English language programs at the School of Foreign Languages of Yeditepe University. He is
currently doing his PhD at the ELT department of the same university focusing on the significance of ELT training for Turkish international
graduate students. He has a BA degree from Deakin University and a MA in Applied Linguistics from Monash University. He is interested
in ELF, ESP, syllabus design, multicultural education and language policy. Email: farukkural@gmail.com
Yasemin Bayyurt is a professor of Applied Linguistics in the Department of Foreign Language Education, Boazii University, Istanbul,
Turkey. In addition to a number of international publications, she continues to do further work in areas including classroom discourse
analysis; content-based instruction; cross-cultural communication and language learning and teaching; and the analysis of current status of
English as an International Language from non-native speaker teachers perspective. Email:yasemin.bayyurt@gmail.com
References
Altshuler, L., Sussman, N. M., & Kachur, E. (2003). Assessing changes in intercultural sensitivity among
physician trainees using the intercultural development inventory. International Journal of Intercultural
Relations, 27, 387-401.
Barnlund, D., & Nomura, N. (1985). Decentering, convergence and cross-cultural understanding. In L.
Samovar & R. Porter (Eds.), Intercultural communication: A reader (4th ed., pp. 347-366). Belmont, CA:
Wadsworth.
Bayyurt, Y. (2006). Non-native English language teachers perspective on culture in English as a foreign
language classrooms. Teacher Development, 10(2), 233-247.
Bayyurt, Y. (2009). MLARG Project [2009-TR1-EO05-08674].
Bayyurt, Y., & Altnmakas, D. (2012). A WE-Based English Communication Skills Course at a Turkish
University. In A. Matsuda (Ed), Principles and Practices of English as an International Language (pp. 169-
182). Multilingual Matters: London, UK.
Bennett, J. M. (1993). Toward ethnorelativism: A developmental model of intercultural sensitivity. In R.
M. Paige (Ed.), Education for the intercultural experience (pp. 21-71).Yarmouth, Me.: Intercultural Press.
Chen, G. M., & Starosta, W. J. (2000). The development and validation of the intercultural sensitivity
scale. Human Communication, 3, 2-14.
Deardorff, D. (2006). Identification and assessment of intercultural competence as a student outcome of
internationalization. Journal of Studies in International Education, 10(3), 241-266.
Fantini, A. E. (2006). Exploring and assessing intercultural competence. Retrieved from http://www.sit.edu.
Gnutzmann, C. (2000). Lingua franca. In M. Byram (Ed.), The Routledge encyclopedia of language teaching and
learning (pp. 356-359). London: Routledge.

Hoskins, B., & Crick, R. D. (2010). Competences for learning to learn and active citizenship: Different
currencies or two sides of the same coin? European Journal of Education, 45,121137.
Karagzolu, Galip. (1985). Atatrkn Eitim Sava [Atatrks Education Campaign]. Atatrk Aratrma
Merkezi Dergisi [Journal of Atatrk Research Center], II. Ankara: Atatrk Research Centre. Retrieved
March 19, 2013, from atam.gov.tr. Kim, Y. K. (1993). Cross-cultural adaptation: An integrative theory.
In R. L. Wiseman & J. Koester (Eds.), Intercultural communication theory (pp. 170-193). Newbury Park,
CA: Sage.
Klak, T., & Martin, P. (2003). Do university-sponsored international cultural events help students to
appreciate differences. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 27, 445-465.
Matsuda, A., & Friedrich, P. (2011). English as an international language: A curriculum blueprint. World
Englishes, 30(3), 332-344.
Ministry of Education. (2012). Announcement on July 13th, 2012. Retrieved from www.meb.gov.tr.
Penbek, S., Yurdakul, D., & Cerit, A. G. (2009). Intercultural communication competence: A study about the
intercultural sensitivity of university students based on their education and international experiences. Paper presented
at the European and Mediterranean Conference on Information Systems in July, 2009, Izmir.
Stiftung, B. (2006). Intercultural competence The key competence in the 21st century? Retrieved from
www.bertelsmann-stiftung.de.
Widdowson, H. G. (1994).The ownership of English. TESOL Quarterly, 28(2), 377-389.
Zhao, C. M. (2002). Intercultural competence: A quantitative study of significance of intercultural competence and the
influence of college experiences on studentsintercultural competence development. (Unpublished doctoral
dissertation). Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA.

Kural, F., & Koolu, Z. (2016). Study-abroad students ELF awareness and intercultural sensitivity prior to sojourn:
Necessity for training. In N. Tsantila, J. Mandalios & M. Ilkos (Eds.), Athens: ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary
perspectives (pp. 193-200). Deree The American College of Greece.
Study-abroad students ELF awareness and intercultural sensitivity prior

to sojourn: Necessity for training
Faruk Kural
Zeynep Koolu
Abstract
The study investigates the preparedness and readiness of Turkish international graduate students in ELF awareness and intercultural
sensitivity during their English preparatory programs undertaken prior to their departure to pursue their studies in English L1 countries.
Focusing on the extent the normative English preparatory program could contribute to their preparedness and readiness to live and pursue
their studies in the ELF context of English L1 countries, the study demonstrates the significance of intercultural competence development
training within an ELF perspective at the preparatory stage. It is based on 9 students open-ended 6-videoclip responses in which different
varieties of English were presented for their comments. The subjects intercultural sensitivity was measured and evaluated in terms of their
interaction engagement, respect for cultural differences, interaction confidence, interaction enjoyment, and interaction effectiveness; and
their EFL awareness was accounted for their attitudes towards the English spoken in the videoclips, their awareness of the cultures of the
speakers, and their tolerance for the cultures of these speakers, their willingness and readiness for participating in conversations with these
speakers if need be. The study presents a critical view on normative based study-abroad preparatory programs, their deficiencies in the area
of intercultural competence development, and ELF awareness needed for successful interaction in the ELF context of English L1 countries.
Keywords: Intercultural sensitivity; ELF awareness; normative approach
1. Background
Much of the study abroad literature is based on those who either seek to have education in English
speaking countries or those who travel to or from these countries to others to study. Obviously, there is
a good reason for that and that is basically because the role that English plays in global communication
due to its function as a lingua franca. Advancements in communication technology fostered by the
globalisation process, reciprocally, have brought people from different nations into day to day contact
for a variety of economic, social and political reasons where English is primarily used as a means of
exchange, which has made the language most sought after commodity. Fostered by this new trend, there
has been an increased inflow of international students into English L1 countries in their pursuit of
undergraduate and graduate programs in the language of globalism.
Despite the long history of English preparatory programs offered for government-sponsored Turkish
international graduate students, there has been scant research to date to demonstrate to what extent these
candidates could develop sufficient intercultural sensitivity (IS) needed for their academic progress
abroad. While the success criteria of these programs are bound by the candidates sufficient preparation
for TOEFL and IELTS exams, which are also set as the primary achievement objectives by the program
providers, there has not been any academic attempt that would address the views of the students who
attend these programs on their IS needs based on their own experience and reflections. Furthermore, IS
development has also become an inseparable dimension of communication domains in the context of
English L1 countries as cross-cultural communication in these countries is the reality of everyones daily
interaction, and thus it has to be considered in terms of the global nature of English, from the perspective
of English as a Lingua Franca (ELF), particularly for those whose first language is other than English.
Yeditepe University:farukkural@gmail.com
Yeditepe University:zbkocoglu@yeditepe.edu.tr

Study-abroad students ELF awareness Kural & Koolu
The characteristics of global speech events are inconsistent with the principles and priorities of traditional
native norm-based ESL teaching pedagogy. Hlmbauer, Bhringer & Seidlhofer, (2008, p. 28) suggest
that there is a common misconception of ELF related to the differences between the two types of
pedagogies, which is that ELF speakers are conceived to be in the process of learning a language
repertoire rather than using it effectively. They are considered merely learners trying to conform to native-
speaker norms and not primarily users of the language, where the main consideration is not formal
correctness but functional effectiveness. Indicating that using and learning are related (you can learn while
using), they emphasize that in ELF the emphasis is on the use and the learning is incidental. They state
that the ELF users language may certainly exhibit the same forms as the learners English, but the
significance of the forms is essentially different.
Gnutzmann (2000, p.358) indicates that when used as lingua franca, English is no longer founded on
the linguistic and sociocultural norms of native speakers and their respective cultures. Taking this view
one step further and asserting that the proponents of Standard English emphasizing grammatical
correctness and functions as gatekeepers to keep the nonstandard ways on the periphery, Widdowson
(1994, p.385) claims that native speakers have no right to intervene or pass judgements. Seidlhofer (2003,
p.22) suggests that the ELFs pedagogic perspective with its global features and cross-cultural role shifts
the focus of English teaching towards communication skills and procedures abandoning unrealistic
notions of achieving perfect communication through native-like proficiency language awareness. She
claims that exposure to a wide-range of varieties of English and a multilingual/comparative approach are
likely to facilitate communication strategies and accommodation skills which include drawing on
extralinguistic cues, gauging interlocutors linguistic repertoires, supportive listening, signalling non-
comprehension in a face-saving way, asking for repetition, paraphrasing, etc.
Smith (1992) suggests that language teachers should expose learners to different varieties of English
to raise their awareness, indicating that being familiar with the different varieties of English provides
convenience for the listener to comprehend the speaker. He claims that understanding is not speaker -
or listener centred but is interactional between speaker and listener (p.76).
Chen & Starosta (2000) stated that successful intercultural communication demands the interactants
ability of intercultural awareness by learning cultural similarities and differences, while the process of
achieving awareness of cultural similarities and differences is enhanced and buffered by the ability of IS
(p.6).
Bennett (1993) also indicates that IS could bring interlocutors from rejection to integration in the
process of the development of intercultural communication, effectively, cognitively, and behaviourally.
Thus, people with intercultural sensitivity could develop dual identity and enjoy cultural differences by
gradually overcoming the problems associated with denying or concealing the existence of cultural
differences and attempting to conform to, and defend, their own outlooks, and moving to develop
emphatic ability to accept and adapt cultural differences (Chen and Starosta, 2000, p.6). Zaho (2002) also
noted that IS with intercultural effectiveness and cross-cultural adaptation could positively contribute to
the capability of living and working successfully with people from different cultures.
Chen (1997) identified six components of IS: self-esteem, self monitoring, open-mindedness,
empathetic attitude, interaction involvement, and being non-judgemental. Barnlud and Namura (1985)
noted that one must face the challenge of understanding someone of different cultural background with
sufficient margin of empathy, while empathy defined IS.
Much of the literature concerning intercultural competence development (Barnlund and Namura,
1985; Bennett, 1993; Zhao, 2002; Chen and Starosta, 2000) has noted that the more IS a person has, the
more intercultural competent s/he can be (Penbek et al., 2009, p.5). Altshuler, Sussman, and Kachur

(2003) indicated that gender and multicultural experiences could influence the level of IS in a positive
way as well as attending culturally related programs (Klak and Martin, 2003). Chen and Starosta (2000)
stated that successful intercultural communication demands the interactants ability of intercultural
awareness by learning cultural similarities and differences, while the process of achieving awareness of
cultural similarities and differences is enhanced and buffered by the ability of IS (p.6). They identified
five IS areas which could be used as indicators of IC development and assessment, which are:
Interaction Engagement
Respect for Cultural Differences
Interaction Confidence
Interaction Enjoyment
Interaction Attentiveness
Thus, educating students to use ELF means to accustom them to being interculturally sensitive; and to
equip them with the ability of acting as cultural mediators, seeing the world through others eyes, and
consciously using culture learning skills (Sen Gupta, 2002). Within this framework of intercultural
learning, the learner is viewed as an intercultural speaker, someone who crosses frontiers, and who is
to some extent a specialist in the transit of cultural property and symbolic values (Byram and Zarate,
1997, p.11). Deardorff (2006) suggests that a fundamental aspect of the study abroad programs is
adequate preparations of students in intercultural learning that occurs beyond declaring it changed my
life, indicating that adequate preparation means helping students gain an understanding of IC
frameworks, vocabulary and concepts so that they can apply them to the learning before, during, and
after the experience.
3. The study
3.1. The purpose of the study

The purpose of the study is to investigate the preparedness and readiness of Turkish international
graduate students in ELF awareness and IS during their English preparatory programs undertaken prior
to their departure to pursue their studies in English L1 countries, and to demonstrate the significance of
intercultural competence (IC) development training within an ELF perspective at the preparatory stage.
3.2. Research question

In order to demonstrate the participants preparedness and readiness in terms of their ELF awareness
and IS the study seeks to answer the following research question:
What are the EFL awareness and IS needs of government-sponsored Turkish international
graduate students who are prepared to undertake studies in English L1 countries?
3.3. Participants
The participants of the study were 9 government-sponsored Turkish international students, 6 male and
3 female, who had completed an English preparatory program during the Spring-2013 academic term in
Turkey prior to their sojourns to pursue their graduate studies in the U.S. and U.K. Their ages ranged
from 23-27.

3.4. Instruments
Videoclip responses questionnaire
This questionnaire was administered to the participants upon watching each of the 6 video-clips asking
them to write down their opinions about four areas of each of the video-clip content in responses to four
questions, all of which started with Please write down your opinion about the video-clip you have just watched in
terms of and each of which was completed by focusing on a different dimension: a) understanding what was
talked about; b) the cultural features of the person(s) presented in the clip; c) whether or not, and if yes why, you would
have any difficulties in having a conversation with the person(s); and d) what you would do if you did not understand the
person(s) in the clip. The participants responses to the video clips were analyzed and discussed in terms of
the five main factors used as the assessment criteria by Chen & Starosta (2000) (i.e., interaction
engagement, respect for cultural differences, interaction confidence, interaction enjoyment, and
interaction attentiveness) to identify the participants IS development needs in the ELF context prior to
their sojourn to English L1 countries. The video-clips were downloaded from Youtube, and they were
presented to the participants who volunteered to participate in the study upon completion of the
preparatory program prior to their sojourn. Each of the videoclips had a different speaker talking to an
audience and using a different dialect of English peculiar to the linguistic contexts of the U.S. and the
U.K. The contents of the video-clips were as follows:
Videoclip 1: Young man with a BVE (Black Vernacular English) using ordinary daily language on a
stage criticising the Democrats policies on social insurance, health services, oil importation and
sending troops to Iraq;
Videoclip 2: Young man with a Scottish accent, using ordinary daily language on a stage comedy
program comparing Australia sandy beaches with rocky Scotland coasts in a funny tone;
Videoclip 3: Indian male student talking about the reason why he chose to pursue his graduate studies
in Ireland;
Videoclip 4: Mexican girl, who has just moved to Mississippi, talking about why she is trying speak
English instead of Spansih referring to the importance of English for her own future and career;
Videoclip 5: Irish student talking about the differences in accents and giving the definitions of a set of
words presented to him prior to his appearance;
Videoclip 6: American baseball player from Colorado talking about how he viewed his first baseball
match experience played away from home.
4. Results and discussions
When we consider the subjects opinions in terms the IS dimensions, it is possible to suggest that they
lack a considerable degree in all the dimensions, i.e. interaction engagement, respect for cultural
differences, interaction confidence, interaction enjoyment, and interaction effectiveness. The following
table demonstrates the participants concerns in their responses to the videoclip questionnaire items
indicating their lack of IS within these dimensions according to the subject, the speaker on the clip for
whom the response was made, and the subjects response.

Table 1. Participants opinion on IS dimensions
Speaker for
Subjec whom the
Subjects response Lack of IS dimension
t No response was
made
Yes, I would have difficulties. I do not know street
language. He speaks very fast.
BVE speaker
I can understand the words, but it is not possible to
understand all the sentences because he speaks very fast.
You have to be a native as he speaks a street language. Interaction engagement
He is very difficult to understand as he is very competent Respect for cultural
in his language. difference
1
Scottish speaker Interaction confidence
I would look for others whom I would be able to Interaction enjoyment
communicate with. Interaction effectiveness
It is very difficult to understand the speech. I could figure
out only a few words.
US baseball
player
I would have a lot of problems. He has a very good
command of his language.
What is the matter with the man? It would not make any
difference if I did not understand this man.
I would not say anything about the culture. I think he was

born by coincidence and lives unwillingly.
BVE speaker
If he were my son I wouldnt go home so that I would not
see him.
I would have acted as if I did not understand him.

He is trying to grab people with the way he speaks and
what he says rather than his posture. I think this is sign of Interaction engagement
a high intelligence, and therefore, he might be from one of Respect for cultural
Scottish speaker the Asian countries. difference
2
Interaction confidence
I would have problems. I think I would not be able to Interaction enjoyment
understand a good flow of language. Interaction effectiveness
Indian student His pronunciation is bad, but it seems intelligible.
I have to make a lot of effort to understand him, I think.
I would not have forced myself to understand him.

Irish student
His accent is not like one that I could understand. I would
have problems.
I would have asked him to speak slower and explain the
US baseball words I did not know. We would have probably stopped
player the conversation in 3-4 minutes as I would have got
exhausted.
He is not the only pebble on the beach; I would have Interaction engagement
BVE speaker found another friend or someone else whom I would have Respect for cultural
3 understood. difference
He seems very excited; he swallows the words. I did not Interaction confidence
Scottish speaker
understand what he said. I do not have the faintest idea.

Mexican girl I would not have tried very hard.

BVE speaker Yes, I would because he speaks very fast and aggressively.
I probably would because he speaks by swallowing some
Scottish speaker
of the words.
Interaction engagement
He is probably very close to his mother.
Irish student Respect for cultural
difference
4 I would because he has a very different accent.
Indian student Interaction effectiveness
It is very difficult to understand. I could not understand
anything except for a few words.
US baseball I would sometimes because his mother tongue is English
player and uses words that I do not know.
He might be of middle or lower socioeconomic
background and grown up with street culture.
BVE speaker Interaction engagement
I could have difficulties because he is aggressive and he
seems like a person who has difficulty in controlling Respect for cultural
5 himself. difference
Interaction effectiveness
Scottish speaker I did not understand anything.
Irish student I did not understand much.
US baseball
I understood a little.
player
I could not understand most of what was said, it was very
BVE speaker
fast for me. Interaction confidence
6 It is difficult to understand. Interaction engagement
US baseball
player
I probably would have difficulties.
Unintelligible, except for a few words.
Interaction effectiveness
7 BVE speaker
Absolutely. He speaks too fast to understand.
He has a speaking style that represents street language, not
considering whether the other person understands or not.
It has a very fast style for international students. If I catch

2 words I miss 3. Although the gesture contributes to the
intelligibility, it is not possible to speak with this man. Interaction engagement
BVE speaker
Respect for cultural
8 I would; it is totally unintelligible. difference
Interaction enjoyment
If were to ask something, I would have asked someone Interaction effectiveness
else. I he were to ask me, I would have put on my
earphones and avoided him completely.
Quite possibly yes; the speaking style is very boring.
Indian student
I would have found someone else to talk to.
I think I would have difficulty in talking to him as he talks
very fast. The inability of understanding everything he
would say would cause communication problems.
9 BVE speaker Respect for cultural
difference
He has a defiant speaking style. His speech was more like
street language.
The table clearly demonstrates that all of the subjects expressed a significant degree of lack of sensitivity,
varying between two to all the five dimensions identified in IS, and lack of sensitivity was evidently
expressed for all the speakers, though at a varying degree, ranging between with BVE speaker being the

highest and the Mexican Girl being the lowest. All of the nine subjects expressed negative IS for the BVE
speaker, three for the Scottish speaker, three for the Irish student, three for the U.S. baseball player, and
one for the Mexican girl. Two of the subjects expressed negative IS for 5 of the viedoclip speakers, one
for four speakers, two for three speakers, two for two speakers, and two for one speaker.
The subjects responses were also accounted for their attitudes towards the English spoken in the
videoclips, their awareness of the cultures of the speakers, and their tolerance for the cultures of these
speakers, their willingness and readiness for participating in conversations with these speakers if need be.
Their responses indicate that they had a lot of difficulties in comprehending the speakers which is
probably due to their unfamiliarity with the variants of English used in most global communication. The
participants tolerance for the cultures depended heavily on their comprehension level, their familiarity
with the speakers cultures, and their perceptions on the nativity of the speakers English. The nativity of
the speakers English and awareness of their cultures seem to be two of the major criteria for their
tolerance, respect and their willingness for participating in conversation.
5. Conclusion
The outcome of the study indicates that the participants need to have sufficient IC training during their
preparatory programs that would enable them to interact effectively and appropriately in intercultural
situations, based on specific attitudes, intercultural knowledge, skills, and reflection. This could be
achieved by exposure to ELF varieties used in the host country that could be done using audiovisual
materials integrated to an ELF syllabus whereby IC development would be achieved by the participants
their own involvement through exposure to such ELF varieties. Upon completion of the instruction
period the participants should develop sufficient intercultural awareness and competence, feeling of
global citizenship and positive attitude towards other cultures, and self-confidence in ELF
communication through their own involvement with enhanced IS in interaction engagement, respect for
cultural differences, interaction confidence, interaction enjoyment and interaction effectiveness.
The outcome of the study also has some pedagogic implication for English language education in
general, especially indicating the significance of IC training for all sojourners regardless of their
competence in internationally recognised formative exams, such as TOEFL and IELTS. Inseparable
dimensions concerning the pedagogical implications that are primarily important for ELF training can be
identified as sufficient intercultural awareness and competence, feeling of global citizenship and positive
attitude towards other cultures, and self-confidence in ELF communication through their own
involvement with enhanced IS in interaction engagement, respect for cultural differences, interaction
confidence, interaction enjoyment and interaction effectiveness. Furthermore, the pedagogic implication
of the outcome of the study should be considered in terms of all the areas of language education in
general especially in the fields of syllabus design, corpus planning, teacher training, and language policy.
About the authors

Faruk Kural is a coordinator of Fine Arts English language programs at the School of Foreign Languages of Yeditepe University. He is
currently doing his PhD at the ELT department of the same university focusing on the significance of ELT training for Turkish international
graduate students. He has a BA degree from Deakin University and a MA in Applied Linguistics from Monash University. He is interested
in ELF, ESP, syllabus design, multicultural education and language policy. Email: farukkural@gmail.com
Dr. Zeynep Kocoglu is an Assistant Professor at the English Language Teaching Department, Yeditepe University, Turkey. She received
her doctorate in Applied Linguistics from Bogazici University, Turkey. Her research interests include teacher education with a focus on
technology, program evaluation and language testing.
Email:zbkocoglu@yeditepe.edu.tr

References
Altshuler, L., Sussman, N. M., & Kachur, E. (2003). Assessing changes in intercultural sensitivity among
physician trainees using the intercultural development inventory. International Journal of Intercultural
Relations, 27, 387-401.
Barnlund, D., & Nomura, N. (1985). Decentering, convergence and cross-cultural understanding. In L.
Samovar & R. Porter (Eds.), Intercultural communication: A reader (4th ed., pp. 347-366). Belmont, CA:
Wadsworth.
Bennett, J. M. (1993). Toward ethnorelativism: A developmental model of intercultural sensitivity. In R.
M. Paige (Ed.), Education for the intercultural experience (pp. 21-71). Yarmouth, Me. : Intercultural Press
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of the Pacific and Asian Communication Association, Honolulu, HI.
Chen, G. M., & Starosta, W. J. (2000). The development and validation of the intercultural sensitivity
scale. Human Communication, 3, 2-14.
Deardorff, D. (2006). Identification and assessment of intercultural competence as a student outcome of
internationalization. Journal of Studies in International Education, 10(3), 241-266.
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learning. (pp.356-359) London: Routledge.
Hlmbauer, C., Bhringer, H., & Seidlhofer, B. (2008). Introducing English as a Lingua Franca (ELF):
Precursor and partner in intercultural communication. Synergies Europe 3, 25-36.
Klak, T., & Martin, P. (2003). Do university-sponsored international cultural events help students to
appreciate differences? International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 27, 445-465.
Penbek, S., Yurdakul, D., & Cerit, A. G. (2009). Intercultural communication competence: A study about the
intercultural sensitivity of university students based on their education and international experiences. Paper presented
at the European and Mediterranean Conference on Information Systems in July, 2009, Izmir.
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Hovhannisyan, I. (2016). Could we speak about ELF in Armenia? An exploration of Armenian adult EFL speakers attitudes
towards English. In N. Tsantila, J. Mandalios & M. Ilkos (Eds.), ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives (pp. 201-
211). Athens: Deree The American College of Greece.
Could we speak about ELF in Armenia? An exploration of Armenian

adult EFL speakers attitudes towards English
Iren Hovhannisyan
Abstract
The aim of this paper is to examine Armenian adult speakers attitudes towards English, the role of English within Armenia and outside its
boundaries, the importance of English and usage in daily life and, most importantly, an attempt is made to establish whether English is
perceived as a Lingua Franca in Armenia. This paper reports on the findings of a survey conducted among Armenian adult EFL speakers
(N=175) residing in Armenia. The data were collected with the help of an on-line questionnaire shared via the Facebook. The questionnaire
addressed the respondents attitudes towards English, the frequency of using English for different purposes, the respondents profiles and
their opinion about the most influential foreign languages in Armenia. The results unveil the EFL situation in Armenia as reported by those
who use English on a daily basis for their personal and professional needs and, therefore, have shaped their sound opinion about the role
and function of English within their country. What is more, the results present quite an interesting and paradoxical picture; on the one hand,
the existence and the necessity of ELF in the Armenian context is questioned due to the peripheral role of English and supreme dominance
of Russian in Armenia as acknowledged by the vast majority of the respondents. On the other hand, the respondents recognize the
importance and the role of English as a lingua franca in the world. Based on the findings, it becomes pertinent to acknowledge that in
certain contexts and under certain conditions, English may not exert its international power and may still function as a mere foreign language
with a slight advantage over other foreign languages.
Keywords: Adult Armenian speakers of English; EFL; English as a Lingua Franca; attitudes
1. Introduction
Language attitudes along with motivation are believed to determine success or failure in language learning,
determine the language choice and the amount of time and energy that one is going to invest in language
learning (Drnyei & Csizr, 1998). Attitudes towards a language are those predispositions which spur
ones interest in the given language and endorse its acquisition.
It is quite natural that together with the emergence of a new paradigm or linguistic phenomenon, the
examination of attitudes towards it acquires special importance as this is the case for English as a Lingua
Franca (ELF). This novel concept is open to research and discussion.
The aim of this paper is to present the findings of a study, which investigated Armenian adult EFL
users attitudes towards English, in general, and towards ELF, in particular. This study has undertaken to
unveil the EFL situation in Armenia and whether ELF has a functional role in the given socio-educational
context. This study carries an explorative character, because, to our knowledge, no study has ever
examined Armenian adult EFL speakers attitudes towards English, in general, and towards ELF, in
particular.
The results are believed to provide comprehensive answers to the following questions:
a) What is the role of English in Armenia?
b) What are adult Armenian EFL speakers general attitudes towards English?
c) Does English function as a Lingua Franca in the Armenian context?
Aristotle University of Thessaloniki: ihovahann@enl.auth.gr

Speaking about ELF in Armenia Hovhannisyan
2.1 Language attitudes

As presented in the introduction, language attitudes are perceived as a persons inner dispositions
(favourable or unfavourable) to an object (e.g. language learning, the English language, native speakers,
etc.) and determine success or failure in language learning. When talking about language attitudes, the
plural form is usually used, as language attitudes is an umbrella term, under which a variety of specific
attitudes resides (Baker, 1992, p. 29). For instance, research has focused on the investigation of attitudes
towards language variation and dialect; learning a specific language; a minority language, language groups,
communities and minorities; learning materials and methods among others.
Research on attitudes to a specific language is based on the reasons for favourability and
unfavourability towards those languages. However, the more typical scope of research on attitudes to a
specific language is on gender, age or background differences between groups of individuals. Attitudes
towards the speakers of the language and their culture are researched in SL and FL contexts (e.g. Csizr
& Drnyei, 2005; Drnyei & Clment, 2001; Gardner 1985, 2001; Gardner et al., 1976; Sougari &
Iliopoulou, 2012).
Attitudes can be influenced by such factors as the language learning milieu (Clment & Kruidenier,
1983), the individual learners characteristics (Drnyei, 2005) as well as the target language itself (Clment
& Kruidenier, 1983). In the present study, attitudes towards a specific language (English) and language
variety (ELF), will be examined.
2.2 English as a Lingua Franca

ELF is a considerably novel concept, a new paradigm, in which English is examined within its
international and intercultural dimension as a common language for international communication. Firth
(1996) defines ELF as a contact language between persons who share neither a common native tongue
nor a common (national) culture, and for whom English is the chosen foreign language of
communication (p. 240). Seidlhofer, a prominent scholar in the field of ELF, holds that ELF can be
thought of as any use of English among speakers of different first languages for whom English is the
communicative medium of choice, and often the only option (Seidlhofer, 2011, p. 7).
Basing on the above definitions, we can assume that ELF is a culture-free and neutral tool for
international communication (House, 2002). On the other hand, some argue that ELF carries the culture
of its speakers (Plzl & Seidlhofer, 2006). Likewise, Hlmbauer (2007) believes that ELF users develop
their own markers of identity (European, international or individual). In this respect, ELF is not exactly
culture free, it is rather multicultural.
As mentioned above, ELF research is in its initial, descriptive phase and the scope of interest of many
researchers has mainly focused on the examination of issues, such as attitudes and identity (Jenkins, 2007;
Meierkord, 2002); language ownership (BruttGriffler & Samimy, 1999; Widdowson, 1994); standards
and new varieties (Kachru, 1985); and of course, the role of ELF within English language teaching (ELT)
pedagogy, ELF-aware teacher education (Sifakis, 2014).
2.3 Attitudes towards ELF

In recent times, many studies have been conducted on ELF attitudes; some key studies in this field
(Decke-Cornill, 2002; Matsuda, 2003; Sifakis & Sougari, 2003, 2005; Sougri & Sifakis, 2007; Timmis,
2002; Young & Walsh, 2010) provide a very informative insight into the issue of teachers/learners
attitudes towards ELF. In their studies on teachers and learners attitudes towards ELF, the researchers
sought to explore issues such as pronunciation, grammar, ownership, identity, possible changes in ELT,
ELF-awareness raising, international posture among others.

The results of the above-mentioned studies highlight the following general findings: in the case of
teachers, they still tend to confine to native speaker (NS) norms in grammar and pronunciation (Jenkins,
2007; Sifakis & Sougari, 2005; 2010; Timmis, 2002); they acknowledge the importance of ELF, on a
practical level, though, express doubts about the incorporation of ELF in their teaching practices (Decke-
Cornill, 2002, Young & Walsh, 2010);they believe that English belongs to its native speakers; and many
teachers admit that they have to teach the standard NS model due to students demand for finding a good
job or passing language proficiency exams (Hsuan-Yau, 2008). Therefore, the findings of the above
mentioned studies show that teachers in the majority of cases are not ELF-aware or otherwise are
reluctant to incorporate ELF into their teaching practices.
The same tendency can also be noticed among the learners, as the results of the above studies display
reluctance and resistance to acknowledge or to accept ELF and, what is more, lack of ELF-awareness.
Consequently, learners prefer NS norms and varieties (particularly AmE) (Friedrich, 2000, Timmis, 2002);
acknowledge the international status of English, but claim that English belongs to its NSs (Matsuda,
2003); and show poor knowledge of Outer Circle varieties i.e. countries, where English is the second
official language/mother tongue or has a special status (e.g. Indian English). In this light, it would be very
insightful to examine attitudes towards ELF in the Armenian context, because of the lack of such studies
in this particular FL context.
3. Method
3.1 ELT in Armenia

Armenia is a small monolingual, monoethnic and monocultural country where 96% of population is
Armenian, the official language is Armenian and the official religion is Christianity.
In the Armenian socio-educational context, Russian has always been the second language (or later on
first foreign language) for teaching and communication and it is due to the special role that Russian has
in the Armenian society. Therefore, Russian is taught from Grade 2 onwards as the default first foreign
language (Syllabus for the subject Russian in general secondary education). English, French and
German are introduced to the national curriculum from Grade 3 onward as a second foreign language.
However, the choice of the foreign language is optional and it is up to the school councils to decide upon
the default second foreign language. Some schools offer languages such as Spanish, Italian or Greek as a
second foreign language in the framework of intergovernmental agreements or in cooperation with the
Embassies of the given countries. It must be mentioned here that around 85% of state primary and
secondary schools select English as the default second foreign language. With respect to time allocation,
English is taught for two hours per week from Grades 3 to 9, i.e. throughout compulsory secondary
education (Syllabus for the subject English in general secondary education).
Armenias language education policy are being appropriated to Council of Europe language policy
principles, which are called up to develop plurilingualism, language diversity, mutual understanding,
democratic citizenship, multicultural skills and abilities of individuals contribute to the active participation
in democratic and public processes in a multilingual society and social cohesion. In this way, the learners
are provided with equal conditions for individual development, education, work, free movement,
accessibility to information and cultural heritage.
In an attempt to follow the above outlined principles and more specifically, to develop multilingualism
and language diversity, the third foreign language (English, German or French) has been introduced from
Grade 5 onwards, which is taught for two hours per week.
With regard to the role of English in higher education, English is a compulsory subject in the higher
educational system and Centralized English/Foreign language examination is a requirement for entrance

to the majority of universities (state and private) (Applicants Guide 2014). What is more, the TOEFL
certificate is required for post-graduate programme admission in almost all schools and faculties.
3.2 Level of internationalization of Armenia

To be able to interpret the findings of the present study, it is considered important to present the level
of internationalization of Armenia, in other words, the degree, to which Armenia is involved in the
international community and open to international communication.
Armenia is a member of the following major international organizations: International Monetary Fund
(IMF), World bank (WB/IDA), International Finance Cooperation (IFC), World Trade Organization
(WTO), Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), Council of Europe (CoE),
United Nations (UN), UNCTAD/UNESCO, International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), World
Tourism Organization, World Customs Organization, International Telecommunications Union and
Black Sea Economic Cooperation. What is more, many international companies operate in Armenia and
realize long-term projects and investments.
Judging from the above, it could be assumed that Armenia is a rightful member of the world society
developing harmonically its international relations in different areas. Nevertheless, the dominance of
Russia is palpable in every area and at any level. Armenia is considered the most loyal ally of Russia in
the region. At the economic level, the greatest share of good import and export is realized to and from
Russia and former USSR republics. Russian companies are the greatest shareholders in key industrial,
strategic and manufacturing companies. Eventually, it becomes evident that Armenia is socially, politically
and strategically over dependent on Russia.
3.3 Participants, the questionnaire and data collection

The participants of the survey were Armenian adult EFL speakers (N=175), whose age ranged from 18
to 41 years. The questionnaire, which contained 32 items was in an on-line format and was devised in
English because it initially targeted competent English users. A link to the questionnaire was sent out via
e-mail and shared via Facebook in different groups, on different pages and on friends walls. Once the
questionnaire was filled out, it was immediately synchronized with the Dropbox folder, thus being
available online as well as backed up in the Dropbox folder. To be able to collect valid data, all the
parameters and settings were treated with special attention. For example, the online questionnaire was
adjusted to accept only complete questionnaires, only IP addresses from Armenia and to accept only one
questionnaire from the same IP address to avoid duplicate questionnaires.
3.4 Methods of statistical analysis

The data were exported to and statistically treated by the SPSS 21 (Statistical Package for Social
Sciences) software. Frequencies, means, standard deviations and percentages were calculated in terms of
descriptive statistics while for inferential statistics, t-tests were run in order to calculate attitudinal items
in relation to age and gender and the chi-square test and cross-tabulations were run to test the interrelation
of educational background with language certificate and preferred FL. The significance level was set at
p<.05. What is more, the Cronbachs reliability test was run to establish the reliability level of the
measuring tool, which rendered that the internal consistency and reliability was at the .82 level.
4. Results
4.1 Respondents profile

As depicted in Table 1 below, the majority of the respondents (59.4%) were 18 to 24 years old followed
by 24.0% of those, who were between 25 and 31 years old.

Table 1. Respondents age
Age Frequency %
<18 3 1.7
18-24 104 59.4
25-31 42 24.0
32-39 20 11.4
40-47 2 1.1
>48 4 2.3
Total 175 100.0
In Table 2, it becomes apparent that the respondents have a very rich educational background (see Table
2), where the majority (55.5%) holds a postgraduate degree.
Table 2. Respondents educational background
Educational
Frequency %
Background
High School 12 6.9
BA 66 37.7
MA 82 46.9
PhD 15 8.6
Total 175 100.0
With respect to the respondents occupation, an interesting picture unfolds, where the vast majority of
the respondents are students (40%) and full-time employed (37%), which implies that in the sample, there
are active English speakers who presumably use English for either studies or work (see Table 3).
Table 3. Respondents occupation
Employment N %
Full-time 64 36.6
Part-time 16 9.1
Self employed 13 7.4
Unemployed 13 7.4
Student 69 39.4
Total 175 100.0
The chi-square test was used to establish the number of those who have English language certificates in
terms of the educational background. The results yield that there are no statistically significant differences
and, in general, the majority of the respondents do not hold any certificate (see Table 4).

Table 4. Language proficiency certificate in terms of the educational background
Education
High School BA MA PhD Total
Certificate N % N % N % N % N %
Yes 0 0 20 30.3 27 32.9 6 40 53 30.3
No 12 100 46 69.7 55 67.1 9 60 122 69.7
Total 12 100 66 100 82 100 15 100 175 100
4.2 Attitudes towards English

The respondents profile outlined in the above section suggests that within the given sample we deal with
competent users of English, who have shaped their sound opinion and attitudes towards the role and
importance of English. In Table 5, the attitudinal items are presented in an ascending order thus
displaying the most highly favoured items and moving towards the least favoured ones.
Table 5. Learners attitudes towards English
The respondents believe that one must know English well M SD

to be able to study abroad 1.41 .65
to have better career opportunities and advancement 1.61 .69
to work in an international/transnational company 1.67 .73
to participate in different international seminars/conferences/summer schools 1.71 .64
because English is number one language in the Internet 1.72 .79
because English is the most widely spoken language in the world 1.73 .86
to be able to find a good job in Armenia 1.82 .77
to keep being informed about international issues (business, politics, culture, etc) 1.82 .77
because English helps them to explore and learn new things 1.82 .75
to make a free use of modern technologies 1.93 .86
to make friends with people from all over the world 2.01 .85
to feel themselves world citizens 2.06 .91
to participate in various volunteer missions worldwide. 2.07 .83
because when they speak English, they feel themselves more educated 2.25 .99
to have a higher social standing. 2.30 .94
to write and/or receive e-mails/messages/posts/tweets? 2.35 1.05
to feel themselves more "privileged" 2.35 .94
because when they speak English, they feel themselves more privileged 2.43 .90
because any employers require an English language proficiency certificate 2.70 .89
to watch films 2.78 .99
to communicate with foreigners when travelling abroad 2.82 1.12
to communicate with foreigners (within their country) 2.82 1.04
to write papers (articles, essays, compositions, theses, etc)? 2.91 1.08
A quick glance at the top ten items reveals that, in general, the respondents attitudes are instrumental
and, what is more, they manifest explicitly traces of international posture. For example, the respondents
want to work in international companies or to participate in international conferences, to browse the
Internet or to keep being informed about international issues and events. Based on the above, it could
be assumed that the respondents in the given sample are to some extent ELF-aware, in other words, they
acknowledge the international dimension of English.

4.3 Frequency of use of English

A small section in the questionnaire explored the frequency of use of English for different purposes. The
results are quite insightful and shed light to use of English. For instance, as depicted in Table 6, the
majority of the respondents occasionally communicate with foreigners in Armenia.
Table 6. Frequency of use of English in communication exchanges with foreigners in Armenia
N %
Every day 26 14.9
Very often 34 19.4
Occasionally 63 36.0
Rarely 50 28.6
Never 2 1.1
Total 175 100.0
With regard to the use of English for mail, messages, posts, etc., it becomes evident that the vast majority
of the respondents uses English everyday or very often to send or receive mails, messages, posts,
comments, etc., which implies that virtual use of English is much more advanced than interpersonal
communication (see Table 7).
Table 7. Frequency of use of English in the case of mail exchanges, posts, comments, tweets, etc.
N %
Every day 44 25.1
Very often 57 32.6
Rarely 27 15.4
Never 2 1.1
Total 175 100.0
With respect to the frequency of use of English in communication with foreigners while travelling, the
results render remarkable findings, which presumably could explain the existence of international posture
among respondents. Therefore, we can see in Table 8 that the majority used English when travelling. The
existence of international posture is, thus, explained by the fact that the respondents travel quite
frequently and, consequently, communicate in English.
Table 8. Frequency of use of English in communication exchanges with foreigners while travelling abroad
N %
Every day 17 9.7
Very often 62 35.4
Rarely 34 19.4
Never 15 8.6
Total 175 100.0

4.4 Language preference for different functions

The respondents were also asked about their language preferences for different functions. All the
functions were related to modern technologies and computers, essential attributes of virtually everyones
daily life. English was chosen by about 70% of the respondents for their personal computer interface,
smartphone interface and their on-line accounts such as mail or Facebook. The results show that 74.3%
of the respondents prefer English for their PC interface, 22.9% prefer Russian, while only 2.3% prefer
Armenian. The same tendency is maintained for the other two items as well.
Such results imply that we could speak about ELF-awareness and ELF in Armenia, in general.
Nevertheless, when asked about the most influential language in Armenia, the vast majority of
respondents (70.3%) firmly believe that Russian is the most important foreign language in Armenia,
followed by only 28.6% of those, who believe that English is the most influential foreign language in
Armenia.
4.5 Age and gender related differences in respondents attitudes
The t-test was run to measure the effect of gender and age on respondents attitudes towards English
(Table 9).
Table 6. Age-related differences in respondents attitudes (*Y (younger)=<18-31 and **O (older)=31 and above)
For the whole sample

T-test for Equality of
Motivation to learn English Age
Means
M SD T-value p
Y* 1.31 .62
You must know English well enough to be
1 31.645 .035
able to study abroad
O** 1.69 .73
Y 1.77 .76
English helps you learn and explore new
2 2.411 .021
things
O 2.12 .65
Y 1.67 .80
English is the main language used on the
3 1.333 .036
Internet
O 2.00 .69
Y 1.54 .67
One should know English to ensure better
4 3.158 .003
career opportunities and advancement
O 2.00 .69
Y 1.36 .79
You must know English to be able to make
5 -2.708 .007
free use of modern technologies
O 1.69 1.09
Y 2.89 1.11
To communicate with foreigners while
6 1.974 .056
travelling abroad
O 2.42 1.10
It becomes obvious that younger respondents had more positive attitudes towards English across several
items. Meanwhile, there were no gender-related differences in respondents attitudes towards English
across all the items, which is quite an interesting finding. What is more, there were no age-related
differences in the respondents opinion about the most influential FL in Armenia, while gender had its
effect, where males (81.4%) seem to favour Russian more than females (62.9%) (N=175, 2(2)=7.478a,
p<.024) and this finding will be discussed below.

5. Discussion and conclusions
Drawing on the results of the study, we can draw the following conclusions: although Armenian adult
EFL speakers acknowledge the international status of English and the need to learn English for
international communication, the existence and necessity of ELF is questioned due to the supreme
dominance of Russian in the country. Therefore, we can assume that English does not function as a
lingua franca, especially within the national boundaries, which means that we cannot speak about ELF in
Armenia.
In addition, we can, in general lines, assume that adult Armenians do not show global-mindedness or
openness to internationalization (e.g. make friends with foreigners, become world citizens, work in
volunteer missions, etc.). Nevertheless, we can notice that there is a junction between instrumental
motivation and international posture (e.g. to work in an international company, study abroad, participate
in international conferences), which is an implicit indication of ELF-awareness.
With regard to age, the younger respondents seem to have more positive attitudes especially with
regard to the role of English for Internet and modern technologies. The only case when the older
respondents were more positive was related to travelling abroad and communicating with foreigners (see
Table 6) and this might be justified by the fact that due to their age and professional activities, the older
respondents had greater experience in travelling and communicating in English.
If we look into gender-related differences, it becomes clear that Armenian adult EFL speakers
attitudes are gender-neutral (Akram & Ghani, 2013; Drnyei & Clment, 2001, Drnyei, Csizr &
Nmeth, 2006). It was interesting to find out that there was a gender-related difference only in the case
of the respondents belief about the most influential FL in Armenia. Males significantly outscored
females, and this is quite justifiable if we take into consideration the idiosyncratic situation in Armenia,
where, unfortunately, due to the severe economic situation, the devastating majority of male population
(18 years and above) leaves for Russia for better career prospects (mainly as workmen or craftsmen). So
we can assume that this is the reason that males realize more seriously the importance of Russian as the
knowledge of Russian helps them earn their living.
The findings of this study unraveled an interesting situation in Armenia, a typical EFL context, where
on the one hand we can spot certain traces of ELF-awareness. on the other hand, though, the influence
of English in general, and as lingua franca in particular, is greatly undermined due to the supreme role of
another foreign language, i.e. Russian, which, in fact, functions as a lingua franca in the region.
About the author

Iren Hovhannisyan, holds a PhD degree in English Language Philology. She is currently interested in conducting her post-doctoral
research in the field of ELF-attitudes and identity. Her research interests include language learning attitudes and motivation, English as a
Lingua Franca, intercultural communication, teaching English from early childhood, computer- assisted language education, computer
mediated communication, online identities and digital natives. Email: ihovhann@enl.auth.gr
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Rattanaphumma, R. (2016). ELF learners and their refusal strategies: Use of English in ELF contexts. In N. Tsantila, J.
College of Greece.
ELF learners and their refusal strategies: Use of English in ELF contexts
Ratchaporn Rattanaphumma
Abstract
Due to the spread of English as a lingua franca in the expanding circle, not only language awareness but cultural awareness
should be well functioned among speakers of various first languages. Savignon (2001) points out that cultural awareness
rather than cultural knowledge thus becomes increasingly important. What must be learned is a general empathy and
openness toward other cultures. All cultures have ways of exhibiting politeness in speech acts and the speech acts are
expressed in different ways in different cultures (Valentine, 1995). This paper aims to study the use of English refusal speech
acts employed by undergraduate ELF learners in Thailand. Data were collected from ELF learners through a Discourse
Completion Test (DCT). Learners were asked to fill in the answers that they would say in real situations. The findings show
that learners tend to use indirect refusal strategies on both situations. To match the authentic use of English in Thailand, it is
suggested that intercultural awareness should be introduced in English language classrooms and the focus on
communicative function should be put on emphasis.
Keywords: English as a lingua franca, refusal strategies, language and culture
1. Introduction
English has spread all over the globe to become the predominant international language (Seidlhofer,
2011). Currently it is estimated that over 1 billion people are learning English worldwide and according
to the British Council, 750 million of these learners are what are traditionally called English as a foreign
language (EFL) speakers while approximately 375 million are English as a second language (ESL)
speakers (Beare, 2010; cited in McKay, 2012, p.29). Based on the statistical data, it is important to
recognize that over 5 billion people globally do not speak English as either their first or second language
(Graddol, 2006; cited in McKay, 2012, p.29). This means that over three-quarters of the world population
are non-English-speaking (McKay, 2012). The data have corroborated what Crystal (2003) points out,
roughly only one in four of the worlds population are now capable of communicating to a useful level
in English and in turn, that roughly only one out of every four users of English in the world is a native
speaker of the language. This reality has manifested the term lingua franca, which usually emphasizes
the role of English in communication between speakers from different L1s (Jenkins, 2007).
In relation to language use in ELF contexts, where a population is diverse (whether ethnically, socially,
culturally, or in any or all of these ways), that variation is likely to be reflected in peoples use of language
in that more needs to be made explicitly clear between participants in a speech event (Nelson, 2011). In
relation to culture, the multitude of users of English and the huge diversity of contexts in which English
occurs underscores that in global settings there will be many varieties of English and that correspondingly
there can be no one culture of English (Baker, 2009; 2011).
This will be led to another aspect of the break of dependency on center-based cultural competence
(Kumaravadivelu, 2012), which attempts have been moved from biculturalism to interculturalism. If
English language contains English culture, the English language carries with it values and beliefs which
are hidden in linguistics codes but control from the depths the process of meaning during human
interactions (Gu, 2009). Thus, it should be stated that the focus on English as a lingua franca has changed
from one on form to one on function, with the interest shifting from the observed regularities of the
code to multiple ELF uses in intercultural contexts (Alptekin, 2013). Given by this, it is noteworthy
allowing insights into how speakers constitute and assert their multilingual identities and their joint
Assumption University of Thailand: ratchapornr@gmail.com

ELF learners and refusal strategies Rattanaphumma
ownership of the lingua franca they are using and shaping and developing them in the process (Seidlhofer,
2011). This means it is necessary to study how English is used by non-native English speakers and how
their local socio-cultural norms and values are reflected in their performance in English (Shishavan and
Sharifian, 2013).
Thailand is an expanding circle country (Kachru, 1985) where English is taught and learned as a
foreign language. Additionally, English in Thailand is used as a means of intercultural communication
(Baker, 2012). At present, it is more obvious to see the role of English as a lingua franca in Thailand
when English has been appointed the official language of ASEAN and the role of English has been
gradually stimulated by the contextual factors in Southeast Asian countries where the diversity of politics,
culture, and history have taken place (Kirkpatrick, 2010). As approached by Seidlhofer (2011), to
appropriate the language, non native users should adapt the language to suit their communication
purposes. This means their English is not the same as that of native speakers. Drawing on this notion,
an attempt to explore the language use by ELF learners in Thailand should be investigated. This
preliminary study reports the findings on pragmatics used by ELF learners who are studying in an
international university in Thailand.
Even though there are a large number of previous studies conducted in speech acts, little research has
been focused among learners of English as a lingua franca in the context of Thailand. The researcher
tries to investigate the type of strategies used by these learners and explore if their strategies are embedded
with their local and cultural norms and values.
2. Objectives of the study
This study addresses the following two research questions:
1. What are the refusal strategies used by ELF learners?

2. What social and cultural norms underlie the refusal strategies of ELF learners?
3. Limitations of the study
This is a small-scale research conducted in an international university in Thailand. Therefore, the findings
cannot represent the full potential of all ELF learners in Thailand and Expanding Circle countries.
However, the findings can be used to expand and conduct further research studies that may be significant
to English language teaching and intercultural communication in that context.
4. Methodology
4.1 Participants
A total of 80 convenient samples took part in this study. All of them were undergraduate students who
enrolled the course with the researcher in semester 2/2013 (January April, 2014). To ensure its certain
characteristics and control the effect of students English proficiency level, all samples were first year
students whose English is not their first language and their mean of age is 18-20. The table below shows
the participants nationalities.

Table 1. Participants nationalities
Nationality Number
Thai 36
Chinese 16
Korean 10
Burmese 2
Taiwanese 2
Laos 2
Vietnamese 2
Bhutanese 2
Cambodian 2
Timorese 1
Sri Lankan 1
Nepalese 1
Bangladesh 1
Malaysian 1
Japanese 1
Table 2: Participants fields of study
Fields of Study Number

Business Administration 47
Arts 15
Architect 8
Nursing Science 7
Communication Arts 3
4.2 Instruments
The instrument employed in this study was a Discourse Completion Test (DCT) originally designed by
Blum-Kulka in 1982. The test has been widely used since collecting data on speech acts realization can
be done both within and across language groups (Al-Eryani, 2007). Students are asked to fill in the
answers that they would say in real situations. Even DCT has been used extensively in pragmatic studies,
it has been criticized since the respondents have more time to answer the prompts (Shishavan & Sharifian,
2013). However, the tool helps the researcher collect big amount of data more practically under the scope
of time frame. The following are two sample tests in the study.
Situation 1: You are the owner of a bookstore. One of your best workers asks you to speak to you in
private.
Worker: As you know, I have been here just over a year now and I know you have been pleased
with my work. I really enjoy working here, but to be quite honest, I really need an increase in pay.
You:

Situation 2: You are a junior in college. You attend classes regularly and take good care notes. Your
classmate often misses a class and asks you for the lecture notes.

Classmate: Oh God! We will have an exam tomorrow but I dont have notes from last week. I am
sorry to ask you this, but could you please lend me your notes once again?
You:
4.3 Procedure
The test was distributed to students before a regular session began. They completed the test at
approximately 15 minutes. Before the test was distributed, the researcher explained the objectives and
instructions of the test. After data collection, responses were analyzed, interpreted, and quantified. In
order to classify the types of refusal strategies, a modified version of Beebe, Takahashi, and Uliss-Weltz
(1990) taxonomy of refusal strategies was used. The taxonomy of refusal by Beebe at al. has been used
as the template of classification of refusal strategies by a number of previous studies (Kwon, 2005; Al
Eryani, 2007; Geyang, 2007; Sahragard & Javanmardi, 2011; Shishavan & Sharifian, 2013). Therefore, it
is appropriate to base the answers on this classification.
5. Findings
5.1 Refusal strategies used by ELF learners
Situation 1
Figure 1. Percentage use of each refusal strategy
25
20
15
10
5
0
It is found that the most frequent strategy used by students is excuse, reason, or explanation (n = 22). The
second goes to set condition for future (n = 18) and the third is statement of regret (n = 10). The least frequent
strategy which is not shown in the figure is guilt trip (n = 1). Below are examples of each strategy.
Excuse, reason, or explanation
1. Thank you for your hard work. I would like to give raise to all my employees but there are other employees who have
worked more years than you. I am sorry. I have to deny your request. (Thai student)

2. Oh, I know you work very hard as same as others. If I increase the pay for you, that means I have to do the same thing
to others. It is unfair. I cannot do this. (Chinese student)
3. Well, I understand your situation. But to be honest, if I increase the payment, I have to increase the others payment
too. (Thai student)
4. I really appreciate what you have done for my bookstore, but you know we are now facing economic problem. This is
why I cannot increase your salary in this period. (Vietnamese student)
Set condition for future
1. I will increase the salary for you after you have worked for me about two years. (Thai student)
2. I know you are the best worker and I understand your situation. If the bookstore earns some
money, you can get some. If not, you cant. Can we set a level line, what about you? (Chinese
student)
3. Yes, I will pay to you more if you are honest to me. (Laos student)
4. Yes, I really want to increase your pay or salary but the shop is decreasing in sales. So I make
promise. When sales are increasing, I will pay higher salary. (Laos student)
Statement of regret
1. I am sorry because our bookstore is difficult to work very well so I dont have more money to
provide you. (Chinese student)
2. I am sorry but I have to turn down your request. The stores business is running a bit low lately. I
hope you understand. I am very sorry. (Malaysian student)
3. Sorry, all the workers have to be paid in the same amount of money. (Thai student)
4. I am very sorry kid, we dont have an intention to increase wage. (Thai student)
Situation 2
Figure 2. Percentage use of each refusal strategy
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0

According to situation 2, the most frequent strategy that students use is similar to the most frequent in
situation 1: that is excuse, reason, or explanation (n = 19). The second strategy is statement of alternative (n =
12), and the third is criticize and condition for future (n = 9). Below are examples of each strategy.
Excuse, reason, or explanation
1. I would love to lend you my notes but my friend already asks me for it. (Thai student)
2. Mate, I am afraid I cant do it anymore. Firstly, I have to use them for my reviewing. (Chinese
student)
3. You know, I would like to help but I also need my notes for the exam. (Chinese student)
4. I really want to help you but I lend my notes to Tina already. By the time she returns, I also have to
review. (Chinese student)
Statement of alternative
1. I understand. I also need it. So I give this note to you for a moment to read. Then you return to me.
(Chinese student)
2. Yes, but you have to make a copy and then return it to me. (Thai student)
3. Okay. But I have to study. If you want, then I make a copy of that. (Bangladeshe student)
4. I think it is better if you and I review it together. So if you have free time, please come. (Thai
student)
Criticize
1. Yeah, you know it is your responsibility to attend classes and take care by yourself. Make sure it
wont happen next time because I will not lend you anymore. (Thai student)
2. I think it is not good for you when you dont attend classes regularly. You always borrow my notes.
It is unfair to other students. (Thai student)
3. No, not again, I have been working hard and you always ask for my notes. (Thai student)
4. I cant. You always make it a habit. You had better review the book. (Chinese student)
Condition for future
1. Yes, but you should return to me before I go home. (Thai student)

2. Yes, but I must remind you that you should work hard if you want to pass. (Chinese student)
3. Sure, but return my note as soon as possible because I have to study for exam. By the way, where
were you during the class? (Thai student)
4. Yes, I can give you my notes but you should attend your class regularly. You should make your own
notes on time so that it will be easy to study for the exam. (Nepalese student)
5.2 Social and cultural norms underlying refusal strategies

It is found that students tend to use indirect refusal strategies on both situations. According to situation
1, students are assumed to be bookstore owners who are asked by the best worker to increase in pay. It
is interesting to see that even the level of formality between the bookstore owner and the worker should
be formal, excuse, reason, or explanation is the best choice among other strategies. The second most
frequently used is set condition for the future which is also an indirect speech act of refusal. According
to Fraser (1990), two of the major perspectives, they are the social norm view and the face-saving view

on linguistic politeness should be discussed. The social norm view is consistent with contemporary
approaches which view politeness as socially appropriate behavior whereas the face-saving view refers
to the desire that all people have to maintain and defend their own self image. The use of Frasers views
could be explained that ELF learners who are non-native English speakers from Expanding Circle
(Kachru, 1985) in Asia tend to use indirect refusal strategies by giving explanations or reasons which
sounds more appropriate than using direct strategies. It also seems that the strategies represent the
maintenance of relationship between a speaker and an interlocutor.
According to situation 2 where students are assumed to be a classmate whose notes are borrowed, the
degree of the level of familiarity is less than the degree in situation 1. However, the most frequent refusal
strategy used by students is similar with situation 1; that is excuse, reason, or explanation. It is interesting
to note that criticize strategy falls on the third place and this strategy does not show in situation 1. The
language use performed by students is indirect but it underlies speakers cultural values. The appropriate
values in the context imply that the socially indirect refusal should show some excuses, reasons, or
explanations. The degree of social distance is one of cultural and social values found from criticize
strategy.
6. Discussion
Even though this is a preliminary study consisting of two situations, the findings show some uniqueness
of language used by ELF learners to perform speech acts of refusal. Drawn on ELF domains, this can
be seen that ELF learners are able to use their own ELF to shape both the language and their identities
in the process (Seidlhofer, 2011). Their use of refusal strategies in English as a lingua franca is embedded
with their first cultural values and norms which tend to be socially appropriate in the context of ELF.
This is what Jorgensen (2008, as cited in Seidlhofer, 2011) contends that ELF users thus act upon, and
sometimes against, norms and standards and develop. This indicates that ELF learners use English as a
lingua franca for the means of communication which is associated with their cultural identities.
To match the real use of English in Thailand and Asia, it is suggested that intercultural awareness
should be introduced in English language classrooms. The emphasis on multilingualism and
multiculturalism, intercultural citizenship should be incorporated in English use in global settings (Baker,
2012). Finally, the focus on communicative function should be put on emphasis and not the degree of
approximation to NS norms (Seidlhofer, 2011).
About the author

Ratchaporn Rattanaphumma holds the Doctoral Degree in English as an International Language (EIL) from Chulalongkorn University,
Thailand. She is currently a full-time lecturer at Assumption University of Thailand. Her research areas are English as a lingua franca,
motivation and identity, and World Englishes. Email: ratchapornr@gmail.com.
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Batziakas, B. (2016). Achieving politeness in ELF conversations: A functional-pragmatic perspective. In N. Tsantila, J.
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of Greece. Athens, Greece.
Achieving politeness in ELF conversations:

A functional-pragmatic perspective
Bill Batziakas
Abstract
This paper sets out to look at the naturally occurring audio-recorded discourse from a group of international students at the University of
London, while they were holding meetings in order to establish an international students society (part of a PhD research project). In
particular, it looks at instances in which these international students were drawing lexis from all across their linguistic repertoire, and in
doing so they were managing to achieve politeness in their conversations. In the main part of this paper below, first, there is a review of
some of the major politeness theories in sociolinguistics, as well as a discussion of how politeness has been investigated in ELF conversations
between speakers from diverse sociocultural backgrounds. Building on these considerations, there follows an analysis of the way that
politeness was achieved in two extracts from the participants meetings. As it was found, the overall pragmatic function of achieving
politeness was further broken down into two sub-functions. The first one was displaying discursive sensitivity through avoiding profanity,
and the second one was increasing politeness through showing awareness of the interlocutors linguistic background.
Keywords: English as a Lingua Franca (ELF), politeness, pragmatic functions
1. Introduction
Although there is no single definition of politeness, this phenomenon can be commonsensically

understood as having good manners or etiquette in social interactions and situations. Politeness also drew
a lot of attention in sociolinguistics, and one of the first theories on politeness was Brown and Levinson
(1987). According to Brown and Levinson, there are two kinds of face, negative face and positive face, which
reflect two different desires that are present in every interaction. In particular, negative face reflects
speakers desire to express their ideas without resistance. On the other hand, positive face reflects speakers
desire to have their contributions in their interactions approved. Brown and Levinson also argue that
face is perishable, and as such it should be continually monitored and ensured during the entire part of a
conversation. Thus, it is important for interlocutors not only to continue saving their own face, but also
to continue saving the face of others during face-threatening acts. Brown and Levinson also propose
possible strategies which interlocutors can use in order to deal with face threatening acts. For example,
the bald on-record politeness is associated with the strategy used in situations where people know each other
well or, in situations of urgencies, such as when a speaker may shout watch out to an interlocutor. On
the other hand, the off-record strategy is more indirect, and it requires the hearer to interpret what the
speaker is trying to say. Also, with the positive politeness strategy, speakers aim at minimising the threat to
their interlocutors, such as by adding some kind of humour in their conversation of hedging their
arguments. Last but not least, speakers can use the negative politeness strategy when they require something
from an interlocutor, while at the same time maintaining the interlocutors right to refuse, such as when
they ask them various questions. The strategies outlined above are important to keep in mind here, as the
aim of this chapter is also to look at how the students were achieving politeness in the ELF-mediated
interactions of their meetings, with the idea to find out more ways through which politeness can be
achieved in linguistic ELF interactions.
Taking a more pragmatic and social perspective, Leechs (1983) theory on
politeness begins with drawing on two systems, pragmalinguistics and sociopragmatics. As he explains,
pragmalinguistics has to do with the speakers illocutionary acts, that is, their intentions, and it also
Queen Mary University of London: v.batziakas@qmul.ac.uk

Achieving politeness in ELF conversations Batziakas
accounts for the more linguistic applications and manifestations of politeness in his theory. These two
aspects also underline this chapter too, as it also focus on speakers intentions to be polite, and in
particular how they were trying to achieve this. On the other hand, sociopragmatics is associated with
how speakers would like to be perceived by their interlocutors. Leech also introduces two conversational
notions which he calls rhetorics, the textual rhetoric and the interpersonal one. The textual rhetoric refers to the
organisation of a text in a way which contributes to the language users objective. On the other hand, the
interpersonal rhetoric addresses has to with various interpersonal aspects of a text. He considers these aspects
principles, and he identifies three. The politeness principle has to do with the relationship between the speakers
and their interlocutors. It accounts for the regulation of familiarity between them, as well as for the feeling
that contributions to their conversations are useful and thus accepted by their interlocutors. The irony
principle deals with how the speakers can be perceived by their interlocutors as being polite, no matter
what their true intentions are. The third principle is associated with Grices conversational principle (1968), and
it has to do with the speakers attempt to minimise or maximise various elements in their interactions,
such as praising themselves or their interlocutors. These are also important to keep in mind, as there is
close resemblance with the way that the international students in the extracts below were setting out to
achieve politeness.
Politeness strategies have received considerable attention in ELF research too. One
interesting characteristic of this body of research is that it does not view the overall ELF context as
problematic, because of the interaction of people from different linguacultural and sociocultural
backgrounds. In turn, it does not see these diverse backgrounds as any inherent reason of politeness
mitigation, because of which the speakers have to take some action and resolve this issue. Instead, ELF
studies seek to investigate how politeness is achieved and sustained in ELF contexts. For example, Plzl
(2010) looks at Turkish academics conversing with international students, and she reports that one of the
ways that they set out to sound polite is by using Turkish politeness conventions, such as particular
honorifics showing endearment and affection, such as effendi and effendim, which mean lord and my lord.
Elsewhere, Mets-Ketel (2006) looks at the ELFA corpus and finds that the discourse hedging and in
particular the expression more or less was used extensively from non-native speakers in order to sound
more polite towards their fellow interlocutors. Likewise, Riekkinen (2009, 2010) also looks at the ELFA
corpus, and in particular in doctoral oral defences, and she finds that ELF speakers use more lexical
hedges in that corpus than the speakers in the ENL MICASE corpus, in order to communicate their
desire to be perceived as polite by their fellow interlocutors. In the same vein, Pullin Stark (2009, 2010)
looks particularly at business meetings, and reports that the small talk between the participants may play a key
role in the politeness needed in such situations, and in turn in the building of trust between needed between staff in companies.
The findings of the strategies used to achieve politeness in the ELF interactions in the studies discussed above are
important to keep in mind here, as the aim of this chapter is to shed some more light on how politeness in achieved in ELF
contexts. The examples looked at here again come from various audio-recordings from the meetings of
the society. As the students came from various countries around the world, they were bringing along in
their conversations various elements from the cultures of their backgrounds. Likewise, they were speakers
not only of English but also of their respective mother tongues, and some of them of other languages
and varieties, with some also having some knowledge of the languages of their interlocutors. All these
were utilised extensively, as it was found that the linguistic items employed to achieve politeness were
drawn from the speakers linguistic repertoires through flexible language use (cf. Leung, 2013), as it was
mentioned in the introductory section of this chapter. The examples are presented according to their
pragmatic sub-functions. The first one is displaying discursive sensitivity through avoiding profanity in
English, and the second is increasing politeness through showing awareness of the interlocutors
linguistic background. In each case, I specify the source of the information and the meaning of the words
and phrases or expressions which are looked at. Usually, this source were the students themselves in our

post-meeting discussions, or other friends or colleagues of mine who were speaking these languages, or
various online dictionaries in case I was looking them up myself.
2. Displaying discursive sensitivity through avoiding profanity
As mentioned above, displaying discursive sensitivity through avoiding profanity in English is the first
sub-function which was identified when politeness was achieved in the students meetings. To illustrate
it, three extracts are analysed below.
I have seeds
(Mandarin Chinese hanzi: , pinyin: you zhong, English approximate meaning: I have
balls / Participants: Arvin - L1 Mauritian Creole, Jose - L1 Spanish, Linlin - L1 Mandarin
Chinese)
In this extract, Linlin, after sketching out the characteristics of the ideal officer of the society at her
college, elaborates on why she believes that she could make a good candidate for that position. At some
point, she uses the idiomatic expression i have seeds in English, which is the translation of the Mandarin
Chinese you zhong, as she explained to me in our post-event discussion.
1 Linlin so (.) yeah it depends

2 i mean (.)
3 when i must i can listen to others and do what they want
4 to keep them happy (.)
5 but also when i want i can be strong
6 and say no youll do this youll do that
7 (1.8)
8 Marat hmm good tell us more (.)
9 Linlin and im not afraid to do what i have to do (.)
10 so yeah even if others disagree if something must be done
11 i have i have seeds you know @@
12 to do what i have to do=
13 Marat =what? you [have]
14 Linlin [have] seeds yeah
15 Marat you mean you have the seeds
16 you mean for the future? (1.2)
17 because in english we they we say
18 in english it is i have the seeds
19 ahh i i have a quality but its too early or im young
20 so it will be obvious it will show in the futu[re]
21 Linlin [no]
22 no no i have seeds (.)
23 ahh its chinese (.) you zhong
24 Marat Oh
25 Linlin its about what i told you before about my character
26 but in English i know it but i dont want to say it (1.2)
27 it has a bad word its not a good word (1.3)
28 it starts from letter b [@@@ you know]

29 Jose [@@ ok i see]

30 you can say have guts [then]
31 Linlin [yeah] i forgot about that
32 i just remembered the other one with the b
33 but i didnt want to say it because there is a bad word there
34 so i used the chinese one i have seeds @@=
35 Marat =@@ great (.) you had the seeds to do this @[@]
36 Jose [@]@@ yeah
Linlin wants to mention that she has the courage to insist when certain things have to be done, and thus
she draws the idiomatic expression i have seeds from Mandarin Chinese (line 11). Marat latches immediately
and his interrogative what signals his explanation request regarding the meaning of this expression which
is unknown to him (line 13). He even attempts to provide an explanation himself based on the meaning
of the word seeds which knows from Standard English (lines 15-20). In doing so, interestingly enough, he
oscillates between we and they and we say again (line 17), thus signalling some kind of awareness of the fact
that nowadays the English language is not used only by native speakers, hence they, but it is a code of
communication which everybody shares and which is somehow associated to everybody who speaks it,
and hence we. In Standard English, seeds refers to something which is starting now and has the potential
to become more important and stronger in due course. So, Marat tries out to see whether Linlins
expression means i have a quality but its too early or Im young so it will be obvious and it will show in the future
(lines 20-21). However, Linlins overlapping no (line 21) and her repetitive no (line 22) make it clear that
this expression is not related to the meaning of seeds in Standard English. As she explains (lines 22-25),
the expression i have seeds is Chinese, and she used it to refer to her character regarding her courage to
continue her tasks no matter the difficulties. What follows is also important, because it sheds light on the
reason behind Linlins choice to use this Mandarin Chinese idiomatic expression in a literal translation in
English, as well as showing her interlocutors appraisal of it. As it was mentioned above, for the purposes
of this study, meaning was not seen as having been made only upon speakers uttering a phrase or an
expression, but their interlocutors positive appraisal of this phrase or expression is crucial for that matter.
In this case, as Linlin explains (lines 26-28), she is aware of the Standard English idiomatic expression i
have balls which she could have used, but she did not want to use it because this expression has a bad word,
which she repeats by saying that [this word is] not a good word. Her argument seems to get even more weight
after a while, when she repeats the rationale behind her linguistic choice. When Jose offers his opinion
that she could have used the expression have guts (line 30), she repeats the fact that she remembered the
other one with the b (meaning balls) (line 32), but she did not want to use it because it contains a bad word
(line 33) and that is why she used the chinese one i have seeds (line 34).
3. Increasing politeness through showing awareness of the interlocutors linguistic background
In the previous extract, Linlin set out to maintain the level of politeness which she believed it was needed
for the meeting, and she did so by using a phrases from her mother tongue. The following extract is
different in the sense that the interlocutors did not try to maintain the current level of politeness of their
meeting through avoiding a bad word or expression, but to increase that level of politeness even more,
by using lexis which belongs to the linguacultural background of their interlocutors, hence the pragmatic
function increasing politeness through showing awareness of the interlocutors linguistic background.

Spacibo, xie xie

(Spacibo - Russian: , Xie xie - Mandarin Chinese hanzi: , meaning: thank
you / Participants: Breno - L1 Portuguese, Jose - L1 Spanish, Linlin - L1 Mandarin Chinese,
Marat - L1 Russian)
In this extract, after some compliments between Linlin and Marat, Linlin feels that she needs to thank
Marat. However, she chooses to thank him by using not the English expression thank you or the Mandarin
Chinese xie xie, but the Russian spasibo. In turn, Marat thanks her back using the Mandarin Chinese xie
xie instead of the English thank you or the Russian spacibo.
1 Linlin yeah cause i think youre good

2 yeah youre good (.)
3 [and]
4 Marat [@@] thanks
5 and and (.)
6 ok i dont know how much of time well have free
7 or if we are bored
8 or tired
9 (.)
10 Jose well [see]
11 Breno [yeah]=
12 Linlin =and but at least for LSE we can be sure that that
13 you know (.) that well have a responsible person=
14 Marat =@@ thanks
15 Linlin [@]@
16 Jose [so]
17 Breno [and]
18 Marat [ok] and i can say the same for you
19 KCL is really good too (.)
20 and we need someone you know
21 to to (.) you know we should know that we shouldnt worry
22 and i think you are you seem like this kind of person (.)
23 all the chinese i met are like that kind
24 good people=
25 Linlin =oh youre so nice
26 i should say thank you
27 you say this about my country
28 and why not
29 i should say this @@ in your country in your language
30 to thank you even more
31 my best friend is russian
32 @@ is is is it spaciba?=
33 Marat =@@@@ yes yes
34 thank you @@@
35 spacibo spacibo actually
36 but yeah (.) yours is ok too @@
37 Linlin i mean i want to say thank you in your language

38 because you said good things about

39 about my language eeer i mean my country
40 Marat sure (.)
41 Breno @@=
42 Marat =and i can do it in your language as well you know
43 ive lived in china for a while you know i told you (.)
44 and I had a good time good people
45 and I have a good opinion a positive feeling about you too
46 so (.) is it @@ is it xie xie?
47 Linlin @@@@ xie xie @@@@
48 Sure
49 Jose @@@@@
Further to their agreement for common action which they reached during the previous moments of their
meeting, Linlin and Marat continue with exchanging compliments and pleasantries (lines 1-24). For
example, Linlin talks to Marat and mentions twice youre good (lines 1 and 2) and also calls him a responsible
person (line 13). In return, Marat pays back the nice comments with saying i can say the same for you (line 18),
and he continues by emphasising her kindness, something which he attributes to her Chinese background.
As he says, all the chinese that i met are like that (line 23). At this point, Linlin seems to be so pleased with
Marat and his good words about her and the people of her home country, that she mentions explicitly
that she feels the need to thank him, i should say thank you (line 26), as she says. What is interesting is that
Linlin hears Marats compliments for her fellow Chinese people and she mentions that she wants to thank
him in his language (lines 28-29). Some light can be shed on her intention to do so considering the fact
that she mentions to Marat that she wants to thank him in his language for a particular reason, to thank
you even more, as she characteristically explains (line 30). That is, she believes that saying thank you to Marat
in English her politeness will not be signalled enough, but that she will sound more polite if she thanks
him in his mother tongue. Thus, she recalls spacibo from Russian and thanks him this way (line 32). Linlins
decision to thank Marat in his mother tongue seems to be a successful one, as Marat welcomes it
enthusiastically. First, he immediately latches to reply to her and he continues with a repetitive
appreciative laughter and a double yes in a rising intonation which shows his enthusiasm (line 33). After
that, he continues with a thank you and some amiable laughter too (line 34). What is also very interesting
to note is that, in return, Marat does exactly the same for Linlin (lines 41-46). He repeats that he has a
positive opinion about her and about the people of her country, as well as that he has lived in her country
in the past for a while, and he goes on to also be showing his politeness by thanking her back in her
mother tongue. Thus, instead of the English thank you, he uses the Mandarin Chinese xie xie (line 46). His
decision to do so also seems to be a successful one. Linlin replies with some welcoming appreciative
laughter, and also she accommodates to Marat and repeats his xie xie (line 47). She also continues saying
sure as a further signal of her welcoming attitude towards Marats initial xie xie (line 48).
4. Conclusion
The aim of this paper was to look at the international meetings of the international students who
participated in this study, and in particular at the instances of the students flexible language use, in order
to investigate how politeness was achieved during these meetings. What was found is that the students
were drawing extensively linguistic elements from all their linguistic backgrounds or from the linguistic
background of their interlocutors, and they were using various kinds of lexis either as it appears in its
source language or translated into English. With this flexible language use, they were setting out to sustain

or to increase the level of politeness which they deemed necessary for their communicative encounters.
This way, it was found, they were achieving politeness, and in particular two politeness-related pragmatic
sub-functions were also identified. The first one was displaying discursive sensitivity through avoiding
profanity and the second one was increasing politeness through showing awareness of the interlocutors
linguistic background.
About the author

Bill Batziakas is currently a Teaching Fellow in English Language Education and Applied Linguistics at Queen Mary University of London,
and a peer reviewer for the journals Asian Englishes, Writing and Pedagogy and the upcoming Applied Sociolinguistics. His main research
interests revolve around the pragmatic functions discerned in naturally occurring ELF discourse, communicative practices such as language
creativity and translanguaging in superdiverse contexts, the reconceptualisation of communicative competence, and the international
university. His PhD was at Kings College London under the supervision of Prof. Constant Leung and Dr. Martin Dewey. Email:
v.batziakas@qmul.ac.uk
References
Brown, P., & Levinson, S.C. (1987). Politeness: Some universals in language usage.
Goffman, E. (1955). On face-work: An analysis of ritual elements of social interaction. Psychiatry: Journal
for the Study of Interpersonal Processes, 18(3): 213-231.
Goffman, E. (1959). The presentation of self in everyday life. Garden City, NY: Doubleday.
Grice, H. P. (1968). Utterer's meaning, sentence meaning, and word meaning. Foundations of Language, 4,
117-137.
Leech, G. (1983). Principles of pragmatics. London. New York: Longman Group Ltd.
Leung, C. (2013). The social in English language teaching: Abstracted norms
versus situated enactments. Journal of English as a Lingua Franca, 2(2), 283-313.
Mets-Ketel, M. (2006). Words are more or less superfluous: The case of more or less in academic lingua
franca English. Nordic Journal of English Studies, 5(2), 117143.
Plzl, U. (2010). Signalling cultural identity: The use of L1/Ln in ELF. Views, 12(2), 3-24.
Pullin, P. (2009). Small talk, rapport, and international communicative competence:
Lessons to learn from BELF. Journal of Business Communication, 47 (4), 455-476.
Riekkinen, N. (2009). This is not a criticism, but softening criticism: The use of lexical hedges in
academic spoken interaction. [Unpublished MA dissertation]. University of Helsinki.
Riekkinen, N. (2010). This is not a criticism, but softening criticism: The use of lexical hedges in
academic spoken interaction. English as a Lingua Franca, special issue of Helsinki English Studies, 6, 75-
87.

Lee, J., & Kunschak, C. (2016). ELF in independent learning Lessons from an international blog project. In N. Tsantila, J.
Mandalios & M. Ilkos (Eds.), ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives (pp.227-233). Deree The American College
of Greece. Athens, Greece.
ELF in independent learning Lessons from an international blog project
Joshua Lee
Claudia Kunschak
Abstract
Educators in linguistically and culturally relatively homogeneous settings used to be hard pressed for meaningful authentic communicative
events in another language. With the advent of the internet and computer mediated communication, these limitations grew less prominent
while new challenges and opportunities emerged (c.f. Fuchs, 2011). The paper below reports on a blog project carried out between two
university level English classes in Japan and Macau, a special autonomous region within China, focusing on the affordances and constraints
from a pedagogical, linguistic and intercultural viewpoint. A total of 60 intermediate level students participated in the project. Participation
was voluntary but counted towards the grade in one case and was compulsory in the other. Postings were evaluated both by the instructors
and by the students themselves in a reflective self-evaluation. The paper focuses on topics, stance and linguistic gambits used by students
in their posts as well as instances of intercultural understanding and negotiation emerging from the exchange. For that purpose, student
entries in the blog were searched for words and patterns and analyzed with the help of the free software AntConc. Based on the findings,
it is argued that blogging can be considered an effective tool for the development of language awareness, intercultural exploration and
autonomous learning provided that clear instructions are given, participation is self-directed and exchanges are monitored and
acknowledged. Examples from the data illustrate the free language use of students, strategies used to convey meaning and the establishment
of common ground as one of the driving forces of interaction in an ELF setting.
Keywords: CMC, independent learning, common ground
1. Introduction
Educators in relatively homogenous settings used to be limited in the ability to provide meaningful
authentic communicative events in English. The increasing popularity of the Internet and computer
mediated communication however have provided more opportunities and new challenges for educators
to expose students to different types of audiences. This paper analyzes a blogging project between
students in Macau, a special autonomous region in China and students from Japan from the Kansai area.
The objective of the project described below was to expose students to different viewpoints from another
culture and to break down the borders between Japan and China. The vast majority of the Macau side of
the project were from Macau, with some from mainland China or Taiwan, all from different majors. The
students who visited the website were mostly freshmen Japanese students taking an English class, also
from different majors. In general, both populations were culturally homogenous from their respective
regions. In Macau, the students spoke mostly Cantonese and the mainland students mostly Mandarin,
although they share a similar written script. The medium used was an Internet blog in English since that
is part of the mission of the English Language Center at the University of Macau in cooperation with the
instructor from Japan, at Kyoto Sangyo University. The study explores how the students tried to establish
solidarity with each other through their own knowledge of either Japanese or Chinese culture or language.
The blog was also a space for students to share what they had done for independent learning. The author
used the website, kidblog.org, which was funded by the ELC at the University of Macau in order to add
more users. The purpose of the blog was to develop the communicative competence of students,
independent learning and their critical thinking which is part of the course objectives.
University of Macau. joshual@umac.mo
Ritsumeikan University. ckr12106@fc.ritsumei.ac.jp

ELF in independent learning Lee & Kunschak
Urciuoli (1995) discusses about how differences in accents can act as a boundary of whether or not
someone belongs to a certain speech community. Even in the digital age there are unique words and
sayings that could be considered a digital accent. Accents are most associated with spoken discourse.
Blogs are unique in the sense that they mix writing, but include the ability to interact which means the
genre can be somewhat conversational (Vettorel, 2014, p. 89). Kachru (1998) illustrates how Chinese and
Japanese English language learners are in the Expanding Circle and how the English language is no
longer just a Western Medium (p. 106). The project aimed to follow Kachrus suggestion of moving
away from the model of using English to speak primarily to native-speakers but to other non-native
speakers that reflects the multilingual reality. This also supports McKays idea (2003) that English is not
only spoken by the native-speakers, but increasingly used in multilingual contexts. Hence our attempt to
create a space for communication for two non-native speaking groups in order to explore the
communication strategies used between Chinese and Japanese university students. This space would
provide an opportunity for the students to use English as a lingua franca (Vettorel, 2014, p. 73). This
study focuses on language solidarity and also the use of culture to reflect back on another culture. In
other words, it attempts to show how to use culture to teach language and facilitate understanding. This
builds on Wen's (2004, p. 175) idea of developing students Intercultural Communicative Competence
and how communicative competence and intercultural competence interplay with each other.
Blogging would also assist in the development of thinking skills and provides an authentic audience
(Arena, 2008).
3. Methodology
This paper was interested in discovering how the blog increased student language awareness, intercultural
exploration and autonomous learning. Thus the researchers had to search for certain keywords related to
those facets of learning. Since the blog contained thousands upon thousands of words of text, it was
more productive to utilize software to assist in analysis. The data primarily comes from
http://kidblog.org/TeachersJoshandClaudia Section1 that included a total of 60 intermediate level
students. The data was gathered by copying and pasting different blog posts. This blog is closed and only
accessible to the students and the instructors of the course, including one teaching assistant; this is due
to issues of privacy. The posts were chosen based on the number of replies to each post since they were
the most responded to and had the most interaction. In Kidblog (2012), one can click a button to sort
the posts by number of responses. After that, each blog post was copied and all of the texts selected and
then pasted into a *.txt file. This was done for seven different blog posts that had the most responses.
The program designed by Anthony (2011) called AntConc was used to search for different words to
identify patterns for all of the posts. In the program one can view Word list of the most frequently
used words. For example, I was used 1108 times which makes sense since it was a personal blog.
Certain words were ignored during the analysis since they were computer system generated words (i.e.
Edit, Delete, Unapprove, REPLY, etc.) and hence would not provide meaningful data.
The questions that this study was interested in answering included the following:
(a) How does an intercultural blog project encourage and increase awareness of language learning in
independent learning?
(b) How does it increase intercultural understanding?
(c) What strategies are used to develop solidarity?

4. Data presentation and analysis
4.1. Language awareness and independent learning

The students shared different strategies of learning English independently. The blog provided a space for
them to share this experience. This part of the analysis was discovered by searching for the word learn
for this word is most associated with learning. One example included learning English through movies.
Thus students can share their learning strategies which can play an important role in facilitating language
learning (Oxford & Nyikos, 1989).
Subject 1
I find a good way for me to study English. I watch English movie. It can let me more easy to study English. It can
improve my English level. And I also listen a lot of English music. It can let me feel relax and study English.
Subject 2
Hey~ I love to see English movie too. I am very agree with your ways to learning English!
Subject 3
Hey, (Subject 1)~ im *** Maybe I have to learn your way to improve my English. Let us to enjoy the English
music and movie~ :)
Subject 4
I think your way of improvement is good because if people were interested in that movie, they would try to understand
what the movie wants to talk about. For me, if I read a new word when I watched a movie, I would look up the
dictionary immediately in order to not miss the opportunity of study.
Subject 5
I love to see English movie too. See the English can learn more new word.
Subject 1 began to share her experience of learning English through movies. Many other subjects also
voiced their support of using this method to learn English. Subject 4 also voiced support, but added
additional strategies for using movies to acquire more vocabulary by using subtitles and then looking up
words. According to Bhattacharya and Chauhan (2010, p. 383), blogging can develop independent
decision-making skills and the ability to take independent action, as well as language and cognitive skills.
In that sense, students had autonomy to add a blog post and also to comment freely and initiate
communication. Pinkman (2005) in a study of a class blog in Japan found that comments from others
also improved motivation and encouraged writing.
According to Ramos (2010), the role of teacher in the blog is important in encouraging critical
thinking among students in the blog. This is also similar to the significant role an instructor would play
in encouraging higher order thinking. This is partially why the instructor in Macau had his students write
about Womens Equality which was more structured and focused than a general blog interaction. The
other topic, Problem and Solution, included the students using a paper graphic organizer, choosing
what they considered to be a problem and thinking of creative solutions to that problem. The students
could then comment on their proposed solutions. This is one way to eventually allow students to think
more independently as the thinking process is scaffolded in the beginning.
Ramos (2010) also found that blogs helped to develop basic thinking and when a commenters
ideas are challenged which happened at several points in the conversation, this helps to promote critical
thinking.

Subject F:
Im not very like Japan, it is because about the Sino-japanese war. But I dont hate Japan. I think the Yamato
was better than Chinese nation.
The blog also helps to decentralize the role of the teacher as students try to seek knowledge and check
on their own assumptions by interacting with real international students.
4.2. Intercultural understanding and solidarity

One major way to develop intercultural communication is trying to find common ground with people
who are perceived to be different. This includes finding things you may have in common with the other
persons culture. According to Wen (2004, p. 176) sharpness of awareness can be developed only when
we have exposure to new cultures. Thus a blog could provide an opportunity to sharpen the awareness of
students. In a way, this sharpened awareness could make students think deeper. The following
introductions by students in Macau indicate a certain level of cultural awareness about Japanese culture.
Subject A from Macau tries to build solidarity by discussing her interest in Japanese culture:
I always watch the animations and read the comics with Japan, so I can speak Japanese.
In response Subject I, a Japanese responded by saying

I love Japanese animations and comics too. I want to talk with you in Japanese and English!
Subject H
I love watching Japanese drama and American drama. I was watching Hanzawa Naoki recently. It was so good
that I totally get into it. I also like to watch manga and anime. I listen to English songs and j-pop.
Subject B:
i think theres so many common between the taiwanese and the japanese,
like were all the polite nation(for example: me!)
besides,
My favorite novelist is a Japanese as well !
Haruki Murakami ! i prefer his short stories,
(cuz Im such a shallow badass without any patience,
so his short stories is always be my first choice! <3 <3
and last, i'm also feel appreciated have such an opportunity to communicate with you guys !
(not only the Japanese students also all the macau students!! )
For example, subject B feels Taiwanese and Japanese share many things in common with each other.
Subject C who is an English major mentioned the following:

In my leisure time I would read novel and watch animations, and for sure to listen music especially JPop. I have
studied Japanese for four years that I have a little confident to talk to another by Japanese.
Subject G:
Im Chinese when I was three years old I came to Japan. Now, I study Chinese in Kyoto Sangyou University. I
love China and Japan.

This student was more actively engaged in developing solidarity with Macau students which could
possibly be due to her Chinese origin and also her major in Chinese. In general, most of the students in
Macau attempted to develop solidarity by expressing their interest in Japanese culture, particularly with
anime, manga and J-pop.
Finally, one case of solidarity included a post by one of the Japanese students about a Cold day. It
seems the Japanese students were replying responding about being cold and miserable. This was one way
to share the feelings about a shared experience and to provide support. Another important element in
communication is using empathy. According to Liyan (2004) the gap between different groups can be
overcome by empathy, especially when someone is able to put themselves into the position of the other
person. This greatly helps in the understanding of another culture. One displays empathy through
emotions and facial expressions. By contrast, these visuals cues are lost in computer mediate discussion.
According to Yang (2004, p. 111), emoticons are often used since the paralinguistic cues in face-to-
face communications could be lost in online communication. This serves as a way to display emotion
and convey feeling to the other person.
For example Subject A in introducing himself uses the following, although his usage of such
emoticons seems random:
My name is *** , haha!
My favourite sport is table tennis / badminton :) !
There are about seven times in which different users use :) which is a symbol for a smiling face or
to be friendly to another person. For example student G,
Let us be a friend :)
Student B:
It is because my English is bad;( I dont dare to use English to talk with others. I am an extrovert, I will do many
things actively(such as make friends, speak out my opinion), of course~! Without using English~:P
Oh~ Forget to say that I donk like people poke fun at me. I have a bad tempered.;)
Subject C
I also have to make this blog,,,, I must early finish at minimum my quota of reading,,,(>_<)
The ;( indicates a negative mood since the student feels her English is not good and this emoticon
reflects that statement. Her usage of :P and ;) illustrates her ability to show she is being humorous.
Subject C may be demonstrating frustration with doing too much homework by using (>_<). Despite
some of the posters being from Japan and China, they both used emoticons to enhance their online
communication.
Other ways of demonstrating intercultural understanding is the process of explaining Japanese
culture to the students in Macau. In other words, those students have to understand themselves in order
to explain Japanese culture to another group to help with understanding.
For example, Subject Z, describes,

Kaki means persimmon in Japanese,
Ta means rice field in Japanese.

4. Discussion
Based on the findings illustrated above, an international blog project can provide students with an
opportunity to heighten their language awareness, develop intercultural communicative competence and
sharpen their critical thinking in the context of independent learning. In this project, students displayed
these skills through suggesting ways to improve their English, commiserating and encouraging each other
in the process, comparing Japan and China and finding common ground, exchanging personal stories
and expressing their feelings through emoticons. At the same time, they were able to engage in
independent learning, choosing what to write about, who to respond to and how much to engage with
the project on a personal level.
From a pedagogical angle, the benefits of such a project reside with its student-centeredness, the
authenticity of intercultural communication among two groups of non-native speakers of a similar
educational background, the chance to practice productive skills with a real audience, the use of the virtual
environment with its both technological and motivational affordances for a digital general generation,
the international nature of the interaction with its intercultural and political implications, and, lastly, the
degree of personal involvement hardly achieved with more traditional task-based instruction.
At the same time, some caveats for the implementation of a similar project should be mentioned. In
order to successfully conduct such an activity, good planning and regular monitoring are essential for
guaranteeing a stimulating environment for students to engage in deliberately. Furthermore, even though
a teacher may choose to present a few common guidelines or frequent mistakes culled from the online
discussion, little direct feedback to students will happen in this activity, which may lead to the
reinforcement of certain errors and patterns. Finally, the level of engagement of students will depend on
the possibility to collaborate with a group of other students of similar age, education and language
proficiency, which may actually often constitute the first hurdle to overcome when trying to plan an
international collaborative activity.
In order to overcome the challenges inherent in establishing an international blog project among
students, several aspects should be taken into consideration. First, although students may be called digital
natives in comparison with their teacher generation, some basic coaching on blog use is essential to allow
for smooth communication and avoid tedious and time-consuming follow up by teachers. Second, close
collaboration on the topics to be included, while still admitting interpersonal exchanges initiated by
students, will lead to a deeper level of interaction among participants. Third, the pacing of assignments
or interaction will also have to strike a balance between micromanagement and laissez faire in order to
ensure a steady flow of communication. For further fine-tuning, half-way evaluation of the project on
the part of the administrators will help smooth out any imbalances or distractions that may have emerged.
Lastly, the integration of different modes including one or two synchronous sessions or video support
may lend the program an additional boost.
5. Conclusion
This study aspired to analyze the type of discourse and intercultural communication between different
groups on issues related to learning English independently. In the process, students had to use various
communication techniques and strategies to convey their ideas. The intercultural blog exchange between
China and Japan has further demonstrated the potential of such an activity with a view to breaking down
barriers between two cultures or nations and also for students to realize similar challenges they may face
in learning English.

About the authors

Joshua Lee is a Senior Instructor at the English Language Centre at the University of Macau. He has an M.A. in English with a concentration
in TESOL from San Francisco State University. His research interests include using technology in language teaching and humor. Email:
joshual@umac.mo
Claudia Kunschak is an Associate Professor at the College of International Relations at Ritsumeikan University, Kyoto. She has a Ph.D.
in Education from the University of Arizona and an M.A. in Interpreting from the University of Vienna. Her research interests include
English Lingua Franca, multilingualism and intercultural communication. Email: ckr12106@fc.ritsumei.ac.jp
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Habjan, A. M. (2016). Philosophical approaches to ELF and vice versa. In N. Tsantila, J. Mandalios & M. Ilkos (Eds.), ELF:
Philosophical approaches to ELF and vice versa.
Ana Monika Habjan

Abstract
Building on the modified perception on linguistic (ir)regularity and (in)correctness proposed by numerous ELF-studies (see Seidlhofer,
2011; Dewey, 2012; Cogo, 2012), I examine in my paper rules and norms from an interdisciplinary perspective. I address this topic from a
general theoretical point of view, taking into account insights about language made by ELF-researchers, on the one hand, and philosophers
of language, on the other. In order to identify the fundamental prerequisites for efficient communication, I discuss parallels between the
roles played in sociolinguistics and philosophy of language by concepts such as malapropisms and false friends, renormalization, mutual
accommodation, languaging, negotiation of meaning, and on-line or passing production of forms. I claim that if one studies non-native
discourse in its own right the notions of grammaticality and appropriateness become unstable because regularity is connected with the most
various accounts of linguistic and extra-linguistic features. The conceptualization and representation of linguistic communication thus
requires a holistic approach, including various semantic, pragmatic and non-linguistic factors, something that becomes especially obvious in
the way ELF calls into question much of our normal assumptions about language. Based on an interpretation of examples from VOICE
and ELFA corpora, I suggest that empirical ELF-data can offer a productive illustration of some of the concepts developed in invented
philosophical thought experiments (such as the field linguist situation of Radical Translation and Interpretation or the irregularities of
malapropisms, cf. Quine, 1960; Davidson, 1973, 1986). In addition, the changed view on the role of (homogeneous) speech communities
in ELF-studies and in some major philosophical works indicates the need for a reconsideration of this notion in linguistic theorizing in
general and the revaluation of the role of idiolectal language use.
Keywords: rules, irregularity, philosophy of language, ELF, interdisciplinary approach
1. Introduction: Communication, communicative intention, cooperation
The point of departure of this paper is the increasing interest of linguistic investigation for linguistic
phenomena that deviate from the stable and regular language system. As studies of (potentially)
ungrammatical and rapidly changing linguistic forms have shown, communicative intention and
cooperation between interlocutors are (among) the most important characteristics of language as such.
As a consequence, this communicative intention and cooperation between interlocutors should also be
taken into consideration in theoretical approaches to language. If the dynamic, constantly changing and
unconventional utterances are to be interpreted correctly, the interlocutors have to pay special attention
to linguistic forms and the specific context of each utterance. This observation, i.e. the fact that special,
cooperative effort is needed for successful communication, might appear very trivial. However, we
should not ignore the fact that (especially) in cases of unconventional speech this maximized cooperative
disposition can turn out to be crucial and thus theoretically interesting. In non-native discourse, which is
generally considered as (potentially) irregular, the need of an increased effort in interpreting a linguistic
utterance can be observed in an unusually direct way and will therefore be the focus of attention in this
paper.
The fact that the rules of language and speech are hardly stable is constantly being demonstrated by
sociolinguists and applied linguists and this topic is also of prime importance in recent ELF studies. I
will, however, address this issue from a general theoretical point of view, taking into account insights
about language made by ELF-researchers on the one hand, and philosophers of language on the other.
Thus, I want to approach this question from a very different angle and draw a parallel between linguistic,
empirical approaches to language and a certain philosophical conception. More precisely, Davidson
(1986) addresses very similar questions by discussing so-called malapropisms and tries to show that
language is a phenomenon that is being created in the ongoing process of communication.
University of Vienna, Department of Linguistics. anamonikahabjan@outlook.com

Philosophical approaches to ELF Habjan
2. Donald Davidson: Passing theory and malapropisms
Davidsons theory of communicative interaction can be summed up as follows: he suggests that in human
communication there is a special relationship between the speakers and their shared world, and he calls
this interdependence triangulation. Each participant brings into the speech event his own so-called prior
theory (Davidson, 1986, p. 442), which consists of a predisposition to interpret utterances and the belief
that the other speaker uses an appropriate interpretative framework to understand ones utterances. To
make first encounters possible, a so-called principle of charity must be applied, according to Davidson,
which ascribes to other participants in the conversation rationality, consistence and truth. This charity,
nevertheless, presupposes similar background beliefs. In the progress of the interaction, however,
substantial differences between the speakers are encountered and thus modifications of the prior theories
have to be made. The prior theories are readjusted, which leads to the emergence of so-called passing
theories. The passing theories strongly rely on the concrete intentions and the subtle interpretative
readjustments during conversation itself. In turn, these ongoing adjustments rely on the common
acceptance of and access to a shared world, or, in other words, on the shared background beliefs about
how the world is constructed as well as the immediate context of the speech event, which is equally
accessible to all the participants.
This view is basically brought forward in Davidsons article A Nice Derangement of Epitaphs
(1986), from which I draw most of my key arguments. The beginning of the text shows examples of
incorrect usages of words that are, however, very well understood in communication. His passing theory,
which he posits at the end of the article, could be associated with several principles discussed in ELF-
studies. These include the cooperative imperative (Widdowson, 1983, 1990), the online idiomatizing with
pro-tem idiomatic expressions (Seidlhofer, 2009), the online co-construction of forms, the mutual
accommodation and the creation of hybridized linguistic resources (Jenkins, Cogo & Dewey, 2011). What
Davidson (1986) calls passing theory could also be connected to the languaging and languagers from
sociolinguistic research (Jrgensen, 2008, 2010; Jrgensen & Spindler Mller, 2014; Phipps, 2006; for
ELF see Seidlhofer, 2009, 2011).
I suggest that empirical ELF-data can offer a productive illustration of some of the concepts
developed in invented philosophical thought experiments (e.g. Quine, 1960; Davidson, 1973, 1986). I am
thinking here particularly of such phenomena as the irregularities of malapropisms. However, as I will try
to show, it seems that these principles shared by ELF-studies and Davidsons philosophy of language are
a general linguistic feature of any linguistic production, be it native, non-native or, say, multilingual.
As already mentioned, Davidson opens A Nice Derangement of Epitaphs by quoting so-called
malapropisms his examples are, for instance, to take for granite, a long face no see, to hit the nail
right on the thumb, a baffle of wits, a pinochle of success (Davidson, 1986, p. 433) , which can be
defined in the following way:
Malapropism is an amusing error that occurs when a person mistakenly uses a word that sounds like
another word but that has a very different meaning. [It is] the usually unintentionally humorous
misuse or distortion of a word or phrase; especially: the use of a word sounding somewhat like the one
intended but ludicrously wrong in the context (Merriam Webster, 2011, s. v. malapropism).
An often cited more common example would be: to dance a flamingo instead of to dance a flamenco.
After opening the article with a number of malapropisms, Davidson detects a key problem by asking
how it is possible that in all these cases the hearer has no trouble understanding the speaker in the way
the speaker intends (Davidson, 1986, p. 434).

To my view, non-native discourse, and ELF in particular, is very similar to the speech of eccentric Mrs
Malaprop, i.e. the character in Sheridans, 1775, play The Rivals from which the notion of malapropism is
taken. Davidsons argument can hence find wonderful illustration in examples of ELF-talk. As Davidson
himself says, it is not necessary that the malapropisms are amusing or surprising. It does not have to be
based on a clich, and of course it does not have to be intentional. There need be no play on words, no
hint of deliberate pun. [..] [T]he humour is adventitious. (Davidson, 1986, p. 433f.). Accordingly,
constructions that are irregular, incorrect or ungrammatical may be interpreted by using
Davidsons theory.
3. Re-normalization and coinages
A typical error that can occur either in normal speech or in non-native discourse is the utterance of non-
existing words or phrases, which can nonetheless be (correctly) interpreted due to their form, as they
realize general regularities of a given language. Barbara Seidlhofer calls the principle at work behind this
process open-choice principle, where linguistic resources are applied beyond conventional word usage. What
results from this are some kind of word blends, which Seidlhofer (2011, p.104) also calls coinages.
Normally, these forms are not uttered intentionally, so I would not (only) speak of creativity, but rather
of (more or less typical) errors. Numerous examples from the ELF-corpora (where word blends are
produced or existing morphemes are combined in an incorrect way) can illustrate this:
(1) S2 [Lithuanian]: since universal declaration of human rights was established there was many things done like books
seminars like activities like conferences towards the promoting and securiting of human rights but erm but it's like
er strange because it seems like we notice the conflicts [] when it it got really violent
(ELFA USEMP01D)
(2) S2 [Korean]: while this university xx is one of the most pres--stigious universities in korea the univic- university's
determination and drive for globalization is very strong as meaning its one hundredth anniversity korean university
has prepared to take off as then a foreform of the globalization.
(VOICE PRqas19:2)
(3) S4 [German]: this is still no it's still under discussion because internally we we couldn't find a a consense regarding
regarding this @@ collection
(VOICE PBmtg463:1546)
In (1) securiting in place of securing is formed under the influence of the common noun security. Also, the
blend securitize and securitization can be found in VOICE. (2) is very interesting and amusing as well: the
coinage anniversity seems to be a mixture of anniversary and university, which is easily intelligible, because
the topic of the talk is the 100th anniversary of a university. And (3) is a blend of sense and consensus or
even a false friend of the German Konsens.
According to Davidsons theory in A Nice Derangement of Epitaphs, these instances are not even
regarded as erroneous or odd. Rather, they are automatically, easily and correctly understood, because
the passing theory is continuously being adapted to what is going on. So one could talk about automatic
error-tolerance or renormalization, since there is an interpretive flexibility at work due to which not only
common, conventional, correct forms are tolerated, but also deviations from standard usage do not pose
any difficulties to interpretation. Behind this flexibility Davidson discerns the following strategy: the
hearer corrects the meaning (and hence the form) of the expression as soon as the form he or she
encounters cannot correspond to the standard interpretation and/or does not seem logical and would as
such violate the principle of charity (according to this principle the interlocutor is taken to be a rational being
that utters true sentences; see also section 2 above). In this respect, the correct interpretation of falsely
used words or even non-words could be explained.

But if one is to be truly consistent with Davidsons argument, one should not even talk about error-
tolerance or re-normalization. For the prior theory is not at all supposed to be superior to the passing theory.
According to Davidson, what is happening in communication is not correction of false expressions, but a
constant modification of the passing theory itself, so that it can grasp new expressions. In this sense, errors
are no errors proper, no deviation from the norm, but rather impulses for the change of expectations and
interpretations. For, as Davidson claims, there is no shared, underlying language (Davidson, 1986, p. 446).
Arguably, this position is very questionable, and I would rather say that in normal communication quite
a lot is shared and deviations from the norm are perceived as indeed deviations. But in principle, the view
of errors as mere impulses for a change of interpretation theory is to my view truly challenging.
4. Malapropisms and false friends
In this next section, I want to apply Davidsons argument to non-native discourse by drawing yet another
parallel, namely between malapropisms and false friends. I do this partly on the basis of Davidsons article
Radical Interpretation (1973), where one can affirm a kind of suspension of the difference between
communication in a native language and that in a foreign one. Therefore, if the borders between languages
are negated, malapropisms i.e. errors within one language can be in fact considered the same as false
friends, which are usually discussed in connection with interferences and second language acquisition.
However, an obvious difference between malapropisms and false friends lies in the fact that the latter
occur when two languages are involved. So the error is normally ascribed to the lack of competence of a
non-native speaker and thus called a mistake, whereas a malapropism is connected to the speakers
eccentricity or inadvertence. But in principle, if there is no obvious substantial difference between a native
and a non-native speaker, both malapropisms and false friends are (i) a spontaneous mixing up of words
that are similar in sound, (ii) are phenomena with a particular, often amusing effect and (iii) allow a still
effective interpretation of the utterance. The following examples from VOICE can illustrate these
characteristics:
(4) S2 [Spanish]: english as lingua franca in xx maybe and english mixed with all the languages all over europe maybe
with declinations in german or with many verb conjugations in spanish
S1 [Dutch]: mhm
S3[Dutch]: so th- that's basically the new one
S1: yah
S3: a new kind of english
(VOICE EDwsd304:1580-1584)
(5) S2 [German]: [] okay good so this is basically what i had to say now it's up to you do you need the
S3 [Polish]: yeah
S2: beamer {S3 sets up her laptop and equipment (4)}
S1 [German]: yeah
(VOICE PBmtg269:27-30)
(6) S1 [German]: yes maybe i don't know who who is responsible
S2 [Italian]: who is running the the chefs or
S1: i don't know who is responsible and who can sign so you have to check there
S2: no because i ask er for the chef
S1: uhu
[]
S2 [Italian]: can you tell me where is er hirschengasse because my my chef lives here i suppose
(VOICE EDsve423: 263-267; 382)
In (4) declination is used instead of declension. But the conversation is about linguistic particularities, so it
can be clear to all the interlocutors what is meant (namely, variation of the form of nouns, adjectives etc.
in grammar, and not angular distance or deviation). In (5), however, the extra-linguistic context is decisive:

as can be seen from the responses, S3 answers the question affirmatively (yeah) even before S2 finishes
her question and pronounces the word beamer (instead of computer projector). Obviously, S3 can discern
from the situation what the question is about and does not interpret beamer as a BMW. Similarly, in (6), if
there is no kitchen or restaurant nearby and the question is about how to get signatures from a person in
charge, chef will not be interpreted as cook, especially not by German-speaking interlocutors.
5. Foreign language elements
Another specific characteristic of non-native discourse that can, in my view, be compared to occurrences of
malapropisms, is the introduction of words from the first (or other) language(s) of the speakers in the
foreign-language conversation. As this is about occasional, isolated insertions of single words or
constructions from the first (or other foreign) language(s) one of the speakers knows, in a monolingual
ELF-conversation and no constant mixing of two languages, I would not talk about code-switching in the
proper sense here, but would rather describe these cases as codeswitching-elements or state a multilingual
repertoire (Seidlhofer, 2011, p. 105).
When introducing foreign elements into a conversation, which is, in principle, monolingual, this is a
violation of the so-called prior theory. This is actually a considerable challenge for the hearer from the
speaker, because the hearer can, in general, not be assumed to understand the foreign expression. So, this
shows some kind of direct reliance on the passing theory, i.e. on the ability of the hearer to adapt his/her
passing theory even to another language. The hearer/interpreter must therefore not only infer a meaning
(e. g. with the aid of the context or other linguistic and extra-linguistic indices), but, to start with, he/she
must understand, that they deal with another language (often the first language of the speaker).
On the other hand however, these cases can also be in a certain sense easier to interpret, because
the hearer knows right away that the expression is beyond the conventional linguistic resource and that
he/she must apply a strategy to interpret it correctly. In general, these cases can be considered either
as a way out when the linguistic competence is not sufficient, or as an accommodation between the
speakers, e. g. when the foreign word is taken from a third, neutral language all of the participants are
familiar with, which can also be illustrated with the following examples:
(7) S1 [Italian]: because i always er erm i'm always s- spaet @@

S2:@@@
S1: and er and so i must run and if i find tourists
S2 @@ okay
S1: they walk too slowly for me @@ and so yes
(VOICE LEcon405: 12-16)
(8) S1 [Italian]: and er i see some films i saw er george clooney er good night and good luck but er a foreign film and
erm ralph fiennes er as er i i don't know the title but but my favorite erm pasolini is er an italian krimi and er i i like
it very much and also er perhaps xxx
(VOICE LEcon405: 159)
(9) S3 [Italian]: yeah because it seem not so er strong er as i thought
S4 [German]: mhm
S3: er how many er grades grade er {S3 is browsing through her dictionary} er stufe but not stufe er alkoholstufe
S4: mhm
S3: you know
S4:@@
S5 [German]: i don't know
S3: i don't know
S4: but more than one thinks @@
S3: yeah i think so yeah in italy i in italy i erm i li- i like to drink er red w- wine
S4: mhm
S3: because er for example when i eat er meat or er kaese and so

S4: mhm
[]
S3: yeah me too i i prefer red wine i think it's better and so but er erm we have some er erm er white wine with erm
erm like mineral water wasser so the the policine [sic!] @
(VOICE LEcon417: 245-257; 271)
(10) S9 [English]: yeah it's about opening channels of communication as well cos keep communication is awareness
raising and
S7 [Dutch]: yeah
[]
S3 [French]: parce que you have of course the youth council but it's like for n g os
S9: yeah
(VOICE POwgd375:492-496)
(11) S1 [German]: okay all right in that case we'll do it together you just write down what xxx okay so i take it then that
the idea is that we look at questions under roemisch zwei okay so under section two here academic issues and i
will just call objectives and backgrounds and we may perhaps proceed as follows
(VOICE POwgd243:94)
The examples illustrate quite nicely the strategies mentioned above: In (7) the foreign word is taken
from the language of the hearer, which is also the local language of the speech event. So it is more likely
that it is an adjustment to the hearer than that the speaker would not know the English equivalent for
spaet (late). In (8) and (9) we could also speak about accommodation or a hybridized linguistic resource
trying to co-construct meaning, because the foreign words are all from the local language and the language
of the hearer. But, whereas this is the case with alkoholstufe (alcohol degree), kse (cheese) and wasser
(water), the last example, bollicine (small bubbles), is definitely a switch to the speakers first language,
because of a missing English word. (10) should, on the contrary, be explained very differently, because
it is very unlikely that the speaker does not know the English conjunction because. On my opinion,
the use of parce que is either a slip of the tongue, or, even more likely, it is a deliberate marker of the
speakers own (linguistic) identity. It is also interesting that (among all the examples mentioned here) only
one, i.e. (11), is actually translated by the speaker (rmisch zwei section two), so this could be an indication
that in this case the (linguistic or extra-linguistic) context or the foreign language competence of the
hearers would not enable them to understand the expression correctly, at least in the speakers opinion.
6. Conclusion
In conclusion, what I wanted to show was that in general communication in a native language is not
substantially different to that in non-native discourse: the same principles and strategies have to be applied.
There is, however, a difference in degree. One way of showing this was to demonstrate that a
philosophical theory, like Donald Davidsons, and empirical data, like from ELF-corpora, have a lot in
common. With all the irregularities, errors or, say, inventions that come along in non-native as well as in any
other kind of discourse, the notions of grammaticality and appropriateness become unstable. For the
meaning of the utterances is connected to the most various accounts of linguistic and extra-linguistic
features. Consequently, the shared, common and stable speech community can also in theoretical
linguistics no longer be considered as the natural and necessary background of effective
communication and of a language. Rather, the foundation of linguistic communication is to be sought in
the idiolect, the individual mode of expression, the ability and willingness for accommodation and the
basic background knowledge about rationality and the world. Or, to conclude with Davidsons wording:
[I]t comes to saying that the ability to communicate by speech consists in the ability to make oneself
understood, and to understand. It is only when we look at the structure of this ability that we realize
how far we have drifted from standard ideas of language mastery. For we have discovered no

learnable common core of consistent behaviour, no shared grammar or rules, no portable interpreting
machine set to grind out the meaning of an arbitrary utterance. [] But if we do say this, then we
should realize that we have abandoned not only the ordinary notion of a language, but we have erased
the boundary between knowing a language and knowing our way around in the world generally
(Davidson, 1986, p. 445f.).
About the author

Ana Monika Habjan has an MA in French and Russian from the University of Ljubljana. In 2015, she has defended her dissertation on
rules and norms in non-native discourse at the Department of Linguistics, University of Vienna. Her scholarly interests also include
multilingualism, new grammar theories and philosophy of language. She has held scholarships from the Slovene Human Resources
Development and Scholarship Fund and from the University of Vienna. Email: anamonikahabjan@outlook.com
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ONeal, G. (2016). The negotiation of intelligible pronunciation in English as a Lingua Franca in Northeast Asia. In N.
Tsantila, J. Mandalios & M. Ilkos (Eds.), ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives (pp. 241-248). Athens: Deree
The negotiation of intelligible pronunciation in English as a Lingua Franca in

Northeast Asia
George ONeal
Abstract
This conversation analytic study examines the repair of the intelligibility of pronunciation in English as a Lingua Franca (ELF)
interactions in Northeast Asia with qualitative and quantitative methods (Jenkins, 2000; Walker, 2010; Matsumoto, 2011;
Bjrkman, 2014). Matsumoto (2011) demonstrates that the intelligibility of pronunciation is a negotiable phenomenon, and
that ELF speakers sometimes have to collaboratively achieve intelligible pronunciation. The qualitative portion of this study
closely follows Matsumotos (2011) method of determining which pronunciations are intelligible in ELF interactions. Using
sequential analysis to examine a corpus of miscommunications in which ELF speakers orient to pronunciation as a trouble
source, this study analyzed the segmental phonemes in words ELF speakers oriented to as unintelligible and the segmental
phonemes in the words that were segmentally repaired into more intelligible pronunciations. The analysis of segmental repair
sequences, in which ELF speakers orient to words as unintelligible and modify the pronunciation of the word into more
intelligible forms, allows the analyst to determine the segmental causes of unintelligibility and the segmental catalysts for the
restoration of intelligibility. The quantitative portion of this study loosely follows Bjrkmans, (2014) method of quantifying
repair strategies, but limits the quantification to segmental repair strategies. That is, this study only quantifies repair strategies
that modify pronunciation. This study classified all segmental repairs into three categories: insertion repairs, removal repairs,
and modification repairs. Although examples of all three types of segmental repairs were found, vowel quality modification
and consonant insertion were the most prevalent types of segmental repair in this corpus of ELF interactions.
Keywords: English as a Lingua Franca, Intelligibility, Pronunciation, Segmental Repair
1. Introduction
This is a qualitative and quantitative study of adjustments to pronunciation that restore intelligibility in
English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) interactions. This study attempts to quantify the segmental repairs in
a corpus of ELF miscommunications in Japan. Segmental repair refers to the changing of segmental
phonemes in order to restore intelligibility. When a miscommunication occurs and intelligibility falters,
one communication strategy with which ELF speakers can restore intelligibility is to segmentally repair
the pronunciation of an unintelligible word and offer a new candidate repair pronunciation to restore
intelligibility (Matsumoto, 2011; Bjrkman, 2014). For example, if an ELF speaker attempts to
communicate the concept of four articulated as [], but the interlocutor does not understand, one
communication strategy the ELF speaker could utilize to restore intelligibility is rearticulate four as
[] as a candidate repair pronunciation and determine whether the new pronunciation is intelligible to
the interlocutor. If the new pronunciation of four restores intelligibility (i.e., the interlocutor
understands the new pronunciation of the word four), then the segmental repair is successful.
In this study, successful segmental repairs are divided into three categorizes: insertion, removal, and
modification. A further division is made between vowel segmental repairs and consonant segmental
repairs. Insertion refers to a repair in which a segmental phoneme that was not in the word oriented
to as unintelligible is inserted into the candidate repair pronunciation that is later affirmed by the
interlocutor as intelligible. The repair of four from [] to [] is an insertion repair. Removal refers
to a repair in which a segmental phoneme that was present in the word oriented to as unintelligible is
removed from the candidate repair pronunciation that is later affirmed by the interlocutor as intelligible.
The repair of dance from [dns] to [dns] is a removal repair. Modification refers to a repair in
Niigata University. cerebralabstraction@gmail.com

Negotiation of intelligible pronunciation in NE Asia ONeal
which the distinctive features of a segmental phoneme in the word oriented to as unintelligible are
modified in the candidate repair pronunciation that is later affirmed by the interlocutor as intelligible.
The repair of surprise from [splaiz] to [spaiz] is a modification repair. This quantification of
segmental repairs will enable the answering of the following questions: What are the most frequent types
of segmental repairs in this corpus of ELF interactions? How do ELF speakers overcome
miscommunications caused by pronunciation?
2. Previous research
This section will introduce three research threads that are combined for the purposes of this study:
Intelligibility, ELF, and Conversation Analysis. It will be argued that a combination of the three threads
allows a detailed study of interactional intelligibility.
2.1 Intelligibility
Intelligibility in a term that indexes how effective pronunciation is in communicating information. If a
speaker articulates a word, and the interlocutor understands it, then the pronunciation of that word is
said to be intelligible (Jenkins, 2000; Munro, Derwing & Morton, 2006). It needs to be stressed, however,
that intelligibility does not mean aurally pleasant. In fact, pronunciation can sound odd or even ugly,
and yet still be intelligible.
2.2 ELF & intelligibility

Some ELF scholars claim that certain segmental phonemes are critical to intelligibility, and that others
are less critical. Jenkins (2000) and Walker (2010) claim that the Lingua Franca Core (LFC) represents a
group of segmental and suprasegmental features that are critical to intelligibility. Furthermore, Jenkins
(2000) and Walker (2010) also claim that some segmental phonemes are less critical, such as // and //,
which can be replaced with /f/ and /v/ respectively without attenuating intelligibility.
However, not all ELF scholars concur. Suenobu (2010) claims that // can be replaced with /s/ or
/t/, and /f/ with /h/, without attenuating intelligibility. Both Suenobu (2010) and ONeal (2013) claim
that the distinction between // and /l/ is not critical for intelligibility, although Jenkins (2000) and
Walker (2010) claim that the distinction is important.
Another recent strain of thought about intelligibility in ELF does not even posit a universally
intelligible set of phonemes applicable to any and all ELF interactions (Matsumoto 2011; ONeal, 2015a).
Rather, ELF speakers will negotiate intelligibility in each interaction, and intelligible pronunciation in one
ELF interaction will likely be different in another ELF interaction. Furthermore, nobody should be
surprised if this were so.
2.3 Conversation analysis, repair, and intelligibility

Conversation Analysis (CA) is an approach to language study that believes that language use is the product
of shared methods of reasoning and understanding (Schegloff, Jefferson & Sacks, 1977; Schegloff, 2007).
However, these shared methods of reasoning and understanding are not omnipotent, and sometimes
speakers cease to understand one another. In such situations, speakers can perform repair. Repair refers
to a set of communication strategies in which speakers interrupt the current talk to attend to possible and
actual trouble sources in speaking, hearing, or understanding (Kitzinger, 2013; Bjrkman, 2014).
Situations in which speakers collaborate to resolve trouble sources through repair are called repair
sequences. Repair sequences in which pronunciation is oriented to as a trouble source and segmental
phonemes are modified to resolve the problem are called segmental repair sequences in this study
(Matsumoto, 2011; ONeal, 2015a).

3. Methodology and data
This study utilizes CA symbols to transcribe interactions. (See the appendix for the CA symbols.)
However, words that are subject to repair in which the pronunciation is oriented to as a trouble source
are transcribed according to the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). This causes another problem,
though. Because both CA and IPA use brackets as symbols to signify different things, some amendments
are necessary. In this study, braces will be used to bound simultaneous speech (e.g., { }), and brackets
will be used to bound IPA phonetic transcription (e.g., [ ]). Simultaneous speech transcribed into IPA
will be bound with braces and brackets (e.g., {[ ]}).
The corpus of ELF miscommunciations gathered for this study, in which a miscommunication is
defined as a repair sequence (see section 2.3), were collected from early 2011 to late 2014, and are taken
from the homework assignments of an English communication course at a large national Japanese
university. Both Japanese university students and foreign exchange students attended the course. After
each lesson, the students were tasked to find a partner in the class from a different first language
background and exchange opinions on topics covered in class. The researcher was not present at the time
of the recordings, although all students knew that the teacher would listen to the recordings for the
purposes of grading. Pronunciation, however, was not graded.
All names in the transcripts are pseudonyms to protect the privacy of the students. All recordings are
used with the permission of both students. The recordings are audio only, but of course the students had
access to visual information not captured in the audio. If the visual elements had an effect on intelligibility,
this analysis will not detect it. The nationality, gender, and academic major of each ELF speaker in the
transcripts are listed, but this is not a tacit claim that any student oriented to nationality, gender, or
academic major as a relevant feature of the interaction.
4. Results
In this section, we will examine two examples of segmental repair strategies at work. In the first example,
Shan, a male Chinese exchange student who majors in Japanese, and Emi, a female Japanese university
student who majors in linguistics, are talking about J-pop, or Japanese rock music, which leads to the
following exchange in which the name of a Japanese music band, the Jannies, is subject to segmental
repair.
Example 1:
1 Shan: >do you know [dniz]?<

2 (0.7)
3 Emi: sorry?
4 (0.6)
5 Shan: [dniz].
6 (1.0)
7 Emi: [dniz]?
8 (0.5)
9 Shan: yeah. [dniz].
10 (1.3)
11 Emi: {>japanese?<}
12 Shan: { <[dniz].> }
13 (.)

14 not japanese. like. >de you< know::: (.)

15 (1.0)
16 gamati?
17 (0.5)
18 Emi: hahaha. ah. you- you- ah:::. {you-} said [dniz]?
19 Shan: {( )}
20 (0.6)
21 yeah:: I dont,=
22 Emi: =ah. I- I {<thinking>.}
23 Shan: {( )}
24 (0.4)
25 Emi: hahaha.
26 (0.4)
27 >I know. I know.< japanese idol.
28 (1.0)
29 japanese idol group?
30 Shan: yeah.
In line 1, Shan asks Emi a question, but in line 3, Emi says sorry, which simultaneously orients to the
entire previous turn as a trouble source, catalyzes repair, and demonstrates that intelligibility has faltered.
In line 5, Shan orients to Emis sorry as an indication that Emi does not understand [dniz], which is
manifest in the fact that Shan just repeats [dniz] again. But the repetition does not restore intelligibility,
and the repair continues. In line 11, Emi orients to [dniz] as a possible articulation of Japanese, which
is manifest in the fact that Emi proffers Japanese as a lexical repair candidate, but in line 14, Shan
rejects this. In lines 14~16, Shan mentions gamati, which seems to be the catalyst, but not sufficient
condition, for restoring intelligibility. (To this day and multiple Google searches later, this author still
does not know to what gamati refers, but Emi does.) In line 18, Emi continues the repair, and proffers
the candidate repair pronunciation [dniz], which Shan affirms in line 21. This demonstrates that the
intelligibility of the word oriented to as problematic has been restored.
The phonetically interesting aspect of this example is the segmental phoneme change that restored
intelligibility. [dniz] was oriented to as an unintelligible pronunciation, but Emi segmentally repairs
[dniz] to [dniz] in line 18, and Shan confirms the new pronunciation in line 21. There is one
segmental phoneme difference between the unintelligible and intelligible pronunciations: the vowel
quality in the first syllable is modified from a mid-low front // to a low front //. Accordingly, it can
be said that vowel quality modification was significant in the process of restoring intelligibility for this
dyad of ELF speakers.
The previous example demonstrates that ELF speakers can orient to vowel quality as problematic.
Yet vowel quality is not the only phonetic feature that ELF speakers repair. In the second example,
Matias, a male Chilean exchange student who majors in Japanese, and Yuma, a male Japanese university
student who majors in computer science, are talking about keyboard shortcuts, which leads to the
following exchange.
Example 2:
1 Matias: and are you still have problem with (0.4) [kmnz]?
2 (0.9)
3 Yuma: with what?
4 (0.5)

5 Matias: [kmnz].
6 (0.6)
7 Yuma: [kamnz]?
8 (0.7)
9 Matias: yes for example (.) eh:: (0.1) how to: (0.8) paste.
10 (0.5)
11 how to coat.
12 (1.0)
13 Yuma: how to::.
14 (0.5)
15 Matias: coat.
16 (0.2)
17 >for example a word<
18 (0.2)
19 .hhhh. when you choose a word.
20 Yuma: yeah.
21 (0.4)
22 Matias: you cyute it.
23 (0.9)
24 or you copy.
25 (1.5)
26 Yuma: I copy. I- I dont get your question.
27 >Im sorry<.=
28 Matias: =eh.
29 its about.
30 >for example when you use a computer<,=
31 Yuma: =yeah.
32 (0.6)
33 Matias: <and you shoes a word>.
34 Yuma: okay.
35 Matias: and you are writing <and you shoes a word>.
36 Yuma: okay.
37 (0.3)
38 Matias: and thachu one. (0.6) that word (0.5)copy.
39 (0.1)
40 Yuma: oh yeah copy.
41 (0.7)
42 Matias: yes. like [kmnd]. {for example}
43 Yuma: {oh yea::h.} [kmnd].
44 (0.4)
45 Matias: yeah yeah. you have to shoes [kmnd] C,
46 Yuma: yeah yeah right. (.) [kmnd] V.
47 (0.5)
48 Matias: .hhh yeah. that- that is- that is that I didnt know that one.
49 Yuma: ah::: yeah. in windows its control.
In line 1, Matias asks Yuma a question, but in line 3, Yuma orients to the word after the preposition
with as a trouble source, which catalyzes a repair sequence and demonstrates that intelligibility has
faltered. In line 5, Matias repeats [kmnz], but in line 7, Yuma manifests that [kmnz] is still
unintelligible. In lines 9~38, Matias switches to a repair strategy that utilizes examples of the unintelligible
word, but Yuma never manifests that intelligibility has been restored. Then, in line 42, Matias begins to

provide another example, but this time Matias modifies the last consonant of the unintelligible word. In
lines 1 and 5, Matias articulated [kmnz], but in line 42, Matias articulated [kmnd]. In response, in
line 43, Yuma deploys the discourse markers oh and yeah, which display a claim that intelligibility
has been restored, and then repeats [kmnd], which demonstrates Yumas uptake of the new
pronunciation. This demonstrates that the intelligibility of command has been restored.
The phonetically interesting aspects of this example are the phonetic changes that restored
intelligibility. The unintelligible articulation of command was [kmnz], but the intelligible iteration
was [kmnd]. There are two segmental phoneme differences: 1) the vowel quality of the vowel in the
first syllable is modified from a mid-low front vowel // to a central vowel //; 2) the manner of
articulation of the last consonant in the syllable coda of the second syllable is modified from an alveolar
fricative /z/ to an alveolar plosive /d/. Accordingly, it can be said that vowel quality modification and
consonant modification were significant in the process of restoring intelligibility for this dyad of ELF
speakers.
5. Discussion
Analyzing many extracts in the corpus as demonstrated in the previous section, this study quantified all
segmental repair strategies in the corpus that restored intelligibility (Bjrkman, 2014). However, unlike
the Bjrkman (2014) study, this study only quantifies repair strategies that repaired pronunciation.
Examples of each segmental repair strategy have been found in the corpus: there are examples of vowel
and consonant segmental insertion, removal, and modification repair strategies that restore intelligibility.
However, that does not mean that they appear with equal frequency.
A quantitative analysis of all segmental repairs in the corpus reveals that there are 106 segmental
repairs that restore intelligibility in the corpus. There was only one example of a vowel insertion repair.
Vowel removal was more common; there were twelve examples of vowel removal repairs in the corpus.
Vowel modification, almost always modification of vowel quality, was the most prevalent type of
segmental repair; there were forty-three examples of vowel modification repairs. There were thirty-five
examples of consonant insertion segmental repairs, the second most prevalent type of segmental repair.
Consonant removal repairs were uncommon; only four exist in the corpus. Last, there were eleven
consonant modification repairs in the corpus.
This categorization of segmental repairs has pedagogical implications. The most common segmental
repair is vowel quality modification. This suggests that vowel quality is far more important to intelligibility
in ELF in Japan than some ELF scholars would believe (Jenkins, 2000; Walker, 2010). A greater focus
on vowel quality pronunciation is probably warranted in Japan. The second most common segmental
repair is consonant insertion, which suggests that consonant elision in Japan attenuates ELF intelligibility.
This finding is in accord with previous research that claims that the enunciation of most consonants is
critical to the maintenance of mutual intelligibility in ELF (Jenkins, 2000; Walker, 2010). Teachers in
Japan would do well to inform students that consonant elision can attenuate intelligibility (ONeal, 2015a;
ONeal, 2015b). But the most important take-away message is this: intelligible pronunciation is negotiable
(Matsumoto, 2011; ONeal, 2015b; ONeal, 2015c). If pronunciation is not intelligible, students should
use segmental repair strategies to make it intelligible. Segmental repair strategies and accommodation
should be important aspects of any English pronunciation course.
However, some caveats about the quantification of the segmental repair strategies and their
pedagogical implications are warranted. The numbers reflect the number of segmental repairs required
to restore intelligibility. In example two, however, two segmental repairs were required to restore
intelligibility, and each segmental repair was quantified separately. But this reveals two weaknesses of this
study. First, it makes no attempt to determine which segmental repairs were most consequential for the

restoration of intelligibility. In example two, two segmental repairs were involved in the restoration of
intelligibility, but it is unknown if they were equally critical to the restoration of intelligibility. It is possible
that one of the segmental changes was more consequential than the other, but this methodology cannot
determine that. Second, although this study reports 106 segmental repairs in the corpus, this does not
mean that there were 106 segmental repair sequences. In some repair sequences, there were many
segmental repairs. The 106 number may seem artificially high as a result.
6. Conclusion
Although this study focuses on segmental repair strategies in ELF, this does not mean that segmental
repair strategies are common in the corpus. In fact, lexical repair strategies are more common than
segmental repair strategies in this corpus. But the research focus on segmental repair strategies is
warranted because segmental repair sequences manifest the limits of intelligible pronunciation. It is an
interesting and revealing window into the interactional intelligibility of ELF pronunciation, and well
worth further research in different ELF contexts.
About the author
George ONeal is an associate professor at the center for educational support at Niigata University, Japan. He has written several articles
on the intelligibility of ELF phonology. His research interests focuses on conversation analysis, phonology, and English as a Lingua Franca.
Email: cerebralabstraction@gmail.com
References
Bjrkman, B. (2014). An analysis of polyadic English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) speech: A communicative
strategies framework. Journal of Pragmatics, 66, 122-138.
Jenkins, J. (2000). The phonology of English as an international language: New models, new goals. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Kitzinger, C. (2013). Repair. In J. Sidnell & T. Stivers (Eds.), The Handbook of conversation analysis (iBooks
edition) (pp. 449-556). Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.
Matsumoto, Y. (2011). Successful ELF communications and implications for ELT: Sequential analysis of
ELF pronunciation negotiation strategies. Modern Language Journal, 95, 97-114.
Munro, M., Derwing, T., & Morton, S. (2006). The mutual intelligibility of L2 speech. Studies in Second
Language Acquisition, 28, 111-131.
ONeal, G. (2013). No need to quit your flapping: The intelligibility of flap // phoneme substitutions
for either the // or /l/ phonemes in non-native English speaker conversations. Niigata studies in foreign
languages and cultures, 18, 39-62.
ONeal, G. (2015a). Consonant clusters & intelligibility in English as a Lingua Franca in Japan:
Phonological modifications to restore intelligibility in ELF. Pragmatics and Society. 6(4), 615-636.
ONeal, G. (2015b). Segmental repair and interactional intelligibility: The relationship between consonant
deletion, consonant insertion, and pronunciation intelligibility in English as a Lingua Franca in Japan.
Journal of Pragmatics, 85, 122-134.
ONeal, G. (2015c). ELF intelligibility: The vowel quality factor. Journal of English as a Lingua Franca, 4(2),
347-358.
Schegloff, E. A. (2007). Sequence organization in interaction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Schegloff, E. A., Jefferson, G., & Sacks, H. (1977). The preference for self-correction in the organization
of repair in conversation. Language, 53, 361-382.
Suenobu, M. (2010). Nihoneigo ha sekai de tsujiru [Japanese English is intelligible to the world]. Tokyo:
Heibonsha.

Walker, R. (2010). Teaching the pronunciation of English as a Lingua Franca. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Appendix: CA Transcription Symbols
Symbol Represents
{ } simultaneous speech
[ ] speech in the phonetic transcription of the IPA
= latched utterance (e.g., no silence between the utterances)
(.) micro silence (e.g., less than one tenth of a second of silence)
(1.5) a timed silence (e.g., one and a half seconds of silence)
( ) unintelligible speech, and thus not transcribed
hahaha laughter
.hhh audible in-breath
- sudden cut off of speech
: elongated sound
. falling intonation
, slightly rising intonation
? rising intonation
sudden increase in pitch
word speech that is said with volume higher than the surrounding speech
>word< speech that is said faster than the surrounding speech
<word> speech that is said slower than the surrounding speech

Tryzna, M. (2016). English as a lingua franca in Kuwaits secondary schools: The dimensions of the cultural content. In N.
English as a lingua franca in Kuwaits secondary schools:

The dimensions of the cultural content
Marta Tryzna
Abstract
The present paper examines the context of English language teaching in Kuwait, a representative country within the GCC region, where
the existing cultural, religious, and political constraints shape the pedagogical practices and the content of the instructional materials in an
ESL classroom. It is argued that the current demographics as well as the labor-market model in Kuwait necessitate the teaching of English
as a lingua franca, including intercultural skills for successful communication. Against this background, the content of the English as a
Second Language textbooks at high-school level is analyzed with a view to identifying specific limitations of the cultural input from both
theoretical and practical (i.e., language learning oriented) perspectives. As a theoretical tool, the static-dynamic approach to cultural content
is employed (Liddicoat, 2005), coupled with the three dimensions of culture proposed by Kramsch (1998). It is observed that language
learning with a severely restricted cultural content and limited cultural learning practices ceases to satisfy the needs of the local community,
whose primary goal of learning English is to function successfully in a multicultural environment.
1. Introduction: Conceptualizing the reality
A few important facts are brought to light here with a view to conceptualizing the reality of teaching
English in Kuwait within the existing cultural, political, and religious constraints.
Kuwait ranks among the freest countries in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region
according to Reporters Without Borders and Freedom House rankings of the world's freest countries in
terms of civil liberties and political rights. The relative freedom of expression is secured by the
Constitution whose Articles 35 through 37 guarantee freedom of belief, opinion, scientific research, and
the press, provided that the content and the style of expression do not conflict with the public policy and
Islamic morals.
In order to safeguard Islamic morals and public policy, the government of Kuwait screens all media
and publications distributed within the countrys borders, including books in Arabic and English, school
textbooks, and other instructional materials. Websites containing offensive content for political or moral
reasons are blocked, while tweets and comments on social media are monitored.
The Ministry of Education publishes specific regulations on sensitive topics which must never be
broached in the educational environment including religion, politics, and tradition. The religious topics
range from personifying prophets, making comments about Islam, or comparing different religions, while
the political ones protect the policies or rulers of the country from criticism. They also protect
Kuwaiti customs, values, and traditions by strictly forbidding displaying nudity, teaching about human
sexuality, discussing alcoholic beverages as social drinks, or presenting Darwins theory as a fact.
Many of the above acts are criminalized, and may result in a variety of sanctions against teachers who
engage in them, including termination of a contract, deportation, or imprisonment. In the words of
Elizabeth Warkentin, a former librarian and teacher at Gulf International School, which is a Kuwaiti-
owned, expat-managed and staffed private educational institution with a British curriculum, To flout
the norms of Kuwait would be to disrespect the culture and brand myself a troublemaker, a sure way to
get fired, deported, or worse: arrested and slammed with a travel ban, (Warkentin, 2011). Thus, the first
and the most powerful cultural filter is applied at the government level, with the constraints clearly
articulated and imposed without exceptions.
Gulf University for Science and Technology, Kuwait. Tryzna.M@gust.edu.kw

ELF in Kuwaiti secondary schools Tryzna
2. The background
2.1. Culture-related objectives in the school curriculum
The public school system in Kuwait, within the purview of the Ministry of Education (MoE), is free for
the citizens and gender-segregated in accordance with the public policy. Arabic language is the medium
of instruction, while English is taught as a foreign language from first to twelfth grade, 5 hours per
week. The MoE oversees all educational activities, and is in charge of teacher licensing, the curriculum,
instructional materials, and assessment.
In 2005, the English Language Division within MoE introduced a new English curriculum, and has
been gradually implementing at primary, middle, and secondary levels. The present paper focuses on the
secondary school curriculum and instructional material only (years 10, 11, and 12), first introduced in
2011.
The new textbook series for the Kuwaiti high school is called Over to You, ostensibly authored by
Simon Hines. It has been approved by the Evaluation and Adaptation Committee consisting of fourteen
MoE officials, directed by the ELT Supervisor General. The book claims to adopt an integrated approach
to language teaching, and boasts the use of cross-cultural topics, among others. It closely follows the
MoEs educational guidelines and strategic objectives.
The fifty-two strategic objectives are subdivided into five categories (or sets): (1) learner-centered;
(2) teacher-centered, (3) curriculum and methods; (4) assessment and evaluation; and (5) extracurricular
activities. From the perspective of language teaching involving cultural references, five of the fifty-two
MoE objectives appear directly relevant, all under the curriculum and methods heading. Specifically, the
goals of the educational content, teaching methodology, and the instructional materials for the English
language teaching in Kuwait are the following:
to instill pride in the learners national identity, values, and Islamic morals;
to meet community expectations regarding learning outcomes;
to meet the requirements of the labor market
to acquire knowledge and skills that enable learners to be successful as local, national and global
citizens.
Towards the end of the outcomes list a cultural objective reads as follows: [To] enable learners to be
culturally and aesthetically sensitive across a range of social contexts (p.22).
Thus, in relation to culture, the goals are stated in terms of the broad religious paradigm (Islamic
values), community values and expectations, as well as professional requirements. The reference to global
citizenship is a significant departure from the proposed points of reference, but it does not constitute a
priority. Also, the apparent range of social contexts promised in the lone culture-centered objective
makes no specific references to a particular culture, but it is safe to assume that cultures other than the
domestic one play a minor role in the curriculum. It seems that at the level of the objectives, the cultural
references are exclusive of unsanctioned influences and elements that do not conform to the broader
religious paradigm or community values. In other words, intercultural references and cultural contexts
other than nationally and locally relevant seem to be actively discouraged.
Strategic objectives are further operationalized by means of numerous standards and benchmarks,
only one of which contains broadly defined cultural references:
Texts and dialogues within the course will also help the students show pride in Islam but also expose
them to lifestyles and information about the world around them. Students will be encouraged to
compare and contrast these with their own country and to learn to appreciate differences. (p.27)

Thus, the educational objectives for teaching English in Kuwait are defined primarily in terms of
strengthening the national and religious identity, and only then does the attention shift towards
intercultural content. Before taking a closer look at the exact composition of the cultural content in the
textbooks, three expressions from the above statements of objectives require closer scrutiny, namely:
requirements of the labor market, a range of social contexts and the world around them.
Kuwait has a diverse population of over 3 million, composed of various ethnic groups: Kuwaiti 31.3%,
other Arab 27.9%, Asian 37.8%, African 1.9%, and other 1.1%, including European, North American,
South American, and Australian (Annual Statistical Reports, 2012).
Arabic is the official language of the country, while English is widely spoken, although it does not
enjoy the status of a second language. While citizens typically use Arabic for business communication,
religious practices, and social interaction, English functions as a lingua franca - a vehicle for communication
across business contexts for the various ethnic groups. A form of English approximating the standard
variety can be found in educational contexts such as private schools (British or American) and private
universities and colleges, largely enjoyed by the elite. Realistically, the range of social contexts in which
the students need to use their English includes interacting with domestic servants such as maids, drivers,
gardeners, typically from countries like India, Ethiopia, Sri Lanka or the Philippines, sales clerks and
servers, as well as English teachers, typically non-native speakers themselves.
The nature of the labor market is such that close to 90% of employed Kuwaiti citizens hold
government positions (administration, the oil sector), where the language of communication is Arabic,
while expats are employed in the private sector. Kuwaiti citizens in the private sector typically hold
managerial positions; they also tend to be better educated and more proficient in English.
Thus, on the surface, diversity is a defining feature of the Kuwaiti society. However, de facto, non-
Kuwaitis hold a much lower social status, as they are classified as expatriate workforce with no real
access to the Kuwaiti society other than that allowed by their professional capacity (domestic servants,
street cleaners, construction workers, sales clerks, mechanics, teachers, etc.) In spite of the co-existence
of diverse ethnic groups with their distinct linguistic and cultural practices, the perceived differences in
social status afford very little social and cultural exchange between Kuwaiti nationals and the various
expat communities.
This is not to say that long-term business relationships - which do exist - cannot produce the kind of
culturally relevant interaction that could increase intercultural awareness and exchange. In principle, this
would be the case; in reality, the citizens enjoy a privileged position which allows them to impose their
view of the world on the expatriate labor force surrounding and outnumbering them 3:1, thus significantly
reducing the intercultural influences. In addition, there seems to be little mutual curiosity about other
ethnicities and very little cultural exchange as a result across all ethnic groups. This produces a cultural
vacuum, easily filled with stereotypes and misconceptions on all sides of the cultural divide. For example,
the prime sources of cultural knowledge about the so-called West are the tabloids and Hollywood
productions.
Going back to the statement of objectives in the ESL curriculum in Kuwaiti public schools, the
references to the world around the students, their exposure to a range of social contexts, or the
demands of the labor market seem vague and ambiguous, given the current social environment and the
labor market model in Kuwait.
2.2. Cultural content and English language teaching in Muslim countries

The inclusion of cultural content in the ESL curricula and language textbooks has been a controversial
topic. Although research has delineated the main issues related to defining the nature, importance and
the place of the cultural content in a language curriculum (Kramsch, 1993, 1998; Lange & Paige, 2003;
Risager, 2006), the topic is still debated in language education contexts world-wide.

Some researchers question the necessity of including socio-cultural factors in the language teaching
process (Wardhaugh, 2006). Those in favor of culturally-specific teaching may further question the
amount and type of socio-cultural information made available to ESL learners (Byram and Feng, 2004).
The strong view is that the target language and the target culture are sold as a package. However, the
target culture does not need to be British, American, or Australian and might include a variety of English-
speaking cultures.
Those against including socio-cultural content in ESL curricula, often advocate the teaching of English
as a lingua franca: a culturally neutral international communication tool bridging the linguistic gap between
speakers of different languages. Another school of thought does not only advocate eradicating country-
specific cultural content, but also appropriating the English language practices by the home culture to
satisfy the local requirements, dictated by the cultural or religious norms, or by the labor market demands.
This seems to be the preferred option in many Muslim countries around the world.
An important debate once swept across the Islamic states whose leaders and educational authorities
felt uneasy about promoting the teaching of English in general, and including non-Islamic or secular
cultural content in particular. In Pakistan, for example, English was seen not only as a relic of colonialism,
perpetuating social inequalities, but also as a threat to the religious and cultural identity of the local people,
who perceived it as the language of the unbelievers (kafir), through which un-Islamic values were being
spread (Mahboob, 2009). In Malaysia, the spread of English was seen as culturally subversive, leading to
the widening of social inequalities, and dividing the society into the urban educated elite and the rural
illiterate poor. It was believed that the teaching of English posed a threat to national and religious identity
(Mohd-Asraf, 2005). In Saudi Arabia, the debate on the status of English still rages on, with the current
compromise being the introduction of English in fourth grade of primary school, after the children have
completed their first three years of formal education in Arabic, to prevent or at least postpone - the
contamination of the young minds (Golam Faruk, 2014).
Gradually, many Islamic countries have devised a formula for appropriating English to fit their specific
religious, national, and cultural requirements. Thus, Pakistani linguists are now advocating the infusion
of English with Islamic references and expressions (Mahboob 2009). Malay researchers noted a shift in
attitudes towards learning English, once it became apparent that it can be used a vehicle for spreading
the Islamic creed at international level (Mohd-Asraf 2005). Saudi Arabia now recognizes the necessity of
teaching English, with support from the Islamic holy book and the Hadith, according to which a foreign
language like English can be used as a shield to protect the religion, nation, and culture from the foreign
aggression. The Hadith says: He whoever learns other peoples language will be secured from their
cunning (Elyas and Picard 2010). More importantly, however, English is seen as a tool for access to and
dissemination of knowledge, as well as for social and technological advancement. In some rare cases,
young Saudis tend to see English as superior to Arabic (Golam Faruk 2014). These new attitudes toward
teaching and learning English have been greatly facilitated the systematic and comprehensive cleansing
of the undesirable cultural content from the ESL educational materials, Kuwait being a case in point.
2.3. Approaches to cultural content in language textbooks

The view of language as a social practice has at its core the understanding of language as an open,
dynamic, energetic, constantly evolving and personal system (Shohamy, 2007). Language is thus seen as
a dynamic, ever-changing system which encompasses the complexities of communication. Language itself
is not the object of study but an individualized and unique way of perceiving, comprehending and
communicating about reality. Since language is used for purposeful communication, learning a new
language should ideally involve not only the learning of the vocabulary, grammar rules, and knowledge
about the language itself, but also its use for creating shared meanings with other with other speakers of

the language. Thus the language learning experience becomes more engaging and more relevant for
students.
This perspective on language sees it as more than a body of knowledge to be learnt but essentially as
a social practice in which the learners are invited to participate (Kramsch, 1993). Language is an everyday
experience and a tool for expressing and creating meanings as well as establishing and maintaining
relationships. Thus, the social practice of meaning-making and relationship-building requires far more
than the knowledge of grammar, vocabulary, and functional expressions. Students should be given a
chance to learn how meanings are created through language, and how to engage in communicate with
others. This requires the development of awareness of the nature of language, its relation to culture, and
its impact on the perception of reality (Svalberg 2007). Since in Kuwait the majority of interactions in
English are also multicultural, there seems to be a need to shift the attention towards the intercultural
skills which multilingualism facilitates.
A more practical goal of infusing language curricula with intercultural themes is to prepare students
to live, work, and function successfully as global citizens (Ainsworth, 2013). Linguistic competence,
coupled with intercultural communication training, plays a critical role in equipping students with
language and intercultural communication skills necessary for succeeding in the global workplace. Thus,
focusing on language proficiency as well as intercultural skills presents an exciting opportunity for
language curriculum designers.
While the inclusion of intercultural skills is largely uncontroversial, a debate among ESL curriculum
designers has highlighted conflicting viewpoints as to what intercultural or cultural aspects to include in
the language practice so as to enhance the students linguistic competence in the second language without
endorsing or promoting values and behaviors which fundamentally contradict those held by the learners
community.
The world-wide debate regarding the breadth and the depth of cultural content in language teaching
materials remains inconclusive. However, the Kuwaiti Ministry of Education, and in particular the
English Language Division, seem to have found an answer satisfactory to all stakeholders, including the
government, various pressure groups, as well as parents, teachers, and students. As will become apparent
in the analysis below, by eliminating all undesirable references, or limiting the range of acceptable topics,
the MoE has successfully achieved their primary strategic objective, which is to allow students to interact
with the current age and entails free thinking in response to the dynamic change without any kind of
conflict with their own individual identity or the cultural identity of the society (ELT National
Curriculum, 2011:13). Given the objectives for the English curriculum related to enhancing the national,
religious, and global identities of the students, one would predict a prominent presence of cultural content
related to the national and religious themes, together with a range of other cultural contexts featuring
non-offensive, globally-relevant topics.
3. The present study
3.1. Analytical framework

Broadly speaking, culture may be viewed either as a product or as a process. The culture as a product view
is a static take on culture which tends to portray culture or cultural phenomena as an object of study.
Within this view, characters are often representatives of a particular group and may reflect cultural
stereotypes. An implicit assumption is the homogeneity of culture (Kramsch,1993).
Viewing culture as dynamic and in a continuous state of flux is characteristic of the culture as a process
perspective. In this view, culture cannot be exhaustively and adequately described, as its elements are
constantly being redefined, refined, questioned, and altered. The texts in this category invite readers to

interact with ideas and themes of the text not against a cultural backdrop, but using their individual
experiences and beliefs.
Static and dynamic approaches to culture in the language classroom can be further operationalized in
reference to specific types of cultural content and cultural learning practices. The following diagram
(adapted from Liddicoat, 2005) presents one such framework.
Figure 1. Approaches to teaching culture in a language classroom
Artifacts and
Institutions
Static approach to
Static approach to content
cultural learning
and content Dynamic approach to
learning
Facts
Processes
Static approach to Dynamic approach
learning to learning and
content: active
Dynamic approach engagement with a
to content cultural group
Practices
One dimension is the axis of culture as facts or as processes: that is, whether culture is seen as a static
body of information about characteristics of a society or as a dynamic system through which a society
constructs, represents, enacts and understands itself. The second axis represents the way in which culture
is conceived in terms of educational content. It makes a distinction between artifacts and institutions and
practices: that is, whether culture is seen in terms of the things produced by a society or as the things said
and done by members of a society. The most static way to approach the teaching of a culture typically
emphasizes artefacts, institutions and factual knowledge. Both the approach to culture learning and the
content itself are static. The lower left quadrant adopts a static approach to the nature of learning, but a
more dynamic approach to the content, whereas the top right quadrant is static in terms of its content,
but dynamic in terms of its approach to learning (eg as in activities in which learners engaged with cultural
artefacts in a hands on way). The most dynamic approach to culture is represented by the lower right
hand quadrant, which sees learners actively engage with the practices of a cultural group.
Stemming from the above theoretical perspectives, a three-way classification of cultural content in
textbooks can be derived (adapted from Tornberg 2000): Culture as an accomplished fact, culture as a
competence, and culture as a meeting in third space.
1. Culture as an accomplished fact
A. History or geography: Texts contain facts about countries, cities, and historical events (e.g. the
moon landing, The Grand Canyon).

B: Artifacts: Cultural products that reflect the esthetical perspective on culture are highlighted
(theater, art, national dishes, memorials, statues, etc.)
C: Collective descriptions: Generalized descriptions (i.e. national or cultural stereotypes) deal with
everyday life and lifestyles ascribed to a group, such as Italians, Americans, or the French.
2. A cultural competence
A. Cultural preparation: Functional language and pragmatic norms of language use are explicitly
taught. Language practice for future communication with people who speak the target language
is included.
B. Inter-cultural comparisons: The tasks encourage students to draw parallels between traditions
and customs in two different cultures. Texts often contain general descriptions that lead to a
general, often stereotypical, view of a certain culture.
3. A meeting in third place1
A. Individual identity: The characters in the texts are presented as individuals, rather than
representatives of a particular nationality, ethnicity, gender, or class. Cultural content is complex
and can be interpreted in many different ways.
B. Youth culture: Such themes as youth sub-cultures (music, media, social media, teenage books,
fashion etc.) are explored, reflecting global trends related to young people worldwide.
It is within the above framework that cultural content of ESL textbooks in public secondary schools in
Kuwait is evaluated.
3.2. The results

In order to examine the characteristics of cultural content in ESL textbooks in public secondary schools
in Kuwait, the following general breakdown of cultural references was carried out across the three
secondary school grades (10, 11, & 12).
Table 1. Types of cultural references in ESL textbooks in Kuwait
CULTURAL REFERENCES
Kuwait- Country- Global Individual TOTAL

centered specific themes stories
Grade 10 17 36 19 16 88
(19%) (40%) (24%) (18%)
Grade 11 25 33 25 7 90
(29%) (37%) (28%) (8%)
Grade 12 21 14 9 5 49
(42%) (28%) (18%) (10%)
TOTAL 63 83 53 28 227
(28%) (36%) (24%) (12%)
1 Kramsch (1995) argued that language study creates a third place, a privileged and questioning location, where learners gain special
insights into their own and others cultures.

It should be noted that the above numbers represent the amount of references within each context
without specifying the length of the text or the depth of the topic coverage. The raw numbers mask the
unequal distribution of the various content types, with a strong tendency to present Kuwait-centered
(including religious) topics in an exhaustive, thorough, and detailed way, while country-specific topics or
global themes are typically mentioned in passing, or glossed over, in a superficial, encyclopedic manner.
In other words, the content worthy of being thoroughly discussed in order to reveal its complexities is
of local, regional or national provenance. While occasionally a non-Arab culture oriented topic may be
presented as a half-page article (e.g. a baby shower in Britain, a visit to Kerala), most references to the
Western world are brief statements of fact presenting the products (i.e. artifacts) of a particular culture
(e.g. the opera house in Sydney, Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco). Thus, there is a visible lack of
balance in terms of the length and the amount of allocated space in the textbook with respect to the
Arab, other non-Western, and Western cultural references.
In terms of individual stories, the textbooks present famous contemporary or historic characters, such
as Kuwaiti nationals (e.g. a footballer, a businesswoman), as well as other Arab or non-Western
personalities (e.g. famous historians like Ibn Battuta and Ibn Khaldun, a child prodigy from India).
Western individuals are mentioned only occasionally, featuring renowned, accomplished persons (e.g.
Amelia Eckhart, Warren Buffet). Arab and other non-Western characters are presented as ordinary
people, with contemporary problems and life stories situated within a particular cultural context. At the
same time, Western individuals are de-contextualized and portrayed as outstanding high achievers with a
set of universally admired traits and accomplishments. Western individuals are delinked from their
cultural context, so that their achievements are seen as a result of their personal interests and struggles,
rather than a manifestation of specific values and beliefs inspiring their epic quests.
With respect to prominent authors, literary quotations throughout the textbooks are all derived from
the Western writers (Cervantes, Saint-Exupery, Twain, Shaw). None of these writers is actually featured,
and their literature is absent save for the snippets of wisdom in the form of well-known sayings, which
are left for interpretation. Occasionally, the students are encouraged to ponder the deeper meanings of a
quotation, but there are no models or guidelines to follow. The two Western writers who are actually
featured (Allan Villiers and Wilfred Thesiger) have one trait in common: their books relate to the Arab
world.
Global themes are by default devoid of country-specific contexts. Topics such as recycling, global
warming, or international cooperation, are de-contextualized and presented as neutral in terms of cultural
references. The content is of general human interest, and the featured articles are designed to raise
awareness about important world-wide issues as well as creating a sense of responsibility.
Thus, from a very cursory analysis of the cultural content there emerges a picture of the relative
attention the various types of cultural references receive in the Kuwaiti curriculum. While references to
various countries are prevalent (36%), Kuwait-oriented content occupies a little over a quarter (28%),
and global themes constitute about a quarter (24%). As the percentage of references based on individual
stories is the lowest (12%), the role of individuals as contributors and co-creators of a culture seems to
be the least prominent aspect of the cultural content in the Kuwaiti textbooks.
In order to further examine the cultural content, a quantitative analysis was carried out involving the
model of culture outlined in the previous section. The table below presents the summary of findings
using the analytical framework within the three cultural dimensions and their respective subcategories:
Culture as an accomplished fact, culture as a competence, and culture as a meeting in third space.

Table 2. Cultural dimensions in the ESL textbooks in Kuwait
Cultural Dimensions Subcategories Cultural references

N=227 (%)
Accomplished Fact Historical or geographical facts 148 (65%)
Artifacts 27 (12%)
Collective descriptions 18 (7%)
Competence Cultural preparation 4 (2%)
Cultural comparisons 1 (5%)
Meeting in Third Space Individuals 28 (12%)
Youth culture (subcultures) 1 (5%)
As Table 2 reveals, the majority of the cultural references fall into the historical-or-geographical fact
subcategory (65%), followed by the artifacts (12%), which are both representative of the static approach
to culture. In fact, presenting cultural content as encyclopedic knowledge is the most static approach, as
it focuses on the culture-as-a-product dimension without presenting the broader contexts or the
underlying values.
The next most popular subcategory of cultural content is individual stories (12%), followed by
collective descriptions (7%). While individuals are not viewed as representatives of any particular culture,
collective descriptions try to evoke national traits and characteristics, with the underlying assumption that
the inhabitants of a particular geographic space share a specific set of values, beliefs, traditions, customs,
and behaviors.
In order to better illustrate the distribution of the three cultural dimensions, the following chart
collapses the subcategories for each dimension.
Figure 2. Cultural dimensions as represented in the ESL textbooks in Kuwait
Culture as a
meeting in Cultural Dimensions
third space
13%
Culture as a
competence
2%
Culture as an
accomplished
fact
85%
Figure 2 shows the preponderance of the static approach to culture, where both cultural content and
cultural learning rely on the mere presentation of facts (geographic or historic) and artifacts. Such an
approach considers culture as a ready-made product, or an object of study, which discourages questioning
or evaluating the underlying values or beliefs. This runs counter to the view that culture is a participatory
activity, where individuals co-create cultural contexts.
The diagram above also confirms the previously observed tendency of downplaying the role of
individuals in co-creating culture. In seems that by doing so, the curriculum designers almost completely
eliminated opportunities for language learners to examine and gain a deeper understanding of their own

as well as other cultures. Referring back to the learning objectives in the ELT curriculum for secondary
schools, the students were promised cultural content that would familiarize them with various lifestyles
and encourage them to compare and contrast these with their own country and to learn to appreciate
differences. (The ELT National Curriculum 2011:27). It seems that the realization of this learning
objective could be strengthened by utilizing the idea of culture as a third place, where individual stories,
including the students own, and references to youth subcultures which tend to transgress cultural
boundaries, could contribute to the students understanding of the relevant cultural concepts.
The most significant observation from the data in Figure 2 is the near absence from the ELT
curriculum of the culture as a competence dimension (only 2% of the cultural references). This
dimension encompasses cultural preparation and cultural comparisons, which together provide the
intercultural perspective. The virtual lack of such a perspective in the English language textbooks is
surprising given the two of the most important learning outcomes in the curriculum related to the
professional skills and personal development. With regards to the former, the curriculum promises to
meet the requirements of the labor market in Kuwait which increasingly requires English proficiency and
intercultural communication skills, especially in the private sector where the majority of expatriate
workforce is employed. Regarding the latter, the students are promised knowledge and skills which ensure
their success at a local, national, and global level, allowing them to become the citizens of the world.
However, by eliminating the culture-as-a competence dimension, the authors of the textbooks completely
neglected the intercultural aspect of the students development. In fact, the curriculum and the language
learning materials should emphasize intercultural skills in order to create opportunities in the classroom
for the realization of the broadly defined curriculum goals. At the same time, the striking paucity of the
intercultural content is in opposition not only to the desired learning outcomes as specified by the
Ministry of Education, but also to the perceived status of English as a lingua franca in Kuwait.
4. Conclusions
The detailed results of the study reveal an imbalance between the various cultural dimensions applied in
the process of English teaching in Kuwait. The static presentation of facts, artifacts, and collective
descriptions, which tend to perpetuate cultural stereotypes, constitutes the core of the cultural content in
the textbooks, allowing little space for the dynamic cultural perspective involving cultural preparation,
inter-cultural comparisons, and individual stories. At the same time, the static view of culture as a
product encourages the passive reception of cultural knowledge without evaluation, questioning, or
critical thinking, thus diminishing the participatory role individuals play in the co-creation of any culture.
Such gaps in the textbook do a disservice to the educational objectives set forth by the
Ministry of Education. One of the strategic goals is to equip graduates with skills necessary for the labor
market, which is multicultural and multilingual by nature. In order to address this goal, the language
teaching materials should include intercultural content and practice of intercultural communication skills
in order to create opportunities in for the learners to gain intercultural competencies in a language
classroom. Equipped with such skills, the students would be able to effectively and appropriately
communicate with people from various ethnic and socio-economic backgrounds. At a personal level,
such training would help create interculturally competent graduates, ready to grapple with multicultural
concepts, ways of thinking, styles of communication, as well as modes of behavior.
About the author

Marta Tryzna has a PhD in linguistics from the University of Iowa. She is an assistant professor at Gulf University for Science and
Technology in Kuwait where she teaches descriptive grammar, syntax, history of the English language, sociolinguistics, and applied
linguistics. She's also the coordinator of the university-wide Writing Program. Her research interests are in second language acquisition and
bilingual education. Email: Tryzna.M@gust.edu.kw

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ELF AND LANGUAGE EDUCATION
Elif Kemaloglu-Er & Yasemin Bayyurt describe an ELF-aware model as applied in

pre-service teacher education, and report on some preliminary results of an ongoing
study that analyzes the ELF-related perspectives and practices as well as the program
evaluations of the teachers exposed to this teacher education program. Michele Salles
El Kadri, Luciana Cabrini Simes Calvo & Telma Gimenez analyze to what
extent an ELF perspective has informed the curriculum of English language teacher
education programs in the state of Paran, Brazil. Luciana Cabrini Simes Calvo,
Michele Salles El Kadri & Atef El Kadri, based on papers presented in the ELF5
and ELF6 abstract booklets, map the initiatives of incorporating ELF in Teacher
Education programs around the world. Alexia Giannakopoulou examines how the
English for Young Learners programme in Greece exposes children to L2
multiliteracies. Jacqueline Aiellos study unveils the complexity of Italian youths
attitudes towards varieties of English, finding evidence that EF has yet to become
widely accepted. Sami Basheer Al-Hasnawi argues that language teachers need to
be aware of the reality of the English language and be open to its international varieties
in their classroom practice. Esma Biricik Deniz, Yonca zkan & Yasemin
Bayyurt aim to shed light on the need to teach English as lingua franca through World
Englishes norms. Domingos Svio Pimentel Siqueira & Juliana da Silva Souza
aim to investigate in which way the knowledge of the ELF paradigm affects teachers
view of the language itself and their classroom practices. Vassilia Kazamia & Edgar
Joycey discuss the need for ELF-awareness training amongst Greek teachers. Anny
Georgountzou & Natasha Tsantila investigate the attitudes and preferences of
native and non-native Greek users of English towards native speaker norms in British
English and General American. Paul L. McBride examines whether ELF is of benefit
in a Japanese educational context by exploring teacher and student understandings and
beliefs.

Kemaloglu-Er, E., & Bayyurt, Y. (2016). ELF-aware teacher education with pre-service teachers: A transformative and
technology enhanced case from Turkey. In N. Tsantila, J. Mandalios & M. Ilkos (Eds.), ELF: Pedagogical and
ELF-aware teacher education with pre-service teachers:

A transformative and technology enhanced case from Turkey
Elif Kemaloglu-Er
Yasemin Bayyurt
Abstract
ELF researchers agree with the importance of teachers and teacher trainers language and cultural awareness in all three circles and the need
of a pluricentric rather than a monocentric approach to the teaching and use of English. It is the teachers who can act as the agents of
change in the classrooms as both ELF users and conveyors. In order that can happen, their awareness should be raised through post-
normative education and training programs which are not only critical but also transformative. Aiming to raise the language teachers
awareness on the concept of ELF and make them tangibly and critically aware of key ELF-related concerns, this model, namely ELF-aware
pre-service teacher education, focuses on transforming pre-service English teachers into ELF-aware practitioners through theory, practice,
reflection and interaction. It is an extension of the teacher education model pioneered by Bayyurt & Sifakis (2015a, b) and applied with in-
service English teachers. This model has been modified with especially technological enhancement and enriched with several forms of
discussion, reflection and practice patterns. This paper describes the concerning teacher education model and reports on some preliminary
results of an ongoing study analyzing the ELF-related perspectives and practices as well as the program evaluations of the teachers exposed
to this teacher education program. According to the findings, a majority of prospective teachers displayed a high level of satisfaction with
the program, conceptualized ELF in a clear and multifaceted way, acquired a stance marked with critical thinking and self-confidence as
non-native teachers and adopted an ELF-informed pedagogy in their own teaching practices.
Keywords: ELF in Teacher Education, ELF Aware Teacher Education, Pre-Service Teacher Education, ELF Pedagogy, Transformative
Learning, Perceptions about ELF, ELF in Micro-teaching, ELF in Practicum.
1. Introduction
ELF and its implications on teaching and teacher education are acknowledged as highly significant issues
since it is teacher education that plays a vital role in making teachers aware of their non-native assets and
preparing them explicitly to exploit these assets in the development of an appropriate pedagogy (Jenkins,
2012; Seidlhofer, 2011). However, there are few studies on ELF in teacher education practice (Bayyurt &
Sifakis, 2015a, b; Blair, 2015; Dewey, 2015, 2014, 2012; Sifakis, 2014, 2009, 2007; Sifakis & Bayyurt, 2015).
Thus, this field of research still remains largely underexplored, which makes the development and
investigation of novel language teacher education models necessary. On the other hand, such models are
rare and they have not been comprehensively applied in both pre-service and in-service teacher education
yet.
As an initiator model in the field, ELF-aware teacher education model aims not only to inform
teachers but also to make them tangibly and critically aware of key ELF-related concerns (Bayyurt &
Sifakis, 2015a, b; Sifakis, 2014; Sifakis & Bayyurt, 2015). Such awareness challenges many teachers deep-
seated convictions about language, communication and teaching, but once achieved, it opens new
possibilities for teaching and learning. The aforementioned model was applied in 2012-2013 at Bogazici
University, as a project with in-service teachers from Turkey and Greece led by Bayyurt and Sifakis. In
this in-service teacher education project which focused on ELF in theory and practice, the participants
were reported to come in terms with ELF concerns and then use their newly acquired knowledge when
designing their ELF-aware lessons.
The application of this model to pre-service teacher education is non-existent in literature. Thus,
whether pre-service English language teachers gain awareness on ELF-related issues in their teacher
Boazii University. ekemaloglu@gmail.com

Boazii University. bayyurty@boun.edu.tr

EFL-aware teacher education Kemaloglu-Er & Bayyurt
education programs and how they put their ELF knowledge and insights into practice still remain
unexplored. Our study as an initial attempt to fulfill these gaps in the field aims to build an educational
framework for pre-service teachers to transform them into ELF-aware practitioners and analyze the ELF-
related perspectives and teaching practices as well as the program evaluations of the teachers exposed to
this teacher education program.
In this paper, as a part of this ongoing study, we aim to describe this novel teacher education model
to give insights to the teacher educators that aim to incorporate ELF-related components into their
curriculum. We will also present the preliminary findings of our study about the ELF-related perspectives
and practices of the prospective teachers who participated in this program and their program evaluations.
2. ELF-aware pre-service teacher education model
Aiming to raise the language teachers awareness on the concept of ELF and make them tangibly and
critically aware of key ELF-related concerns, the ELF-aware pre-service teacher education model focuses
on transforming pre-service English teachers into ELF-aware practitioners through theory, practice,
reflection and interaction. Hence, the framework set in this model is transformative and it draws from
the transformative learning theory pioneered by Mezirow (1991) and developed by Mezirow and
Associates (2000). The transformative learning theory applied in this model aims at making the
participants confront and change their own established viewpoints. It reveals a critical viewpoint about
the status of English today as well as current English teaching and learning practices. Yet, it must be
acknowledged that the transformative framework goes beyond the critical perspective, which mainly
focuses on practices that lie outside the teachers mind. It rather focuses on changing the individuals and
their mindset, that is, the worldviews of the teachers.
In our pre-service model, the pre-service teachers received ELF-aware teacher education in two
phases extending to two academic terms:
Phase 1 was built on theory building and reflection on ELF related matters and it had four main
components: an e-learning platform called portal in our study, online discussions, mobile learning,
and in-class discussions.
Phase 2 included intense ELF-focused practice and evaluation and it was centered around the design,
implementation and evaluation of ELF- aware lesson plans in the form of both micro teaching and real
in-class teaching (i.e. practicum in our case).
Let us now describe the phases of this ELF aware language teacher education program in more detail:
2.1. Phases
Phase 1: Theory building and reflection

Firstly, an e-learning platform, developed by Bayyurt and Sifakis, comprising readings and reflection
questions on several ELF-specific issues was put into implementation. In our team we call it portal.
The questions on the portal are intended to derive the teachers to think critically and write their own
reflections on the issues.
The teachers reflection on the readings was also fostered with online discussions which formed the
second main step of the process. In the online discussion process, Google Group was employed as a
technological device and the teachers were asked to relate the readings to their own knowledge and
experience through the given discussion questions in a collaborative atmosphere.
Also mobile learning was used to strengthen the reading and reflection process of the teachers.
Through our mobile interaction group, the teachers received reminders about the weekly assignments
and meetings and most importantly, they were sent several important quotes from the weekly readings

to highlight the key points regularly. We called this new mobile application Quote Reminder and
Thought Provoker. The further description of this application is given below.
Finally, the teachers also conducted in-class discussions each week about the related readings.
Phase 2: Experience & evaluation
Based on the belief that transformation can occur if only theory is put into practice, Phase 2 aims at
integrating ELF-specific issues into classroom experience in the form of design, implementation and
evaluation.
In this phase, first, the teachers designed ELF aware lesson plans at the end of the reading and
reflection process as their final assignment. Then, in the second term, they implemented these lesson
plans in the form of micro-teaching in their pre-service course and evaluated them with us and their own
colleagues in the following class discussions. Furthermore, they tried to integrate ELF-related elements
into their own practicum. In addition, they assessed not only themselves but also their mentor teachers
and schools in terms of ELF integration into the classes.
2.2. Aspects of technological enhancement
In this technologically-enhanced teacher education project, we made use of an e-learning platform, online
discussions and mobile learning since we believe in todays multifaceted learning environment, traditional
in-class instruction remains limited when compared to various chances of learner activation that todays
technology provides. As novel components, we incorporated online weekly discussions via Google
groups and mobile learning into the original portal-based model. Online weekly discussions were added
with the purpose of keeping the participants alert and interactive about the current readings on the
agenda. It also aimed at supporting the participants answers to the questions that they were supposed to
complete at the end of each reading on the portal via exchange of ideas, likely to enrich the participants
views on ELF-related issues and broaden their horizons.
Besides, mobile learning was intended as a means of content guidance and interaction in order that
the prospective teachers could deal with this theory building process loaded heavily with readings,
reflection and discussion in a more convenient way since mobility brings about convenience, expediency
and immediacy to teacher training (Baran, 2014).
Therefore, parallel to the readings, each week, the teachers received quotes / excerpts selected from
the given readings through a mobile communication platform, which is WhatsApp in our case. It was
chosen because it is a free, convenient, user-friendly mobile facility that our participants reported they
always used for instant messaging and it offers groups opportunities for content delivery and instant
communication.
Before making our design, we knew that even with this seemingly simple application, the design was
very important. As Eretin (2011) suggests, the design of mobile materials should be carefully made
paying attention to especially the cognitive load imposed on working memory sources, yet she adds little
empirical research exists to guide the design of mobile learning materials. For our application, we
surveyed the mobile language learning literature which is governed by mostly vocabulary studies and they
gave us some ideas and inspiration about the design.
This mobile learning application was named Quote Reminders and Thought Provokers and each
quote / excerpt was numbered and sent with the surname of the author and the year of publication. The
quotes were selected paying utmost attention to the fact that they would make the pre-service teachers
reflect on some essential points of the articles, attract attention and provoke their thoughts so that they
could contribute to the discussions and write their reflections more willingly and at least through some
form of guidance. The quotes were sent at weekends as it was expected that the teachers would then
work on their readings, reflective answers and online discussions extensively. Each week three to six
messages were sent as quote reminders with a prompt asking the teachers opinions on the quotes. The

quotes were sent leaving space between the posts so as to help the participants think about the given
issue deeply and internalize the content step by step.
Quote Reminder & Thought Provoker, a mobile application we devised by choosing quotes /
excerpts from the weekly readings and sending them to the teachers, was deemed to have the potential
to keep the learners informed about the course content and requirements and motivate them not only to
extend their theoretical knowledge but also to reflect on and discuss the key issues of the subject matter
no matter where they are and these estimations have come out to be true as will be revealed in the
program evaluations.
3. Methodology
This qualitative study aims to explore the pre-service teachers ELF-related perceptions and teaching
practices as well as their program evaluations as a part of a broader PhD study. The research was
conducted with pre-service teachers studying as seniors at Bogazici University, Foreign Language
Education Department. 10 teachers participated in the study. The data about the perceptions of the
teachers about ELF and ELF-related issues and their evaluations about this teacher education program
were collected through open ended questionnaires and semi-structured interviews. Moreover, the data
concerning their ELF-related teaching practices were gathered through classroom observations, journals,
practicum portfolios and classroom discussions. The data were analyzed through thematic and content
analysis. Herein, due to space limitations and ongoing data analysis, only some preliminary findings
regarding teachers ELF-related perspectives and practices and their evaluations about the program will
be presented.
4.1 Perspectives about ELF

According to the data from the open ended questionnaires asking the teachers to define ELF in their
own terms in the beginning and at the end of theoretical ELF-aware teacher instruction, there have been
changes in the teachers ELF views. The descriptions before the ELF-aware teacher education program
tended to focus primarily on the global aspect of English and ELF was reflected more like a global means
of communication between people from different countries or cultures. According to some participants,
ELF acts as a bridge, a unifying power, a communication medium for all people from different parts of
the world. Thus, it is seen to have been defined in a relatively vague way as a global entity. However, after
this program, it was clearly specified as a means of communication characterized with certain aspects and
owned by the teachers as non-native speakers of English.
It was seen that in their ELF definitions following the program, the teachers referred to one or more
of the following aspects: non-standard uses and flexibility in language use, intelligibility in mutual
communication, pluricentrism, multiculturalism and multiple identities with a certain level of proficiency.
4.2 Perspectives about native speaker norms
Before this project, the pre-service teachers stated they had been overwhelmed with the pressure of native
speaker norms especially in pronunciation. They stated that before getting introduced to the concept of
ELF, they believed in order that they could maintain a career, they should be like native speakers in any
aspect so that the possibility of being employed would increase. This also derived from the attitudes of
some of their professors, especially those who are native speakers.
As stated by the teachers below, the previous speaking experiences in their courses where they were
severely restricted by native norms had negative impacts on their psychology:

The more the native teachers urged us to speak with a correct pronunciation emphasizing th sounds and alike, the
more we lost our courage to speak.
It seemed as if we didnt know anything about the language just because we couldnt pronounce some sounds correctly.
However, as most of the teachers said, following the program, they were much more confident about their
use of English as non-native teachers and were able to question for whom it is correct pronunciation
and who decides about correctness.
4.3 Perspectives and practices about ELF pedagogy

According to the teachers, ELF has not only changed their views about the possibility of speaking that
language, but also impacted the way they are going to teach it:
Unlike the times we didnt know ELF, we are now freer to speak and ELF has given us a more flexible and broader
way of teaching English.
According to the thematic analyses and as observed by the micro-teaching and practicum practices of the
teachers, this broader way of teaching includes:
Transmitting ELF awareness to the students by means of videos, texts and discussions and
emphasizing global ownership,
Linking the themes in the English lessons to different non-native cultures in the world and most
importantly, students own culture,
Letting students speak freely and in their own way as long as their errors do not hamper intelligibility,
Allowing for the use of L1 when need be,
Raising confidence among ELF students by encouraging them to produce intelligible language and
discourse in spoken and written form.
By doing these, the teachers believed their students could become more engaged in learning and using
English. Furthermore, the teachers also reported they started to apply a more critical approach to
teaching, which they said had derived from the ELF pedagogy they had been exposed to. For instance,
they analyzed the curriculum, the textbooks, their mentor teachers and their schools with regard to their
approach to ELF. They also realized that in most of their practicum schools, especially private ones, it is
not so easy to integrate ELF into the class since they strictly adhere to native speaker norms.
4.4 Evaluations of the program

The teachers in general, had positive feelings about the ELF-aware teacher education program and
displayed a high level of satisfaction. It was often mentioned that it had been the first time they had
realized themselves as real English teachers since the project asked them to read and reflect on the
ELF issues and apply them into real in-class teaching practice. The theory and reflection part of the
program was found to be loaded and demanding by some teachers, yet a great majority of the teachers
found this phase as a useful means to internalize ELF and ELF-related concepts and adopt their own
stance as non-native teachers. The practice phase was especially deemed to be effective as it made the
teachers realize the external conditions that favor or are against ELF-related teaching practices and it
gave them a chance to use their own power and creativity and act as role models for the students as ELF
aware teachers.
As for the assessments of technological means, a great majority of the teachers were content with
them. Online discussions were considered to be beneficial in helping the teachers to follow the set

schedule and to reflect on the significant points of the readings via lively interactions. However, some
thought the platforms were messy and it was hard to follow the discussions. Also the reported benefits
of Quote Reminders and Thought Provokers include continuity in access and interaction and rapid
and long shares of information and ideas. It was also thought to lead to rapports in the class and increase
motivation. Yet, some participants complained that it is hard for them to follow the long threads and
some emphasized that the information sent through this mobile application should be limited.
5. Conclusion
In our study, the overall results have revealed the teachers receiving this form of ELF-aware pre-service
teacher education displayed transformation in their ELF conceptualization and their self-perceptions as
non-native teachers. Their first ELF definitions which reflected global depictions of English defined with
general terms turned out to be more and more specific as the education progressed. These specifications
of ELF demonstrated acknowledgment of the diversification of English use by non-native speakers and
the importance of intelligibility in ELF communication. The teachers were also observed to acquire their
own stance as non-native teachers leading them to question strict adherence to native norms and discover
their own realities, which caused a boost in their self-confidence. Moreover, in pedagogical terms, they
were seen to have adopted an ELF aware approach in their teaching practices with their efforts underlain
by the integration of multiple uses of English, different cultures and students own L1 and culture into
the class as well as correction strategies where intelligibility is the primary norm.
All in all, these findings along with the overall satisfaction of the prospective teachers with the model
indicate that some components that are likely to make the education of pre-service teachers on ELF and
ELF pedagogy effective are intensive reading, reflection, dialogues and discussions in the form of in-class
and technology mediated communication, mobile learning and most importantly, transforming the theory
and the accumulated knowledge about ELF into real teaching experience via micro-teaching and
practicum. It is hoped that ELF aware courses as the one in this design will be integrated into more and
more pre-service teacher education programs since it is primarily the teachers who can raise the
consciousness of their students about their identities as well as ELF-related issues and make the ELF
approach widespread all over the world.
Acknowledgements
This study is supported by Bogazici University Research Fund, Project Number 8000. We would like to
thank all the teacher trainees who participated in this study in 2013-2014 academic year.
About the authors

Elif Kemaloglu-Er received her BA in Translation Studies from Bogazici University and MA in Teaching English as a Foreign Language
from Bilkent University and is currently a PhD candidate in the Department of Foreign Language Education at Bogazici University. She
has extensive work experience as an instructor of English and is currently teaching at Bogazici University. Her research interests include
English as a Lingua Franca (ELF), ELF pedagogy, teacher education, ELF in teacher education and technology enhanced learning. Email:
ekemaloglu@gmail.com
Yasemin Bayyurt (Ph.D.) is a full professor in the Department of Foreign Language Education at Bogazici University, Istanbul, Turkey.
Her publications include articles in various refereed and indexed journals, and book chapters and books in the field. Her research interests
include cross-/inter-cultural communication, English as a Lingua Franca (ELF), teacher education, and curriculum design. Her publications
include articles in various refereed and indexed journals, and book chapters and books in the field. She recently co-edited a book on Current
Perspectives on Pedagogy for ELF published by De Gruyter Mouton, in Developments in English as a Lingua Franca Series. Email:
bayyurty@boun.edu.tr

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Calvo, L. C. S., El Kadri, M. S., & El Kadri, A. (2016). ELF in teacher education programs: Mapping the proposals
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ELF in teacher education programs:

Mapping the proposals presented in ELF5 and ELF6
Luciana Cabrini Simes Calvo

Michele Salles El Kadri
Atef El Kadri
Abstract
The aim of this paper is to map the initiatives of incorporating ELF in Teacher Education programs around the world, based on the papers
presented in the last two abstract booklets of the International Conference of English as a lingua franca ELF5 (2012) and ELF6 (2013).
Using the keywords teacher education or teacher in the abstract as criteria search, a total amount of 58 abstracts were found. Results
show the developments and the areas for further exploration in the university context, especially in teacher education courses.
Keywords: teacher education programs, ELF5 and ELF6 abstract booklets, mapping.
1. Introduction
Considering the position of English as a global lingua franca (ELF), discussions and investigation
focusing on the teaching/learning of this language and the implications for teacher education are
paramount (El Kadri & Gimenez, 2013; Seidlhofer, 2004; Sifakis, 2014). In this scenario, if we believe
that the teaching of English nowadays needs to be reconceptualized according to its status in the world,
teacher educators are, thus, central to promote these changes in their classrooms and in initial teacher
education programs (El Kadri, 2011). However, besides the recognition that ELF is an important
perspective to be introduced into teacher education programs in Brazil (El Kadri, Calvo & Gimenez,
2014), results of previous research carried out in our context indicated that, in general, teacher educators
are faced with the challenge of incorporating ELF perspective in teacher education (El Kadri, 2010, 2011;
Gimenez, Calvo & El Kadri, 2011; Siqueira, 2008).
Thus, our recent studies on ELF in Brazil have shown that although ELF is already an established
area of research and researchers have pointed that the biggest challenge for teacher education is,
therefore, how to deal with the re-conceptualization of the assumptions that the perspective brings for
the teaching of English (Seidhofer, 2004), in Brazil only recently it has been introduced as an important
topic of discussion (El Kadri, 2010; Siqueira, 2008, 2011; Souza et al., 2011). As we already highlighted,
there are few publications reporting how an ELF perspective is being included in pre-service English
language teacher education ( El Kadri, Calvo & Gimenez , 2014) and even fewer have provided practical
examples of how to implement a curriculum that is sensitive to those points of view (El Kadri, 2010).
Thus, we have noticed the initiatives to include ELF in teacher education programs in the state of Paran,
Brazil, so far, have been limited to a few teacher educators and the inclusions are mainly in the pedagogical
component of the program concerning ELF awareness. Such study also suggested that in general,
traditional language assumptions are not challenged by language-related courses (El Kadri, Calvo &
Gimenez, 2014).
Considering this context, this paper aims at mapping the initiatives of incorporating ELF in Teacher
Education programs around the world, based on the papers presented in the last two abstract booklets
of the International Conference of English as a Lingua Franca ELF 5 (2012) and ELF 6 (2013).The
State University of Maringa. cabrinisimoes@gmail.com
State University of Londrina.mielkadri@hotmail.com
State University of Londrina. elkadriatef@yahoo.com.br

ELF in teacher education programs Calvo, El Kadri & El Kadri
purpose of mapping the studies is to present a resource for teacher educators aiming at i) raising their
ELF awareness and ii) providing practical examples of how the ELF perspective has been dealt in teacher
education programs worldwide.
The data was gathered from the last two abstract booklets of the International Conference of English
as a Lingua Franca ELF 5 (2012) and ELF 6 (2013). Using the words teacher education or teacher
in the abstracts as criteria search, we found the total amount of 58 abstracts: 31 abstracts in ELF5
abstracts booklet and 27 abstracts in ELF6 abstracts booklet. The next section presents the results of the
analysis.
2. Results
The selected abstracts had as their main focus: 1) Attitudes/beliefs/views/ perceptions/awareness of

ELF; 2) Impacts of ELF courses or projects; 3) Proposals; 4) Other focuses. Each focus will be discussed
separately in the subsections below.
2.1 Attitudes/beliefs/views/perceptions/awareness of ELF

Regarding the first category, thirty-two (32) abstracts focused on attitudes, views, opinions, beliefs,
perceptions on ELF were found. These abstracts vary from a range of topics, such as: the ELF
perspective; pronunciation; English language use; standard and non-standard varieties of English; the
English language itself; native vs. nonnative English teachers, among others, and they come from
different countries, mainly: Greece, Germany, Turkey, Taiwan, China, Croatia, Hungary, Finland,
Portugal and Brazil.
The findings vary depending on the context, but generally, when it comes to the beliefs or attitudes
towards ELF, the awareness of ELF and the dichotomy between the native and non-native speaker are
mentioned. Suggestions on how incorporating ELF content in teacher education programs are provided
in few studies.
Considering the first aspect, we could observe that the studies show that, in general, their informants
are aware of or familiar with the status of ELF. Nevertheless, even being aware of ELF, a conflicting
perception about it was evidenced. These conflicting perceptions were related to: the need to model
British or American varieties of English in their practice to be considered a successful English language
teacher (Ersin & Bayurt, 2013); not feeling ready to plan lessons according to this perspective (pre-
service teachers) or not being sure about how the course as a whole was treating it in individual disciplines
(teacher educators) (El Kadri, 2013); not internalizing what ELF is about, taking on an unsure stance
(Duran, 2013); a need to have a native speaker model to teach English and its culture (British and
American varieties) (Bayyurt, 2012, p. 97), among other concerns. Along with some of these studies
mentioned before, the dichotomy between native and non-native speaker is much emphasized when
considering ELF and these considerations involve questions of authority, ownership and model of
language.
When discussing the findings of their studies, some suggestions are provided for raising awareness of
ELF in teacher education contexts. Such suggestions involve the need to develop courses (Chern &
Curran, 2013), lectures (Tomak & Kocabas, 2012) and reflections (Akcan & zkaya, 2013) exploring
issues related to ELF. Also, there is a call for the need to make changes in ELT courses so as to improve
training courses and pre-service teachers awareness and understanding of the transformations English is
going through as a lingua franca (Cavalheiro & Azuaga, 2012) and for a reform of teaching models
(Fang, 2012).

2.2 Impacts of ELF courses or projects

In this category, eight (08) studies had as their focus the impacts ELF courses/projects have had on
teachers (Derince, akmak & Kural, 2013; Dewey, 2012; Eslami & Ates, 2012; Inal & Ozdemir, 2013;
Kaar, 2013; Lopriore, 2013; Pitzl & Ehrenreich, 2012; Sarici & Derince, 2013). The impacts are
summarized in the table below.
Table 1. Studies showing the impacts of ELF courses or projects
Studies Impacts
Derince, akmak & Kural -The study reports that students and teachers become more
(2013) confident in terms of developing an understanding of ELF
awareness.
Dewey (2012, p. 26) -The impact itself was not presented, but the abstract mentions that
a discussion, based on the data from his project of teacher
development, will be made on how these teachers can be shown
both the limitations of English when conceived as a fixed set of
language forms, and by contrast, the rich communicative potential of
the language when it is untethered from these constraints and is
approached from an ELF perspective.
Eslami & Ates (2012, p. 166) -This study focuses on the impact of a course aimed at creating
awareness on World Englishes (WEs) among future teachers and
have them explore ways to communicate effectively with WE
speakers. The impact of the course was not mentioned in the
abstract there is only the information that a pre and post survey
were given to preservice teachers to evaluate the effectiveness of the
activities used and to determine if preservice teachers awareness
towards World Englishes has increased. Thus, we can deduce a
positive impact since the paper, based on the results of the study, will
present ideas and practices to help the future teachers [to]
understand WE in their journey to become global citizens.
Inal & Ozdemir (2013) Not mentioned in the abstract
Kaar (2013) -The results of this study indicated that the programs analysed
contributed to the participants level of intercultural competence to
some extent in different ways, leading to different academic and
social gains on their part.
Lopriore (2013) Teachers implicit and explicit knowledge about English inevitably
challenged by the exposure to and reflection upon ELF, led to a shift
in positioning themselves in terms of their role and function in an
institutional context that demands for standards in language
achievement.
Pitzl & Ehrenreich (2012) -Raise awareness and change attitudes on ELF

Sarici & Derince (2013) -According to the authors, the teachers become ELF-aware English
language teachers who experiment with the idea of implementing an
ELF-aware pedagogy in their classrooms even though an ELF aware
pedagogy is difficult to implement in a primary school context.
As the table shows, in general, these courses and projects have had great importance in raising awareness
on ELF. Some of them also demonstrate that being aware of the ELF concept made the informants have
different attitudes or understandings about it. For instance, Pitzl and Ehrenreich (2012, p. 16) consider
that the course seems to succeed in developing an informed awareness of and changed attitudes towards
ELF on the part of our students, an observation which will hopefully encourage other educators to
include similar elements into their local teacher education environments. However, they also
demonstrate that there is a gap between being aware and changing practices in the classroom.
Specifically, one (01) study focused on the impact of government prescription (Zarifa, Quiroz &
Khoury, 2013). This paper addresses the extent to which English language learners and teachers in
Korea have been exposed to and/or understand ELFs theoretical principles, which imply a break from
top-down, western standardized proficiency assessment (Zarifa, Quiroz & Khoury, 2013). The results
show that although the informants are aware of the fundamental principles of ELF, their behaviour as
language teachers and learners is extensively influenced by government mandated curricula.
2.3 Proposals
In ten (10) abstracts, proposals were presented. Some of these proposals include:
1. A model of teacher education that reflects the multilingual and multicultural realities of English today (Doganay-
Aktuna & Hardman, 2012). In the model, they consider teacher education as an interaction between
place (where the teaching and learning are occurring and the attendant variation in form and use of
English), proficiency (the level that is appropriate for both teachers and learners to gain), and how
teaching is always a transformative process (transforming the lives of both learners and teachers) and
action in praxis (p. 8).
2. A replacement of the current assistant program in European Union by an exchange of pre- or in-service teachers of
English from different lingua-cultural backgrounds (Weber, 2012). This suggestion considers that the ELF
perspective of such an exchange program would be favorable to a more realistic and relevant
approach to the teaching of the language and enhance the motivation of learners (p. 24) and would
also encourage the idea of plurilingualism as a characteristic of common European citizenship.
3. A reconceptualization of language teacher education (Karaman, 2012). The author mentions Tochons (2011
apud Karaman, 2012) deep approach to language education as having a relevant role in that. It is also
mentioned that reflecting on the reframing of the theoretical frames for language learning, teaching,
and teacher roles could facilitate local teacher educators awareness and efforts towards diverse glocal
pedagogies. No further information about the proposed approach is given.
4. An academic course (Schekulin & Dorn, 2013) the aim of this project was to develop an academic
course serving the needs of prospective English language teachers, and in return to provide the
research community with valuable data on the awareness of students, and their attitudes towards ELF
and its relation to ELT. The authors argue that while such a course should form an essential part of
English language teacher training in this day and age, social factors and personal biographies can be
expected to have an even greater impact on dispositions towards ELF and ELT. However, students
frequently identified the same institutional barriers that academics have been discussing: viz. curricula
and language testing regimens which continue to be based on native-speaker-centric conceptions of
the English language.

5. An adoption of a local critical intercultural pedagogy (Siqueira & Scheyerl, 2013). No further information is
provided in the abstract.
6. A model for ELF-aware teacher education based on Mezirow s transformative theory (Sifakis & Bayyurt, 2013).
According to the authors, the main premise of their proposal argues that for EFL teachers to integrate
ELF in their teaching practice it is not enough to be informed about ELF issues, rather it is necessary
to become actively aware of, challenge and transform some of their deeper convictions and beliefs
about the teaching and learning of English. In this proposal, the authors suggest teachers to: a) read
extensive articles from the ELF literature, b) view videos and c) answer a series of questions that
prompted them to reflect both on ELF and on their own beliefs, experiences and practices. They
were then asked to design lesson plans for their teaching context, justify their choices, teach and
record their lessons and reflect on their impact.
7. An online course for teachers (Hall, 2013): The author presents an online course for teachers which the
main objectives are: (a) to raise awareness of the plurilithic nature of English; (b) to enable teachers
to value the diversity of individually and locally appropriate learning objectives and outcomes; and (c)
to encourage them to develop and share new pedagogical strategies to adapt to the realities of ELF
usage. According to the author, the course adopts a social constructivist approach to language,
learning, and use, combining ELF-oriented work on social interaction with cognitive work on usage-
based learning.
8. A teaching proposal focused on four stages (Llurda, 2013) The author formulates a teaching proposal
aiming changing attitudes. There are four stages in this model: a) Exposure to realistic situations,
with examples of cultural and linguistic diversity: in this stage, according to the author, teachers are
presented with data from films, internet videos and written texts, illustrating the diversity of
communication situations, including examples of fairly unintelligible NS English as well as the current
multilingual and multicultural realities of global cities; b) Analysis of data showing NNS professional
performance: in this stage, according to the author, teacher trainees will be exposed to examples of
successful use of English by NNS users in different professional fields; c) Analysis of examples of
academic uses of ELF in this stage, data from corpora showing the use of ELF in academic contexts
will be discussed and analysed in detail; d) Prospective scenarios for international English: in this
stage, teachers are presented with the dichotomy of a future world dominated by a single leading
country vs. a world with multiple leaders (BRIC+US+Europe). The author also highlights arguments
for the latter option as the most likely to happen, with the probable outcome of English remaining as
the international lingua franca in a world that will no longer have its centre in the US but in multiple
places.
2.4 Other focuses

Some other studies had different focuses of investigation, such as:
1. Identity of teachers of English through their discourses in ELF contexts (Bayyurt & Ersin, 2012), through
thematic analysis related to the research question How do Turkish teachers of English construct their
identities through their ELF discourses? The study showed that the teachers were not aware of the
fact they were ELF users and that they were teaching future ELF users based on a traditional view of
language that considers the native speaker as a model of English expression.
2. Form and function in ELF for English teachers (Hall, 2012, p. 95). The author claims that continuing
ambiguities regarding form and function in the concept of ELF weaken its potential to effectively
underpin teachers efforts to reconcile this contradiction. Based on data from conversations with
teachers in Gaza, he proposes that an integration of social and cognitive approaches to language
might help make the fundamental message of ELF research more meaningful to teachers, while at the

same time acknowledging the complex realities of English learning and teaching in global and local
contexts.
3. Analysis of a teacher preparation program that trains pre-service teachers from different backgrounds, discussing the
following question What can teacher preparation programs do to train truly effective teachers of
English as a global lingua franca? (Gordon, 2012, p. 127). The presentation intends to bring an
overview of the linguistic component of the program, an analysis of the programs pedagogical and
assessment components; it also points that the strategies to recruit pre-service teachers from diverse
communities will be briefly presented.
4. Language awareness (Illes, Feyr & Akcan, 2012). The paper brings the results of a study developed with
students in teacher education programmes in Hugary and Turkey; its aim is to analyze the challenge
these students face during their teaching practicum. Based on the challenges and difficulties found
(especially in the use of the language), it is proposed that language awareness courses should be a
mandatory element in teacher education programmes.
5. Checking ways of incorporating ELF in the curriculum of ELT departments in Turkey (Alttinmakas, een &
Serdar, 2012), focusing on the following core courses: Approaches and Methods in English Language
Teaching; Material Design and Evaluation; Testing in ELT;
6. Analysis of teaching materials produced by prospective teachers in Brazil (Gimenez, El Kadri & Calvo, 2012) and
by university students who created and adapted music, songs, chants and rhymes to teach ELF to young
learners (Fleta, 2012). The first study discusses to what extent the materials reflect the implications
of ELF and also reveals the pre-service teachers understandings of ELF. The second one reports the
way they created songs and chants for daily routines and transition times in ELF (p. 137).
3. Discussion
The analysis demonstrates that most of studies focus on beliefs and attitudes towards ELF, which reveals
a concern with how the perspective is being seen/understood. It also suggests that analyzing the attitudes
and conceptions can be a good starting point to investigate the context for then developing action
research or implementing proposals in order to raise awareness on ELF. Although we see the study of
attitudes as relevant and as a first process that enables the changing of practices, we suggest that the study
of other influences on teachers beliefs, such as materials, evaluation and the government curricula would
also challenge teachers practices in the classroom.
Besides, there were studies which focused on the impacts some initiatives of incorporating ELF in
teacher education programs had. Such studies reveal that there is a growing recognition of the need to
incorporate ELF in teacher education courses. Although there were practical proposals, the restricted
access to abstracts implies that further investigation is necessary to be able to understand those initiatives
and how successful they have been.
4. Final Remarks
This paper aimed at mapping the initiatives of incorporating ELF in Teacher Education programs around
the world, based on the papers presented in the last two abstract booklets of the International
Conference of English as a lingua franca ELF5 (2012) and ELF6 (2013).
Such analysis allows us to notice that there has been improvement in terms of practical proposals of
incorporating ELF, but there is still a lack of studies on external institutional constraints to teacher work
and ELF, on how an ELF perspective has been dealt in English classes of teacher education courses or
even throughout the curriculum. Analysis of didactic materials used in such courses or even the

assessments or evaluation criteria in their English classes could also be an interesting point for future
investigation.
About the authors

Luciana Cabrini Simes Calvo is a professor in the Foreign Language Department at the State University of Maringa, Brazil, and holds a
PhD in Language Studies from the State University of Londrina, Brazil. Her research interests include teacher education, foreign language
teaching and learning, communities of practice and English as a lingua franca. E-mail: cabrinisimoes@gmail.com
Michele Salles El Kadri is a Professor in the Foreign languages Department at the State University of Londrina (Brazil) and holds a
Doctor and a Master Degree in Language Studies. Her research interests include teacher education, English as a lingua franca,
{coteaching|cogenerative dialogue} and identities. E-mail: misalles@yahoo.com.br
Atef El Kadri is an English teacher at College Language Center. Currently he is an undergraduate student in the English language teacher
education program at the State University of Londrina, Brazil. His research includes teaching and learning of English as a foreign language
and as a lingua franca. Email: elkadriatef@yahoo.com.br
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ELF in Brazilian teacher education programs
Michele Salles El Kadri

Luciana Cabrini Simes Calvo
Telma Gimenez
Abstract
The purpose of this paper is to present the results of a study aimed at analyzing to what extent an ELF perspective has informed the
curriculum of English language teacher education programs in the state of Paran, Brazil. Data was gathered through questionnaires
addressed to educators from public universities. Results will be discussed in terms of whether and how ELF perspective has been adopted
in their curriculum.
Keywords: teacher education, Brazil, curriculum.
1. Introduction
Motivated by pedagogical concerns, ELF researchers have emphasized the importance of considering
the implications of the decentering of native speakers and notions such as ownership of English and
accuracy (Cogo & Dewey, 2012; Seidlhofer, 2011). Although this discussion has evolved to analyse
specific instances such as teacher education schemes (Dewey, 2012) and textbooks (Takahashi, 2014), or
to suggest approaches to teacher education (Sifakis, 2014), in Brazil research on lingua franca is still at
early stages (Bordini & Gimenez, 2014; El Kadri & Gimenez, 2013). In accordance with studies
elsewhere, research on perceptions and beliefs has shown that although it has become common sense
that English is used as a global lingua franca, the pedagogical implications of such recognition have
received little attention, despite the acknowledgement that it begs for alternative pedagogies (El Kadri,
2010; Gimenez, 2009; Gimenez, Calvo, & El Kadri, 2011; Jordo, 2011; Siqueira, 2008).
In this scenario - with the current status of ELF and with new varieties of English emerging
throughout the world - our teacher education programs are faced with the challenge of deconstructing
historical understandings that associate English solely with native speakers (Graddol, 2006). Considering
that initial teacher education programs play an important role in this kind of questioning, a small-scale
study aimed at analyzing to what extent an ELF perspective has informed the curriculum of English
language teacher education programs in the state of Paran, Brazil was carried out.
2. The study
This is an initial probe into the issue of whether (and how) an ELF perspective has been adopted in
English language teacher education programs, with a quantitative-qualitative focus. The data was gathered
through an open ended questionnaire responded by educators of seven1 English language teacher
education programs in Paran, a state in Brazil considered progressive in terms of English language
teaching. These four year programs follow the existing framework for the education of English language
teachers in Brazil. They are carried out at university level that could either be exclusive to the English
language or provide a dual qualification (Portuguese and English). The curriculum is generally comprised
Universidade Estadual de Londrina/CAPES. misalles@yahoo.com.br

Universidade Estadual de Maring. cabrinisimoes@gmail.com
Universidade Estadual de Londrina/CAPES. tgimenez@uel.br
1 The responses were given by teacher educators of courses offered by the 7 state funded universities in the state of Paran.

ELF in Brazilian teacher education programs El Kadri, Calvo & Gimenez
of two main strands: language and literature. Pedagogical expertise is developed through courses and
practical experiences in schools. The dominant models of language development are based on discursive
notions of language, although largely focused on native speakers norms.
The questionnaire used to gather the data had the following questions:
1) Are you (and other teacher educators in your program) aware of the discussions about ELF and
teacher education? How do you stand on this issue?
2) Is an ELF approach adopted in the program you coordinate? If so, in what kind of activities?
3) Do the teacher educators working in your program challenge the status of English as a foreign
language in their classes?
4) In your opinion, do novice teachers need to be EFL-aware? If so, how?
5) Some ELF implications for teaching are listed below. Which ones do you consider relevant to
the education of Brazilian teachers? Why?
the re-conceptualisation of the reasons for learning English, emphasizing the idea that we
want to communicate with other non-native speakers of English around the world;
the need to include varieties of English other than Standard American or Standard British
for the teaching of receptive skills;
addressing topics and themes covering a wider range of social and global issues;
awareness of the role of languages in our societies, specially of English as a language of
international communication that enables us to access information and interact with people
around the world;
understanding of the spread of English in the world and its connection with globalization;
the development of a critical stance in relation to the association of the language only with
American or British English and people;
possibility to create other interpretative procedures and new meanings for social practices
involving reading, writing and speaking.
(Gimenez, Calvo, & El Kadri, 2011, pp. 15-16)
3. Results
Most of the educators (6 out of 7) responded they were acquainted with the discussions about ELF. They
mentioned their contact with these discussions through: a) ELF research publications; b) demand posed
by being responsible for courses that had ELF included in the course program (therefore the need to
learn more about it); c) ELF related activities (research, preparation of teaching units and courses) carried
out in partnership with colleagues from another university; d) ELF discussed in postgraduate courses
attended. Thus, the majority believes an ELF perspective is very important in the education of English
language teachers, as the following excerpt exemplifies:
I believe issues such as these motivate learners to feel less as foreigners, many times ashamed of their accent,
and more like owners of the language, by giving them the possibility to contribute with their values, culture
and ideologies to enrich the language.

The second question aimed at investigating to what extent an ELF approach was included in the teacher
education program. All respondents mentioned that the curricula of their courses incorporate contents
related to ELF, although three of them mentioned that the percentage throughout the curriculum is
minimal. Regarding what kind of activities such inclusion involved, teacher educators mentioned: (a)
disciplines that dealt explicitly with pedagogical issues (7/7 answers) and (b) disciplines that deal with
language learning/improvement and culture (4/7 answers). Some other spaces mentioned by them were
projects involving public schools and universities (PIBID2); didactic units produced for the Distance
Learning course; courses at an academic event and through the research orientation in a graduate course.
Regarding the practice of their peers, when asked if the teacher educators working in their program
challenge the status of English as a foreign language in their classes, two of them answered not all of
them, two others responded affirmatively, two negatively and one could not answer for the practice of
her peers. Their answers are summarized in the table below:
Table 1. Teacher educators colleagues awareness of ELF
Teacher educators colleagues Comments:

awareness of ELF
A Only the teachers in the following - Some discussions in the literature area concerning the
subjects: reformulation of the programme of the discipline:
English Oral Production and English Literature for Literatures of the English
Comprehension; Language.
English for the Classroom;
Applied Linguistics.
B Not all of them - Not all of them are familiarized with the discussion; -
others may think it is not important.
C YES - They challenge the question not only reading and

accepting what has been published in the main journals
of the area; but they relate the authors comprehension
of this theme with the reality of teaching and learning
English we face in Brazil.
D She cannot answer for all the educators - She discusses the topic with students from the 8th
from her part: YES semester of the course.
E YES - They challenge it in the following ways: i) systematically

(discussing theoretical texts about it); ii) spontaneously
(when it is necessary to challenge/question students
beliefs).
F NO
G NO
2
PIBID -Programa Interinstitucional de Bolsa de Iniciao a docncia - Interinstitutional Scholarship Program for Initiation to
Teaching.

Question 4 was related to their opinion regarding the need of novice teachers to be ELF aware. All
educators were unanimous in recognizing the importance of raising awareness about ELF in teacher
education. They mentioned it is important to do it (a) throughout the curriculum (3/7), (b) in disciplines
that deal explicitly with pedagogical issues + in English classes (2/7) and (c) in disciplines that deal
explicitly with pedagogical issues (2/7).
Regarding the implications of an ELF perspective, the respondents were unanimous in reaffirming
that all of them were relevant. Their views about the given implications can be pointed out as follows.
Respondents A and B consider that discussing ELF involves rethinking norms, patterns and strategies; it
implies re-discussing the aims to learn English in our context. Also, respondent B indicates that it is
important to discuss such implications as many professors are aware of the status of English in the world,
but many of them are not familiar with the pedagogical implications of it. In turn, respondent D highlights
that all implications are relevant. Considering an order of priority, she highlights the implication n. 1 (the
re-conceptualisation of the reasons for learning English, emphasizing the idea that we want to
communicate with other non-native speakers of English around the world), because many students come
in and out of the course without reflecting about this question. The same observation was made by
respondent E who considers that there is the need to detach English from native speakers standards as
the English language is used in multilingual contexts. Other informants made individual comments for
each implication or just established that all of them have their level of importance.
4. Discussion
The responses suggest that, among those teacher educators, there is the recognition that ELF is an
important perspective to be introduced into initial teacher education programs. To our surprise many of
them informed familiarity with the subject, although we could not assess what exactly they meant by
ELF. Apparently, there is recognition that English can no longer be associated only with native speakers,
but this idea is addressed mainly in the pedagogical component of the program, and not widespread
among the teaching staff. Such information suggests that, in general, traditional language assumptions
are not challenged by language-related courses, thus resulting in isolated attempts and initiatives by those
who had contact with the ELF literature. However, we would need more detailed ethnographic data to
be able to present conclusions about the degree in which ELF has been discussed in those courses and
what kind of activities are designed to challenge traditional assumptions that may be guiding the language
component of the programs.
5. Concluding remarks
In this paper, we aimed at presenting the results of a small-scale study aimed at analyzing to what extent
an ELF perspective has informed the curriculum of English language teacher education programs in the
state of Paran, Brazil in order to understand how the perspective has been dealt in our context. This
initial probe suggests that ELF is not ignored by some teacher educators working in the state universities
but its introduction is limited. Further qualitative research is needed to access understandings and
practices in actual classrooms. Only then will we be able to provide more detailed insights into how
Brazilian teacher educators are dealing with a perspective they deem relevant and necessary in the
education of English language teachers.

About the authors

Michele Salles El Kadri is a professor in the ForeignLanguage Department at the state university of Lodrina (Brazil) and holds a Doctor
and a Master Degree in language studies. Her research interests include teacher education, English as a lingua franca, {co-teaching|co-
generative dialogue} and identities. E-mail: misalles@yahoo.com.br
Luciana Cabrini Simes Calvo is a professor in the Foreign Language Department at the state university of Maringa, Brazil, and holds a
PhD in Language Studies from the State University of Londrina, Brazil. Her research interests include teacher education, foreign language
teaching and learning, communities of practice and English as a lingua franca. E-mail: cabrinisimoes@gmail.com
Telma Gimenez is an Associate Professor at Universidade Estadual de Londrina (UEL), with a PhD from Lancaster University (UK). Her
research interests are in the areas of English language teacher education, globalization and educational policies. Currently she is a Visiting
Academic at the Institute of Education, UK, with a scholarship from the Brazilian Ministry of Education (CAPES). Email: tgimenez@uel.br
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Giannakopoulou, A. (2016). Making sense of new words and worlds: Early routes to L2 multiliteracies in the Greek context. In N.
Making sense of new words and worlds:

Early routes to L2 multiliteracies in the Greek context
Alexia Giannakopoulou
Abstract
This paper examines how the English for Young Learners (EYL) programme in Greece exposes children to L2 multiliteracies. More
specifically, it examines how literacy in its traditional sense is currently addressed in the early primary school EFL curriculum and
instructional materials. To add an ELF perspective, the paper expands the area of focus to literacies (in the plural) and issues of culture and
meaning. The reason is that underlying the EYL curriculum is a theory of multiliteracies and a view of language as a social and cultural
practice. The first part of the paper presents the literature informing the pedagody of early literacy in Grade 3, with a focus on reading
development as well as social and cultural literacies. The second part of the paper draws on findings from 5 small scale research projects
investigating the efficacy of a balanced approach to early reading and applications of shared reading, and attempts to throw light on how
literacies are conceptualized by EFL professionals as well as how the specific properties of the instructional materials enhance the
development of metalinguistic awareness and intercultural awareness in L2 literacy learning.
Keywords: multiliteracies, intercultural awareness, balanced literacy approach, Phonics, Whole Language, early reading skills,
cultural literacy
1. Introduction
Over the past fifteen years, English Language Teaching (ELT) in the Greek state primary school setting
has been informed by the paradigm of a cross thematic programme (DEPPS), with emphasis on an
empirical communicative approach to learning and a focus on social interaction, cooperation, task
differentiation, metacognition and strategic learning. Based on DEPPS, children from Grade 3 to Grade
6 acquire basic communication and literacy skills in order to function effectively in different linguacultural
environments and develop a positive attitude towards multilingualism and multiculturalism. In 2010 the
official curriculum in the state primary school moved beyond this paradigm to consider a wider
framework of literacy teaching and learning. The theoretical framework informing this shift synthesises
perspectives from a Pedagogy of Multiliteracies, New Literacies and New Learning (Cope & Kalantzis,
2009) and a view of language as a social and cultural practice.
Cope & Kalantzis argue for the need to move beyond a narrow, traditional view of alphabetical literacy
and the monomodal formalities of written language (letter sound correspondences, words, sentences,
literary texts) towards a more holistic and transformative pedagogy to consider the multi dimensions
of literacies (in the plural), the multimodal realities of the media and the broader changes in the social
world. In their words (2009, p. 175):
Literacy teaching is not about skills and competence; it is aimed at creating a kind of person, an active
designer of meaning, with a sensibility open to differences, change and innovation. The logic of
multiliteracies is one that recognises that meaning making is an active, transformative process, and a
pedagogy based on that recognition is more likely to open up viable life courses for a world of change
and diversity.
Numerous researchers speak of the significance of multimodality and the need to develop multiple forms
of competences (social, cultural, digital, media competences) next to communicative language skills
(Breidbach, Elsner & Young, 2011; Rosenberg, 2010; Wildemann, 2011). The notion of multiliteracies
Hellenic Open University. alexiagiannakopoulou@gmail.com

Making sense of new words and new worlds Giannakopoulou
was officially implemented in the EFL programme in 2010 when English was introduced as a compulsory
subject from Grade 1 in 20% of the primary schools of the country. PEAP, the acronym for this project,
was expanded the following year to 40% of the schools and it is gradually being implemented in all primary
schools of the country. This innovation is one of the components of an enriched school curriculum, the
Integrated Foreign Languages Curriculum (IFLC).
The development of multiliteracies, especially social and cultural literacies, through English is the
foundation upon which the PEAP curriculum was based. Significantly, respect towards diversity and the
development of an intercultural ethos of communication were considered as important as the
development of social skills and everyday communicative practices. Within this broader framework, what
this paper aims to contribute is an enhanced understanding of the nature of early literacy practices of
the students and of the pedagogical repertoires of teachers in the primary school. More specifically, the
paper endeavours to answer the following questions: How do the children, who embark upon
becoming literate in a new language, develop L2 literacies in the state primary school? What impact does
a balanced approach to literacy have on the reading performance of the children? How do the
instructional materials teach literacies to their users? What is the intercultural and intracultural
dimension of these materials in relation to ELF?
2. Review of literature
This review will be organised thematically considering first issues of early literacy and then issues of
language and culture.
2.1 ELT and literacy: A wider theoretical framework

L2 reading is a complicated area and as far as young learners are concerned, there is much that remains
unknown. We do know, however, that reading comes easily to some children whereas most struggle
with some part of the complex process that begins with phonemes and continues with comprehension
of complex texts (Willis, 2008, p.1). The crucial question for educators, therefore, is which cognitive
processes are essential for successful early reading development to take place. Several studies
highlight the role of decoding, vocabulary knowledge, syntactic processing, metacognition in the
development of reading ability (Bernhardt, 2011; Koda, 2005). Research has shown that decoding
is necessary for reading comprehension and a strong early predictor of reading abilities (Adams,
1990; Beck & Juel, 1995; Demont & Combert, 1996; Gough, 1996; Juel, 1988; Stuart, 2000; Wagner,
2008; Wren 2001). L2 vocabulary knowledge is also a strong correlate of reading comprehension
(Daller, Milton & Treffers-Daller, 2007; Gass & Selinker, 2000; Koda, 2005; Schmitt, 2000). L2
grammar (or morphosyntactic) knowledge and L2 orthographic knowledge are also well established
predictors of reading ability. It logically follows then that children have to develop multiple cognitive
processes in order to become good readers.
If reading is viewed as a multicomponent process, the next crucial question that arises is: which is
the best approach to teach children to read? The teaching of reading can begin from word, sentence or
text level. Each starting point produces different approaches to reading. Decoding-focused approaches
assume that the primary task in reading instruction is to help students discover the relationships between
sounds and letters and build up from those to syllables and finally words. Meaning-focused approaches
stress the relationship between words or strings of words and their meaning. This paper argues for a
balanced approach to reading instruction, which blends elements from two approaches, Phonics, a bottom-
up approach which focuses on grapheme-phoneme relationships (Calfoglou, 2004; Cameron, 2001) and
Whole Language, characterised as a top-down approach, which places emphasis on meaning and context
(Daniels, Zemelman & Bizar, 1999). A balanced approach to literacy provides a synergic mix of both

phonics and whole language and is considered effective because it helps children make connections
between the two in the context of authentic reading (Donat, 2006, Milne, 2005; Thogmartin, 1997,
Weaver, 1994).
2.2 Literacy pedagogy in the Greek primary school

In Grades 1 and 2, children (aged 7-8) are introduced to the oral mode of the English language through
exposure to stories and fairytales, action and music, games, arts and crafts, drama, videos and by and
large, any activity that promotes acquisition in the classroom (Cameron, 2001; Moon and Nikolov, 2000;
Nikolov, 2009a; Pinter, 2006; Rixon, 1999; Slattery and Willis, 2001). The general aim is to use the day-
to-day language to interact socially with others, that is, to acquire social literacies that they have already
developed in L1 through English (Dendrinos, 2013). In the first two years, children develop emergent
literacy skills through stories, flashcards, logos and other materials. In Grade 3, they move from the
emergent stage of reading to conventional reading of text (Honchell & Schulz, 2012).
The acquisition of oral/aural vocabulary facilitates this process since learning to read requires making
predictions about language and making links between the spoken language and its writing system
(Gregory, 2008). There is an expectation, therefore, that children will be able to map their limited
knowledge of English onto a phonological system and learn to decode through phonics instruction.
Although the opacity of the English language can create some problems to the Greek learners as they
have to switch from a more transparent orthography in Greek to a less transparent orthography in
English (Goswami, 2008; Gove & Cvelich, 2010; Rixon 2011), children manage to blend or syncretise
in Kelly, Gregory & Williams (2001) term, L1 and L2 literacies.
2.3 Literacy and the teaching materials

Magic Book (MB), the English textbook for Grade 3 (Alexiou & Mattheoudaki, 2013) embraces a balanced
approach to literacy. Throughout the book, there is a recognisable phonic element with onsets (the initial
consonants of words) and rimes (the remaining vowel and consonants) being highlighted because
they develop phonological awareness and provide a pattern for new words, thereby developing word
recognition by analogy (Adams, 1994; Barratt-Pugh & Rohl, 2000; Chera & Wood, 2003; Gregory, 2008;
Hedgcock & Ferris, 2009; Horner & Ryf, 2007; Lems, Miller & Soro, 2010; Lewis & Ellis, 2006; Murray
& Christison, 2011; Smith, 2004; Vaughn & Linan-Thompson, 2004; Wyse & Jones, 2008).
Phonics is taught with a wide range of synaesthetic, multisensory techniques and becomes an integral
part of text exploration. After the alphabet section, the book introduces four characters who read a
different story in each unit. Children engage in story reading along with a variety of fun activities and
story sequencing tasks. Terzakou (2014) argues that MB has the characteristics of a basal anthology with
well-known stories, which are a simple account of the original versions and follow their own scenario in
order to activate content schemata and make meaning more accessible to young children (Blachowicz &
Ogle, 2008; McGuinness, 2004). Familiarity of content is important for the activation of background
knowledge and inner lexicon (McNamara, Ozuru & Floyd, 2011; Stuart, Stainthorp & Snowling, 2008).
The criterion for the selection of the vocabulary is not the frequency of occurrence but the meaning
of the stories. Therefore, focal words such as hopscotch and weasel may be less easy to decode but are
included because they come from the language of the stories. There is clear emphasis on lexical chunks,
which are repeated many times so that children can recall them when the need to communicate arises.
Thus, lexical chunks or prefabricated phrases, commonly found together and typically related to
functional use of language, are preferred because they are stored as individual wholes, carry more complex
meaning than isolated words, familiarise children with grammatical and syntactic structures and thus are
more useful for communication (McCarthy, O Keeffe & Walsh, 2010).

3. Globalisation, culture and new literacies
Greece, an officially monolingual country, belongs to the countries of the expanding circle (Kachru,
1985), where English, the major global language of communication, is the first foreign language that
children must learn. In the light of ELF (English as a Lingua Franca) and WE (World Englishes) fields
of studies, this paper attempts to throw light on the development of cultural literacy and (inter)cultural
awareness in addition to the development of language and communication skills (Vettorel and Lopriore,
2013). Although culture has always been part of language teaching, it has gained popularity over the past
few decades because of the significant role it plays in negotiation of meaning and communication (Sifakis,
2004; Thanasoulas, 2001).
In line with a global/plurilithic view of English (Sifakis & Sougari, 2003), the Greek EYL curriculum
integrates intercultural awareness and appreciation of ones and others language and culture into the
goals of language teaching. The aim is to help children act and communicate effectively in various social
and cultural contexts, to coexist with people from different linguacultural backgrounds and to thrive as
global citizens.
4. Method of the study: A best-evidence synthesis
The review method used in this paper is similar to an adapted technique called best -evidence
synthesis (Slavin et al, 2009). Based on this method, the paper combines the findings from five small-
scale studies carried out in Greek primary schools. The synthesis of the research studies will seek to
identify meaningful information, discussing each study in some way with an emphasis on narrative
description of each studys contributions. Two of these studies (Damianou, 2013; Kostantopoulou,
2014) investigate the efficacy of a balanced literacy model via the use of traditional and digital storybooks.
Another study examines the efficacy of analytic phonics and the Whole Word (Look and Say) approach. To
harvest data, all three studies used similar research methods: a battery of custom made reading-aloud tests
comprising of real word and pseudo word decoding tasks, reading chunks of language and read and
match tasks, as well as classroom observation, teacher diaries, recordings of classroom reading and
student questionnaires. The researchers themselves were teachers who shared the literacy events and
experiences of the learners.
In the first two studies, the teachers developed a parallel story-based syllabus which was tightly
integrated into the 3rd grade syllabus to bridge the gap between decoding and independent reading.
Damianou and Kostantopoulou based their studies on the Simple View of Reading (Gough & Hillinger,
1980; Kirby & Savage, 2008), which advocates that reading is the product of both decoding and
comprehension. Damianou created her own Big Books as parallel versions of MB with the same
characters in an attempt to extend the vocabulary in new but familiar contexts. Kostantopoulou selected
a set of e-books with stories coming from the textbook but with richer authentic input. Both researchers
designed activities for the manipulation of phonemes (blending, segmentation, substitution) and
comprehension activities. Overall, the findings from the tests and classroom observation showed that
the students improved not only their decoding but also their comprehension skills.
The third study examined the role of phonics with an emphasis on sight vocabulary and rapid word
recognition. Mantziari (2013) based her research on the Dual Route theory (Dombey, 2009) which
advocates that children can follow two routes to decoding: a lexical and a non lexical one
(orthographic). In each of these routes, the child uses different reading strategies: the phonemic strategy
whereby the child translates the word into its phonemic representation and then uses this representation
to retrieve the meaning of a word and the visual strategy where the child uses the visual information of
the word to retrieve the meaning. The supplementary input for this study came from a textbook which

used a dual route to decoding. Mantziari used 2 groups, a control group who used MB and an
experimental group who used a supplementary textbook next to MB. The lessons in the experimental
group followed a traditional routine with the teacher presenting words with flashcards and children
moving from choral reading (repeating after the teacher) to echoing (reading one beat behind the teacher)
to individual reading. Mantziari did not observe any significant differences between the two groups.
In the Greek context the teachers perceptions about teaching and learning are critical and as Sifakis
& Sougari (2010) point out, these are determined by a wide range of factors, such as their previous
learning experiences, their training, their teaching experiences, their identities. Two studies, carried out
by Terzakou (2014) and Goudousaki (2014) focused on the teachers practices, perceptions and
rationales. Both studies were questionnaire-based while Terzakou also included data from teacher
interviews. Both researchers concluded that the conceptualisations of Greek teachers concerning literacy
practices are highly influenced by the literacy procedures in the Greek society.
Finally, Giannakopoulou (forthcoming) investigated the development of cultural literacy in Grade 3.
Teaching English with an ELF perspective is complicated and with several parameters attached to it. The
analysis was based on studies of EFL textbooks from an ELF perspective (Matsuda, 2002; Vettorel and
Lopriore, 2013). In relation to the context in this study, the guiding questions were: How is cultural
literacy approached by the teaching materials in Grade 3? Which variety of English is the material based
on? Does it provide exposure to other varieties of English? Whose cultures are represented?
5. Main findings and conclusions
The studies point to the advantage for children of a balanced literacy approach in L2 reading
development. The findings indicate that children, even the struggling ones, developed sensitivity to
phonological awareness and were attentive to higher order processes such as story sequencing. The results
of the decoding task reveal that the young learners improved their decoding skills to a great extent and
that overt phonics instruction supported children with difficulties in reading.
Consistent with previous findings (Porpodas, 2006), the studies showed that the pseudo-word task
presented the learners with difficulty. This is not surprising as phonological awareness and reading skills
are closely related, making it harder for children to read unfamiliar words (Goswami, 2009).
In the read-and-match task the vast majority of students performed very well. This finding underscores
the role of context in early reading. Overall, the test results showed learner progress on both the lexical
and the non-lexical level and stressed the role of context in word and chunk reading.
The findings from the studies also provide additional evidence that students were able to make their
own phonemic rules applying them to different words. The generation of rules is language related
behaviour that can contribute to the linguistic development of young learners (Thogmartin, 1997).
Damianou found that good readers rely more on the context for word recognition than poor readers.
This contrasts sharply with Stanovich & Stanovich (1995, p.90) whose research has revealed that the
word recognition of better readers is not characterised by more reliance on contextual information.
With regard to screen-based reading and electronic books, Kostantopoulou and Goudousaki
concluded that apart from being appealing, e-books provide scaffolding with animations, sound effects,
graphics and music, which makes reading multisensory and fosters not only decoding but also
comprehension.
Terzakou found that teachers adopt more traditional than transformative methods, e.g. songs and
rhymes, the use of formulaic language and dictation. The vast majority (about 95 %) presents new words
on the board and/or with flashcards to build word recognition skills. 80% ask students to read aloud as
a daily classroom activity. Under than half of the teachers (46,7%) pay attention to the onset/rime
division. Some interesting findings from Goudousakis research results corroborate these findings.

Reading as a whole class activity prevails in the classroom (75%) while independent work (36%) is the
least preferred mode. This contrasts sharply with current views that independent silent reading builds
fluency, automaticity, confidence and appreciation for reading.
In answer to the questions about cultural literacy and ELF representations, it was found that MB gives
students the opportunity to immerse into a variety of cultures by incorporating appropriate cultural topics
(e.g. animals, homes), pictures and place names. It adheres to Standard English and Standard Received
Pronunciation. The texts, CDs, vocabulary choices, spelling and pronunciation point mainly to British
English and less to American English. One can find words which are more frequent in BrE than AmE,
e.g. tummy, autumn or vice versa, e.g. chips and cookies. The accents are overwhelmingly Inner Circle,
Anglophone ones. In fact the materials represent only Native English Speakers (NESs). The four main
characters (Lena, Tammy, Alex and Yuri) represent both genders and various ethnic backgrounds in
order to combat stereotypes. However, their accent is standard RP. All the other characters appearing in
the book are also prevalently British and their accents continue to be NESs. This is not surprising since
children of this age are more likely to achieve native-like pronunciation because of a type of neural
plasticity (Fathman, 1975; Long, 1990).
Considering that people should, first, develop knowledge of their own culture in order to be able to
understand other cultures (Kramsch, 2009), MB promotes students intercultural awareness by featuring
a number of stories adapted from European folktale, fairy tales and literature and intracultural awareness
by featuring Aesops fables (the Ant and the Cricket), Greek myths (Daedalus and Icarus) and Greek
literature, e.g. Lady Decay by Evgenios Trivizas. Greek children are familiar with the Greek collections
of the Brothers Grimm, Charles Perrault and Hans Christian Andersen or Walt Disney and their
protagonists and this familiarity of cultural content facilitates their literacy experiences.
6. Proposals and concluding remarks
If the early literacy experiences of children in class are to be extended, it would seem important that
teachers teach decoding and comprehension together at every stage. Story reading is considered to have
a supportive role in the hands of the teachers not only because it can help children become fluent readers
but also because it infuses world values in the children that would facilitate them in their encounters with
others (Thanasoulas, 2001) and help them expand their world and their cultural vision (Kramsch,1993,
p5). Shared reading helps the teacher and the student co-construct literacy. The teacher asks questions to
trigger recall of words, clarifies meaning with the help of illustrations and helps the children develop
higher order processes. This kind of teacher-student interaction promotes guided participation as a more
active role of the child in these interactions. In this sense, learning to read is not only seen as a mental,
intrapersonal, psychological activity. It is also seen as a social, collaborative, interpersonal, cultural
activity.
In answer to the stated objectives of this best-evidence synthesis, this paper has shown that the early
L2 literacy events in Grade 3, based on Magic Book and enriched with story-based input and activities,
help children develop metalinguistic awareness as well as an awareness that certain cultural
understandings and values are universal, thus moving beyond the understanding of new words to making
sense of new worlds (Gregory, 2008). However, there is a limited evidence base, therefore, further
research studies reviewed will form a stronger evidence base for the development of L2 multiliteracies
and the ability to respond positively to a multicultural and multilingual society in which people have and
experience multiple languages, cultures, identities and the negotiation of these identities.

About the author

Alexia Giannakopoulou holds a B.A. in English Language and Literature from the University of Athens, an M.Ed. in TEFL from the
Hellenic Open University and a Ph.D from the University of Koblenz-Landau (Germany). She is co-author of EFL books and teaching
materials for primary and junior high school. She has been involved in student mentoring and in-service teacher training programmes. In
2011 she joined the teaching staff of the Hellenic Open University and in 2013 she became a school advisor for EFL teachers. Email:
alexiagiannakopoulou@gmail.com
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Accent, attitudes, and ownership of English:

Perspectives of Italian college-bound youth
Jacqueline Aiello
Abstract
As the main vehicle for communication in innumerable domains of global social activity, English has been celebrated for its ability to
facilitate international communication. Yet, recent scholarly work has provocatively problematized the assumption that the widespread use
of English has rendered the language neutral and accessible to all. This paper contributes to this line of research by drawing on data collected
in a sequential explanatory mixed-methods dissertation study of the motivations, attitudes and ownership of Italian youth related to English.
The focus of this paper is on L2 attitudes, defined as intrinsically linked to language ideologies, and as a form of invisible policy that
determines language use and the prestige associated with a language. In this paper, drawing on questionnaire and interview data, the
complexity of Italian youths attitudes towards varieties of English and English accents are described through the lens of the English variety
to which they aspire, and the factors that reinforce and/or mediate these attitudes. Then, the decisive role of L2 attitudes in language
education and English use are highlighted with an illustration of how language attitudes and ideologies shape youths efforts to claim
ownership of English.
Keywords: Accent, Italy, language attitudes, language varieties, ownership
1. Introduction
Increased global interconnectedness and fluidity of boundaries have compelled scholars to question and
problematize extant fixed definitions of culture, identity and language, which in turn have also affected
the theorization of language learning and use (Holliday, 2009; Piller & Pavlenko, 2007). These changes
are most palpable with English, which has become the primary linguistic channel by which global
connections and networks are established and maintained (Jenkins, Cogo & Dewey, 2011). One
burgeoning strand of research concerns English as a lingua franca (ELF), a distinct manifestation of
English not tied to its native speakers (Seidlhofer, 2004, p. 229) that is greatly variable, negotiated ad
hoc, influenced by different linguacultures, and reliant on context, purpose and user (House, 2014). As
House (2014) explains, it is an open-source phenomenon, a resource available for whoever wants to
take advantage of the virtual English language (p. 364).
Yet, recent scholarly work has also provocatively problematized the assumption that the widespread
use of English has rendered the language neutral and accessible to all. This paper contributes to this line
of research by taking a poststructuralist stance and employing the Bourdieuan theory of the accumulation
of capital. According to Bourdieu, linguistic differences serve to position speakers in the social world
because languages accrue varied levels of capital for their speakers, depending on the value of that
particular language variety (Bourdieu, 1991; Bourdieu & Wacquant, 1992). The value of English is
augmented by its role as a global language that allows participation in myriad domains (Piller & Pavlenko,
2007). Yet, certain varieties of English are more valued than others. Therefore, the desire to accumulate
and secure the greatest profit through linguistic resources impels individuals to engage in language
learning of preferred varieties.
This paper explores the desire to accumulate social capital and invest in learning of specific varieties
of English among Italian college-bound youth through the lens of L2 attitudes, defined as learned
motivations, valued beliefs, evaluations, or what one believes is acceptable related to language (Wenden,
1991, p. 52). L2 attitudes surface and evolve not solely within the individual, but they also pivot on
language ideologies that depend on social processes and are often unconsciously experienced (Dyers &
New York University, New York. j.aiello@nyu.edu

Accent, attitudes & ownership of English Aiello
Abongdia, 2010; Lippi-Green, 1997). Moreover, as Pulcini (1997) affirms, attitudes are a form of invisible
policy that spring from a general, unorganized force, usually in the form of societal pressures such as
reactions from ordinary people, peer-groups and opinion-makers in the media (p. 77).
Drawing on a portion of the data collected in a sequential explanatory mixed-methods study of the
motivations, attitudes and ownership of Italian youth related to English, this paper aims to address the
following research questions:
a) What are Italian youths attitudes towards (varieties of) English?
b) What language varieties do learners aspire to?
c) What is the relationship between language attitudes and ownership of English?
2. Methodology
2.1 Data collection and analysis

Data contained herein are a part of a larger sequential explanatory mixed-methods study for which data
was collected in 2012-2013. Quantitative data were collected via online questionnaires, which included 3
main attitudinal dimensions: Attitudes towards English, Attitudes towards Native Speaker (NS) Accents,
and Attitudes towards the L2 Community. Descriptive statistics and multi-tem scales were computed
using SPSS, and correlation analyses were conducted to examine the relationship among the main
attitudinal dimensions and outcome measures (L2 anxiety, intended effort and willingness to
communicate, WTC).
Eight case study participants were selected for the qualitative phase by means of purposeful sampling
guided by criteria that emerged in the analysis of questionnaire data. The qualitative phase involved three
interviews of each participant, six months of weekly observations of their English classrooms, and two
interviews with each of their teachers. Qualitative data were analyzed within and across cases.
2.2 Participants
The participants in this study were 18 to 20 year old English learners in four high schools in Naples and
Rome, Italy. 205 youth participated in the quantitative phase and eight youth were selected as case study
participants. More descriptive information about case study participants, including their city, gender,
school type (general science-oriented school: Science; technical institute: Tech), and track (linguistic: L;
non-linguistic: NL), can be found in Table 1.
Table 1. Case study participants
Pseudonym Alberto Sergio Chiara Giovanni Giorgia Laura Raffaele Vittorio

City Naples Naples Naples Naples Rome Rome Rome Rome
Gender M M F M F F M M
School Tech Tech Science Science Tech Tech Science Science
Track NL NL NL NL L L NL NL
3. Results
3.1 What are Italian youths attitudes towards (varieties of) English?
Questionnaire responses of the 205 youth in the sample suggested positive attitudes towards English.
Participants were asked questions related to integrativeness, including those concerning encounters with
Anglophone foreigners, visits to Anglophone countries and the desire to assimilate aspects of
Anglophone culture. Responses to these items reveal more positive attitudes towards visiting

Anglophone countries than encountering Anglophone foreigners and assimilating features of

Anglophone culture. These responses suggest that interest in visiting Anglophone countries may be
reflective of travel and/or international orientation rather than a desire to access Anglophone culture
through English.
The vitality of AngloAmerican varieties of English and attitudes towards these varieties were explored
via questions concerning accent. Specifically, the Attitudes towards Native Speaker (NS) Accents Scale
explored the extent to which respondents deemed it important to speak with a NS accent
operationalized as an American or British accent1 - and the desire to maintain an Italian accent when
speaking English. Across the full sample, participant responses averaged at between neutral and
agreement with regards to preferring native speaker accents (M = 2.79, SD = .779). An analysis of
responses to individual prompts within this scale provides further insights (see Table 2).
Table 2. Full sample means of items in the Attitudes towards native speaker accents scale
Questionnaire Item Mean

It is important for you to speak English with a British or American accent. 2.95
When I speak English, I dont want others to notice that Im Italian. 2.48
I dont want an Italian accent when I speak English. 3.06
It is necessary to speak English with a British or an American accent. 2.67
Scale: 1 = Disagree, 2 = Slightly Disagree, 3 = Slightly Agree, 4 = Agree
Participants agreed to a greater extent that it is important than it is necessary to speak English with
an Anglophone accent. Furthermore, participants overall agreed that they do not want an Italian accent
when they speak English, but responses averaged at about neutral that they do not want others to realize
that they are Italian when they speak English. This is arguably a contradiction: is accent not the most
salient marker of Italianness when speaking a foreign language?
Correlation analyses were performed among the two attitude scales and the outcome measures, and
interpreted following Cohens (1988) conventions. An analysis of the relationship between Attitudes
towards NS Accents and the outcome measures revealed a moderate positive correlation with Intended Effort
(r=.287, p<.001) and WTC (r=.269, p<.001), but a positive correlation between weak and moderate
was found with anxiety (r=.226, p=.001). Attitudes towards NS Accents was the only construct to have a
positive correlation with L2 anxiety. This relationship suggests that those who prefer NS accents are less
comfortable using English, perhaps because they perceive that their English is unlike the standard
variety that they aspire to and/or most highly regard.
Interviews with 8 case study participants further elucidated L2 attitudes, and highlighted their
complexity. Although 6 of 8 case study participants expressed positive attitudes toward English, all
participants drew a link between English and their imagined future selves. Articulating the desire to travel
abroad (as in the cases of Raffaele and Vittorio), to join professional communities of which the language
is English (as Chiara who wanted to be a scientist, Laura an engineer, and Giorgia an interpreter), to
reside in English-speaking countries (like Chiara who would like to live in the UK and Alberto in the
US), or to partake in online groups (Lorenzo and Sergio), all participants recognized that English was
instrumental to participate in their desired future communities.
1Experience in the context and information gathered from the piloting of this questionnaire suggested that American and British accents
were most readily associated with the term Anglophone.

3.2 What language varieties do learners aspire to?

In contrast to the multitudinous future uses of English, Italian college-bound youth repeatedly alluded
to NS varieties of English as their target language, largely dismissing non-Inner Circle varieties.
Specifically, British English was the ideal. Participants revealed the manifold reasons for this preference,
and these justifications were often juxtaposed with American English, since that was the variety utilized
by their interlocutor, an American interviewer. For Raffaele, British English is more grammatic[al] than
American accent, and Lorenzo affirmed: not to be rude, but I prefer a British accentI am a grammar Nazi even
in English. Although some participants expressed affinity with American English, this preference was
grounded in its relaxed, pop-culture vibe, suggesting that accuracy for American speakers of English is
not compulsory. The correct, accurate and ideal target variety is British English.
Giorgia astutely attributed the preference for British English to the social milieu and to Italian
mentality that supports the idea that British is better. English as a native language (ENL) is more
compatible than ELF with the experiences of Italian youth in the high school context: classroom
interactions and teaching materials follow NS norms. In their edited volume, Menken and Garcia (2010)
maintain that classroom teachers are at the center of language education policies as final arbiters of
language policy implementation (p. 1). Although during interviews teachers acknowledged and even
stressed the role of English as an international language, akin to non-NS teachers described in Murray
(2003), ELF was appealing in principle but, in practice, teachers relied on codified ENL norms. Testing
further reinforced ENL. Csizer and Kontra (2012) aptly affirm that the washback effect of testing plays
a critical role in the legitimation and perpetuation of NS varieties of English. The national Italian high
school exit exam, the CEFR, and certification exams of English proficiency are built on NS norms.
Aligned with the conclusions posed by Menken (2008), the weight of native varieties in these focal exams
perpetuates the adaptation and acceptability of ENL, and specifically British English.
3.3 What is the relationship between language attitudes and ownership of English?
Language ownership is the degree to which individuals project themselves as legitimate speakers with
authority over the language (Norton, 1997, p.426), often proposed as a means to accurately assess
language competence that captures the perspectives of speakers, and rejects largely irrelevant NS norms.
Fittingly, in Italian, ownership translates to padronanza, which is used to refer to language mastery. Thus,
the exploration into meanings and interpretations of ownership for participants relates to their self-
perceived proficiencies.
Participants were asked to identify who owns English and to describe the extent to which they
perceive ownership over the language. In response to the first question, half of the interviewees
responded that the owners of English are those who are from or reside in English-speaking countries,
while the other half took an ELF perspective. Exemplifying this dichotomy, Table 3 displays Chiara and
Albertos responses.
Table 2. Who do you think owns English?
Chiara Alberto
English people and is very banal but I think also those English for example in Italy is something that can
people who have a parent that is hu:m from an English help you evacuate from here to try to enter in a
[-speaking] country and those people who uh go and live community with different people.. People who use it to
in English [-speaking] country, I think that just these escape or people who use it to complete themselves are
people can own a language. people who own English.

Participants who said that only native English speakers own English excluded themselves from complete
ownership of the language, provided responses wrought with doubt, and their self-perceived proficiency
suffered. When asked if she owned English, Laura who ascribed ownership of English only to native
speakers replied: Well I think that I dont know English well because I dont speak it. I study it in school, I am
good at understanding literature butI find it difficult because I dont have, dont have the ownership of the language. To
the same question, Giorgia responded I guess, uh, enough and Chiara said: Okay. Well, I wish I owned it
more, I have to say it, I dont knowI wish I would feel the ownership of English but I, hu:m, but actually I feel as hu:m,
I dont own it hu:m very well. When asked what she had to do own English completely, Chiara replied: Move
to England, USA or u:h countries in which English is first language.
By contrast, viewing English as an international lingua franca rather than a language of NS alone
facilitated the perception of ownership and enhanced self-perceived proficiency among participants.
Because of its function as a lingua franca, Alberto defines English as innate. He explained: when a children
want to eat and he cry to communicate with his mother because he is hungry, English is the same [sic]. Although more
hesitant compared to Alberto, Raffaele also defined English as an international language when he stated:
In my opinion, English is the most famous language in the world so I think its maybe of everyone. The self-
perceived ability in English expressed by Alberto and Raffaele pivoted on the understanding of English
as global vehicle for communication. Raffaele asserted his ownership, or mastery, of English because, in
his words: with English I can speak with other people that I dont know, that I met on the way. I can speak with them.
I think that I am able to speak the basical English [sic]. If everyone ask me wheres the bathroom? or what do you want
to eat? I can answer him. Successful interactions in English for communication result in ownership. Alberto
explains that his mastery of English is not in the perfection, though, he said: I own English because English
is like something, is a way to communicate.
3. Discussion
Widdowson (1994) maintained that proficiency in a language is contingent on the extent to which a user
possesses it and asserts oneself through it (p.384). In line with this view, ELF has been celebrated as a
language variety all English users can own. Extending membership of English to non-native speakers
does not guarantee that the process of claiming legitimacy and asserting ownership over the language is
effortless. Rather, Bakhtin (1992) posited that the word becomes ones own only when the speaker
populates it with his own intentions, his own accent, when he appropriates the word, adapting it to his
own semantic and expressive intention (p.294). This process of appropriation is difficult and
complicated (Bakhtin, p. 294), inevitably accompanied by tension and struggle. In fact, participants
acknowledged that English is the language of international contact and of other professional and
academic domains, yet the connection between English and Anglo-American communities has not
dissipated. Interview data displayed that ELF is acceptable, but ENL varieties are ideal. Even for Alberto,
who most eloquently illustrated that English was as universal as a babys cry for food, the target language
was a Standard English variety. By means of assessment and school practices, ENL discourse has been
inculcated or, conversely, ELF has not yet become an imaginable, acceptable discourse in the target
language among participants.
Ultimately, global phenomena have assigned great linguistic capital to English, and both institutions
and individuals residing in the EU are buying into English in order to gain access to the symbolic capital
that the language imparts. The British English variety is at the apex of the linguistic hierarchy and the
dominant discourse in the linguistic market (Bourdieu & Wacquant, 1992), sustained and upheld by
Italian educational institutions and policies. This state of affairs profoundly impacts the proficiency and
learning experiences of Italian youth. Csizer and Kontra (2012) suggest a debilitating effect of the NS
model on language learners because it shifts the focus from mutual intelligibility, communication

strategies and accommodation skills in the target language, which might explain the low number of
Hungarian speakers of English. This notion has validity in this study. When Italian participants who
ascribed English mastery to native speakers alone were asked if they owned English, responses regarding
their own proficiency were typified by doubt, hesitation and disillusionment. The delimitation of English
mastery to English speakers alone negatively impacted youths self-perceived proficiencies. Relatedly,
youth who were more concerned with having native-like accents in questionnaires also displayed a higher
degree of language anxiety, which negatively affects language performance and self-perceived proficiency
(See Dewaele & Ip, 2013). On the contrary, participants who viewed English as an international lingua
franca weighed their self-perceived proficiency more leniently.
Only a few years ago Groom (2012) concluded her study of non-native attitudes towards teaching
ELF in Europe by stating: this study has shown that ELF currently neither motivates nor meets the
aspirations of L2 English users in Europe (p.55). The present study has illustrated that ELF holds an
increasingly relevant role in the lives of Italian youth, and findings suggest that acceptability and use of
ELF among this population is on the rise. However, more needs to be done to align classroom language
practices with future uses of English. Not only will this enhance self-perceived proficiency among
participants, but it will also allow learners to gain experience, practice, and legitimate peripheral
participation to access their future imagined communities of English speakers in varied social, academic
and professional spheres with success and legitimacy.
About the author

Jacqueline Aiello is a Ph.D. candidate in Multilingual and Multicultural Studies at New York University. She is currently completing her
dissertation based on a mixed-methods study that investigates the L2 motivation, attitudes and ownership of English among Italian youth.
She has worked as an Adjunct Professor at NYU and at the University of Naples LOrientale, and as a Research Assistant on several
research projects. She was a NYU Global Research Initiative Fellow (2014, 2013), and a Fulbright ETA to Italy (2008-09). Her research
interests include the social factors that mediate L2 learning, language and identity, CLIL, and mixed methodologies in research and
evaluation. Email: j.aiello@nyu.edu
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Al-Hasnawi, S. B. (2016). English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) in relation to teacher cognition in international universities. In
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English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) in relation to teacher cognition in

international universities
Sami Basheer Al-Hasnawi
Abstract
It has become an undeniable issue that the non-native speakers of English outnumber its native ones. This has been given considerable
attention where different terms like English as a lingua franca (ELF), World Englishes (WEs), and English as an international language
(EIL) are used by different scholars to describe its worldwide reality. Questions related to the reasons behind its global role, ownership and
pedagogy have also become pressing matters to readdress. In view of this, the present paper argues that language teachers need to be aware
of the reality of the English language and be open to its international varieties in their classroom practice. This in turn has led to questioning
language teachers cognition in terms of what they think, know and believe about the English language use(s), non/standandard including
ELF, and how this impacts on what they do in international university settings. Accordingly, the present paper endeavours to theoretically
investigate teacher cognition focussing mainly on knowledge and how to be expanded to cope with the diverse students needs in
international universities.
Keywords: ELF, teacher cognition, PCK, pedagogical authenticity, pedagogical appropriacy
1. Introduction
How English is globally used by different users alongside their first language in various contexts has
tremendously participated in giving rise to a number of terms in relation to its description, position,
ownership and teaching. This can be best represented in World Englishes (WEs), English as an
International Language (EIL), and English as a lingua franca (ELF) (Jenkins, 2014; Kirkpatrick, 2007;
McKay, 2002; and Seidlhofer, 2005). The reason why English language in particular has become
globalised in line with what this entails has been further investigated by a number of scholars. Debates
within the macro-perspective frame focusing on the social, political, and economic reasons of English as
a global language, how other languages are considered as minor in comparison with English for historical
reasons, linguistic imperialism, and the ownership of English due to such a worldwide spread of English
can be respectively represented in Crystal (1997), Phillipson (2003), and Widdowson (1994). This has
considerably influenced how English language proficiency is viewed and evaluated within the micro-
perspective scope. These macro-/micro-perspectives have inevitably affected what should be taught and
how to be taught. In light of this, different approaches like post-normativity (Dewey, 2012), Global
Posts (Kumaravadivelu, 2012), Transformativity (Sifakis, 2007), Meta-praxis (Dogancay-Aktuna &
Hardman, 2012) have shown how it is important for teachers to think globally and teach locally (Kramsch
& Sullivan, 1996, p. 200).
Following Borgs (2003) definition of teacher cognition, this in turn has led to questioning language
teachers cognition in terms of what they think, know and believe about the English language use(s),
non/standandard including ELF, and how this impacts on what they do in international university
settings. Accordingly, the present paper attempts to theoretically investigate teacher cognition focussing
mainly on knowledge and how to be expanded to respond to the diverse students needs in international
universities. Though this has an interactive relationship with teachers prior learning/teaching experiences
and beliefs (see appendix, Borgs figure, 2003), it is limited to presenting the notion of teacher knowledge,
its components and pedagogical-content knowledge in relation to teaching English as an international
language.
University of Al-Qadisiyah, Iraq. Sami_basheer95@yahoo.com

ELF & teacher cognisition Hasnawi
2. The notion of teacher knowledge
Teacher knowledge has been given considerable emphasis for its intricate relevance to teaching
complexities and its demands. Teachers understanding of what is to be learnt and how to be taught is
considered as an essential step for teaching. Following Shulmans (1986 and 1987) earlier attempts,
content and pedagogy are inseparable parts for teachers knowledge to understand teaching. This is to
say that knowing and teaching are fundamentally connected. Identifying the content, character, sources
for a knowledge base of teaching and how to be conceptualised has consequently become significant.
This process of identification is related to the definition and operation of teacher knowledge, which paves
the way to exceeding the sense of academic exercise in teaching. That is, effective teaching can no longer
be defined as a personal style, artful communication and knowing some subject matter.
Such a focus on teachers knowledge and how to be developed has been described as a reform process
in teaching (Loughran et al., 2008). It is an attempt to avoid the negative impact of the process-product
research based on teachers behaviour with its relative focus on the content of instruction. Compared
with the increasing importance allotted to teachers performance among their learners as a sign of
professionalism, subject matter knowledge in the domains of research on teaching has been identified as
a missing paradigm, which could be shown in how teacher education programmes are designed and how
teacher learning is evaluated (Shulman, 1986, p. 7).
Accordingly, teaching and teacher education reformation has become significantly linked to something
substantial for teachers to learn; a body of knowledge and skills to examine. Such a shifting process needs
to be based on teachers' comprehension, understanding, transformation and reflection. That is, teachers
should no longer work in prescribed ways, rather they have to be trained to think about their practice.
An efficient base of facts, principles, and experiences are still important to such a process of reasoning
through which teachers must learn how to derive their choices and actions in relevance to their context
(Shulman, 1987). With their reflection and social collaboration, teachers will be able to shape their
wisdom of practice and design experiment. This in turn helps them to avoid the shackles of illusory
understanding; that is the problem of teachers who seem to know the designed theories to put into
their classroom practice and see their practicality (Shulman, 2000).
2.1. Teacher knowledge components

Deeper understanding of teacher knowledge categories, how interactively work, and how to be acquired
and developed provides the basis for knowing the capacities of becoming a professional. In view of this,
Shulman (1986) states that there are three categories of content knowledge: subject matter content
knowledge, pedagogical content knowledge (PCK, henceforth), and curricular knowledge. To explain,
content knowledge refers to the amount of knowledge organised in the teachers' minds. Deeper
understanding of this component requires going beyond knowing the facts of the taught subject. For
Shulman (1986), teachers should be able to know the substantive and the syntactic structures of the
subject where the former refers to how various forms participate in constructing the facts of the taught
discipline while the latter is similar to grammars in involving a set of rules to determine what is valuable
for learners to know. This is to say that what is important for the teacher is not only to understand what
something is but to further understand the reality behind being so; what is central and peripheral to know
in a particular discipline. As a primary source for students understanding of the subject matter, the
teacher is responsible for having a set of alternatives of the same taught concepts to communicate for
their diverse students. Due to such a kind of responsibility, teachers need to deeply understand the
structures of the subject matter and their attitudes toward and enthusiasms for what they teach.
Therefore, content knowledge is understood as an important characteristic of the knowledge base of
teaching.
Teachers PCK is considered as a further interactive step in identifying the constituents of teacher
knowledge. It refers to teachers' ways of representing and formulating the subject to make it
comprehensible to others. A particular interest among other categories of teacher knowledge has been
given to PCK in terms of its importance in specifying what is distinctive to teach and how to teach it.

This involves the representation of useful ideas, analogies, illustrations, examples, explanations in a
particular subject area. It mainly refers to the blending of content and pedagogy into an understanding
of how particular topics, problems, or issues are organized, represented, and adapted to the diverse
interests and abilities of learners, and presented for instruction (Shulman, 1987, p. 8).
Shulman (1987) further argues that there is no single pedagogical way for representing content to be
comprehensible for others, teachers must have alternatives which could be derived from research or their
practice; 'wisdom of practice' (Shulman, 2000). Understanding what makes the learning of particular
subjects easy or difficult, students' conceptions, preconceptions, and misunderstanding to the learning of
the taught topics also fall within teachers PCK. With regard to curricular knowledge, Shulman (1986,
1987) addresses the importance for teachers to have alternative ways for dealing with the content material
presented in a particular context of practice in addition to being familiar with the taught curriculum
materials (curriculum knowledge) and its appropriacy to other subjects taught in other classes. In view of
what PCK means and how it is interactively linked to what and how to teach English in a particular
context, the following section is devoted to discussing what teachers need to know in terms of the
international role English has to cope with the students different needs of learning in international sites.
3. Teachers PCK in relation to Teaching English as an International Language (TEIL)
Based on the view that increasing evidence of lingua franca discourse, lexicogrammar, pronunciation, and
pragmatics respectively provided through ELF researchers (i.e.,Mauranen, 2003; Seidlhofer, 2001,
Jenkins, 2006, Sifakis (2007) argues that many of the currently ELF raised issues could challenge ESOL
practitioners knowledge. Sifakis (2007, p. 255) continues to point out that it has become an 'emerging
need' for teachers of English to be aware of ELF as "[..] a much-needed paradigm shift in postmodern
ESOL pedagogy by transforming ESOL teachers' worldviews about English and English language
pedagogy and empowering them in bringing about the necessary changes in their own teaching context".
That is, teachers of English have to be provided with a chance to understand the worldwide spread of
English in line with its unexpected linguistic changes to be ready for the complex decisions they have to
take in their practice (Matsuda & Friedrich, 2012; Seidlhofer, 2005).
In view of that, different questions related to the framework of English language teaching have
become thoroughly questioned to decide their relevance to the international role of the English language.
Based on the view that there is an interactive relationship between content and pedagogy as constituents
of teacher knowledge (Shulman, 1986) above, issues like the teaching model, native or non-native, and
the possible method for achieving that model have become increasingly important to address. To explain,
the Western-based model as a prescribed formula for teachers of English to carry out wherever and
whenever they are and to anyone they teach English is one of the core debates in the postmodern world
of English language teaching (Sifakis, 2007). As an example, Seidlhofer (2005) argues that teachers need
an open educational programme through which they adapt their teaching on the basis of the contextual
factors. They need to be aware of a transformative framework to include other English diversified uses
of English in international contexts due to the [] mismatch between what ESOL teachers seem to
believe about English language they teach to non-native learners and the competences and abilities that
they believe these learners need when communicating with other non-native users [..]" (Sifakis, 2007, p.
357). In relation to teachers PCK, Sifakis 'transformative approach means that teachers' need to
encounter and transform their knowledge from their unquestioned focus on the Standard English as an
imposed imperialistic view penetrating ESOL material design and pedagogy to ELF processes to reflect
on and see their relevance to their contexts. As in autonomous and reflective teaching, the
implementation of such a transformative model, for Sifakis (2007), provides the teacher with the
advantage of realising, reviewing, and changing the unquestionably embraced beliefs, judgements and
feelings about main pedagogical issues. In other words, it helps to address the factors through which
teachers shaped their worldviews about ESOL pedagogy like, teachers previous learning and teaching
experiences, learners needs, sponsors interests, local culture, and inherent beliefs about their role. As in

Shulman (2000), this helps teachers to examine the prescribed theories and see their practicality in their
contexts.
However, Sifakis (2007, p. 2) transformative approach does not necessarily mean that ESOL
teachers are required to entirely and directly alter their worldview about English and their professional
role in their own teaching contexts. Rather, they will be provided with a chance to be actively aware of
the ELF raised issues and their complicated implications for communication and pedagogy. For
Dogancay-Aktuna and Hardman (2012), this leads to a number of questions related to the kind of
knowledge teachers need to proficiently and skilfully address their contextual needs. The authors continue
to state that teachers competence in the effective use of English language as an essential constituent of
EIL teachers content knowledge is in need of expansion to include local and international forms and
uses of English rather than those of the prestigiously decided varieties, American and British ones. That
is, they need to have a pluricentric type of knowledge in English to be professionally competent in
working with varied forms and attitudes learners bring to classrooms. As in Sharifian (2009), the
international and the intercultural value of English is emphasized against the prominence of particular
users and uses of English in an EIL paradigm. In view of that, questions related to the relevance and
plausibility of the native-speaker norms as models for teaching and learning has implicitly provoked other
uncertainties. That is, which Englishes, what is the nature of that English and at what level of proficiency
teachers are required to achieve for their knowledge base to be competent in international contexts are
all important issues to further investigate (Dogancay-Aktuna and Hardman, 2012).
Similar to Deweys (2012, p.166) post-normative approach and Kumaravadivelus (2012, p. 2-11) five
global Posts, Dogancay-Aktuna and Hardman (2012, p. 109) continue to point out that what teachers
need to expand their knowledge base along with a particular level of proficiency in EIL is a meta-
understanding of EIL. This means that it is not enough for teachers to know language, rather they
importantly need to know about language. Knowing more about the history of its global spread and its
subsequent distinctive terms like EIL, ELF, and WEs falls within the frame of teachers meta-
understanding of the English language itself. This in turn helps teachers to avoid the deficient view
toward varieties other than that of the native speaker. It helps to eliminate the privilege given to native
speakers of English in view of defining its non-native speakers as custodians of standard English
(Widdowson, 1994, p. 379). To be achieved, such a meta-understanding of language is linked to a chain
of meta-s; i.e. meta-understanding of culture, meta-understanding of proficiency, meta-understanding
of identity, and meta-understanding of pedagogy. In short, Dogancay-Aktuna and Hardman (2012)
argue that teachers and teacher educators need to critically understand the significant role of culture and
its construct. This stems from the idea that every EIL context reflects the sense of intercultural
communication. In other words, EIL communication can by no means be defined as a de-cultured
context as it involves different speakers of different lingua-cultural backgrounds. As in Kirkpatrick
(2007), Sifakis (2007), and Dogancay-Aktuna and Hardman (2012) contend that teachers in cross-cultural
contexts need meta-cultural awareness that empowers them to understand and teach what is necessary in
such a kind of communication. In view of that, teachers are not required to be transmitted to a particular
kind of culture as a target.
In terms of Dogancay-Aktunas and Hardmans (2012) meta-understanding of proficiency, it is
important for EIL teachers knowledge to have the multi-dimensional type of language proficiency. That
is, teachers should be exposed to a combination of sociocultural, strategic discourse and grammatical/
linguistic competences and an awareness of pluricentric English. As in Sifakis (2007) and Deweys (2012),
this again does not of course mean an entire exclusion of the native-like proficiency level but it is an
expansion to how proficiency should be conceptualised in teaching EIL. With such an international
approach to teacher knowledge (Matsuda and Friedrich, 2012, p. 17), teachers could be privileged and
empowered in a multilingual context of EIL contact. It also helps to show how professionalism is built
on the native and non-native English uses as two equal components for language proficiency and
professional preparation (Kirkpatrick, 2007). In addition, suggesting a multidimensional type of
proficiency for EIL teacher could implicitly mean that teachers need to understand the nature of identity
and its relationship to EIL classroom. This is to say that teacher should be aware of their learners desired

identity to construct through their learning of English. They are required to create a space where learners
can see what is relevant to their motivation and desire in constructing their identities. They have not to
be prepared to imagine a particular kind of identity for their learners, which mainly reflects the sense of
meta-understanding of identity (Dogancay-Aktuna and Hardman, 2012, p. 104).
Based on teachers PCK, implementing such a meta-understanding approach of English language
has a significant impact on questions related to pedagogical appropriateness. In view of teaching English
in wider contexts by different teachers for different learners as an international language, Kramsch and
Sullivan (1996, p. 200) argue that notions like authenticity and appropriacy in English language teaching
should be revisited. The authors use the term market place to metaphorically conceptualise the sense of
how appropriate pedagogy should be a pedagogy that serves both global appropriacy and local
appropriation. In other words, teachers need to think globally and teach locally. With reference to the
context of teaching and learning English in Vietnam, Kramsch and Sullivan contend that terms like
authentic language and appropriate language have become problematic in view of using English in
international contexts where native speakers practices are no longer valid and what is internationally
appropriate might not be so locally. This is to say that pedagogical authenticity and appropriacy in ELT
has been associated with other issues like efficiency and relevance of what is taught to international
learners of English in different contexts. While authentic pedagogy is conventionally linked to native
speakers use of language regardless of learners local constrains, appropriate pedagogy should work on
such a typical use of language to moderate it for both national and international ends. As a result, EIL
teachers should be trained to find an avenue from authenticity to appropriateness (Kramsch and
Sullivan, 1996, p. 200).
In view of that, Matsuda (2003) further argues that English language teachers do not need to look at
Inner Circle based models of use in pedagogy. As in Shulman (1986, 1987) above, Mckay (2002) states
that teachers of the English language need to appropriate their pedagogies according to their local culture
of learning as there is a sense of diversity and difference even within the same local context. This is to
say that [] the way in which this language [EIL] is taught should not be linked to a particular culturally
influenced methodology; rather the language should be taught in a manner consistent with local cultural
expectations (McKay, 2002, p. 118). Teachers of English should be enabled to take ownership of both
language and the use of the appropriate method to teach it. With reference to a number of Asian cultures
of learning, China and Japan, in comparison with Western ones like America and Australia, the author
(Ibid) continues to contend that it is time to change the received view of culture that portraits all
countries and regions of the world as homogenous and unchangeable bodies. In line with this, Kirkpatrick
(2007, p.194) uses the term facework to refer to how Asian people introduce the topic of their
conversation after talking about another persons related matters or Chinese people who give justification
to their requests before requesting for something, which is the opposite case for what the native English
people do. That is, associating the notion of extending knowledge with the Western culture as a sort of
knowledge development and conserving knowledge with the Asian cultures as consumers of that
knowledge is no longer valid.
Issues related to the validity of the global native-based pedagogy and how to be locally appropriated
can be traced back in terms of teachers implantation of the best method. As an example, Prabhu (1990)
argues that it is important for teachers to be aware of the fact that there are contextual factors which can
significantly influence their methodological decisions. This means that adapting any instructional method
for a particular group of learners in a particular learning environment is not only linked to the importance
of identifying pedagogical variation to be appropriate for learners in different contexts, rather it is also
related to how and which forms of variation really matters to teaching. This expresses the sense of
Prabhus eclecticism (1990, p. 66) where the teacher is left with different options from different methods
to meet what is contextually required. Though it is hard for the teacher to decide which part of which
method works properly in a particular teaching and learning context, such a blended method is likely to
address the question of what the best method is for a particular context. It provides the teacher with
the possible means for discovering the truth by accident (Prabhu, 1990, p. 168) to shape their wisdom
of practice (Shulman, 2000).

4. Conclusion
In a nutshell, what is important for EIL teacher to be aware of is the fact that there is no super-national
variety and pedagogy from which they derive and develop their PCK for a particular classroom practice.
This of course does not mean the entire exclusion of the exonormative approach in teacher education,
rather it should be defined as one of many others. This stems from the fact that an efficient base of facts,
principles, and experiences are still important for teachers to derive their choices and actions from in
their context. As a result, teachers have to have a critical position toward the chosen variety as a model
and its prescribed methodology. This means that EIL teachers need a meta-pedagogical knowledge for
breaking the sense of mechanical teaching. Thus, it is important for other scholars to go further with
this brief theoretical discussion of knowledge and its interactive influence with other cognitive
components, prior learning/teaching experiences and beliefs, and see its relevance to teachers current
state of knowledge of the English language and how it affects their teaching practice in international
universities.
About the author

Sami B. Al-Hasnawi joined the PhD programme in Modern Languages at the University of Southampton in 2012. Prior to this, he worked
as an EFL teacher in a higher education setting. He completed a Master degree in Applied Linguistics at the University of Babylon (Iraq) in
2006. He taught at the University of Al-Qadisiyah in Iraq a wide variety of linguistics and applied linguistics courses. His current research
interests are within the area of English as a Lingua Franca, English as a medium of instruction, interculturality and how this affects English
language teacher education. Email: sami_basheer95@yahoo.com
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APPENDIX
Teacher cognition, schooling, professional education, and classroom practice (Borg, 2003).

Biricik Deniz, E., zkan, Y., & Bayyurt, Y. (2016). Teaching English as a Lingua Franca: Reflections on ELF-related issues
by pre-service English language teachers in Turkey. In N. Tsantila, J. Mandalios & M. Ilkos (Eds.), ELF: Pedagogical and
Teaching English as a Lingua Franca: Reflections on ELF-related issues by

pre-service English language teachers in Turkey
Esma Biricik Deniz

Yonca zkan
Yasemin Bayyurt
Abstract
The current research, by exploring pre-service teachers perceptions, aims to shed light on the need to teach English as lingua franca (ELF)
through World Englishes norms. More specifically, in this study, it is targeted to identify pre-service teachers perceptions and reflections
on ELF related issues through semi-structured and focused group interviews. The ultimate goal is to clarify whether pre-service English
language teachers gain awareness throughout their four-year teacher education program about such ELF related issues as the dichotomy of
native and non-native speaker teachers; teaching ELF and teaching English as a foreign language (EFL); World Englishes (WE) and Standard
English (SE); cultural aspects in language teaching and ownership of English.
Keywords: ELF, World Englishes, native and non-native English speaker teachers, ELF-aware teacher education.
1. Introduction
There have been many different models of language teacher education and each perspective sheds light
on a specific aspect of the multidimensional and complex process of learning teaching (Roberts, 1998).
However, the global status of English as the lingua franca of the world makes the situation different in
that it creates a great deal of diverse needs for English language learners around the world, which results
in a reconfiguration in both English language teaching and teacher education models. As McKay (2002)
proposes the teaching and learning of an international language must be based on an entirely different
set of assumptions than the teaching and learning of any other second and foreign language (p.1). This
situation makes it urgent to question the assumptions of teaching standardized English based on native
speaker norms, native speaker as a model of competence and native speaker as the ideal teacher in English
language classrooms. These assumptions need to be reconceptualized by the ideology of teaching English
as a lingua franca (ELF) not a foreign language (EFL) anymore through diverse standards of World
Englishes and teaching English based on diverse norms through multicultural and multilingual
perspectives of non-native English language teachers.
2. Methodology
This case study focuses on the preliminary findings of a dissertation on raising ELF awareness in pre-
service language teacher education and it serves as a pilot to the dissertation. The purpose of the study is
to explore the pre-service teachers perceptions and pre-occupied assumptions on ELF related issues
such as the dichotomy of native speaker and non-native speaker teachers; knowledge of EFL and ELF;
Standard English or World Englishes; cultural aspects in language teaching and ownership of English.
2.1 Participants
Forty-two pre-service language teachers participated in this study. They were all fourth year students in
English language teacher education program of a respected university in Turkey. Their ages ranged from
18 to 22. Almost all of the participants speak Turkish as their mother tongue except a few teacher
candidates whose mother tongue is either Arabic or Kurdish. Almost all of them learned English in
Turkey, although some of them had the opportunity to spend some time in English-speaking countries
via exchanging programs such as Erasmus.
ukurova Universtiy, Turkey. esmabiricik@gmail.com
ukurova Universtiy, Turkey. yoncaca@cu.edu.tr
Boazii University, Turkey. bayyurty@boun.edu.tr

Teaching ELF Biricik Deniz, zkan & Bayyurt
2.2 Data collection and analysis

The qualitative data for the study came from three sources: (a) a questionnaire tapping the perceptions
of pre-service language teachers on ELF and ELF related issues, (b) semi-structured interviews with 12
pre-service teachers to explore their deeper convictions and assumptions about ELF related issues, (c)
two focus group interviews of 6 participants in each to create a platform for the debate of ELF matters.
The analysis of the questionnaire consisting of open-ended questions and the transcribed interview
data was done through content analysis. This analysis occurred with data being organized according to
themes, or reoccurring patterns (Merriam, 2009). Finally, the themes and categories identified were
checked by three experts in the field and agreement with regard to the categorizations and themes
identification was reached.
3. Findings and discussion
3.1 The dichotomy of NEST and NNEST

The participants were initially asked about the concepts of native speaker and non-native speaker and
also were expected to choose the group they feel they belong to. From the total of 42 pre-service English
language teachers, 39 of them stated that they belong to non-native speaker group; only one of them said
that he belongs to native-like speaker group and two of the participants suggested that there is no such
distinction as native or non-native speaker. The participants defined native speakers with different
aspects. According to them a native speaker:
(a) uses language efficiently and effortlessly,

(b) speaks language as their mother tongue,
(c) is fluent and comfortable with the language,
(d) has detailed knowledge of language,
(e) has cultural knowledge,
(f) has been exposed to language from birth,
(g) is from the US or UK,
(h) acquires the language unconsciously during critical period.
After the participants defined these concepts, they were asked to discuss the communicative competence
of native and non-native speakers in international platforms. There are four main categories identified
about their perceptions.
26 participants believe that NSs are more communicatively competent in international settings because
they have detailed knowledge of the language with all its dimensions. Five participants stated that NNS
are more communicatively competent in international settings because English is a global language. Six
of them suggested that there are individual based differences. Five teacher candidates assert that there is
no difference between native and non-native speakers regarding efficiency.
In the following section, the participants were also asked to discuss the superiority of NEST and
NNEST in language teaching context. Four categories emerged with regard to their perspectives on this
issue. 18 participants support NEST superiority in terms of teaching aural and oral skills, cultural
knowledge, pronunciation, triggering students motivation and authentic communication. Seven of the
pre-service teachers believe in the superiority of NNEST with regard to realizing empathy with their
students, being familiar with their students socio-cultural backgrounds and learning styles, teaching the
structure of the language and having no psychological barriers. 10 participants support the view that it is
the field expertise that matters most in language teaching. They believe having the necessary pedagogic
and content knowledge is the key factor in language teaching but not nativeness at all. Seven of the pre-
service teachers identified professionalism and experience more important than nativeness. According to

them, improving ones knowledge and qualities with regard to teaching profession is the most pivotal
feature of a language teacher.
3.2 Knowledge of ELF and EFL

In this part of the study the pre-service English language teachers were asked to share their assumptions
on the conceptions of ELF and EFL and teaching ELF and EFL.
3.2.1 ELF
From the total of 42 pre-service English language teachers, five of them indicated that they have no idea
about the concept of ELF. The rest of the participants who stated having some knowledge of the concept
shared their assumptions with eight categories of different perspectives.
Five participants defined ELF as a practical way of language teaching and learning. One of the
participants explained ELF as a bridge from one culture to another. This definition might have resulted
from the common agreement on ELF as a medium of intercultural communication.10 pre-service
language teachers defined ELF as the shared, common and mutual language. When English is chosen as
a means of communication among people from different L1 backgrounds across linguacultural
boundaries, the common term is English as a lingua franca (Seidlhofer, 2005). In defining the concept
of ELF, 11 participants stated that ELF means English is the global and international language. They
associate the concept of ELF with the current status of English across the world. Four of the participants
relate ELF with commercial purposes and trade. Three participants indicated that when teaching ELF,
only communicative and functional purposes are considered. This finding is in line with the assumption
that the features of English which tend to be crucial for international intelligibility need to be learned
instead of the mastery of the fine nuances of native speaker language. Two pre-service teachers asserted
that teaching ELF may create some problems. One of the participants associates the concept of ELF
with different variations of English.
3.2.2 EFL
In defining the concept of EFL in comparison to ELF, while two teacher candidates provided no
opinions about the concept, 18 pre-service English language teachers roughly indicated that this term is
used to define English as a foreign language. They also stated that it is how they have been learning
English for years. Thus, according to them, in Turkey English is taught to them as a foreign language.
The other 22 participants provided different perceptions which are categorized into seven different
themes. According to one of the pre-service teachers, in EFL approach, language is not separated from
the original culture. This finding is on the side of teaching native culture to learners. Five of the
participants explained that when you learn a language after the critical period, it becomes a foreign
language. When their perceptions are questioned during the interview sessions, it was clear that knowing
a language means to become a native-like speaker for them. Since they cannot reach that native
attainment, English may remain as a foreign language for them. Five teacher candidates indicated that
EFL is the standard language based on native speaker norms. Other five participants associated EFL
with professional purposes such as career and professional growth. They believe that they should learn
EFL for their professional development and career but ELF for communicative purposes. One of the
participants claimed that teaching and learning EFL protects the quality of the English language. Three
of the participants stated that when teaching or learning EFL, language is deeply analyzed with all its
forms and structures. According to two pre-service teachers, teaching EFL is very artificial. They believe
that teaching EFL based on native norms is not authentic and realistic.
3.3 Standard English or World Englishes
In this part of the procedure, the pre-service English language teachers are asked to share their beliefs about
adopting a model of Standard English (British or American) or World Englishes based on the notion of
English as a lingua franca. Three categories emerged with regard to their perceptions.

More than half of the participants (24) are in favor of keeping the rules of Standard English. In other
words, they resisted adopting ELF approach in their teaching context. The respondents explained their
concerns with regard to using ELF in their teaching contexts as follows; (1) it may cause confusion and
distortions in communication, (2) ELF approach is lack of clearly defined basis and borders, (3) ELF
damages the quality of original standard English accepted internationally, (4) Standard English is much more
prestigious.
Regarding the perceptions about adopting a model of World Englishes based on the notion of ELF,
findings indicated that 14 participants favored the creativity, diversity and flexibility that ELF approach
stimulates. The participants expressed their feelings with regard to adopting a model of World Englishes
rather than Standard English as follows:
(1) Language must be learned to understand and respect differences,

(2) Successful communication and intelligibility is more important than standardization,
(3) Standard English belongs to native speakers but ELF belongs to the world.
(4) A small number of the participants favoured to integrate the models of both standard native speaker
model and World Englishes based on ELF. They believe that learners should initially be exposed to
Standard English based on native norms. However, after learning the language with its original set of
forms, they could be presented with different forms of English spoken in different parts of the world to
gain awareness.
3.4 Cultural aspects in language teaching

With regard to pre-service teachers perceptions about the place of culture in language teaching context,
almost all of the participants (41) revealed that there is a close relationship between language and culture;
in addition, cultural information should be incorporated to language teaching. Below are sample extracts
about the role of culture in language.
Only one of the candidate teachers suggested that there is no such relation between language and culture.
The participant asserted that language is a set of codifications used among a certain group of people to
convey and receive messages.
After the participants expressed their views about the relationship between language teaching and
culture, they were asked to share their opinions about the components of cultural information to be
integrated into their teaching context. They indicated that the concept of culture encompasses
everything about daily life, habits, history, lifestyle, meals, folk songs and dances, historical places,
greetings, special days and holidays, literature, jokes, idioms, proverbs, legends, novels and tales,
politeness strategies, music, films, ceremonies, celebrations, festivals, politics, traditions, customs, values,
norms, fashion, education. Respondents mostly focused on pragmatics and sociological dimensions of
cultural content of language classrooms.
Although the respondents differ with regard to their perspectives on the issue of which culture to
integrate into their teaching contexts, almost all of them supported the presentation of cultural
information (target language culture(TLC), local culture (LC), and international culture (IC) (Bayyurt,
2006) in language teaching. When they were asked to comment on the aims of presenting cultural
information in their teaching contexts, they suggested that cultural information is presented to transfer
meaningful messages, to teach the language more sincerely, to motivate students, to make students feel
closer to the language, to help them get to know native speakers more closely, to use the language more
efficiently, to internalize the language, to teach cultural diversity, to show authentic language, to vandalize
childrens brains and thoughts, to have a better sense of communication, to teach the register of the
language, to provide pragmatic knowledge, to create curiosity.
As stated before, almost all of the respondents have an agreement on the integration of cultural
information into language teaching. However, their perspectives vary in terms of which culture to involve
in their teaching context. More than half of the participants claimed that the TLC should be presented
to provide meaningful and appropriate language learning. They believe that language cannot be separated

from its original British and American culture and it is meaningful when presented with its original
cultural elements. Four respondents favored integrating students local culture into English language
teaching. They stated that topics covered in language classrooms should be chosen from students original
local culture. According to them, students may feel much more comfortable if they learn the language
through the elements from their local culture because they feel that they are familiar with the topic itself.
Eight pre-service teachers indicated that there should be a mixture of international cultures all around
the world rather than just TLC. They suggested that learners should be offered cultural information from
both English-speaking and non-English speaking countries to be internationally competent language
users. Alptekin (2002) suggests that the aim of English language teaching should be the development of
learners intercultural communicative competence in English to enable them to cope with issues related
to the wider use of English in international contexts within the global village. Another group of pre-
service teachers (6) favored the integration of both TLC and LC. They believed that language learning
may be much more fun and meaningful when making comparisons between TLC and LC. They also felt
that through this way, learners feel closer to the target language and native speakers and the materials
could be less challenging for them to understand. The findings with regard to the issue of culture in
language teaching show that respondents focused on different dimensions of the content of cultural
information in language classrooms. The categories identified in this session are in line with the three
cultural contexts which are source culture, target culture and international culture put forward by McKay
(2002). McKay asserts that there are possible advantages of including each kind of culture but she
highlights three principles about the way cultural content is handled:
First, the materials should be used in such a way that students are encouraged to reflect on their own
culture in relation to others, thus helping to establish a sphere of interculturality. Second, the diversity
that exists within all cultures should be emphasized. And finally, cultural content should be critically
examined so that students consider what assumptions are present in the text and in what other ways
the topic could be discussed. (p. 100).
3.5 Ownership of English

Another significant issue to be discussed in the scope of ELF is the ownership of English. There is a
strong debate concerning this issue and scholars differ with regard to their perspectives. When the
participants of this study are asked to share their assumptions about the ownership of English, three
categories emerged. A small number of participants (8) suggested that no country or no nationality can
claim ownership of English. According to them, English does not belong to any group of people and it
is regarded as a means of international communication. They also suggested that language itself is a
universal concept without any relevance to ownership. Another category consists of 14 candidate teachers
who supported the view that English language belongs to native speakers who speak the language as their
mother tongue. They believe that it is their language because they shaped the origins and standards of
the language.
Another opinion is that a language symbolizes the freedom of a specific nation so no other country
can claim ownership of another countrys language. Almost half of the respondents (20) favored the idea
of global ownership of English considering the current status of it as an international language. They
asserted that English is spoken all around the world by approximately two billion people and native
speakers comprise only 5% of this population. Kachru (1985) also pointed out that native speakers seem
to lose the sole ownership of English to control its standardization; in fact they have become a minority.
Rajagopalan (2004) also claims that English is nobodys mother tongue because there is a theoretical
claim which is World English. In the same way, Widdowson (1994) expressed his ideas; It is a matter
of considerable pride and satisfaction for native speakers of English that their language is an international
means of communication. But the point is that it is only international to the extent that it is not their
language (p. 385).

4. Conclusions and implications
The current research revealed findings that may have a number of implications in English language
teaching and teacher education. Initially, the findings demonstrated that a great majority of the
participants resisted adopting ELF approach in their language teaching context. Additionally, more than
half of the candidate teachers favored applying the norms of Standard English instead of World Englishes
based on the notion of ELF. They also supported the integration of TLC into language teaching to
provide appropriate and complete learning. Correspondingly, a large group of participating candidate
teachers believed in the superiority of NNESTs in language teaching in terms of different aspects. These
results strongly indicate that these pre-service teachers have ELF-related pre-occupied assumptions
which they have not questioned yet because of the lack of an awareness- raising ELF-related courses in
language teacher education programs. Jenkins (2005) indicates it becomes quite hard for language
teachers to give up traditional approaches towards language teaching and learning due to the
overemphasis on traditional norms of Standard English in teacher education programs. Blair (2015) also
suggests any kind of change, whether social, political, linguistic or professional, takes time Thus, it is not
unusual that it may take some time to internalize the ideology of ELF and its implications both for
language teaching and teacher education.
It is evident that there can be different implications of this study with regard to ELT and teacher
education. The crucial inference of this study is that language teachers have to be well educated to meet
the requirements of this globalized and changing world during their pre-service language teacher
education programme in which their insights towards language teaching profession flourish. Thus, they
should become, for example, fully aware on the concept of ELF, the debates and discussions about it
and its applicability in language teaching context so that their own as well as their learners language and
communicative necessities in todays world are met. The training of both pre- and in-service teachers in
our times calls for new innovative teacher education models. For example, Bayyurt and Sifakis (2015a, b)
recently presented the ELF-aware in-service teacher education model in which teachers read selections
from the ELF/EIL/WE literature and reflected on the relevance of ELF to their classrooms through
ELF-aware lessons they designed. These participants reported that the ELF-aware teacher education had
a broad impact on their identity as teachers of English. In this respect, we can say that ELF-aware teacher
education is an area which is worthy of investigation. Teachers need to have an awareness of the ELF
construct, a critical awareness of their own deeper convictions about essential aspects of language,
communication, and language teaching/learning and the capability to make the necessary changes in their
own contexts (Sifakis, 2014). In this regard, we can say that the ELF-aware teacher education model acts
as an opportunity for teachers to reflect on many aspects of English language teaching and to become
ELF-aware critical pedagogues (Sifakis & Bayyurt, 2015).
About the authors

Esma Biricik Deniz majored in the Department of Foreign Language Education at METU, Ankara. She completed her MA in the
Department of Foreign Language Education at Cukurova University, Adana, and is currently a PhD candidate in the same department. She
now teaches at the School of Foreign Languages, Cukurova University. Her research interests include pre-service teacher education, teaching
English as a lingua franca, ELF teacher education. Email: esmabiricik@gmail.com
Yonca zkan (Ph.D.) is an associate professor in the Department of English Language Teaching at Cukurova University, Adana, Turkey.
She teaches undergraduate and graduate course in teacher education and second/foreign language teaching methodology. Her research
focuses on pre-service language teacher education, language teaching methodology, and technology integration into language teaching and
language teacher education. She is currently conducting a research study on ELF and teacher education. Email: yoncaca@cu.edu.tr
Yasemin Bayyurt (Ph.D.) is a full professor of applied linguistics at Boazii University, Turkey. Her research focuses on EIL/ELF-aware
pedagogy, ESOL teacher education, intercultural communication, mobile language learning. Her publications include articles in international
refereed/indexed journals, book chapters and edited books. She recently co-edited a book entitled Current Perspectives on Pedagogy for
English as a Lingua Franca published by De Gruyter Mouton, Developments in English as a Lingua Franca Series. Email:
yasemin.bayyurt@gmail.com

Acknowledgements
This research study is supported with funding from Cukurova University Research Fund under the
Project number SDK-2014-2564 and Bogazici University Research Fund, Project Number 8000.
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ELF and teacher schizophrenia
Domingos Svio Pimentel Siqueira

Juliana da Silva Souza
Abstract
Not so long ago, how to teach was the main concern of an ELT professional. Today, however, as the awareness of the status of English
as a global language develops solidly amongst teachers and students, new challenges have arisen in the field. The so-called standard English
varieties have had their supremacy questioned, and an actual acceptance of ELF demands a huge psychological shift (Jenkins, 2007),
provoking a possible dissolution of teachers state of schizophrenia related to deciding which English is the most legitimate to teach. As
ELF research solidly progresses, showing that the pedagogical implications of the findings need more exploration (Canagarajah, 2013), even
ELF aware teachers see themselves divided between students real world communication needs and the attachment to the ENL model as a
better English (Seidlhofer, 2011). It is in this scenario that a study was conducted with pre-service teachers at the tertiary level. The aim
was to investigate in which way the knowledge of the ELF paradigm affects teachers view of the language itself and their classroom practices.
Respondents insights revealed the great potential ELF holds to reshape beliefs and attitudes towards ELT in such a context, and how
secure these teachers feel in terms of understanding that once their students are stimulated to become real languagers using ELF, they will be
able to minimize or even eliminate the effects of this dilemma which has reached the level of an almost schizophrenia. Looking at the
findings, it is possible to postulate that changes in teacher behavior are to be urgently fostered once we set our hearts and minds to teach
our students English for an actual world of transcultural encounters and not for interacting with a potential minority community which
represents just a fraction of what it is the global reach of English nowadays.
Keywords: English as a lingua franca; English as a native language; English language teaching; teacher schizophrenia.
1. Introduction
In the twenty-first century, the era of the internet and worldwide communication, the notion of
globalization1 has expanded to a much broader scope than just travel and do business across borders.
The new information and communication technologies have made it possible for people who, potentially,
would not be able to leave their countries to interact internationally. It is in this context that English rises
as the language of choice for speakers of different mother tongues to conduct various activities,
functioning as a lingua franca (Seidlhofer, 2011).
While in real life EFL and ESL learners are much more likely to use English to communicate with
non-native speakers (Crystal, 1996), the power of ENL tradition is still very much present. Although a
considerable number of teachers are educated about the global status of English, there is still a significant
contradiction when it comes to managing theory and everyday classroom practice (Jenkins, 2007). This
fact, in many ways, reveals that developing ELF aware classes and teaching ENL-oriented syllabuses have
emerged as conflicting approaches in ELT.
It is in this scenario that a brief study was conducted with university pre-service teachers from an
undergraduate course in Letters with English in Salvador, Brazil. The objective was to investigate in
which way the knowledge of the ELF paradigm affects these future ELT professionals view of the
language itself and their classroom practices. Responses, not surprisingly, have revealed relevant
information on the great potential ELF holds to reshape beliefs and attitudes towards ELT, especially in
expanding circle2 contexts.
Bahia Federal University. savio_siqueira@hotmail.com

Bahia Federal University. juls8410@gmail.com
1Canagarajah (2013, p.25) affirms that the world is experiencing a postmodern globalization as opposed to a past modernist globalization,
as conceived by different scholars like Hall (1997). For this author, while modernist globalization was associated with the values of
territoriality and homogeneity, postmodern globalization, celebrates mobility and diversity.
2According to Kachru (1985), countries where English is learned and used as a foreign language (China, Croatia, Germany, just to
mention a few.

ELFand teacher schizophrenia Siqueira & da Silva Souza
This article serves the purpose of discussing the issue, trying to bring to surface the fact that despite
the schizophrenia-like traces3 still frequently found in those teachers who attempt to transition from ELT
traditional practices into a more realistic view of the English language nowadays, we have inevitably
reached such a point of ebullition in global ELT that the demands for change inherent to the process
shall not continue going on unattended.
2. English, this unusual global lingua franca
The current phase of globalization and the internet, along with other powerful and influential
technologies of communication and information (ICT), have elected English the most commonly used
language for international communication. English has become a product of very high value and desire,
and, consequently, it has been appropriated by people from all over the planet for activities that vary
from tourism, scientific publishing, online browsing and shopping, multinational businesses, to traveling
abroad and making online friends from different parts of the planet.
This impressive phenomenon has been labeled several names: English as an international language, English
as a lingua franca, World Englishes, World English, International English, Globish, among others. Some of these
labels came to contribute to the origination of fields of study like World Englishes and English as a Lingua
Franca, for example, and, departing from the same object of research, they affiliate to different
perspectives in order to explain and discuss todays peculiar status of English. Despite their specific
orientations and points of view, they converge in many issues, especially when it comes to the
decentralization of the ownership of English, as it is clearly understood that a global language belongs to
those who speak it, though the power of its standard varieties stands strong in the minds of those users
who are not part of the so-called native speakers.
3. The social status of Standard English (StE) and ELT traditional ways
It is not uncommon for non-native users of English to apologize for their faulty English. The reason
why this usually happens is simple: native-like English is still the (sub)conscious target of most speakers
of English, be them ESL or EFL users. And they are not alone. We can say that the standard varieties of
English are desired both by NS and NNS, given that, even NS who see themselves as non-educated feel
equally sorry for their weak English.
The shared belief that prestigious standard varieties are better than others is a consequence of a
standard language ideology, although linguistically unfounded. Purists defend that without a standard
communication it becomes impossible due to too many variants. What these advocates of language purity
forget to mention is that there is no such a thing as a monolithic standard. The idea of a standard in itself
is completely arbitrary. Besides, a national standard is supposed to account for the needs of that specific
community, that is, a national standard like American or British English will never encompass all the
possibilities enough to attend to the communicative demands of the whole world.
Assuming that without a standard variety communication is going to fall apart, is ignoring the role of
accommodation in linguistic interactions (Seidlhofer, 2011). People usually cooperate with each other
because it is in their interest to do so (Giles & Coupland, 1991), but unwillingness to accommodate
jeopardizes intelligibility (Seidlhofer, 2011). Therefore, it is a negative attitude towards non-standard
varieties that might make them harder, or to some impossible to understand.
As the standard itself is not better than any other variety, one can say that keeping on teaching only
hegemonic StE is basically a matter of comfort and prestige maintenance. It also implies a fake depiction
of global communication demands. Consequently, uninformed learners of English will continue to be
underprepared for the real life interactions they are to encounter outside their closed-boxes (Pennycook,
2000), the ELT classroom. There are alternatives, though.
3Certainly,we are not referring to the pathology, the psychotic disorder, but to contradictory or antagonistic qualities or attitudes and, to a
certain extent, regular internal conflicts.

4. Why ELF should be in the classroom
The plastic world of happy and lively Anglo-Saxons represented in textbooks internationally distributed
does not have to be the common and predominant reality of ELT classrooms around the planet (Siqueira,
2012). Any language class, even in monolingual contexts, is a multifaceted environment both linguistically
and culturally.
We shall not forget that a lot has been studied and produced concerning the pedagogical implications
and application of ELF. One of the most recent and interesting works in the field is Walkers Teaching the
Pronunciation of English as a Lingua Franca (2010), which takes Jenkins The Phonology of English as an
international language (2000) as a theoretical starting point. Another very significant initiative is the VOICE
(Vienna-Oxford International Corpus of English) led by Seidlhofer, at the University of Vienna. The team
behind the project is cataloguing spoken interactions from a variety of countries in the most diverse
contexts in order to form a database of how English is being used internationally. Teaching ideas and
materials based on this kind of work are being developed to be published in the near future as much as
many academic articles are relying on their samples to build up theoretical elaborations on the global use
of English.
However, a lot of this information and findings has not reached the regular teacher in ELT classrooms
around the world. What has been done so far, in many contexts, whenever knowledge can reach the most
distant lands, is awareness raising of the existence of different Englishes and their value, which is usually
not reflected in the amount of time spent in the process of parroting the NS model. Ways to fill up such
a gap is one of the many challenges that await practitioners in tune with the worlds contemporary
complex scenario of contact zones (Canagarajah, 2013).
5. ELF is realistic and democratic, but can anyone teach it?
Another questioning that hovers over those who hear about ELF is whether it is teachable and who
would be able to teach it. When it comes to the teachability of ELF, the evident hybrid aspect of a
language that is constructed ad hoc poses a problematic decision concerning exactly about what to teach.
After all, if all varieties of English are taken in ELF as of important value, where should a teacher or
school start from?
At the present moment, we can say that there is no straight forward answer to that question, but there
are a few signs to be considered. As the native variety is decentralized and international communication
in English is happening mostly amongst non-native speakers, hiring a bilingual, non-native teacher of
English, should be seen as an advantage (Jenkins 2007; McKay, 2002).
Needless to say that not only can bilingual teachers of English better understand the stages and
difficulties their students are going through, but they also stand out as a more intelligible model when it
comes to accent and pronunciation. According to Jenkins (2000), non-native speakers, certainly, are more
intelligible to other non-native speakers. So, exploring this asset in the classroom in a systematic and
innovative way is to be considered an important step to be taken by those who decide to teach English
under an ELF-aware perspective.
6. Mistakes or innovations?
Losing power is not always easy for a teacher. Opening up for production that is non-standard might
also mean that the power that was solely held by the practitioner is now in the hands of those newly ELF
legitimized languagers4 (Jrgensen, 2008; Seidlhofer, 2011). In other words, allowing learners to be creative
and appropriate the language they are studying at a deeper level as they aim for international
communication rather than a Standard variety is empowering them to become more teacher independent.
Once one is willing to take up that task, he or she is then faced with another question: what do students
4According to Jrgensen (2008, p.169), we use the term languaging for this behaviour: language users employ whatever linguistic features
are at their disposal with the intention of achieving their communicative aims.

produce that is a mistake, an innovation, or an accommodation occurrence? Depending on the beliefs

held by the teacher, the path to be followed will surely make a difference in the dynamics and the morale
of the class.
As for innovation in language, Dewey (2006, p.201) states that it is associated most often in popular
beliefs with an erosion of an idealized past where language use was more pure. When confronted with
the consolidated norms of a Standard variant, innovation is frequently equated with error. Innovations
in ELF are taking place at a very fast pace, and for Dewey (2006, p.131), the most characteristic examples
can be observed to be operating on four different linguistic levels: grammar and syntax; semantics;
morphology; and at the level of discourse. And since innovation in ELF is generally driven by discourse
meaning, such areas are particularly prone to variation and change, with speakers actively exploiting
semantic meaning regardless of the formal properties displayed in ENL varieties (Dewey 2006, p.143).
What pre-service teachers of English in a tertiary context in Salvador, Brazil, think about such an issue
and a few others related to implications of getting the proper formation to teach this de-territorialized
language is to be explored, analyzed, and discussed in the section which follows.
7. Pre-service teachers perspectives on ELF
Despite the fact that many of English educators around the world are well-aware of ELF and the pressing
implications to the classroom, they still seem to be entrapped in a deep conflict which involves teaching
English for a fictitious purpose, solely based on a Standard variety which will rarely (or never) be used
by their students, or teaching English for life5.
In order to gain insights into the feelings and perceptions of a group of future Brazilian teachers of
English from the Institute of Letters, at Bahia Federal University, we administered an open-ended
questionnaire comprising five questions related the status of English as a global lingua franca, the
implications to the language itself, and which pedagogy to choose as to teach the world language in a way
that it reflects the real needs of those who use it as a means of international interaction and
communication.
Out of 30 questionnaires sent through electronic mail over the period of one month (April 2014), we
had 12 of them returned, that is, less than fifty per cent. This may seem surprising, but, in many ways, it
illustrates a reality that keeps telling us there is a lot be done concerning such issues. Of the 12
respondents, 7 were women and 5 men. Their age varied from 20 to 33 years old, comprising, as one can
notice, a very young group of ELT practitioners.
As for the first question, How does the status of English as a global language affect the English language itself?,
the answers revealed very interesting findings as our respondents granted us with solid arguments and
elaborations which make clear to us that the English language, like any natural language, is in a constant
state of change, and such changes are to be taking place at different levels, once several new varieties are
to emerge and seek legitimization. This also includes assumptions related to culture. So, for our
respondents, English is no longer American, British, Nigerian, and so on, English got the status of an
international language which doesnt belong to its native speakers, English is influenced by many other
languages, so we can assume that because of this status, the language can incorporate aspects from
different languages, it is important to understand how the English language varies according to the
place where it is spoken, among others.
With this ELF-sensitive background, which shows an increasing awareness of the implications related
to the global status of English, the second question, What do you think you are preparing your English students
for?, revealed insights like I prepare my students to be able to linguistically interact with all sorts of people
from around the world, to communicate in a global perspective, to treat English variants as equals,
5Standard English is basically the variety to be taught as we adopt the native-speaker model of English. As Kirkpatrick (2006: 73) reminds
us, the native-speaker model is advantageous only for those learners whose major aim is to converse with native speakers and to
understand whichever native-speaking culture it is that they are interested in. As this is not the case for the majority of global learners of
English, with the adoption of a lingua franca model, the focus of the classroom becomes one of communication rather than the acquisition
of some idealized norm. (Kirkpatrick 2006: 79)

without any linguistic prejudice, and a very expressive one, I prepare them for life. To a certain extent,
these answers corroborate the premise which says that the process of teaching English today should be
liberating for teachers and learners (Kirkpatrick, 2006, p.79).
Continuing on with the exploration of topics, the third question, What are the implications of the current
status of English for your day-to-day ELT practice?, has shown that our respondents do not have a precise idea
on how the beliefs previously expressed can be reflected in their classroom practice. Most answers were
very broad and sometimes contradictory (easier for some, more challenging for others) as, for example,
I try to expose students to different varieties of English, I encourage them to be creative with the
language, teachers must have a broader view of what English is, or it definitely makes things more
challenging. However, more objective responses have come up: to feel self-conscious of their accents,
it is not difficult for the students to find materials, resources, etc., to study this language, or to show
that there are many kinds of English and that students dont need to stick to one variety. Pragmatically
speaking, this latest respondents insight shows us that practitioners in the expanding circle are beginning
to internalize the idea that their practice needs to be oriented by several pedagogical decisions that will
be beneficial for all: upon preparing my classes, I can also be aware of how people deal with this new
status of English, or how the English language is interfering with peoples lives. With this in mind, we
can possibly affirm that teachers of English, especially non-native ones, are to have more access to ELF
data being generated in several research projects at a global level, and then start planning their lessons
informed by important features pertinent to an ELF perspective.
The fourth question, What is the role of Standard English in your classroom?, brought up interesting
assumptions that varied from recognition of the importance of StE, mainly associated with formality,
same role as Standard Portuguese, necessary in formal situations only, to prepare students to
communicate properly, to a more flexible perspective which regards StE as one more variant among
several, not superior to the other ones: a base for me to work with students, but I dont limit them with
the StE at all, StE may be one of the main references, but the English spoken on the streets, in ghettos
by minorities is also valued and respected.
Although our informants did not refer specifically to any process of destandardization to be
considered in their classes (Seidlhofer, 2004), there was one quote that called our attention: Minimum!
I barely talk about StE; I just refer to it when students ask me something related to it; my classes are
made to focus on culture, especially Brazil. This would lead us into asking: which English is taught in
such a classroom?
Bamgbose (1998, p.1) remarks that, in spite of the consensus on the viability of non-native Englishes,
there are issues that still remain unsettled. As widely known, these include the continued use of native
norms as a point of reference, the ambivalence between recognition and acceptance of non-native norms
and the adequacy of pedagogical models, having in the background, naturally, the constant pull between
native and nonnative English norms. (Bamgbose 1998, p.1) Such a discussion makes us realize that
although teachers, experienced or novice, have a clear idea that StE6 is basically one variety of limited
use, and directly related to inner circle realities, so far, we have not seen, especially in expanding circle
countries, initiatives that would foment a systematic and consistent classroom work which takes into
consideration important findings in ELF research.
The fifth question, How do you see and handle deviations from standard English in your classes?, intrinsically
related to the previous one, revealed a very positive attitude towards deviations from StE in the ELT
classroom. Basically, all respondents showed to be flexible with students mistakes and extremely open
to the fact that they are learning a language for real life: I see it as a good thing, as long as there is
communication, I dont even see it as a deviation, when deviations from StE happen in my classes, I
6Despite controversies on the oppressive role of Standard English towards other Englishes, nativized or non-native, it is interesting to give
attention to Guptas argument when the author, considering this variety as a reference point, states: Standard English is not property or
prerogative of only the Inner Circle Countries, but of the whole English-using world. (Gupta, 2006, p. 99) If one day, collectively, we
could come up with a deterritorialized supranational democratic StE derived from ample and meticulous observation of real language use,
free form the custody of historical owners, for sure, we would feel extremely comfortable with such an assumption. So far, it may be
limited only to good intentions.

try to use examples to guide the students and make them understand why the way they are speaking is
not acceptable as StE.
Surprisingly enough, deviations are taken by our respondents as a creative aspect during the process
along with the very interesting assumption that these problems may be related to the forming of a
Brazilian English that could come into existence some day: they are seen and treated as expressions of
creativity and as new possibilities, I think its really great and creative, they are understood as
extremely important situations, for they may represent the foundation of an authentic Brazilian English,
I think that each variant, form, and dialect of a language has an important role; it depends on the
situation, the intention, etc.
Pedagogical strategies on how to handle deviations without embarrassing students and metalinguistic
awareness have also been depicted: I try to show another way without saying This is wrong, I try to
have my students realize the situation and raise their awareness about the suitable situation for using
each, I teach my students not to have prejudice against any variants whatsoever, I call their attention
to the standard form and also to more informal variants they could use to express the same idea.
Based on this, we can conclude these student-teachers are becoming more aware of the increasing
evidence of the fluidity and flexibility of ELF communication (Jenkins, Cogo & Dewey, 2011), and,
luckily, developing some kind of reconceptualization in attitude and change, as previously referred by
Seidlhofer (2004) and, more recently, by Jenkins (2007). Several of the responses in this brief study have,
somehow, proved to us that the estrangement to ELF is beginning to dissipate.
8. Concluding remarks
As English continues so far in its undisputed and victorious trajectory as the postmodern worlds global
lingua franca, millions of people are learning and speaking it at different levels of competence. It was
made clear throughout the text that such a condition of English has naturally generated important
challenges for English teachers around the planet, and attempted to reinforce the premise that a good
deal of our taken-for-granted ELT practices have been threatened with the prospect of being declared
obsolete for the simple reason that they do not take into account some of the most significant
characteristics of [the phenomenon] (Rajagopalan, 2004, pp.113-114).
How to teach has made room to what to teach under certain more realistic parameters which,
among several things, call for a significant psychological shift, as contended by Jenkins (2007). Such
awareness, we could see from our respondents insights, is decisively contributing to the dissolution of
teachers state of schizophrenia concerning which English is the most legitimate to teach. Changes in
attitude and behavior are having a direct effect on teachers pedagogical decisions, and in expanding circle
countries like Brazil, they are disputing, at least at a certain level, the native model as the sole model to
be adopted in their English classes.
In sum, in practical terms, this discussion, hopefully, has served to question traditional ELT
assumptions and orientations which are deeply related to a model that has been codified, tested and
evaluated, represents power, and to a greater or lesser degree, [holds] historical authority (Kirkpatrick,
2006, p.72). As Kirkpatrick (2006, p.72) would emphasize, choosing a native-speaker model [is still] the
easy or safe option. To move away from this comfort zone, the study has shown, is certainly one of the
most crucial challenges for ELT practitioners and teacher educators the world over.
About the authors

Domingos Svio Pimentel Siqueira holds a PhD in Letters and Linguistics from Bahia Federal University (UFBA), Brazil. He is an
Assistant Professor in the Department of Germanic Letters at UFBA and leader of the research group ELF: criticism, attitude, and identity.
He is currently developing post-doctoral studies on ELF and critical pedagogy at the University of Hawaii, Manoa, Honolulu, USA. Email:
savio_siqueira@hotmail.com
Juliana Souza da Silva has been an English teacher for 11 years. She holds a B.A. in EFL from UFBA, and is about to finish her MA at
the same university. She has been studying ELF since January 2010 as a member of the research team English as a Lingua Franca: Criticism,
attitude, and identity, coordinated by Dr. Siqueira. Email: juls8410@gmail.com

References
Bamgbose, A. (1998). Torn between the norms: Innovations in World Englishes. World Englishes, 17(1),
114.
Canagarajah, S. (2013). Translingual practice: Global Englishes and cosmopolitan relations. London: Routledge.
Crystal, D. (1996). English: The global language. London: The US English Foundation.
Dewey, M. (2006). English as a Lingua Franca: An empirical study of innovation in lexis and grammar. Unpublished
PhD Thesis. King's College, London.
Giles, H., & Coupland, N. (1991). Language: Contexts and consequences. Milton Keynes: Open University
Press.
Hall, S. (1997). The local and the global: Globalization and ethnicity. In A. D. King (Ed.), Culture,
globalization, and the world system (pp.19-40). Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
Gupta, A. F. (2006). Standard English in the world. In R. Rubdy & M. Saraceni (Eds.), English in the world:
Global rules, global roles (pp. 95-109). New York: Continuum.
Jenkins, J. (2000). The phonology of English as an international language. New models, new norms, new goals. Oxford:
franca. Language Teaching, 44(3), 281-315.
Jrgensen, J. N. (2008). Polylingual languaging around and among children and adolescents. International
Journal of Multilingualism, 5(3), 161-176.
outer circle. In R. Quirk & H. Widdowson (Eds.), English in the world: Teaching and learning and literatures
(pp. 11-30). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Kirkpatrick, A. (2006). Which model of English: Native-speaker, nativized or lingua franca? In R. Rubdy
& M. Saraceni (Eds.), English in the world: Global rules, global roles (pp. 71-83). New York: Continuum.
McKay, S. L. (2002). Teaching English as an international language: Rethinking goals and approaches. Hong Kong:
Pennycook, A. (2000). The social politics and the cultural politics of language classrooms. In K. J. Hall
& W.G. Eggington (Eds.), The sociopolitics of language teaching (pp. 89-103). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Rajagopalan, K. (2004). The concept of World English and its implications for ELT. ELT Journal, 58(2),
111-117.
Rubdy, R., & Saraceni, M. (2006). Introduction. In R. Rubdy & M. Saraceni (Eds.), English in the world:
Global rules, global roles (pp. 6-17). New York: Continuum.
Siqueira, D. S. P. (2012). Se o ingls est no mundo, onde est o mundo nos materiais didticos de ingls.
In D. Scheyerl & S. Siqueira, S. (Eds.), Materiais didticos para o ensino de lnguas na contemporaneidade:
contestaes e proposies (pp. 311-354). Salvador: EDUFBA.
Walker, R. (2010). Teaching the pronunciation of English as a Lingua Franca. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Kazamia, V., & Joycey, E. (2016). ELF across teachers' strategies in TEFL. In N. Tsantila, J. Mandalios & M. Ilkos (Eds.),
ELF across teachers' strategies in TEFL
Vassilia Kazamia
Edgar Joycey
Abstract
This paper will look at the extent to which teachers of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) use strategies associated with a particular
approach to English as a Lingua Franca (ELF). It hopes to stimulate discussion about the benefits to EFL of adopting ELF in the classroom.
After presenting an overview of various views of ELF we take a stance that we feel to be ethically correct. This determined which strategies
should be examined. We used the results of some of the questions on a pilot questionnaire that teachers in Greek state schools completed
which had been developed within the framework of the Thales programme. While this revealed that teachers do use some of the chosen
strategies, it became apparent that more systematic teacher-training on ELF was needed.
Keywords: EFL instruction in Greece, ELF teaching practices, language learning strategies
1. Introduction1
Interest in ELF has spiked recently. Some contributors focus on the position that it is not possible for
the concept of ELF to exist, while others support that its existence shouldnt be given credence. The
former derives from the view that certain definitions of ELF are too restricting and narrow to truly reflect
the real scope of the field, thus rendering it of little use (Prodromou, 2008), while for others of this
rejecting ilk, the view that there is only one correct native-speaker-based English dominates their thinking.
No language that deviates from this can be accepted. Crystal (1997: viii) most likely had English as a
Native Language (ENL) in mind when he wrote, In my ideal world, everyone would have fluent
command of a single world language. This view of English easily allows ELFs skeptics to promote the
view that it is a corrupted and inadequate form of native speaker (NS) English. Any deficient, non-native
speaker (NNS) languages, they say, should not be promoted.
2. One or more Lingua Franca(s)?
Yet, lingua francas have existed since antiquity. Seidlhofer (2011) writes that a lingua franca is: any
use of English among speakers of different first languages for whom English is the communicative
medium of choice, and often the only option (p. 11). Certain linguists then, accept the existence of a
Lingua Franca (LF), some of whom analyse samples in order to reveal the battery of features of it that
make up its Common Core. Jenkins, (1998) does this with phonological features. However, doing such a
thing, while showing a smidgen of respect, allows opponents to place it in the deficient category. Attached
to this core approach is the view that ELF is non-native. Hence, attitudes towards it will remain negative.
What is more, given the fact the modern world demands international communication, such a common
core would turn out to be too limited a form of what is required and thus prove to be inadequate. Even
so, we accept that any existence of ELF by linguists is a move in the right direction, and more progress
along this line is needed.
Instead of there being only one ELF, the likelihood is that there are several, each used with its own
variations either within its geographical area, or determined by the discourse of communication between
the people involved. Such a statement can draw support from the view that there is an expanding circle
of varieties of English (Kachru, 1985). Hence, the suggestion can be made that any investigation that
looked for the different English language-based lingua francas and examined specific problems of
AristotleUniversity of Thessaloniki, Centre for Foreign Language Teaching. vkazamia@lance.auth.gr

AristotleUniversity of Thessaloniki, School of English Language and Literature.joycey@enl.auth.gr
1 This study was held in the frame of the National Strategic Reference Frame (...) and was co-funded by resources of the European
Union (European Social Fund) and national resources (Thales project MIS 379335).

ELF across teachers strategies Kazamia & Joycey
communication between users of them would be productive. Such projects, like existing corpora research
in native languages, would use the methodology of corpora building and computational research to build
a corpus for ELF that in time will complement ENL. However, as Seidlhofer (2001) notes, [T]his is, of
course, a long-term project and a huge and laborious task (p. 150). The task would be useful for the
eventual teaching of ELF, but as Jenkins writes (2007), [I]t is too early to talk of teaching ELF as such.
Before this can happen, we need comprehensive reliable descriptions of the ways in which proficient
ELF users speak among themselves, as the basis for codification (p. 238).
3. Language learning strategies and ELF
We suggest, for now, narrowing down the issue to the investigation of the strategies that would need to
be taught to lingua franca users to ensure that understanding between them is achieved. As Seidlhofer
(2001), when discussing how her approach to corpora differs from others, writes, The difference can
best be captured with reference to the notions of learning strategies vs communication strategies (p.
144). This does not mean that specific ELF classes must be set up and run. Raising awareness of strategies
and teaching them explicitly is part of many EFL teachers armories. Suggestions, though, may be made
to EFL teachers as to which ELF-influenced strategies they should use. In fact, doing so would help
teachers change the E in TEFL to the E in ELF.
A starting point for this is encompassed in this article which, through using strategies that we identify
as being ELF promoting on the Thales questionnaire, reports which of those strategies are used by Greek
state-school teachers and how their training needs revamping. It would help reduce the inferiority
complex Medgyes (1994) refers to when talking about himself and his teaching of English, even though
he is an educated NNS of it. Therefore, pupils might benefit considerably by such approach.
4. English(es) in the world
After the English language changed from its initial West Germanic dialect origins to a more standardised
form, it spread through Londons developing political power to various parts of the globe through
colonisation practices. Naturally, this global distribution and spread resulted in English varieties. The
struggle of these varieties against the standard form has led to much discussion about the English
language. For example, arguments against the impossibility of cultural neutrality existing given the
imperialistic nature of English are put forward by writers such as Pennycook (1994) and Phillipson (1992)
for whom the very concept of a world language is in itself one constructed by Western imperialists to
impose the language on others.
Kachrus (1985) conception of three concentric circles is useful as it brings out this struggle. The inner
circle, where English is the first language, is norm-providing, the outer, with the non-native language
used officially, is norm-developing, and the expanding one, where English is used but is not official,
norm-dependent. Hence, whenever the language of a group of English language users is not norm-
providing, there is wiggle room for those who so desire to judge, negatively, it against the norm. When
judging, though, it should be kept in mind that this paradigm, even for languages in the inner circle, is
not static. Halliday, et.al. (1964) rejected, even then, that the English language that seeped throughout the
world in colonial times was one. In doing so, they accepted the existence of varieties and their predilection
to change. This dynamic nature is revealed by Buschfelds (2013) research when she shows through
examining English in Cyprus (EiCy) and Cyprus English (CyE) that the position of English has changed
on the island since the Turkish occupation of 1974.
The varieties versus standard debate has always been buzzing around. Bolton (2004) reports a stand
off that took place in 1990 and 1991 between Quirk and Kachru, the former supporting standard English
by reasoning that what should be taught is institutionalized forms, and ridiculing the quackery (p. 377-
8) of those who preached varieties, the latter defending his position about varieties by presenting various
challenges to Quirks argument and accusing him of ignoring sociolinguistic realities in outer circle
societies.

5. Terms used to discuss varieties.
In our EFL world, many of the teaching fads were named using terms which conveyed a connection
between EFL and the world in which it operated. The establishment of English for Special Purposes
(ESP) has a place in our discussion because it instigated in EFL the idea that there are language varieties.
Varieties they were, but they were accepted as different registers of or within the institutionalised form.
They were not deficient, simply different NS forms.
In order to be aware of what each of the other terms conveys about varieties whenever it is
encountered, the NS/NNS opposition should always be kept in mind, as should the distribution vs.
spread debate. Widdowson (1997) outlines how these two mechanisms encouraged the dissemination of
English throughout the world. Distribution implies adoption and conformity; Spread implies adaptation
and non-conformity (p. 140). Distribution is NS driven and imposed, while spread is NNS created and
accepted Distribution carries a sense of Schneiders (2003) exonormative presentation of English to
another territory; spread, a sense of his endonormative and nativisation stages of how NNSs become
owners of their form of that language. In fact, Kirkpatrick (2007) argues that all varieties become nativised
within local cultures of their speakers.
Should any term being used reflect the sense that varieties can be judged as deficient against the ENL
variety, whether explicitly or implicitly? Is any ELF variety still seen as a result of trade, settlement or
exploitation colonisation (Mufwene, 2001), or as having thrown this off?
Debaters who took the position that there should be only one language saw the term World English
meaning English was distributed with impunity. The term conveys that it was the NS language that
travelled, was accepted and used throughout the world. Teaching English in foreign lands was ENL-
based. Its alternative title, English as a World Language, seems to convey this better.
Here, the lingua franca seems to be working like that of Crystals (1997) ENL type, though; one
language to be distributed globally and correct because of its NS character. The term World Englishes,
however, opens up the picture to the possibility of the existence of local varieties of English. They are
NNS languages, each in its own right, and free from NS judgments. World Englishes matches the
spread view rather than the distribution view.
In a similar way, English as an International Language (EIL) can be seen as English used by people
of different nations in order to communicate with one another, and as such can be adopted by those of
the one-language body or by those of the nativised supporters. Baxter (1980), however, clearly supports
the latter case. For him, the interactors determine the EIL situation that can be defined as a situation of
inter-varietal communication (p. 3). Therefore, its place is clearly in the category where language users
own the language.
The point to be made is that whenever such terms are encountered, the readers would have to interpret
by reading the texts what the author means. The differences between NS-judged vs NNS and distributed
vs spread would have to be teased out.
However, our position takes the line associated with the reality that there are many lingua francas that
draw on English, each reflecting the culture it exists in. The speakers should not be judged against the
NS. Alpetkin (2002) questions the NS norm and claims that it is as utopian as the notion of the idealized
native speaker. Seidlhofer (2011) notes, [W]e should recognize that native-speaker competence cannot
be set up as a generally valid or viable objective, that ELF is not failed ENL, an arrested stage of
interlanguage, but the result of learners putting their learnt language to use as an end in itself as an end,
one might say in its ELF (p. 187). We might even prefer, for our study, to adopt Pennycooks (2010)
view that the word English in itself creates restrictions that influence views of ELF and subsequent
teaching, an influence that he says should be avoided. In pedagogical terms, this means treating English
less as a discreet object even with its variations that can be taught only in its own presence, and rather
deal with English as multilingual, as a language always in transition, as a language is always under
negotiation (p. 685). Such a multilingual viewpoint justified the research we conducted as there is an
implication that strategies and negotiation of meaning are involved.

6. Attitudes, teaching and Greece
The following quotes reveal negative attitudes towards ELF and the teaching of it:
Jenkins (2007, p. 16), when discussing linguists who hold a negative view of ELF wrote:
Still less surprising is it, then, that the majority of English language teachers remain unconvinced of
the wisdom of an ELF approach to teaching and unable to make the necessary conceptual shift (p.
16).
As for including ELF in the EFL syllabus, she notes,
Linked to concerns about syllabus change is a sense of unease that learners will eventually be forced
to learn ELF rather than have a choice between ELF and standard NS English (p. 120).
However, Murrays (2003) conclusion to his study with Swiss English teachers, some of whom were
NNSs and pro-ELF, showed they had reservations about including such language as a teaching model.
Mistrust and insecurity dominate the EFL world. The following reveals similar fears within a specific
country. Sifakis and Sougaris (2005) study with Greek EFL teachers revealed that the teachers had little
awareness of the international spread of English, still identified English with its NSs, believed that
learners should acquire specific features of NS English pronunciation, and that primary school teachers
in particular placed value on their learners acquisition of a native-like accent.
English is a priority in the Greeces foreign language policy, so Crystal (2003) would accept it has
gained global status. It is a compulsory subject from the age of eight, with plans to initiate it at the age of
six. Instruction lasts for 7 years minimum. 96% of primary school FL pupils study it, as do 80% of
secondary, schoolchildren. They record high percentages of reasons, which concern increasing job market
competitiveness, usefulness in occupations, and enjoying having access to it in their personal lives.
However, all this learning is based on a NS model of English, and pupil success in it is measured by their
gaining certificates awarded by various examination companies and boards. Hence, the ELF dimension
is lacking.
7. Language learning strategies
The following quotes reflect our stance on the role of strategies in the ELF. This first one is from a study
that asked tourists about the use of English by the locals. The data collected show that holidaymakers
expect and appreciate ELF in the LL but, despite the documented number of errors, these do not seem
to pose a problem as long as they do not hinder understanding. (Bruyl-Olmedo & Juan-Garau, 2009, p.
409) Handling the errors would require the use of strategies. As Seidlhofer (2011) writes, Learning to
language involves the use of strategies for making sense, negotiating meaning, co-constructing
understanding and so on (p. 198). Languaging is Vygotskys (1978) term for when learners use
language to mediate solutions to problems of language use.
Sifakis (2009) indicates that the contents of an ELF curriculum should include communication skills
which aim at successful interaction such as making repairs, paraphrasing, rephrasing or even allowing for
linguistic errors that can facilitate communication. This suggests the inclusion of teaching strategies.
Moreover, Prodromou (2008) clearly states the involvement of strategies used by successful users of
English (SUE). What SUEs have in common broadly speaking, is enough language to facilitate a set of
effective strategies and processes of language negotiation. This negotiation will involve not only
communication in a transactional sense but also the achievement of rapport with ones interlocutor, and,
more complex of all, the promotion of personal identity. . (Prodromou, 2008, p. 246)

8. The research
The aim of our study was to tease out whether Greek EFL teachers use strategies that suit the teaching
of an ELF whose speakers are judged on what they say rather than the (NNS) way they say it. It drew on
specific items from a piloting of a general teacher strategy questionnaire. 6 items were chosen that were
reliant on NS models (-ve), and 7 were NNS oriented (+ve).
The questionnaire, from the Thales project MIS379335, was used to identify strategy use of primary
and secondary school level pupils throughout Greece. Oxfords SILL (1990) had, through a very
thorough procedure, been translated into Greek, and this prompted the design of an original
questionnaire to see which strategies teachers promoted in their classrooms. Psaltou-Joyceys (2008)
questionnaire guided the design as did Kazamias (2010) research on strategies used by Greek pupils. The
Likert scale format with end points of 1 and 5 tapped frequency use of the chosen items.
The returns from 58 primary and lower secondary school teachers, 57% of whom held a postgraduate
degree, were analysed by using descriptive statistics, a correlation test, reliability tests, a paired samples t-
test for positives vs negatives, and an independent samples t-test for use of +ve and -ve with
postgraduate studies.
9. The results
Tables 1 and 2 show the strategies that matched each of the items chosen along with the frequencies with
which they were used.
Table 1. Mean frequencies of use of strategies for +ve ELF items
ELF +ve items: frequency of use of strategies

Learning strategy Mean of frequencies (1 5)
Take risks in speaking and tolerate mistakes 4.79
Using circumlocution or synonyms 4.57
Guessing unknown words through context 4.47
Using mime and body to identify meaning 4.17
Discussing learning through linguistic landscape clues 3.81
Asking for repetition or clarification when listening 3.43
Using gestures to identify meaning 2.71
Table 2. Mean frequencies of use of strategies for -ve ELF items
ELF -ve items: frequency of use of strategies

Learning strategy Mean of frequencies (1 5)
Learning about NSs culture 3.97
Repeating words to learn correct pronunciation 3.85
Asking help from NSs 3.26
Imitating NS pronunciation 3.19
Identifying similarities & differences in vocabulary and grammar 3.10
in English & Greek
Asking NSs to correct mistakes 1.98
The Paired Samples t- test showed there is a clear statistically significant difference between teachers use
of +ve & -ve strategies.
t=14,238, df=55, p < 0.001 r= 0,349 p<0,01
Hence, this result and the frequencies shows that teachers do use strategies that are NNS oriented more
than NS modeled.

However, the weak reliability coefficients reveal another picture. Alpha for +ve = 0.507; for -ve =
0.655. Their weaknesses reveal that teachers answered from instinct rather than from knowledge of any
theoretical background for teaching ELF. The nature of the -ve strategies, and the fact that their alpha is
higher suggests they are more coherent and comprehensively adopted by the teachers. Possibly they
reflect known attitudes or behaviors from established teacher-training.
The results of the Pearson test used to correlate +ve and ve responses was r=0,349 p<0,01. Hence,
the more teachers employ ELF +ve, the more they employ -ve strategies. This finding suggests that the
groups of strategies are different conceptual structures, yet they are not distinct in teachers thinking and
teaching. This entails, that teachers are unaware of the ELF theoretical background underlying +ve or
ve strategies.
Finally, no difference was found between postgraduate or undergraduate level teachers on using the
independent t-tests. This confirms, again, that teachers of all kinds lacked theoretical knowledge of ELF.
10. Conclusions
The inferences drawn point to clear conclusions outlined below:
1. The two groupings of strategies for ELF do show a difference with +ve questions getting a higher
score; this indicates more frequent use of this set of strategies.
2. -ve strategies seem to be more familiar to teachers.
3. Teachers used intuition/instinct/feelings (rather than knowledge) to answer (+ve & -ve).
4. Higher use of +ve strategies entails higher use of -ve strategies suggesting lack of theoretical
background on ELF.
5. Teachers seem to lack adequate knowledge on ELF even if they are postgraduate degree holders.
Hence, while it seems that teachers do use strategies that are +ve for ELF, they dont seem to know why.
They do, however, know their reasons for using ve strategies given that the results show they have a
more coherent picture of them. This apparent contradiction may be caused because they dont have
enough background about ELF of the kind we have suggested incorporated into their training and input
seminars.
11. Recommendations
The results definitely reinforce what Sifakis and Sougari (2005) recommended. Training and seminars
must be delivered to teachers to increase awareness of ELF. Teaching ELF should be NNS-judged using
suitable strategies and specific techniques. Matsuda (2003) supports Sifakis and Sougaris position when
writing, much meta-sociolinguistic instruction for English learners and teachers is necessary in order to
prepare students adequately for use of English as an international language (p. 495). Jenkins (2007) also
refers to Sifakis and Sougari (2005) when she writes that after conducting a study with students essays
that responded to an article by House (2002) that challenged NS-normative notions of ELT, Seidlhofer
and Widdowson (2003) call for: awareness raising of ELF in teacher education programmes. Education
administrators would need informing to reduce any resistance they display. Convincing them that this
introduction of ELF would benefit EFL teaching and would increase the likelihood of pupils becoming
lifelong learners would help.

About the authors

Vassilia Kazamia holds a PhD in Applied Linguistics from Leeds University, a Masters degree in Theoretical Linguistics from the same
university and a BA degree from Aristotle University. She is a Senior Teaching Fellow in ESP and is particularly interested in ESP course
design, EFL learners individual differences, ELF and communication for professional purposes. Email: vkazamia@lance.auth.gr
Edgar Joyceys doctoral research at Aristotle University, Thessaloniki was on Lifelong Learning and his interests revolve around the choices
planners, teachers and students make. Within such fields, the issue of respect for the make up and choices of each individual stands at the
forefront. His Leeds University Masters degree thesis was on the role of teacher attitudes towards pupils regional accents. His PGCE,
Cambridge DELTA and extensive teaching and teacher training experience have contributed to the stance he takes on English as a Lingua
Franca. Email: joycey@enl.auth.gr
Acknowledgments
Thanks are due to Dr E. Penderi for conducting the statistical analysis of the research data.
References
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/kju:kmb(r) /or /kukumber/ ?

Preferences and attitudes towards standard accents in the Greek ELF context
Anny Georgountzou
Natasha Tsantila
Abstract
The aim of the present study is to complement prior research on the attitudes of native Greek speakers of English towards native and non-
native English pronunciation (Sifakis & Sougari, 2005; Tsantila, Ganetsou & Ilkos, 2016) by investigating the attitudes and preferences of
native and non-native Greek users of English towards standard British (RP) and General American pronunciation. Data was collected
through questionnaires, distributed to 328 native and non-native Greek males and females, of different socio-economic background1 and
were classified in three age groups. The results and interpretation of the research findings offer crucial information about the salient role
the aforementioned reference accents still play in the Greek teaching and working context as well as about the teaching orientation of
English pronunciation in secondary and tertiary education in Greece.
Keywords: ELF, standard/native-like accent, attitudes, accuracy, intelligibility, pronunciation.
1. Introduction
The extensive use of English globally (Canagarajah, 1999; Crystal, 2003) has led to its establishment as a
world lingua franca (ELF) rendering it the main tool of communication and, thus, motivating many
language teachers to reconsider their hitherto teaching tactics (Jenkins, 2006).
In pronunciation-related research, two opposing views have been expressed so far; namely, adherence
to a native-like model accent (Pilus, 2013), on the one hand, and emphasis on intelligibility, on the other.
The latter (Jenkins, 2000, 2006; Seidlhofer, 2005. p. 340) ) maintain that clinging to a native-like English
speaking model is not only unnecessary but may even obstruct rather than facilitate speakers' mutual
understanding. This shift towards the aforementioned model of teaching, though, cannot ignore English
language users attitudes, which, although well researched (i.e., He & Zhang, 2010; Jenkins, 2009; Sifakis
& Sougari, 2005; Timmis, 2002; Tomak, 2011; Walker, 2010), still yield inconsistent findings.
2. Perceptions towards standard and non-standard English
In the context of ELF2 and EIL3, several studies have indicated that non-native (NN) users rate nativeness
higher than intelligibility not only in their interpersonal interactions but also in their accent-related self-
evaluations (Episcopo, 2009; Jenkins, 2009; Timmis, 2002). Further studies (Derwing, 2003; He & Zhang,
2010; Tomak, 2011; Tsantila et al, 2016), however, among non-native English speakers (NNEs), raise
doubts as to whether NNEs always regard their accent to be an integral part of their effective
communication, showing, thus, high levels of tolerance for NN accents of English.
Regarding student preferences towards native English teachers (NESTs) and non-native English
speaking teachers (NNESTs) accents, research is still inconclusive and even contradictory. On the one
hand, students criticize non-standard and non-native pronunciation of NNESTs (Ma, 2012; Lasagabaster
& Sierra, 2005; Mahboob, 2004; Pacek, 2005) or express an overt preference (Barrios, 2011) for native
accents, or tolerance towards native accent (Pilus, 2013). Other studies (Braine, 2006; Kelch & Santana-
Williamson, 2002; Moussu, 2006) on NESTs and NNESTs accent report that students positive
Anny Georgountzou: Athens University and Hellenic Open University: anny_ph@yahoo.com

Natasha Tsantila: Deree College The American College of Greece:ntsantila@acg.edu
1 By socioeconomic background in this study we refer to participants schooling (private or public) background.
2English as a lingua franca
3 English as an International language

/kju:kmb(r) /or /kukumber/ ? Attitudes to accents in Greece Georgountzou & Tsantila
predisposition towards NNESTs can gradually be achieved with sufficient exposure to non-standard
varieties.
2.1 ELF and classroom practices

ELF research, thus, could ultimately target at teaching practices and new perspectives in curricula
development if NN, and not exclusively native (N) norm bound-characteristics, are to be included in
teaching materials as several researchers have indicated. Alptekin (2002), for example, calls the native
speaker model, utopian, unrealistic and constraining in relation to EIL, whereas Seidlhofer (2005)
criticizes the native speaker language by suggesting that the fine nuances of native speaker language are
communicatively redundant or even counter-productive. Similarly, Jenkins (2000) argues that NNES do
not need near-native accent but an accent that would reflect their linguistic and cultural identities. ELT
learners, however, do not always seem to support the aforementioned views and still cling to native
models (Coskun, 2011).
In Greece, an expanding circle country, both learners and teachers are still norm bound, according to
prior research (i.e.,Sifakis & Sougari, 2005). However, Greek users are often called upon to communicate
with other NNEs from different L1 backgrounds for touristy, business and educational reasons (i.e.,
Greek Tourism: Facts and figures, 2013, pp. 3-6). Besides, since the 1990s, Greece has been accepting an
increasing number of various L1 bacgrounds migrants (Eurostat, 2016), which adds to the multi-
linguacultural Greek context further reinforcing thus that users targeting at a native accent is rather futile.
3. Aims -research questions
Despite thriving past and ongoing research on student and teacher attitudes towards N and NN English
accents, NN students willingness to be exposed to non-standard varieties of English is still rather
insufficiently researched in Greece. Thus, the aim of this study is to complement prior research on the
attitudes of native Greek speakers of English (NGSE) towards N and NN English pronunciation (Sifakis
and Sougari, 2005; Tsantila et al, 2016) by investigating native and non-NGSE attitudes towards:
their own accented or not speech,
the ideal accent NESs and NNESs should have;
the accent English language teachers should have and whether a norm-bound4 standard accent would
serve as a communication facilitator and
subjects possible exposure to a non-standard English accent in their learning contexts.
4. Method
4.1 Participants
A survey was administered to 328, Greek (N=265) and non-Greek (N=63), speakers recruited from a
random sample of undergraduate and postgraduate students studying at the University of Athens.
Participants, both male (N=99) and female (N=228), were separated in three age groups; those who were
under 20 (N= 121), [group 1], those who were between 20-29 (N= 112), [group 2] and those who were
30 and above (N= 95), [group 3].
Respondents profile is indicated in table 1 below.
4 Norm bound in this paper, refers to British and Standard American accent as these varieties are the ones mainly, if not exclusively
taught in EFL classes in Greece.

Table 1. Student variables examined in relation to attitudes towards English accent
Gender 99 Males, 228 Females (one missing value)
Age 123 Under 20, 111 20-29, 94 Over 30.
Socio-educational 161 Upper-Mid, 167 Lower-Mid

Level
Nationality 265 Native Greeks, 63 Non-Native Greeks
Attitude towards English 311 Positive, 14 Negative (3 missing values)
4.2 Measures
The study consisted of two parts; a closed type questionnaire distributed to all subjects and a post-hoc
open-ended questionnaire distributed to selected participants5. The former consisted of two sections:
section A checked demographic information (i. e., age, sex, ethnicity, etc). Section B, the main part of the
questionnaire, included three open-ended (1, 2, 7) questions and seven (3-7, 8-10) Likert-type scale
questions investigating the attitudes and preferences of the native and NNG informants towards E
pronunciation. To ensure reliability, the questionnaire was written in Greek, and had been originally
piloted on 20 subjects. It was found to be reliable with .655 of the Cronbach alpha coefficient scale.
However, full clarification of the terms pronunciation as opposed to dialect, as well as of the terms
standard vs non-standard accent was given before the distribution of the questionnaire.6 A series of
statistical t- tests, ONE WAY- ANOVA, TUKEY POST HOC were applied. All responses were
examined cumulatively and against age, socio-educational background and biological sex. Nevertheless,
only the statistically significant results of the three age groups are discussed below. Groups were classified
as follows: group 1 those aged under 20, group 2 those aged 20-29, and group 3, those aged over 30. All
percentages were rounded to the nearest percent.
5. Results
5.1 Comparison of the three age groups

Table 2. Self- perceptions towards pronunciation in interactions (Question 1, 3)
Question 1: Which pronunciation do you think you have when Question 3: Would you mind if someone argued that your
speaking English? English pronunciation has an obvious
foreign trace?
Age
Not that
sure/may
Not at all
Extremel
Group Accents
much
much
Total
Total
Very
Not
Greek American British Other

be
y
N % N % N % N N % N % N % N % N %
%
Under 20 38 31 55 45 10 8 19 16 122 6 5 28 23 31 26 35 29 20 17 120
20-29 51 47 32 29 17 16 9 8 109 5 5 17 15 18 16 45 41 26 23 111
Over 30 41 44 26 28 13 14 14 15 94 6 6 19 20 18 19 23 24 28 30 94
17 5 64 20 67 21 103 32 74 23 325
Missing 3
values
5 Findings of the second part of the study are not discussed in this paper
6 Standard refers to native British or American accents lacking audibly localizable sound features and spoken in the English speaking
countries.

Questions 1 and 3 investigated participants perceptions about their own pronunciation. In question 1,
respondents were asked to identify the type of E accent they think they have when using English. Results
indicated that most (47%) of group 2 and 44% of group 3 recognize obvious Greek phonological traits
in their pronunciation, whereas the majority (45%) of group 1 recognize obvious American phonological
characteristics in their pronunciation; most probably, their frequent exposure to the American accent,
through various audio-visual means, must have contributed to this belief. In question 3, participants were
asked whether they would mind if their accent was traced as foreign. Still groups 2 and 3 indicated
acceptance of their NN accent. The results between question 1 and 3 indicate some alignment between
the group 1 and group 2. Participants in question 1 perceived their English language pronunciation to be
affected by Greek (group 1) 31%, (group 2) 47% and (group 3) 44% respectively. Similarly, the majority
in all groups (29%: not very much) and 17% (not at all) a total of 46% for group 1and 41% (not very
much) and 23% (not at all) a total of 64% for (group 2) indicate high to very high tolerance to their own
NNE accent. (Group 1) also indicated high levels of tolerance as the 29% (not very much) and 17% (not
at all), a total of 46% indicate. Thus, most subjects would not mind much or not at all if their interlocutor
traced a foreign, NNE accent in their speech.
Table 3. English language speakers ideal accent (Q 2, 4)
Question 2: In your opinion, which pronunciation should an Question 4:Do you believe that the non-native E speakers
English language speaker have? should try to speak in accordance with the
E Standard pronunciation even when their
message is understood?
Age not obligatorily
Not necessary
Group Accents
Definitely yes
Desirably but
only if they
Total
Not sure/
Not at all
Total
improve
want to
Maybe
Standa
British
Ameri
Other
rd E
Any
can
N % N % N % N % N %
N % N % N % N %
Under 20 65 53 43 35 3 2 12 10 123 42 35 60 50 5 4 8 7 4 3 119
20-29 54 50 38 35 5 5 13 12 110 26 25 57 54 14 13 14 13 6 6 106
Over 30 56 60 23 24 3 3 12 13 94 27 29 51 54 7 7 7 7 7 7 94
Total 175 54 104 38 11 3 37 11 327 95 30 168 53 29 19 29 5 17 5 319
Missing 1 9
value
Questions 2 and 4 reveal participants views on the pronunciation type speakers N and NN should have.
Question 2 indicated most subjects preferences towards standard E accents, while question 4 showed
that all age groups regard as desirable - although not obligatory - the use of standard E pronunciation by
NNES even when their message is understood. Results between questions 2 and 4 are in alignment since
subjects preference for standard (British or American) E is obvious, even among the youngest age group.

Table 4. English language users ideal accent in conversations with NESs and NNESs (Q 5, 6)
Question 5: When you communicate in English with native English Question 6: When you communicate in English
speakers do you pay attention to your accent? with non-native English speakers, do you
pay attention to your accent?
Age
No attention to pronunciation and

Most times do not care about my
Most times do not care about my

Geatest attention to pronunciation
pronunciation, but focus primarily on
pronunciation, but focus primarily on

Group
Greatest attention to pronunciation;
No attention to pronunciation and

focus only on content of message
;targeting at StBr / Am* accent
targeting at St Br / Am* accent

Occasional attention to accent
Occasional attention to accent
StE*;focus only on content of

Attention to acceptable
Attention to acceptable
the content of message
the content of message

Total
Total
pronunciation
pronunciation
message
N % N % N % N % StE*;
N % N % N % N % N % N %
Under 20 19 15 77 63 10 8 9 7 8 7 123 11 67 25 11 9 9 7 123
9 54 20
20-29 23 21 56 50 11 10 14 13 7 6 111 15 48 20 15 12 110
14 44 18 14 11
Over 30 11 12 52 56 14 15 6 6 10 11 93 3 41 18 11 19 92
3 45 20 12 21
Total 53 16 185 57 35 11 29 9 25 8 327 29 156 63 37 40 325
9 48 19 12
Missing 1 3
Value
*StBr/Am: Standard British/American; StE: Standard English
Questions 5 and 6 focused on subjects pronunciation habits when conversing with NE and NNES. As
table 4 indicates subjects answers seem to have been little affected by whether they converse with NE
or NNES. A one-way between subjects ANOVA was conducted to compare the effect of age on
participants answers in question 6. There were significant effects of age on the participants answers for
the three age groups [F (2.322) = 5.36, p= .005]. Post hoc comparisons using the Tukey HSD test
indicated that the mean score for the over 30 group (M=2.98, SD=1.24) were significantly different
from the Under 20 group (M=3.49, SD=1.02). However, no significant differences were found among
the other groups. Thus, interestingly, we observe that: a) although question 6 refers to conversation
among non-native E speakers, all age groups focus primarily on the message but also make sure that their
pronunciation is acceptable7; b) the under 20 age group pays significant attention to pronunciation, apart
from primarily focusing on the message, while the above 30 groups second choice focuses exclusively
on the message. Perhaps, the oldest age group is more aware of their NNE accent and have set more
realistic goals when conversing with NNES.
7By acceptable in this study, we mean standard/native-like accent as well explained to our informants during the completion of
questionnaire

Table 5. Accent and English language teacher (Q7, 8)
Question 7: What pronunciation should the English teacher have Question 8: Does the English teachers Standard
and use when teaching E? accent help learners understanding and enhancement
of oral communication?
Age
Very much
Group Accents
Extremely
Not sure/
Not at all
Maybe
Little
Total
Total
pronuncia
St. British
American
English
opinion
Greek-
Own
tion
No
St.
N % N % N % N % N % N % N % N % N % N %
Under 20 63 51 33 27 10 8 8 7 9 7 123 61 51 48 37 9 8 4 3 1 1 119
20-29 56 51 23 21 4 4 11 10 15 14 109 53 48 42 38 10 9 2 2 3 3 110
Over 30 53 58 15 16 4 4 8 9 12 13 92 46 49 32 34 9 11 6 6 0 0 93
Total 172 53 71 22 18 6 27 8 36 11 324 160 47 122 36 28 7 12 9 4 1 326
Missing 1 2
value
Table 5 above shows results on participants attitudes towards the type of pronunciation that the E
teacher should have and use (question 7) and on whether their standard accent promotes learners better
understanding and performance in E (question 8). All expressed an overt preference for standard
(predominantly British) accents (question 7). In question 8, group 1 gave the highest percentages in the
answers extremely and very much proving that even for the youngest age group, the English language
teachers standard accent plays a panacea contributing role to learners perceiving the oral message.
Thus, the positive attitude towards the use of the Ts standard E (mainly British)accent for the
enhancement of oral communication is obvious throughout the three age groups since this is the type of
accent that all age groups have been exposed to almost exclusively and is regarded as the most appropriate
and accurate accent.
Table 6. ELF tolerance
Question 9: Some scholars support learners exposure to varieties Question 10: Would you like to be exposed in your
of non-standard accents of English. Would you agree English language classroom to such non-
with this approach? standard E accents*?
Age
reservations
reservations
Dont knwo
Dont know
Group
Perhaps no
Perhaps no
Agree with
Agree with
Absolutely
Absolutely
Absolutely
Absolutely
Total
Total
not
not
yes
yes
N % N % N % N % N % N % N % N % N % N %
Under 20 9 8 20 17 20 17 41 34 29 24 119 4 3 31 26 15 13 34 29 34 29 118
20-29 5 5 27 25 12 11 28 26 34 32 106 6 6 21 20 13 12 38 36 28 26 106
Over 30 4 4 25 27 14 15 20 22 30 32 93 3 3 20 21 11 12 25 27 35 37 94
Total 18 6 72 23 46 14 89 28 93 29 318 13 4 72 23 39 11 97 31 97 31 318
Missing 10 10
value

In questions 9 and 10, subjects were asked to express their perceptions towards the exposure of non-
standard E accents. Despite the similarities in learners answers, it can be observed that the subjects
belonging to the youngest age group were less categorical against learners potential exposure to non-
standard varieties (Q 9), while they were divided between perhaps no and absolutely not regarding their
own future exposure to such non-standard E accents (Q 10). On the other hand, subjects of the older
age groups, and particularly of the above 30 group, who have long been exposed to and taught the
standard E accents, seemed to be more reluctant to accept and be exposed to non-standard varieties since
the standard/native-like ideal is deeply rooted in them. Thus, overall, although all groups indicate a
preference towards standard varieties, group 3, the oldest age group, appears to be more clinged to the
standard E pronunciation.
6. Discussion - answers to research questions
This study provided the following answers to the initially posed research questions:
1. The overwhelming majority of the native and non-native Greek speakers of E prefer a standard E
pronunciation (Q2 although they dont much mind being perceived as having a trace of a non-English,
foreign accent in their speech (Q3).
2. Most subjects are interested in using an acceptable (standard) English accent when conversing, not
only with N but also with NNES (Qs 5, 6).
3. The majority of native and NNGS of E prefer the English language teachers to have and use the
standard pronunciation and most informants believe that the English teachers standard accent greatly
helps students understanding and enhancement of oral communication. Such preference was
particularly obvious in the youngest age group (Qs 7,8). On the other hand,
4. Most subjects - but particularly the ones belonging to the above 30 age group appeared to be more
attached to standard E pronunciation, in alignment with prior research (Labov, 1966; Wells, 1982, pp
24-25), and would be unwilling to be exposed to it (Qs 9, 10). Most likely, the long, and most probably,
sole exposure of this age group to NS-oriented English instruction must have strongly affected their
answers.
These results largely agree with prior research held in the Greek EFL context (Charalampopoulou, 2002;
Loumbourdi, 2014; Mattheoudakis, 2007; Sifakis & Fay, 2011; Sifakis & Sougari, 2005). Possible
explanations for subjects preference towards standard E accents are certainly related to their prior
learning experience, which is closely geared towards standard models of E pronunciation; indeed, the
overwhelming majority of English learners in Greece attend public or private schools or private language
institutes, which are norm-bound and systematically cultivate native-like ideals of E pronunciation
excluding other non-reference accents. Adding to that, in the Greek teaching context, the English
language proficiency exams, which are totally N-like oriented, are very popular and still in demand. Thus,
this study pinpoints the total lack of learners ELF awareness and the importance the NGSE place on
the pronunciation accuracy due to the formal instruction they have received from their E language
teachers as well as their exposure to exclusively inner-circle bound teaching material. However, although
subjects positive attitudes towards the standard E accent(s) appeared to be so deeply rooted that a
remarkable similarity was observed in their answers, the research findings also revealed that there might
be a shift of attitudes towards non-standard varieties as the youngest age group (below 20) was less
negatively predisposed towards their potential exposure to the above varieties. This finding also
corroborates prior research (Cogo, 2010; Tsantila et al, 2016).
7. Conclusion
The present study showed that most subjects were indisputably in favour of using a standard (British or
American) E accent when conversing not only with NEs but also with NNES. In addition, most
informants demand that their English teacher have and use a standard English accent when teaching

English. These findings seem quite paradoxical given that more than 80% of the English users nowadays
are NNES and the Greek setting is becoming increasingly multilingual and multicultural. If we consider
the high percentages attributed to the standard accents and the relatively limited impact of the age
parameter, this positive attitude towards standard English accents can change only if the learners
mentality changes (Sifakis, 2014).This change, though, can be incurred if the English teachers who teach
in Greece should abstain from futile, native-like patterns and realise the need for their learners exposure
to a more realistic type of E pronunciation which can better accommodate their aural and oral needs in
the local and the global setting. Such a transformation of the EFL teachers of the Greek context (Sifakis,
2014) can be attained if they become sufficiently educated and trained on how to integrate NN varieties
in their teaching practices. It is important to realize that E pronunciation attitudes will change only if its
users-and particularly the educators-recognise the aforementioned need in the ESOL context and adapt
their practices accordingly. Then and only then will English users be confident enough to use the language
for their effective communication, holding no fear of being misjudged as less competent speakers than
those who approximate native-standard E accent.
About the authors

Anastasia Georgountzou holds a B.A in English Language and Literature (University of Athens), an M.A and a Ph.D. in Phonetics and
Linguistics (University College London). She is a full-time instructor of English and Linguistics at the Department of English Studies of the
University of Athens and a part-time tutor at the Hellenic Open University (M.A.in TESOL). Her research interests focus on the
enhancement of oral skills (pronunciation, intonation), English language teaching, academic writing, speech acquisition and distance
learning. She has published a number of articles on pronunciation of English and Modern Greek.Email: anny_ph@yahoo.com
Natasha Tsantila is an Associate lecturer at Deree- The American College of Greece where she has been working since 1989. She holds a
B.A in English and Greek Literature (University of Athens), and an M.A. in Applied Linguistics (University of Reading, UK).Her
professional interests include language and identity, language and thought, language teacher education, language and pedagogy, teaching
English as an International language, teaching Academic Writing. She has presented in international conferences and has published in field
related .publications. She was the ELF7 Conference chair, held at DEREE, Athens, in September 2014. Email: ntsantila@acg.edu
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APPENDIX
QUESTIONNAIRE
This questionnaire was designed to investigate your attitudes towards the pronunciation of the English
language and in particular, the standard and nonstandard varieties of English. It consists of two parts.
Read all questions, in both parts, very carefully and reply them all. All questions are equally important for
the research. There is not a correct or incorrect response. You can freely voice your opinion, whatever
this might be, and justify it if you wish so.
PART B8
1. Which accent do you think you have when speaking English?

A. Greek English
B. American English
C. British English?
D. Other.
2. In your opinion, which accent should an English language speaker (native and non-native)
have?
A. Standard British
B. Standard American
C. Any standard native English pronunciation
D. Other
3. Would you mind if someone argued that your English pronunciation has obvious
foreigntrace?
. Extremely
. Very much
C. Dont know/Maybe
D. Not that much
E. Not at all
4. Do you believe that the non-native speakers of English should try to speak in accordance with
an English standard pronunciation even when their message is understood?
A. They should necessarily try
B. It is desirable but not obligatory
C. I dont Know/No opinion
D. They dont need to try, only if they want to improve
E. No. Not at all. Pronunciation is unimportant since speakers can communicate their
message
5. When you communicate in English with native English speakers, do you pay attention to your
accent?
A. I pay the greatest attention to my pronunciation and I try to speak in accordance with the
Standard British/American accent.
B. I make sure that my pronunciation is acceptable, but I focus primarily on the content of my
message.
C. Sometimes I pay attention to me accent, but sometimes I dont.
D. Most of the times, I do not care about my pronunciation.
E. I do not pay any attention to my pronunciation and I dont try to speak with the standard
English pronunciation because I am only interested in the content of my message.
8 Part A which was on demographics is not included in this appendix

6. When you communicate in English with non-native English speakers, do you pay attention to
your accent?
A. I pay the greatest attention to my pronunciation and I try to speak in accordance with the
Standard British/American accent.(A)
B. I make sure that my pronunciation is acceptable, but I focus primarily on the content of my
message (B)
C. Sometimes I pay attention to me accent, but sometimes I dont (C)
D. Most of the times, I do not care about my pronunciation.(D)
E. I do not pay any attention to my pronunciation and I dont try to speak with the standard
English pronunciation because I am only interested in the content of my message (E )
7. What pronunciation should the English language teacher have and use when teaching English?
A. Standard British
B. Standard American
C. Greek-English
D. Own native pronunciation
E. No opinion
8. Does the English teachers standard accent help the students understanding and enhancement
of oral pronunciation?
A. Very much
B. Quite a lot
C. I am not sure/Maybe
D. Not that much
E. Not at all
9. Some scholars support learners exposure to varieties of non-native accents of English. Would
you agree with this approach?
A. Absolutely
B. I agree but with some reservations
C. I dont know
D. I dont completely agree
E. I disagree
10. Would you like to be exposed in your English language classroom to such a non-standard E
accent*?
A. Absolutely
B. Perhaps
C. I dont know
D. Perhaps not
E. Absolutely not
*Non-standard E accent = accent of speakers who have E as their contact language but their
speech includes phonological features of their native languages

McBride, P. L. (2016). Is ELF of benefit in a Japanese educational context? In N. Tsantila, J. Mandalios & M. Ilkos (Eds.),
Is ELF of benefit in a Japanese educational context?
Paul L. McBride
Abstract
While communication according to an ELF paradigm is not commonly practiced in Japanese educational institutions, the consensus-oriented
and cooperative characteristics of ELF closely match Japanese cultural traits. ELF teaching approaches seem to address two historically
significant difficulties in English education in Japan: the provision of communicative English experiences and the retention of Japanese
identity amid internationalization. Particularly in Japan, standard varieties of English have been thought of as the proper models to be
imitated. Ownership of English is attributed to native speakers of English, who are assumed to be effective teachers. In contrast, at a newly
established Centre for English as a Lingua Franca (CELF) at a private educational institution in Tokyo, it is not a requirement that teaching
staff be native speakers. Despite diversity in teaching staff, however, teaching practices may still be founded largely on British and American
norms (Jenkins 2011). The aim of this investigation is to examine whether ELF is of benefit in a Japanese educational context by taking
relevant literature into account, and by exploring teacher and student understandings and beliefs. It is hoped to encourage the theorizing of
classroom practice not only in the current context, but also in similar educational settings. This study complements concurrent research at
the same institution into how CELF classroom practices might better reflect CELF policies. In the context of the pedagogical imperative
for effective communication and the sociolinguistic case for language ownership, this paper presents the results of CELF teacher and student
surveys and the written comments of students. There are early indications that students who have experienced ELF classes communicate
proactively, initiating conversations and continuing to speak in English.
Keywords: sociolinguistics, language education, Japan
1. Introduction
ELF research brings to light the need for a review of the conventional distinctions used to describe and
to teach English (Widdowson, 2012). Similarly, English education in Japan could benefit from a review
in two areas: English as an academic subject, as distinct from English for communication on the one
hand, and national identity, as distinct from internationalization on the other. Communication and identity
are significant aspects in the history of language education in Japan (Waring, 2014), as they are in ELF.
It might be expected that ELF would flourish in a nation where cooperation and consensus are valued.
The fact is, however, that in much language education in Japan cooperation and consensus are based on
adherence to a particular norm: a standard American model of English.
2. English in Japan
Kirkpatrick (2010) explains that the use of a standard American model of English can be closely
associated with modernization. He maintains that learners who value English as the major language of
knowledge creation and dissemination may be instrumentally motivated, a notion which is supported in
the Japanese context by Matsudas comment (2003) that many view English as a means of taking
opportunities which they would not otherwise have.
Although Japan is still anchored in the old native speaker dominated framework (Llurda, 2004,
p319), there are signs of change as some Japanese ELT specialists become increasingly aware that this
framework is unrealistic, unattainable and undesirable (Honna, 2012, p.192). Unchanged attitudes
towards American and British English can be attributed to teachers educational experiences (Suzuki,
2011), a significant aspect of which is transmission of linguistic knowledge deemed to be worthy of study
because it is valued for its formal or literary qualities.
Whereas advanced language knowledge of this kind is thought to be liberating knowledge, liberation,
according to Richards (1943), is derived not from learning large quantities of language simply as code,
but from exploring the meaning of language learned. Effective L2 use and learning may be considered
not as a matter of replicating native speaker behavior but of identifying language which is likely to
activate the learning process (Seidlhofer, 2011, p.178)
Tamagawa University, Tokyo. paulmcb64@lit.tamagawa.ac.jp

Is ELF of benefit in Japan? McBride
In Japan there is an emphasis on replicating native speaker behavior, which is closely associated with
knowledge-based testing for university entrance examinations. In the current circumstances English
proficiency in Japan is not ranked as highly as it is in other countries. According to Yoshida (2013),
international indicators which rank English proficiency in Japan as being relatively low, are evidence of
conditions considered to be a barrier to Japans globalization.
Japanese learners of English are not typically well prepared for international communication. They
have been characterized in research by Rao (2002) as often wanting rapid and constant correction from
teachers, often being quiet, shy and reticent, and disliking overt displays of opinions or emotions. The
study describes traditional learning environments as being dominated by teacher-centered, book-
centered, grammar-translation methods with an accompanying emphasis on rote memory. Students who
are confident in their English abilities, having obtained excellent grades for university entrance, can
experience a loss of confidence when they first encounter international communication in study abroad
settings. Professor Kensaku Yoshida comments that his former students sometimes thank him for
preparing them for the college entrance exams and then say that they would now like to learn how to
communicate in English (Yoshida, 2013).
Some of the reasons why Japanese learners may not be well prepared for international communication
are revealed by examining issues of identity. A recent article in the Japan Times newspaper (Kosaka,
2014) carries comments by University of Tokyo professor of linguistics Mike Handford, who, welcoming
the global shift toward accepting a variety of English standards, expresses the view that in Japan there
has been an exaggerated sense of cultural uniqueness which, causes problems for Japanese speakers of
another language, as they immediately feel the differences, and this can hamper communication.
In the same article, linguist Paul Cunningham of Rikkyo University in Tokyo comments that language
is at the foundation of intercultural awareness, and notes that the Japanese language tends to be insular
and, Japans culture and society emphasize sameness (which) can make it difficult to communicate
outside the cultural norm. He also remarks that Japan could benefit to a much greater degree from
globalization.
The Japanese government seems to perceive a similar need for global engagement, having recently
proposed the cultivation of human resources for global development and included linguistic and
communication skills and an understanding of other cultures as factors important in this process
(Japanese Government Cabinet Office, 2012,p8). It has also advocated English for International
Communication as the English for Japanese people to acquire (Japanese Ministry of Education, Culture,
Sports, Science and Technology [MEXT], 2011). The emphasis had previously been simply on English,
leading to the widespread assumption that native English acquisition was the goal of English education
in Japan (Yoshida, 2013).
It is possible that people in Japan are already experiencing an increased exposure to an increasing
number of English varieties, according to McKenzie (2013) who posits three reasons: the employment
of a small but increasing number of Japan Exchange and Teaching (JET) Program teachers from outer
circle countries, the Japanese government's aim to enroll 300,000 overseas students in Japanese higher
education by 2020, and the recent hiring of teachers from outer circle countries by private language
schools.
Against this background encompassing instrumental motivation, native speaker based curricula,
unpreparedness for international communication, difficulty in communicating outside cultural norms,
and possible exposure to more English varieties, some of the factors to be taken into account when
investigating whether ELF is of benefit will now be examined.
3. ELF-related factors to consider
One such consideration concerns diversity. As soon as you accept that English serves the
communicative and communal needs of different communities, it follows logically that it must be
diverse (Widdowson, 1994, p. 385). Although there is an increasing awareness in the ELT profession of
the importance of applying educational theory with cultural sensitivity in local contexts, even teachers

who are skilled at adapting teaching to their context may be yet to entertain the idea of variance from
native models.
Another factor to reflect on is the incompatibility between learning processes on one hand and
teaching which specifies native speaker (NS) competence as its main objective on the other. Acquisition
of L2 grammar occurs in stages which differ widely from NS norms, and the English taught in EFL
classes is usually not the English learners learn, whereas it is usually the English learners learn which is
used for international communication (Seidlhofer, 2011).
A closely related concept worthy of contemplation is that of meaning conveyed by naturally occurring
language being inaccessible to learners who do not share what Widdowson describes as its cultural
presuppositions and a sense of its idiomatic nuance (1994, p.386). Language is authentic only under the
circumstances in which it was originally used, Widdowson explains, and since the authenticity is not
transferrable to the classroom, students are restrained when attempting to engage with the language,
finding it difficult to make it their own (1994, p.386).
In ELF-informed approaches to learning and teaching there can be liberation for such learners.
Brumt makes plain another factor to be taken into account when investigating whether ELF is of
benefit. He declares, The ownership (by which I mean the power to adapt and change) of any language
in effect rests with people who use it (2001, p.116). Adopting this outlook helps to alleviate the problem
of disengagement as experienced by learners. Taking into account the NS side of the equation,
Widdowson asserts, The very fact that English is an international language means that no nation can
have custody over it (1994, p.385). Traditional ways of thinking which are premised on English being
owned by native English speakers (NES) are uncritically accepted, adds Jenkins (2014). The attestations
of Brumt, Widdowson and Jenkins are not widely endorsed as tenets in English language teaching, even
though they point towards the kind of shift towards learner autonomy which is implicated in ELF.
If such notions inform teaching practices, the purpose of teaching can become, the development of
a capability for effective use which involves the process of exploiting whatever linguistic resources are
available, no matter how formally defective (Seidlhofer, 2011, p.197).
The resulting view of language and competence could reflect the notion that language which does not
conform to the standards of linguists and native speakers is, still communicative in socially situated
interactions (Canagarajah, 2013, p.80). Teachers could practice their profession keeping in mind the
socially constructed nature of language wholeness. Since is it is not possible to teach all there is to know
about a language, teachers could prioritize learning activities according to the learners in their particular
classroom (Bjorkman, 2013).
One reaction which might be expected in Japan to such an emphasis on effective communication is
that it promotes too much diversity, lack of standards and an approach in which anything goes (Jenkins,
2009, p.200). Rather than perceiving ELF as a variety or a model for teaching, however, it is important
to view it from a communicative perspective in terms of the pragmatics of variation (Widdowson,
2014). It is precisely because ELF is not part of traditional sociolinguistics, not one of the world
Englishes, and not a model for teaching, Widdowson explains, that it is relevant for defining English as
a subject to be taught.
Contrary to the notion that anything goes in ELF, Kirkpatricks Identity-Communication Continuum
(2010) shows that ELF users, who communicate across linguistic and cultural boundaries, are actually
likely to choose language which is acrolectal rather than basilectal.
Another ELF-related factor to consider concerns nonnative teachers who, by being familiar with the
circumstances which learners experience, as well as the social and cultural conditions of teaching and
learning, have a clear and decisive advantage" in their teaching (Widdowson, 1994, p.387). They are able
to utilize their first language as a resource, which is conducive to the learning process rather than
interfering with it (Seidlhofer, 2011).
An associated issue is that ELF, by accepting each English variety in its own right rather than
evaluating it against a NSE benchmark (Jenkins, Cogo, & Dewey, 2011) can work against political
injustice involved with native speakerism. NS students and colleagues are less likely to be perceived, in
Hollidays terms, as independent, autonomous and creative unproblematic selves, and NNS students and

colleagues are less likely to be perceived as dependent, hierarchical, collectivist culturally problematic others
(2005, p.20).
By moving towards acceptance of diverse English varieties, we may move closer to a position from
which the argument becomes irrelevant whether local standards or inner-circle standards matter
(Canagarajah, 2006, p. 233) and we may recognize that proficiency involves negotiation of different
varieties by all users of English.
The factors discussed to this point have tended to lend support to a rethinking of English as a subject
on the basis of ELF. Nevertheless, there are some realities which can be significant and which should
be kept in mind during such reexamination. Firstly, to be perceived as successful, teachers need to use
language approximating native norms (Jenkins et al., 2011). Secondly, learners may still desire NS
teachers, even though they understand that native-like competence is not necessary for successful
communication (Suzuki, 2011). Finally, most academic discussion is conducted on the presumption that
English is a shared language, although there are many areas, particularly in provincial cities in Japan,
where English is seldom used (Kubota, 2011).
Having considered the national context, and factors to be taken into account when evaluating whether
ELF is of benefit, evidence from the current study will now be investigated.
4. Local context
The Center for English as a Lingua Franca (CELF) at Tamagawa University on the outskirts of Tokyo
provides an environment where teachers may practice ELF- informed teaching. It is not a requirement
that teachers be native speakers and the linguistic backgrounds of the 34 members of the teaching staff
are diverse. The campus-wide ELF program, catering for the colleges of Business Administration,
Humanities, Tourism and Hospitality, Arts and Sciences, Arts, Engineering, and Education, has grown
from approximately 1000 students in 2013, its first year, to around 1800 students in 2014. The programs
focus is on academic and general English. Assessment is conducted in five categories, each weighted at
20 percent: reading, writing, listening and speaking, TOEIC, and classwork together with homework.
There is also a compulsory graded reading component.
During the current process of encouraging language awareness, it has become clear that teachers need
extensive information (Sifakis, 2014) which is both concise and comprehensive enough to enable them
to understand all relevant aspects of ELF, before they can experience what Sifakis refers to as a
meaningful and critical reorientation of their convictions about teaching and learning.
4.1 Survey results

To help evaluate the degree of such readjustment, at the end of spring semester 2014, students and
teachers completed online surveys comprising of questions to be answered on a five point Likert scale,
and open questions. The results indicate that most teachers and students understand and accept ELF
principles.
The number of student respondents was 1278 (84 %). A large majority of students either agreed or
strongly agreed that that they were satisfied with the program (77%), that their class was interesting (82%)
and that the atmosphere of classes was enjoyable (80%). Most of the results reflect attitudes amenable
to ELF:1073 (84%) agreed or strongly agreed that English did not belong only to native speakers but
could also be their language, 1018 (80%) agreed or strongly agreed that English was a language they could
construct or modify for their communicative purposes, 1124 (88%) agreed or strongly agreed with the
practical focus on English in ELF classes, and 1028 (81%) agreed or strongly agreed that they would use
English with non-native speakers in the future.
Only one question revealed results which could be interpreted as contrary to ELF principles: when
asked whether they wanted to aim towards learning a native variety of English, 992 (78%) responded that
they would. Such and attitude is consistent with the findings of (Suzuki, 2011) that learners still desire
NS teachers, even though they understand that native- like competence is not necessary for successful
communication. One student had written in an ELF class, I demand to pronounce like native who grew

up in country where is the first language is English.it is necessary to hear English and practice how to
pronounce many times because I want to be close pronounce like native speaker. The teacher of that
class commented that he felt a responsibility to inform the student about the difficulty of achieving the
goal she had set, except possibly as a long term goal. Another CEFL teacher remarked during a focus
group discussion that (Such students are) going towards something that they can never be and asked
rhetorically, Why do we want them to be something that they can never be?
Due to a questionnaire formatting inconsistency, the strongly agree option was not available to students
when they responded to the question asking whether ELF classes helped them to initiate conversations
and continue them in English. Yet, 534 (42%) agreed, and only 177 (14%) disagreed, and only 45 (4%)
strongly disagreed that ELF classes helped them to initiate conversations and continue them in English.
A student was surprised and motivated to learn about changes in English users and usage in the world,
writing in a class blog, Japanese always feel excessive weak point about English but we dont need to such a thing
anymore. There is no existence of English barrier. All I need is enthusiasm about English. (The information about English
usage) is effective for me. I try to more study English beyond now.
Another student highlighted one of the important potential benefits of ELF for Japanese people by
writing, Im really interested in English as a lingua franca perspective, so (my teachers presentation) about it was really
fun for me. Almost Japanese are worrying their English pronunciation and, grammar when they talk to foreigners. They do
not understand English is a lingua francaWe dont have to speak like natives.
The number of teacher survey respondents was 18 (53%). A large majority of their responses can be
interpreted as reflecting an understanding and acceptance of ELF principles: eighteen (100%) agreed or
strongly agreed that it was acceptable if their students didn't become like native English speakers as long
as they could communicate effectively, 14 (78%) agreed or strongly agreed that they would like to spend
less time in class on the finer points of normative models of English and more time on attainable forms
of English, 15 (83%) agreed or strongly agreed that use of the students native language in the classroom
can be a pragmatic resource, and 15 (83%) agreed or strongly agreed that ELF is suitable in a Japanese
context.
The survey results offer encouraging findings, showing that support for ELF is strong amongst
teachers and students. Further studies could investigate the degree to which teaching practices have
actually departed from British and American norms.
5. Conclusion
Survey results from the current study indicate that ELF principles have gained broad acceptance among
teachers and students at Tamagawa University where the establishment of the Centre for English as a
Lingua Franca has made the advocacy of functional language use possible. The reviewed literature implies
that under such circumstances learners can find encouragement to engage with the language and make it
their own. Written student comments in the current study justify such an implication. Reviewed articles
also suggest that ELF-aware teaching, by emphasizing intelligibility and effective language use, can help
reduce incongruities between teaching objectives and learning processes, bringing greater liberation for
learners than approaches which specify the attainment of native speaker competence as a primary
objective. Under such conditions, learners can be better prepared to negotiate an increasing number of
English varieties with greater autonomy. The employment of ELF principles can facilitate both
communicative English and communication beyond cultural norms, ultimately assisting Japans process
of globalization. The need for increased communication in Japanese classrooms and the need for greater
engagement in the process of internationalization may act as catalysts for educators in Japan to rethink
from an ELF perspective the ways in which English is described and taught.
About the author

Paul McBride, M. Ed. (TESOL), is an assistant professor at the Centre for English as a Lingua Franca at Tamagawa University in Tokyo.
He has taught English in Australia, Japan, South Korea and Taiwan. His research interests include English as a lingua franca and extensive
reading. Email: paulmcb64@lit.tamagawa.ac.jp

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ELF ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION
In this section, Androniki Kouvdou explores how far EFL teachers in

Greece are currently able to incorporate ELF approaches in alternative
assessment.

Kouvdou, A. (2016). Potential links between ELF and alternative assessment in the EFL multicultural class: Researching
teachers perspectives. In N. Tsantila, J. Mandalios & M. Ilkos (Eds.), ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives (pp.
349-357). Athen: Deree The American College of Greece.
Potential links between ELF and alternative assessment in the EFL multicultural
class: Researching teachers perspectives
Androniki Kouvdou
Abstract
For many years teaching English as a foreign language (TEFL) has been the predominant teaching paradigm in Greece and assessment has
been synonymous with conventional testing. In recent years, however, the Greek educational context has been witnessing considerable
changes as the number of multicultural classes is steadily increasing and the use of English as a lingua franca (ELF) is a new reality that
teachers of English cannot disregard. Inevitably, ELF has serious pedagogical implications for ELT and assessment within this changing
context. Yet, although there have been a lot of discussions and research on the relationship between ELF and ELT pedagogy, the
interconnection between ELF and assessment has been an under-researched area. In fact, what is clearly indicated in the relevant literature
is a gap between ELF and conventional assessment as the former is basically non-conventional in nature and attaches more importance to
aspects of language that cannot be measured by means of traditional testing. Therefore, it has to be some form of alternative assessment
that best serves the purpose of ELF. In this light, an attempt was made to explore the potential of observation as an alternative form of
assessment within a speaking context displaying ELF features. For this purpose, a mixed-methods approach was used, a preliminary part of
which is a questionnaire survey aiming at investigating Greek EFL teachers perspectives regarding ELF and assessment related issues. The
findings of this survey are very enlightening as they reveal a mismatch between teachers positive attitude towards ELF and alternative
assessment on the one hand and their actual classroom practices on the other. Some of these findings and the conclusions drawn from them
are presented in this paper.
Keywords: ELF, alternative assessment, questionnaire survey, teachers views, findings
1. Introduction
As its title suggests, this paper aims at demonstrating the relatability of ELF and alternative assessment
within the framework of a multicultural EFL class, while researching teachers perspectives on the
relevant issues. More particularly, it presents the most important results of a questionnaire survey
designed to reveal Greek EFL state school teachers awareness, views, practices and expectations
regarding issues related to ELF and the assessment of learners oral performance in English. Actually,
the survey constitutes part of a broader research on the effectiveness of systematic observation as an
alternative method of assessing speaking skills within an EFL multicultural context that displays elements
of ELF. The whole research project is based on the hypothesis that since the EFL context in Greece is
basically a multicultural one, comprising learners from diverse linguacultural backgrounds who are non-
native speakers of English, the best way to assess oral performance is through a less conventional, non-
standardized form of alternative assessment, which, unlike testing, does not rely on linguistic accuracy
and native-like production. In other words, if English as a lingua franca has its place within the Greek
multicultural EFL teaching context, so does alternative assessment, as both are non conventional, non
standardized in nature and do not focus on Standard English norms and structures.
2. Potential links between ELF and alternative assessment
ELF, being the contact language between speakers with different mother tongues (House, 1999;
Seidlhofer, 2001) and alternative assessment referring to any form of non-conventional assessment that
is juxtaposed to testing (Brown & Hudson, 1998; Pierce & OMalley, 1992) are thought to be compatible
and below are the potential links between the two. First of all, they both defy existing norms, standards
and conventions, whether these have to do with the idealized language of the native speaker, which is the
case of ELF (Seidlhofer, 2004), or with formal testing, as is the case of alternative assessment (Alderson
& Banerjee, 2001; Huerta-Macias, 1995). They are, as already mentioned, non-conventional in nature,
which is one aspect of their compatibility. A second point of convergence between ELF and alternative
assessment is their focus on intelligible interaction and hence successful communication. It is evident
that they both prioritize communicative competence over linguistic accuracy. That is why
Hellenic Open University: andronikikouvdou@hotmail.com

Links between ELF and alternative assessment Kouvdou
accommodation strategies are very significant for both ELF and alternative assessment. Successful
intercultural communication, which is the ultimate goal in ELF interactions, depends on the proper use
of the most useful accommodation strategies (Jenkins, 2006a, 2006c; Seidlhofer, 2009; Sifakis, 2009) and
alternative assessment, which is basically performance oriented (Brown & Hudson, 1998; Shaaban, 2005),
has the power to capture them and promote their development thanks to its continuous, formative nature
(Alderson & Banerjee, 2001). What is more, when it comes to errors and the way these are treated, ELF
and alternative assessment are quite similar. For ELF some of the so-called errors are just variant forms
used by the majority of ELF speakers (Jenkins, 2006b) and as such they need not be corrected, while for
alternative assessment certain errors can be overlooked as long as mutual comprehension, which is the
essence of communication, is achieved. In fact, being performance oriented, alternative assessment
concentrates on what learners can do with the language (Farrell & Jacobs, 2010; Shaaban, 2005) and as
such it does not penalize them for their occasional linguistic errors. Last but not least, the results of the
survey confirmed the hypothesis that both ELF and alternative assessment can bring a new perspective
to English language teaching and assessment and most teachers appeared to be willing to explore this
possibility.
3.Questionnaire survey
The questionnaire, whose results constitute the topic of this paper, was designed in such a way so as to
bring the aforementioned links to the fore and reinforce the hypothesis of the connection between ELF
and alternative assessment, while revealing teachers attitudes towards relevant issues. It was completed
by 200 EFL teachers working in Greek primary and secondary state schools and the analysis of its data
yielded some very interesting results, which fall into two categories, one referring to issues related to ELF
and the other one pertaining to assessment related issues.
4.Survey results and their interpretation

4.1. Results regarding ELF related issues
4.1.1 The ownership of the English language

One issue related to ELF that the teachers were invited to respond to is the ownership of the English
language. From the three options given (i.e. its native speakers, its non-native speakers or anyone who
can use it to communicate successfully with anyone else), the teachers had to decide on the most rightful
owners. To be more precise, they had to prioritize the three possible owners from the most to the least
rightful ones. The majority of the respondents (almost 65%) believe that the most rightful owner is
anyone who can use English to communicate successfully with anyone else (whether native or non-
native), whereas only 33% think that the native speakers are the most rightful owners of English. In
other words, the common belief that the English language belongs rightfully to its native speakers is
challenged, in our case, by the majority of the Greek EFL teachers asked, who happen to be non-native
speakers of English. This result actually reflects Nortons (1997, p. 427) statement that English
belongs to all the people that speak it as well as Widdowsons (1994, p.385) belief that it is not a
possession which they (native speakers) lease out to others while still retaining the freehold. Other people
actually own it. From that, we can infer that if the English language does not belong solely to its native
speakers, then its norms and structures can be equally determined by all those who use it to communicate
successfully with each other and in that sense they may vary from standard English norms and structures,
and yet be accepted as long as mutual comprehension is achieved. This is where ELF comes in, focusing
on the use of English as the common linguistic code between speakers with different first languages and
cultures, who often deviate from Standard English norms and yet manage to communicate effectively
with each other.

4.1.2 Reasons Greek learners study English

Another equally enlightening result regards the Greek reality of English language teaching and learning
and the context where the research took place. It actually reveals the reasons Greek learners study
English, as these are perceived by the teachers asked. The analysis of the relevant data showed that almost
70% of the respondents agreed that the main reason Greek learners study English is to pass standardized
international exams, while 22% of them chose the desire to interact with other non-native speakers as
the most important reason why learners study English. It is quite interesting that only 8% of those asked
regard the desire to interact with native speakers as the main reason Greek learners study English. No
doubt, teachers perceptions of what constitutes the most important reason Greek learners study English
cannot but determine their teaching and assessment practices. Wishing to help them pass standardized
exams, teachers tend to adhere to Standard English norms and expect their learners to do the same. This
result, in other words, shows very clearly the culture in which EFL in Greece takes place. It actually
reveals a very strong, native-focused teaching and testing culture, which is also verified by Sifakis and
Sougaris (2010) study into Greek EFL teachers beliefs regarding ELT.
4.1.3 Native speakers language as a teaching model
The native-focused EFL teaching and testing culture, however, contrasts with the next result, which
reveals that only 45% of the respondents regard the language of the native speakers of English as the
most appropriate teaching and learning model. Given the fact that passing standardized international
exams is considered by most teachers to be the main reason Greek learners study English, one would
expect that the percentage of teachers who regard the language of the native speakers as the most
appropriate teaching and learning model would be higher. From that, we may infer that Greek EFL
teachers are caught in the middle of a rather absurd situation: on the one hand, they have to teach
Standard English so as to help learners achieve their goal (i.e. pass standardized exams) and on the other
hand, they have to give priority to interaction skills over native-like accuracy, knowing that successful
intercultural communication, which is thought to be the second most important reason learners study
English, requires more than strict adherence to Standard English norms and native-like accuracy.
4.1.4 Compliance with Standard English norms and intercultural communication

The distrust in the language of the native speakers as the most appropriate teaching model is further
substantiated by the next result, which shows that only a small minority of the respondents (i.e. 17.5%)
believe that adherence to Standard English norms and structures can guarantee successful
communication between non-native speakers of English. Besides, almost 40% of the teachers asked
explicitly stated that it does not, while more than 40% expressed their uncertainty on the issue. In other
words, compliance with Standard English norms and structures as the key to successful interaction
between non-native speakers of English is clearly challenged by a large number of Greek EFL teachers.
4.1.5 Oral performance and error correction practices

As a matter of fact, when it comes to spoken interaction, which the present research focuses on, the
error correction practices employed by the teachers asked are indicative of their will to prioritize effective
communication over correct usage of Standard English forms and structures. Actually, a staggering
91.5% of the teachers asked replied that they only correct those forms and structures that cause
communication breakdown and only 7% of them said that they correct all those forms and structures
that deviate from Standard English norms. Presumably, there seems to be a tendency among Greek EFL
teachers to focus on communicative effectiveness when it comes to the assessment of speaking and
overlook occasional linguistic errors and inaccuracies as long as mutual intelligibility is achieved.
According to Burt (2005), similar research findings have shown that Standard English norms and
standards are not relevant to successful intercultural communication and therefore some of the so-called
errors do not hinder such communication.

4.1.6 The importance of accommodation strategies for intercultural communication

Besides, the importance teachers attach to mutual intelligibility when it comes to intercultural
communication is further substantiated by the next result, which refers to accommodation strategies1,
namely those strategies used by interlocutors to facilitate interaction and ensure mutual intelligibility.
When asked to decide how important accommodation strategies are for mutual comprehensibility, almost
80% and 20% of them agreed that they are very and quite important respectively, whereas only 1%
questioned their importance. In other words, accommodation strategies are thought to be the key to
mutual comprehensibility for most EFL teachers working in multicultural contexts and we would
therefore expect them to be taught and assessed accordingly. Yet, in our case, more than 30% of the
respondents admitted that they do not spend much time teaching and assessing accommodation
strategies, which reveals a mismatch between teachers perceptions and their actual practices.
4.1.7 Teachers interest in ELF and its pedagogical implications

Actually, the results presented so far are more or less directly related to ELF and reflect teachers
perspective on the relevant issues. It is, however, the last question of the first part of the questionnaire
that yields a more general result which encompasses most respondents attitude towards ELF. As the
analysis of the data revealed, an astonishing 97% of the teachers that took part in the survey are interested
in learning more about ELF and its pedagogical implications, a result which somehow contradicts the
native-focused teaching and testing culture of the Greek EFL context. As already mentioned, teachers
are in the middle of this weird situation where the need to help their students succeed in standardized
exams contrasts with their desire to help them develop their interaction skills and become better ELF
speakers.
4.2. Results regarding the assessment of oral performance

The data gathered from the second part of the questionnaire are equally rich and yield some quite
interesting results about Greek EFL teachers perspectives regarding issues related to the assessment of
oral performance in English and more particularly their views on alternative assessment of speaking
skills.
4.2.1 Oral performance and assessment criteria

First, as the idea was to find out what teachers consider the most important in the assessment of speaking,
they were asked to prioritize some basic factors in learners performance, namely native-like
pronunciation, grammatical accuracy and accommodation skills. The result, depicted in Table 1, shows
that for most of the respondents accommodation skills are thought to be the most important, whereas
native-like pronunciation is regarded as the least important of the three.
1 Basic accommodation skills and strategies employed by ELF speakers to ensure mutual comprehensibility are the following: asking for
repetition, clarification checks, rephrasing, simplifying syntax, adjusting to interlocutors linguistic repertoire, decreasing diversity of lexical
items, code switching, avoidance of idiomatic language, changing pitch and loudness, drawing on extralinguistic cues, and the like. (see e.g.
Canagarajah, 2006; Giles & Coupland, 1991; Jenkins, 2000, Ch. 7, 2002; Sifakis, 2009: 231).

Table 1. Ranking the importance of pronunciation, grammatical accuracy & accommodation skills in the assessment
of speaking
90.00% 82%
80.00% Native-like
70.00% pronunciation
60.00% Grammatical accuracy
50.00%
40.00% 29% Accommodation skills
30.00% 25.50% 22%
17%
20.00% 12%
4% 7%
10.00% 0.50% 1%
0.00%
The most The 2nd The 3rd most The 4th most The least
important most important important important
important
This result actually reinforces some previous results, which also reveal the importance teachers attach to
accommodation skills and strategies. It is obviously quite interesting to find out that in a typically EFL
context, teachers seem to prioritize mutual comprehensibility over standard pronunciation and
grammatical accuracy.
4.2.2 Common assessment practices of oral performance and their effectiveness

The next result has to do with the ways learners oral performance is usually assessed and their
effectiveness. More precisely, the respondents were asked to rank three common assessment practices in
terms of effectiveness and the result of their answers shows that systematic observation and record
keeping, as an alternative mode of assessment, is considered very effective by the majority of teachers
(60%), with random observation coming second, whereas formal testing is regarded as the least effective
of the three. In fact, 78% of the teachers stated that formal testing is not so effective when it comes to
the assessment of oral performance. In other words, alternative assessment in the form of systematic
observation and record keeping is ranked first in terms of effectiveness and we should probably expect
it to be employed at an equal rate.
4.2.3 Perceived effectiveness and implementation of observation assessment

As shown in Tables 2 and 3, there is a mismatch between the perceived effectiveness of systematic
observation and its actual employment by the teachers.
Table 2. Perceived effectiveness of common oral assessment practices
100.00% Very effective
78% Quite effective

80.00%
Not so effective
60%
60.00% 47.50% 46%
40.00% 32%
16.50%
20.00% 8%
6.50% 5.50%
0.00%
Random observation Formal testing Systematic observation &
record keeping

Table 3. Implementation of common oral assessment practices
100%
80%
60%
40% 86%
20% 16% 32.50%
0%
Random Formal testing Systematic
observation observation &
record keeping
To be more precise, despite the 60% and 32% of the respondents who consider it very effective and
quite effective respectively, only 32, 5% of those asked employ it in class, whereas the use of the other
two forms of assessment is consistent with their perceived effectiveness. In brief, most teachers believe
in the effectiveness of systematic observation and record keeping but some of them fail to employ this
form of assessment in class.
4.2.4 The use of alternative forms of assessment in class

The failure of the majority of the respondents to use systematic observation for the assessment of
speaking is also displayed in the following diagram (Table 4), which shows that of the four most common
types of alternative assessment, namely self assessment, peer assessment, portfolio and observation, the
last is the one employed by the fewest respondents.
Table 4. Employment of common alternative assessment practices
30.20% 29.20%
40.00% 22.70%
17.90%
30.00%
20.00%
10.00%
0.00%
As shown in the graph, observation is not the only form of alternative assessment that the teachers fail
to use at a satisfactory rate. Generally, the percentage of teachers who use each one of these methods of
alternative assessment is relatively low.
4.2.5 Reasons for not employing alternative assessment

But why do some teachers fail to use alternative assessment with their classes? Their answers to the
relevant question were quite enlightening. Almost half of them stated that the main reason for not doing
so is the fact that alternative assessment requires more time than they can devote to it. Time restrictions
are therefore the main reason for almost half of the respondents. Inadequate knowledge of alternative
assessment is the reason put forward by a quarter of them, whereas 22% of them responded that they

feel more confident with traditional testing techniques. It is really interesting that only 3% of the teachers
who do not use alternative assessment do so because they question its reliability and objectivity.
Apparently, the majority of the teachers who do not use some form of alternative assessment with their
speaking classes are either stressed with time management or feel their knowledge is not good enough to
do so. It does not have to do with alternative assessment itself, whose effectiveness they actually believe
in, but with the way this has to be handled by them and the restrictions they need to overcome.
4.2.6 Teachers overall attitude towards alternative assessment

Besides, teachers positive attitude towards alternative assessment is reflected in the last two results. The
first has to do with the perceived suitability of alternative assessment for the Greek EFL teaching context.
When asked how suitable alternative assessment would be for their teaching context, 64% of the teachers
asked responded positively, whereas only 4% of them gave a negative answer. And finally, a staggering
87% of the teachers asked reported that they would be interested in implementing alternative assessment
after receiving proper training in it. Training is presumably the key to freeing teachers from testing
standards and conventions and enabling them to use alternative assessment in their speaking classes as
they are more or less convinced about its suitability for their educational context.
5. Conclusions and implications
The aforementioned results lead to a number of conclusions that could be summarized as follows. First,
the ownership of the English language by its native speakers is called into question by most of the
respondents and so is the notion of the NSs language as the most appropriate teaching and learning
model for their multicultural context. Second, accommodation strategies are considered to be the key to
mutual comprehensibility rather than strict adherence to Standard English norms and structures. Besides,
accommodation skills are thought to be very important criteria for the assessment of oral performance
in English within the Greek multicultural EFL context. Third, when it comes to oral interaction, linguistic
errors tend to be overlooked as long as mutual intelligibility is achieved. This tendency is actually
consistent with the whole philosophy underpinning the treatment of errors, as this derives from the work
of eminent ELF researchers (Ferguson, 2009; Jenkins, 2009; Seidlhofer, 2001, 2004; Sifakis, 2009). By and
large, it can be concluded that ELF and its pedagogical implications seem to be gaining ground within
the Greek EFL community, as indicated by the respondents attitudes towards various issues related to
the use of English as a lingua franca.
Similarly, when it comes to the assessment of oral performance, the majority of the respondents seem
to be favourably disposed towards alternative assessment and its implementation, as they are towards
ELF and its implications on ELT pedagogy. Yet, there appears to be a mismatch between the perceived
effectiveness of alternative assessment practices and their actual implementation in class, which is partly
due to lack of knowledge and partly to time restrictions. Overall, it can be inferred that the respondents
inadequate knowledge of both ELF and alternative assessment calls for teacher education and training
that should focus on theoretical considerations as well as on practical ideas as to how these two can be
effectively incorporated into a typically EFL multicultural context. In fact, the need for teacher education
and training in ELF and alternative assessment respectively has been stressed by both ELF researchers
(Jenkins, 2005; Seidlhofer, 2004; Sifakis, 2007; Snow et al, 2006) as well as proponents of alternative
assessment (Janisch et al, 2007; OMalley & Valdez Pierce, 1996)
In conclusion, it can be argued that the need for teacher education is the main pedagogical implication
to be drawn from the present survey. Teachers of English who are trapped within an inflexible EFL
teaching and testing culture should be assisted to discover and experiment with less conventional ideas
and practices that could bring a whole new perspective to their multicultural classes, adopting respectively
a more ELF-aware teaching paradigm (Sifakis, 2014) and an alternative assessment paradigm that is
juxtaposed to the long-established testing culture (Lynch, 2001). In a nutshell, EFL teachers should be
encouraged to open their classroom door to ELF and alternative assessment and by doing so, help their
non-native learners develop those speaking skills and strategies that are essential for successful

intercultural communication in English, which should, after all, be the ultimate goal of English language
teaching and learning within todays globalised society.
About the author

Androniki Kouvdou is a PhD candidate and teacher of English as a foreign language in a Greek state primary school. She holds a B.A. in
English Language and Literature from the University of Athens, Greece and a Masters degree in TEFL from the Hellenic Open University.
She is currently carrying out her PhD research on the potential links between English as a Lingua Franca and alternative assessment. Her
research interests include classroom-based assessment, ELF and its pedagogical implications, language teaching and methodology as well as
teacher education. Email: andronikikouvdou@hotmail.com
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ELF LEARNERS
In this section researchers report on findings related to the use of the English
language by different age group speakers. Areti-Maria Sougari & Iren
Hovhannisyan report on research in Greece which indicates that ELF
considerations are leading to more gender-neutrality in terms of motivation for
learning English. Roxani Faltzi finds evidence of ELF appropriation in
students of Greek business schools, and recommends the adoption of ELF-
based experiential learning in tertiary situations.

Sougari, A.-M., & Hovhannisyan, I. (2016). Reconsidering the impact of gender on learners motivation to learn English. In
N. Tsantila, J. Mandalios & M. Ilkos (Eds.), ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives (pp. 359-367). Athens: Deree
Reconsidering the impact of gender on learners motivation to learn English
Areti-Maria Sougari
Iren Hovhannisyan
Abstract
The relationship between gender and L2 motivation has been well-researched over the years. Language learning has traditionally been
perceived as a female subject. It has been reported that female learners are more motivated and better language learners than their male
counterparts. Nevertheless, the worldwide acceptance of English as the worlds lingua franca has marked another change in the perception
of L2 motivation, in general, and the impact of gender on L2 motivation, in particular. Thus, a new trend has been observed in that English
appears to be gender-neutral, which means that both male and female learners have equal incentives to learn English for a plethora of
reasons. This paper reports on the findings of a survey conducted among Grade 6 primary learners (N = 500) and Grade 3 lower secondary
learners (N = 642) in the Greek state educational sector. The data were collected via a questionnaire, which probed into learners' motivation
to learn English. Due to the emerging new situation, the impact of gender on learners motivation to learn English was addressed both
across the whole sample and within each age group. The results yielded that female learners show higher levels of motivation, especially
young female learners than male ones. What is more, male and female learners, in general, exhibit higher levels of instrumental motivation
as well as international travel and communication orientations. Meanwhile, female learners also have higher levels of motivation to learn
English for personal enjoyment and for cultural interest. In addition, as it seems that both young males and females are more motivated
than their older counterparts, several recommendations are made in relation to how to sustain and foster the initial motivation that younger
males and females have.
Keywords: motivation, gender, ELF, instrumental motivation, international travel, communication
1. Introduction
The relationship between gender and L2 performance, attainment and motivation has been well-
researched over the years. Gender, alongside age, language attainment level, the teaching situation, etc.,
is considered to be among the most defining factors affecting L2 learning motivation, attitudes and L2
performance. Language learning has traditionally been perceived as a female subject (Clark & Trafford,
1995), and there is a general pro female tendency across the studies that have been undertaken to
examine gender-related issues in L2 motivation.
Nevertheless, the recent trends in L2 motivation research show that with special reference to English,
the effect of gender on L2 motivation has been minimized and L2 motivation seems to have become
gender-neutral (Drnyei & Clment, 2001). It seems that this shift has been preconditioned by the global
spread of English.
The aim of this paper is to examine the impact of gender on learners motivation to learn English
across two cohorts Grade 6 primary school learners and Grade 3 lower secondary school learners and
within each cohort separately. What is more, this paper ventures to identify gender-related differences in
the learners perception of English as a lingua franca.
Therefore, it is expected that the study presented here will render insightful results and throw light on
gender-related differences in learners motivation to learn English, in general, and to learn English as a
Lingua Franca (ELF), in particular. What is more, this study gains additional importance due to the
scarcity of studies on young learners motivation and its interrelation with ELF.
2. Theoretical background of the study
2.1 L2 motivation
Motivation belongs to the affective domain of second language acquisition and together with language
aptitude form the two key learner characteristics that determine success in L2 learning. However, aptitude
alone cannot guarantee successful learning outcomes; it is rather with the help of motivation that specific
goals can be reached (Drnyei, 1998). Motivation to learn a foreign language is influenced by affective
Aristotle University of Thessaloniki. asougari@enl.auth.gr

Aristotle University of Thessaloniki. ihovhann@enl.auth.gr

Gender and learners motivation Sougari & Hovhannisyan
and cognitive variables. According to Gardners theory (1985), motivation involves: motivational
intensity, desire to learn the language, and an attitude towards the act of learning the language.
L2 motivation is a complex and multifaceted construct, consisting of different motives, which are
associated with distinct features of the L2 (e.g. attitudes towards the L2) (Drnyei, 1994), the language
learner (e.g. self-confidence or need for achievement) (Drnyei, 2005), and the learning situation (e.g. the
appraisal of the L2 course or the teacher) (Drnyei, 1994). Drnyei (1998) asserts that the complexity of
the L2 motivation construct is due to the complex nature of language itself as it is at the same time a
communication code, an integral part of the individuals identity, and the most important channel of
social organisation.
Because of such complexity, a single theory or model cannot provide for a reasonable and
sophisticated interpretation of the construct, and, consequently, many theories and conceptualisations of
L2 motivation have been advanced and researched. More specifically, it is generally accepted that research
on L2 motivation has two distinct traditions. A North-American one, which was initiated and conducted
in Canada by Gardner and his associates (Gardner, 1985; Gardner & Lambert, 1972) for about four
decades now, and it is natural that it explores motivation in second language (SL) contexts (see 2.5). The
second research tradition explores motivation mainly in foreign language (FL) contexts and brings to
light new conceptualisations of L2 motivation (Drnyei, 2005; Julkunen, 2001; Oxford & Shearin, 1994;
Yashima, 2000).
Research has shown that different factors, such as learners age, gender, language attainment level,
educational context, teacher, and syllabus among others can affect L2 motivation. The present paper will
investigate the effect of gender on learners motivation to learn English.
2.2 L2 motivation and ELF

ELF is characterised as any use of English among speakers of different first languages for whom English
is the communicative medium of choice, and often the only option (Seidlhofer, 2011, p. 7). The
worldwide use of ELF by millions of speakers from different national origin and widely varied linguistic
backgrounds highlights the important role that English has attained in everyday life in order to respond
to personal, academic and professional needs.
It becomes obvious that such an immense impact of this trending concept of ELF could not but affect
the domain of L2 motivation. First and most importantly, the notion of integrativeness and integrative
motivation has been challenged and reconceptualized. It has been argued that in FL contexts,
instrumental motivation, intellectual, and sociocultural motives, and/or other motivational factors that
have not as yet been analysed, may acquire a special importance (Drnyei, 1990). McClelland (2000)
argues that Integrativeness is viewed as integration with the global community rather than assimilation
with native speakers (p. 109). Drnyei (2005) develops this idea and assumes that in the case of English,
integrativeness can be viewed as metaphorical identification with a non-parochial, cosmopolitan,
globalised world citizen identity (p.97).
2.3 L2 motivation and gender

As mentioned in the introduction, the interrelation of gender and L2 motivation has received
considerable attention over the years and has been the scope of many research projects. The findings of
numerous studies conducted in different contexts have shown that, in general, language learning is
traditionally perceived as a female subject (Clark & Trafford, 1995; Jones & Jones, 2001). What is more,
boys do not do well in FL learning (Burstall, 1975), are less motivated (Clark &Trafford, 1995), are less
accepting of the necessity to learn a foreign language (Powell & Batters, 1985), are more likely to drop
FLs (Carr & Pauwels, 2006; Clark & Trafford, 1995), and, irrespective of the FL studied, demonstrate
less commitment than girls (Drnyei et al., 2006).
This can be explained by several factors; for example, many teachers of modern languages consider
that girls mature earlier than boys and thus take their studies more seriously (Clark & Trafford, 1995)
and, what is more, girl favoured attitudes of teachers contribute to the girls decrease of anxiety and

increase of willingness to communicate and, consequently, better language learning outcomes (MacIntyre,
Baker, Clment & Donovan, 2002).
Nevertheless, following the idea that English has become an international language or a lingua franca
and is gradually being accepted as a basic life skill, should we assume that gender differences will have
quite distinct patterns from those of other foreign languages? Drnyei and Clment (2001) established
that English appeared to be gender-neutral with no observable gender-related gap, whereas French and
Italian tended to be preferred by females, and German and Russian by males. This finding is similar to
that of Drnyei, Csizr and Nmeth (2006, p. 144), in which they predict that the global nature of
English will cause the gap to disappear completely, because English will become the first L2 choice for
virtually everybody, regardless of their sex.
Similarly, in Japan, Kimura, Nakata and Okumura (2001) have reported having found a significant
effect of gender and grade on one factor preference for teacher-centred lectures but did not find any
differences in the other five factors that they labelled Intrinsic-Instrumental-Integrative Motive,
Extrinsic-Instrumental Motive, Influence of Good Teachers, Language Use Anxiety, and Negative
Learning Experiences. The results of a study (Akram & Ghani, 2013) on intermediate level Pakistani
students reveal that there were no statistically significant differences between males and females in their
attitudes and motivation to learn English across all dependent variables, such as parental encouragement,
instrumentality, integrativeness, attitudes towards learning English, towards English people, and
ethnocentrism, among others. Another study on Armenian adult EFL speakers (Hovhannisyan, 2014)
comes to confirm the above statement as the results show that the Armenian adults attitudes towards
English are gender-neutral.
3. Method
3.1 English language instruction in the Greek context

English language learning is widely popular in the Greek society, therefore taking into account the
enormous popularity of English among Greeks, it becomes obvious that English language learning is
sought after even beyond state education. What is more, instruction in English in state schools is not
perceived as adequate to prepare learners for the English language certification exams (KET, PET, FCE,
IELTS, CPE, KPG, among others), and perhaps that is the major reason that the industry around English
language teaching in the private sector in Greece is flourishing and the reason that private foreign
language are extremely popular throughout the country. These centres are exam-oriented and based on
native speaker (NS) norms (Nikolaou, 2004).
It should be emphasised that English language learning is not only prioritised by the educational
policy-makers but also by the Greek society in general. Therefore, due to such an immense popularity of
English within the Greek society, special attention is attached to foreign language teaching within the
national curriculum of compulsory education as well. The Cross-Thematic Curriculum Framework for
Compulsory Education forms the basis of language instruction within the national educational curriculum
(Government Gazette, B303/13-03-2003 (primary level Grades 4-6 and lower secondary level Grades 1-3)
and Government Gazette, 1028/24-7-2003 for Grade 3). The teaching of English as well as the other modern
foreign languages within the curriculum is based on three content guiding principles: literacy,
multilingualism, and multiculturalism.
Teaching materials and course books written by local authors have been introduced to state schools
nationwide and are supposed to follow the principles outlined in the curriculum. With regard to time
allocation of English language instruction at school, English is taught for three hours per week in Grades
3 to 6 of the primary school (PS). In the case of the lower secondary school (LSS), at the time of this
study, English was taught for three hours per week in Grade 1, and two hours per week in the subsequent
two grades.

3.2 Participants and the measuring instruments

The total number of participants in the study was 1139 (500 learners attending Grade 6 of PS (aged 12)
and 639 learners attending Grade 3 of LSS (aged 15). The research was carried out in 27 state schools
(13 PS and 14 LSS) in Eastern and Western Thessaloniki, the second biggest city in Greece, situated in
the north of the country; it was made certain that the sample was representative of all social strata.
The questionnaire, which was employed to measure learners motivation, was devised in Greek and
made use of a 5-point Likert scale (1=strongly agree and 5=strongly disagree). The section on motivation,
which contained 15 items, delved into learners desire to learn English for different reasons and rendered
a high level of internal reliability (Cronbach's =.80). What is more, a brief section asked the respondents
to provide information on their personal data. To be able to measure the learners proficiency level, the
Oxford Quick placement test was employed.
3.3 Methods of statistical analysis

The data was statistically treated with the help of the SPSS 21(Statistical Package for Social Sciences)
software. Frequencies, means, standard deviations and percentages were calculated in terms of descriptive
statistics, while for inferential statistics t-tests were run in order to calculate motivation items in relation
to gender. The chi-square test cross-tabulation was used in order to establish the association between
language proficiency level and current attendance at FL centres. The significance level was set at p<.05.
4. Results and discussion

4.1 Learners profile
As depicted in Table 1, the gender distribution across the two cohorts is considerably equal, which is
believed to render more reliable and interpretable results.
Table 1. Gender distribution across the two cohorts
Age
Gender PS LSS Total
N % N % N %
Male 245 49.0 328 51.3 573 50.3
Female 255 51.0 311 48.7 566 49.7
Total 500 100.0 639 100.0 1139 100.0
As there seems to be a common belief that female learners do better in foreign languages (see 2.3), it was
important to account for learners proficiency level in terms of gender. Nevertheless, it becomes clear
from the table below that the difference between males and females across the whole sample is marginal
(N=1139, 2 (3) =7.821, p=.050); therefore, we can state that there are no gender-related differences in
terms of the learners proficiency level (see Table 2).
Table 2. The relationship between learners proficiency level and gender
Gender
QPT
Male Female Total
Results
N % N % N %
A1 192 33.5 147 26.0 339 29.8
A2 268 46.8 291 51.4 559 49.1
B1 85 14.8 97 17.1 182 16.0
B2 28 4.9 31 5.5 59 5.2
Total 573 100.0 566 100.0 1139 100.0

As described in 3.1, attendance at private FL centres is highly popular in Greece. The statistics showed
that for the whole sample there were no statistically significant differences in attendance at FLCs in terms
of gender (N=1139, 2 (1)=2.356, p>50). What is more, 65.7% of the respondents currently attended
private FLCs. Such results come to confirm that FL centres are indeed much favoured by everyone
irrespective of gender.
4.2 Gender-related differences in motivation to learn English

Table 3 depicts analytically the t-test results with regard to the gender distinction a per-item analysis of
items within the motivation scale including the mean scores and significance levels for the whole sample
as well as for each cohort separately.
Table 3. Learners motivation to learn English in terms of gender
For the
For For
whole
Motivation to learn English Gender PS LSS
sample
M p M p M p
Male 1.60 1.51 1.67
English will be very useful in whatever
1 profession I choose in the future ns ns 008
Female 1.51 1.52 1.51
Male 2.59 2.60 2.59
2 I want to study abroad .003 .003 ns
Female 2.37 2.26 2.46
Male 1.76 1.76 1.76
I want to attain an English language
3 proficiency certificate .001 .001 .024
Female 1.53 1.46 1.58
I will learn through English more about Male 2.58 2.39 2.70
4 the native speakers of English, their ns ns ns
culture and ways of living Female 2.55 2.40 2.69
I will learn through English more about Male 2.87 2.78 2.95
5 different nations, their culture and ways of ns ns ns
living Female 2.81 2.71 2.89
Male 2.21 2.02 2.34
6 English is a compulsory school subject ns ns ns
Female 2.15 1.93 2.33
Male 2.14 2.78 2.28
7 I like English as a foreign language .030 ns ns
Female 1.99 2.71 2.17
Male 2.31 2.11 2.45
8 My friends and classmates learn English ns ns ns
Female 2.23 2.11 2.34
Male 2.54 2.52 2.55
9 It is my parents wish ns ns ns
Female 2.61 2.71 2.53
Male 2.10 2.02 2.17
I want to travel to the native-speaking
10 .001 .011 .001
countries
Female 1.80 1.76 1.83
Male 2.32 2.21 2.40
I want to travel to the non-native-
11 speaking countries
.001 .004 .001
Female 2.00 1.90 2.08
Male 1.82 1.74 1.88
I realise the important role of English
12 .030 ns ns
nowadays in the world
Female 1.71 1.60 1.79

I want to communicate with the English, Male 2.16 2.11 2.20

13 Americans, Australians etc. for whom .031 .032 ns
English is a native language Female 2.02 1.92 2.11
Male 2.50 2.58 2.45
I want to communicate with people for
14 whom English is not a native language .001 .002 .027
Female 2.25 2.25 2.25
Male 2.04 2.09 2.00
I want to browse the Internet for
15 information ns ns ns
Female 2.07 2.02 2.12
It becomes obvious that in the overwhelming majority of cases, females, in general, and young females,
in particular, seem to be more motivated to learn English for a plethora of reasons, such as travelling,
attaining a language certificate, studying abroad, and communication among others.
Nevertheless, at this point, an observation can be made that in the case of Item 1 English will be very
useful in whatever profession I choose in the future, which, in fact, denotes a purely instrumental motivational
orientation, motivation is gender-neutral with regard to the whole sample and the young learners.
Nevertheless, it seems that older girls have a much stronger instrumental orientation and the difference
is rather significant. This might be explained by the fact that females are believed to mature earlier, and,
therefore, realize the necessity to learn English and the material benefits that the knowledge of English
will offer.
Another interesting observation is that with respect to the whole sample, males manifest a higher level
of motivation only in the cases of parental influence and the use of English to browse the Internet, even
though no significant differences were detected.
It can also be observed that males and females within both cohorts exhibit similar motivational
patterns. Nevertheless, in the case of Item 9 It is my parents wish, we can see that young males are more
influenced by parental influence, whereas in the case of the older learners, females seem to be more
affected by parental influence; however, in both cases, the differences are insignificant. This might also
be explained by the fact that females mature earlier and become more autonomous earlier than males,
whereas younger males are more dependent on parents will.
What is more, the learners are motivated to learn English primarily for the following reasons: (i)
English will be very useful in whatever profession they choose in the future (M=1.56); (ii) they want to
attain an English language proficiency certificate (M=1.64); (iii) they realize the important role of English
in the world (M=1.76); (iv) they want to travel to countries where English is native language (e.g. UK,
USA, Australia, etc.) (M=1.95) and (v) they want to browse the Internet (M=2.05).
Therefore, in general lines, we can delineate the mainstream motivational profile of the sample, which
has an instrumental-integrative-travel-technology orientation. This finding does not come as a surprise
as many recent studies in predominantly FL settings show that due to the global nature of English there
is a constant blurring of seemingly contradicting motivational orientations (e.g. instrumental-integrative)
(Drnyei, 1994). Kimura, Nakata, and Okumura (2001) proposed the Intrinsic-Instrumental-Integrative
Motive, explicitly expressing the existing interplay and coexistence of integrative and instrumental
motives in this global English reality.
The results of our study yielded that female learners within both cohorts were more motivated to learn
English for a plethora of reasons, and this finding is consistent with the findings of similar studies (Clark
& Trafford, 1995; Drnyei et al., 2006; Jones & Jones, 2001; MacIntyre, Baker, Clment & Donovan,
2002). It seems that a gender-neutral tendency in learners motivation is rising, especially with reference
to the learners instrumental motivational orientation (e.g. Item 1 English will be very useful in whatever
profession I choose in the future). Consequently, this gives us ground to state that English in its capacity of a
lingua franca has become a basic life skill sought after genuinely by everyone. At this point, Drnyei and
his colleagues assumption that The global nature of English will cause the gap to disappear completely,
because English will become the first L2 choice for virtually everybody, regardless of their sex (Drnyei,
Csizr & Nmeth, 2006, p. 144) describes best the gender-neutral tendency identified in the present study.

In contrast, with reference to the learners travel and communication orientation, it seems that gender
has an impact on learners motivation, i.e. females in general and within each cohort separately are much
more motivated to learn English to facilitate travelling to various countries around the world and to
communicate with NSs as well as NNSs of English. This might be explained by the fact that females are
generally believed to be more sociable and outgoing than males (Schmitt et al., 2008). Neither the female
nor the male participants in this study seem to be particularly interested in using English as a means to
raising their awareness of culture-related issues associated with the NSs of English or speakers from other
national origin.
As far as the two age groups are involved in this cross-sectional study, it should be mentioned that
young learners, in general, and young girls, in particular, show a higher level of motivation across almost
all the items (see Table 3). This finding ties in with the findings of many similar studies, in which younger
learners have been repeatedly reported to be more motivated (Djigunovi, 1993; Masgoret et al., 2001;
Nikolov, 1999; Tragant, 2006).
When outlining the learners general motivational orientation, it becomes evident that learners are
motivated to learn English in order to satisfy instrumental needs; in other words, their motivational
orientation is predominantly instrumental. This assumption is based on the top two highly ranked items,
which certainly express instrumental motivation. What is more, this finding is also supported by the
findings of many other studies conducted in FL contexts, which have established that in such contexts
instrumental motivation can predict successful learning outcomes (Drnyei, 1990, Oxford & Shearin,
1994, Warden & Lin, 2000).
Another important finding in the present study is related to ELF and in this respect it seems that
Greek EFL learners motivation to learn English is not associated with ELF or in other words, they are
not ELF-aware. Among factors hindering ELF-awareness, we can mention NS-oriented English
instruction in private FL centres, immense popularity of NS-operated proficiency examinations, the
demand for language proficiency certificates (see 3.1) and teachers strong attachment to NS norms in
their teaching practices and lack of ELF-awareness (Sifakis & Sougari, 2005) among others.
5. Conclusion and suggestions
Drawing on the findings of this study, we can make the following suggestions. Different methods should
be adopted and implemented in order to enhance boys motivation; for example, ample use of modern
technologies, differentiated instruction and any other approach that could spur boys interest in language
learning. Given the fact that learners motivation decreases with age (as this finding has been empirically
supported), an attempt should be made on behalf of both teachers and methodologists to help the older
learners sustain their initial motivation.
With regard to the impact of gender on ELF, and in more general lines, ELF-informed issues, it is
suggested that ELT methodology be retailored, so as (i) to incorporate elements of ELF and be targeted
at ELF-awareness raising, (ii) to expose learners to different varieties of English, diverge from N-bound
methodology and move towards C-bound methodology (Sifakis & Sougari, 2004), and (iii) to encourage
teachers to use authentic materials (e.g. Internet) to increase learners awareness of ELF.
About the authors

Areti-Maria Sougari is an assistant professor of Applied Linguistics in the Department of Theoretical and Applied Linguistics, School of
English, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki. Her research interests include teaching English to young learners, teacher education and
development and English as an International Language. Some of her work appears in TESOL Quarterly, Language and Education, the
Journal of Applied Linguistics and other journals. Email: asougari@enl.auth.gr
Iren Hovhannisyan holds a PhD degree in English Language Literature from Aristotle University of Thessaloniki.
She is currently conducting her post-doctoral research in the field of ELF-attitudes and identity. Her research interests include language
learning attitudes and motivation, English as a Lingua Franca, intercultural communication and teaching English in early childhood,
computer assisted language education and digital nativeness. Email: ihovhann@enl.auth.gr

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Faltzi, R. (2016). I speak very good English even though Im not American: Implications from business students
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I speak very good English even though Im not American: Implications from
business students perspectives of ELF
Roxani Faltzi
Abstract
English is indisputably the lingua franca in various communicative contexts. The present paper focuses on the use of English as perceived
by Greek business school students. It aims at answering two questions: (a) what English represents for them, and (b) what implications we
can draw about ELF. The students attitudes towards English were explored by means of an ethnography-informed orientation. Data were
collected through 18 semi-structured interviews. Once transcribed, the interviews were subject to codification and analysis. The analyses
showed different attitudes between students who had very limited experiences of English use as opposed to those who had used English
more with other non-native speakers. The extensive use of English and experience of ELF communication in certain contexts allowed those
students to claim ownership of English, stepping into the role of confident and successful ELF users. A discussion of these initial findings
bears educational implications. The study grounds the discussion surrounding ELF and ELF awareness in a specific context (i.e. Greece)
and calls for a more holistic approach to English teaching in tertiary education.
Keywords: ELF, Greek business students, ownership, accents
1. Introduction
The increased diversity in the workplace, due to globalisation of markets and professional migration and
mobility, makes English an indispensable part of international communication. In fact, diversity is a key
issue that has inspired a lot of theoretical discussions about English as a lingua franca. When researching
the use of ELF in intercultural contexts, consensus is reached in the way researchers look at language. As
Prodromou (2008) puts it, diversity is still inherent in ELF (p. 246). Moreover, long established
ideologies and values are challenged (e.g. linguistic, cultural and ethnic homogeneity no longer exist) and
people search for new ways of self-representation. Apparently, as Seidlhofer (2011) claims, ELF is not
like other European languages for it has been removed from native speaker ownership, appropriated and
adapted for international use on a massive and unprecedented scale (p. 39).
A controversial issue in ELF research is the distinction between English language learners and users.
Traditionally, non-native English speakers1 are approached from the viewpoint of second language
acquisition and thus described as permanent leaners of English (Medgyes, 1994, p. 83). This perception
fits well with the EFL model though it fails to describe the sociolinguistic reality of English language use
in the world. It describes a rather false perception that sees NNESs as insufficient in English competence
and incapable of having any voice in determining their own use of language (Llurda, 2009, p. 129). The
question of the ownership of English (Widdowson, 1994) is still relevant and a body of ELF research
vigorously demonstrates that ELF users cannot be categorized as permanent learners but users of
English in their own way (Seidlhofer, Breiteneder, & Pitzl, 2006, p. 20).
The present study forms part of a larger research and looks into (a) the way Greek undergraduate
Business School students relate to the English language, and (b) what implications we can draw about
ELF. There is limited research into what English represents for Business school students who have used
English in heterogeneous and diverse contexts. The data-driven approach that was followed in this
research proved fruitful as it shed more light into experiences of non-institutional settings such as the
workplace. Moreover, attitudes towards English is of utmost importance in view of the fact that any
pedagogical change in English language teaching is highly unlikely if the notion of English as a lingua
franca is rejected by those involved with its teaching or learning (Jenkins, Cogo, & Dewey, 2011, p. 307).
AristotleUniversity of Thessaloniki.rfaltzi@enl.auth.gr
1 Throughout this article, the acronyms NNESs and NS are used to denote Non-native English speakers and Native speaker
respectively.

Business students perspectives of ELF Faltzi
2. Background research
Studies of teachers and learners attitudes towards English and ELF have shown an attitudinal resistance
to what is felt to be an imported genre, but at the same time tacit acceptance of it as a fact of life.
(Mauranen & Hynninen, 2010, p. 4). Attitudes towards English have fairly been influenced and
consequently changed revealing a clear preference to the native speaker model and accent (Jenkins, 2005,
2007; Sifakis and Sougari, 2005). What the studies on Greek teachers attitudes have brought to the fore
however is that a theory/practice dividing line exists (Sifakis & Sougari, 2005; Sougari & Faltzi, 2015).
Although there seems to be an awareness of ELF existence and an acceptance of the need to re-evaluate
ELT, native speaker norms prevail and a welcoming of ELF practices in classroom is rejected. As
Jenkins (2007) puts it, NS norms continue to colonise the minds (Tsuda, 1997 as cited in Jenkins, 2007,
p. 32) of non-native English speakers, leading to assumptions of NS linguistic superiority and often, with
them, feelings of linguistic insecurity (Jenkins, 2007, p. 32).
Studies on the way NNESs relate to the language have shown that they can take ownership of English
and appropriate it for their own purposes (Canagarajah, 1999; Erling, 2007; Phan, 2008, 2009). In Phans
(2009) study, the participants
enjoyed multiple positions with respect to English and identified themselves with English in diverse
ways . . . around their negotiations of available options and awareness of possibilities, and their
proactive creation of new self-constructions that were relevant and meaningful to their sense of self.
Their taking ownership of English seemed to permeate and facilitate all these processes. (p. 212)
Empirical ELF data have demonstrated fascinating ways of exploiting and exploring the meaning
potential of the language (Seidlhofer, 2011, p. 96), which is subject to users innovation in phonology,
lexis, morphology, and syntax.
In the business context, BELF plays a significant role in international business as a neutral and
shared communication code (Louhiala-Salminen, Charles, & Kankaanranta, 2005, p. 404). However,
English in ELF interactions can also serve expressive purposes to express identity apart from
communicative ones as a study on phraseology in ELF communication has shown (Fiedler, 2011). A
recent study on ELF use in the professional domain of academia showed that the expert-novice
distinction was more relevant than that of native or non-native speaker since very similar lexical and
organizational patterns [were] used by the two expert groups in their presentations, despite their
characteristic differences in native languages, cultures, and academic disciplines (Kao & Wang, 2014, p.
70).
Suggestions were made to move beyond the learner-user distinction and try to view people in real
communicative interactional BELF contexts (Ehrenreich, 2010). In view of that, exposure to and
communication with members of a business community of practice can lead to the development of
necessary skills for successful business interactions (Ehrenreich, 2010). A study by Kankaaranta and
Planken (2010) revealed that real life practices were very important according to the participants. Analysis
of English communication in multinational corporations (Ehrenreich, 2009, 2010) has shown that NS
models do not shape language use. English used for international business is a contact language used
and shaped by speakers from diverse lingua-cultural backgrounds (Ehrenreich, 2010, p.15).
3. The study
This paper presents the preliminary findings of a larger study and focuses on the use of English as
perceived by Greek business school students. It attempts to show how Greek business school students
relate to English and what implications we can draw about ELF awareness and level of accepting ELF.
The participants were eighteen students in the 3rd, 4th or last year of their studies. They were majoring in
Economics, Business Administration, Accounting and Finance, Applied Informatics, Marketing and
Operations Management in Greek tertiary institutions. Their English proficiency level ranged from upper

intermediate to proficient level (minimum B2 level according to CEFR). All participants apart from two
had travelled abroad and English was the main language used for communication. Some students had
many opportunities for ELF communication; four had completed internships abroad while eight students
were members in an international youth organization. They were all exposed to English on a daily basis
through movies, songs, and TV programmes, while some reported using English on a regular basis with
their foreign friends.
4. Methodology
The data were collected through purposive sampling based on a preliminary analysis of previously
collected questionnaire responses in terms of various factors (intercultural experiences, experiences of
ELF communicative situations, etc.). Prior to the main study, a pilot study was carried out with 4 students.
The results were used for clarifying and reformulating the interview questions. Semi-structured interviews
were subsequently conducted in Greek with eighteen students. The interviews were transcribed and then
coded. An ad hoc form of interview analysis followed where particular themes arose. Emphasis was
drawn to the students narratives that revealed many interesting findings. Quotes from interviews are
reported in italics and pseudonyms were used for all respondents.
The analysis of interviews revealed that most students are aware of the position that English holds in
international business communication today. They realise the need to be highly competent in the
language, as that would ensure not only a job position but also open a window to the world as many
claimed. Nonetheless, students who had more opportunities for communicative experiences in English,
revealed that it was exactly this use of English that allowed relating in a different way to English and
claiming ownership of the language.
5.1 English becomes part of students identity when used extensively

With reference to the way students relate to English, the data showed that those who had experienced
using English in international contexts felt more able to control English and seemed to enjoy the fact
that it had become part of them. They viewed English as a language that can be part of anyone who uses
it since being able to use a language, even their mother tongue, makes it part of themselves. The key
seemed to lie in the use of any language that becomes part of someones linguistic repertoire. Zoe
expresses that clearly in the extract below (Extract 1). It seems that both her mother tongue and English
hold the same position whereas no language is more hers than the other. What allows her to regard
both languages as her own is the fact she uses both extensively.
Extract 1
Zoe: I cannot say that (.) I regard it as (3) neither Greek (.) I cannot say that I regard Greek as mine (.) I
KNOW (.) how to use both (.) how can I explain that? it is ANOTHER language for me (.) that Ive learned
(.) used A LOT on a daily basis etc. (.) and it is part of myself (.) I cannot say that (.) I use someone elses
language
Respondents who had used English in certain communicative contexts stressed the importance of the
social use of English. Accordingly, it was participation in global speech communities that allowed them
to change their perspectives. A respondents narrative of her internship experience, where English was
the de facto language of communication describes that best. Mariannas (Extract 2) enthusiasm about her
experience as an intern in Serbia was evident throughout her interview. She specifically stressed the fact
that it had created a domain where the use of English contributed to a redefinition of who she was.

Extract 2
Marianna: . . . so every day English was the one and only communication language (2) and I can actually
say that after spending one (.) one and a half month there where I used English only (.) you can feel it as your
own language (.) then you don't speak English because you have learned it but because you speak it
spontaneously
Interviewer: What do you mean when you say your own language?
Marianna: I mean (.) actually to own the language (.) its when you wake up and speak English and you
don't think about the structure of a sentence (.) about the right syntax (.) it just comes out spontaneously (.)
it is practicing I believe (.) the more you practice it the more you actually assimilate it and make it your own
What Marianna communicates here is that engaging in an ELF social interaction was a unique experience,
which gave her the opportunity to appropriate English to a certain extent and ultimately move away from
the learner role to that of the user. While stressing the fact that she naturally and unconsciously uses
the language when found in an ELF environment, she admits that she owns the language.
5.2 Showing emotions and feelings through English

Some respondents revealed their easiness to express their feelings in English, the only language they were
able to do that apart from their mother tongue. What Zoe reported (Extract 3) attests to a different way
of English ownership.
Extract 3
Zoe: . . . even a way of expressing emotions, take music for example, if you can understand what it says (.)
you can express yourself in a foreign song, just the way you can express yourself in one with Greek lyrics
The respondent chooses to speak about the expression of feelings, a topic that she stressed a lot
throughout her interview. Her attachment to that possibly derives from the fact that she has many friends
from abroad and it seems very natural for her to communicate her feelings in the default language of
communication. Her participation and engagement in many ELF communicative contexts could be the
reason for her perspective of English. What Zoe finally manages to do is construct a different kind of
self as opposed to the majority of Greek people who learn English mainly to attain a certificate or in
order to get a job.
5.3 What kind of English is OK?

Apparently, the experience of using English in international contexts proved very influential to the way
students claimed their relation to English. Nevertheless, it was pertinent to probe more into whether
those students were aware of ELF and to what extent they accepted it. Most of them regarded grammar
and syntax as very important. In fact, when they talked about English they mostly referred to Standard
English (see more in Extract 6). For instance, by saying you don't think about the structure of a sentence (.)
about the right syntax (.) it just comes out spontaneously, Marianna seems to imply that there is indeed a
structure and a right syntax. Even though she used English in an intercultural setting, it still followed
the rules of right syntax though in a subconscious way. Managing to be competent in English made it
easier for her to accept it as part of her linguistic repertoire.
Moreover, the students views as to their degree of acceptance of ELF were based on the context of
English use and referred mostly to their accents. In particular, students were more conservative when it
came to accepting NNS accents in the workplace. Marias (Extract 4) experience with English use in a
work context was very limited and as she explained in her interview it was very bad and discouraging. As
she sees it, the ability to imitate a native speaker accent is a great achievement in the work context. The
use of the words PROPERLY prestige and validity to describe NS accents are manifestations of
a norm-bound orientation. Any other accent (i.e. a NNS accent) would not only sound inappropriate in
the business context but also fail to persuade her interlocutor.

Extract 4
Maria: YES (.) It is very important (.) we all struggle to speak like a native speaker (.) it is very
important in a future job (.) I will have to be able to speak PROPERLY (.) that accent would give me
the necessary prestige and validity (.) would help me succeed (.) it helps the act of persuading my interlocutor
Likewise, the following extract attests to the same concern about how others perceive English accents in
a business environment and discloses positive attitudes towards NS English. This may inadvertedly stem
from the popular misconceptions and attitudes that perpetuate the on-going idealization of NSs.
Extract 5
I: Do you believe that whether your accent is Greek or not would make a difference in an international
business context? Would you be more convincing or be a better professional?
Marianna: It depends (.) eh::: some might not have any problem and others may have (.) I personally (.)
believe that (.) there is a slight percentage that affects others (.) your accent affects your view (2) and
CERTAINLY THIS plays a role in a business context (.) because speaking English (.) speaking with a
nice accent (.) gives another tone of trust and attention to (.) to pay (.) attention to what you are saying (.)
it gives another STATUS to you as a person (.) not in a BIG percentage (.) but a little percentage YES
it does (.) play a role (.) having a RIGHT accent
On the other hand, the way some respondents approached their accents was very interesting because
they revealed an understanding at a deeper level. The extract that follows is a very good example of that.
Extract 6
Penelope: (Ahh) (.) If you had asked me some time ago (.) I would have told you that I would like VERY
MUCH to have an American accent . . . but now I think that (.) ok (.) the American accent is nice (.) very
nice indeed (.) I would like to have an accent close to the American but (.) I would like more MY accent to
show that (2) you know what? (.) I am not American (.) I speak very good English even though I am not
American (.) to show (.) to stress my individuality as a person (.) the fact that I am from another country (.)
thats what I would say now (.) that I would like a nice accent but not one that would place me with all the
rest (.) I would like to be the Greek girl (.) <@> that </@> (.) has actually a very good and nice accent
Penelopes statement reveals a clear mismatch. On the one hand, she seems to endorse Standard English
as the right language by claiming I speak very good English even though I am not American. However,
the way she approaches NNS accents is different as she leans towards her own accent. For Penelope it is
a matter of maintaining her L1 speaker identity when she speaks English because that allows her to
differentiate herself not only from native speakers but also from other non-native speakers. Moreover, it
makes her feel more special and unique as a person. Her manifestation possibly expresses her need to
establish her individuality in a global world characterized by polyphony.
Other respondents commented on the accent differences among NNSs of English and characterized
them as intriguing and interesting. Phaedra (Extract 7) explains best why it is so interesting to have
different accents.
Extract 7
Interviewer: Is it important for you to have a native speaker accent?
Phaedra: No (.) No (.) because when I went abroad I realized that accents are BEAUTIFUL (.) and
each one of us speaks with a different way (2) trying to understand (.) what others say is nice (.) people looking
at you <@> puzzled </@> (.) LAUGHING with what you say (.) that breaks the ice too (.) theyve
told me many times that I have a weird accent (.) and some of them had a weird accent too according to me
(.)

Interviewer: So did you speak English with a Greek accent?

Phaedra: Yes
Interviewer: How did others find that?
Phaedra: Well (.) I think they LIKED it (.) in the end they all liked it (.) you somehow realize that you
don't need to have the PERFECT accent to speak (.) I mean the Italian guy spoke with an ITALIAN
accent (.) the French with a FRENCH accent
The laughs and pauses indicate the way Phaedra sees various NNS accents. According to the respondent,
NNS accents are BEAUTIFUL because they help break the ice and make people more interesting.
They seem to add to a communicative game that aims not only at achieving communication but also at
getting to know people better and familiarize oneself with divergence. As she noted, having a NNS
accent is funny, interesting and intriguing and is something that everybody LIKED as her
interlocutors realized that a NS accent is not a prerequisite for communication. As Phaedra puts it, you
somehow realize that you don't need to have the PERFECT accent to speak. Even though, the emphatic
use of PERFECT shows that Phaedra gives high evaluation to a NS accent, she rejects its supremacy
in ELF communication. Intelligibility is prioritized over accuracy and form in real communication.
6. Conclusion
The present paper examined the way Greek Business school students relate to English. The results
showed that the everyday use of English in certain communicative contexts created feelings of
appropriation of the language. To be more specific, the students were more likely to express their feelings
through English, use the language to communicate with friends and express their individuality through a
distinct NNS accent. The findings are similar to those of previous studies that showed how English could
be part of someones linguistic repertoire (Phan, 2008, 2009). Moreover, intercultural communicative
experiences contributed to the way respondents viewed themselves in relation to English as other studies
have demonstrated (Ehrenreich, 2010; Kankaaranta & Planken, 2010).
Furthermore, the study tried to unravel whether the respondents were able to distinguish between
Standard English and some form of ELF in real communication. Their subliminal references to Standard
English showed that they remained anchored to the EFL chariot. Nevertheless, the respondents who
had used English more in international communication seemed to allow more space for ELF particularly
with regard to NNS accents. They opted for intelligibility and focused more on how to eliminate their
differences with other speakers and overcome communication breakdowns, rather than on native-like
accuracy.
In light of the findings, implications for English language teaching in the Greek tertiary context should
be sought at two levels. As new perspectives emerged, it should become clear that not all students are
aware of the fact that they are ELF speakers. Understanding these insights requires a second level of
thought. Strengthening the students awareness of what it means to be an ELF speaker could be cultivated
through various initiatives. For instance, in order to prepare students for actual ELF use, they should be
exposed to intercultural communicative situations and trained to develop accommodation skills. Thus,
an experiential learning component should be added. Though the contexts of classrooms never replicate
contexts of use because they represent different realities (Widdowson, 2013, p. 193), the two realities
could potentially blend. Interactive role-play based activities (in collaboration with NSs and NNESs)
could be used, ones that would simulate business situations and manage to expose Business students to
real ELF communicative situations.
About the author
Roxani Faltzi is a PhD candidate at the School of English of the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki. She holds a BA in English Language
and Literature (AUTH) and an MSc in Applied Linguistics (University of Edinburgh). She has taught ESP at vocational training centers and
intercultural settings (NATO headquarters). She has published 3 papers in edited volumes, conference proceedings and a journal. Her
research interests are in the broad areas of language attitudes, identity, intercultural communication and English as a Lingua Franca. Email:
rfaltzi@enl.auth.gr

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ELF AND TRANSLATION
Claudio Bendazzoli presents a pilot study on the English in Italy
project, which investigates the use of mediation through ELF for
academic purposes.

Bendazzoli, C. (2016). Exploring the mediated side of ELF: Emerging challenges in academic settings. In N. Tsantila, J.
College of Greece.
Exploring the mediated side of ELF:

Emerging challenges in academic settings
Claudio Bendazzoli
Abstract
In this paper I present the English in Italy project, which includes different research lines addressing the role and status of English within the
Italian context. In particular, I report on the pilot activities carried out to investigate the use of ELF in academic settings. An interview-
based survey was conducted with the aim to ascertain to what extent ELF is used in research and teaching, with or without the aid of
translation or interpreting services, in both written and oral communication. The respondents provided interesting comments and
motivations pointing to a wide range of text types, not limited to research papers, and communicative situations in which ELF has become
the default medium to communicate with the rest of the research community and with an increasingly international student population.
Although the use of translation and interpreting services appears to be more the exception than the rule in the context taken into account,
the respondents attitude towards language mediation reveals conflicting views on how they fulfill their communicative needs considering
ELF or ENL as the gold standard in specific cases. The paper first introduces the general context that prompted the project design with
reference to the recent debate on the use of English in higher education in Italy (1). Then, it provides a brief description of the English in
Italy project and its main research strands (2). The next section (3) focuses on the pilot stage of one of those strands, i.e. ELF in academic
settings and its relation with language mediation (translation and interpreting) services, and discusses the preliminary results concerning
written communication (3.1) and oral communication (3.2). The next steps that will be undertaken in the project are briefly outlined in
the conclusion (4).
Keywords: written and oral communication, research activities, Italy, language mediation, proofreading
1. Introduction
One of the distinguishing features of English is that it has become a truly global language, as it is now
used by a wide range of communities of practice in diverse contexts, with non-native speakers
outnumbering native speakers1 to a great extent. The effects and consequences of such a global and
unprecedented diffusion have attracted the attention of several scholars and triggered a particularly lively
debate as testified, for example, by the ELF conference series and other initiatives, such as the English in
Europe: Opportunity or Threat? project (see Pulcini, 2012) and many others. Along these lines, a research
group was created at the university of Torino to investigate the status of English in Italy with respect to
a variety of settings and usages (not only ELF-related ones). Before outlining the main research strands
of this project called English in Italy: Linguistic, Educational and Professional Challenges (2), let us consider the
general scenario that prompted its design.
Despite the poor proficiency levels generally displayed by Italian speakers of English (see
Eurobarometer 386 data), the increasingly dominant role of English as a language for international
communication is also a fact in Italy, including both professional and academic settings. The latter, in
this respect, came under the spotlight in 2012 when one of Italys most renowned higher education
institutions, namely the Politecnico di Milano2, unveiled plans to adopt English as the only language of
instruction in all its graduate and PhD programmes as of 2014, thus excluding the Italian language
outright. Such a decision was championed by the rector and the highest academic authorities, with mixed
reactions, in fact mostly strong criticism, on the part of faculty members and the academic community at
large (Maraschio & De Martino, 2013). The news was even reported by international media, such as the
BBC (Coughlan, 2012), the Independent (Day, 2012), the New York Times (Guttenplan, 2012), and University
World News (Adendorff, 2012) among others. In the article published by the BBC, terms like
shockwaves, radical move, furious debate, and alarm provide an idea of the conflicting views
that emerged as a result of such an English-only policy (Molino & Campagna, 2014). In fact, this could
University of Torino (Italy), Department of Economic and Social Studies. Email: claudio.bendazzoli@unito.it
1 According to Eurobarometer 386 (2012), in the EU27 the ratio between native and non-native speakers of English was almost 1:2, with
English being the most spread foreign language (38%). The full report can be downloaded from
http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_386_en.pdf; interactive infographics based on the same data set are available
from http://languageknowledge.eu/.
2 The homepage in English is available at http://www.polimi.it/en/english-version/.

Exploring mediated side of ELF Bendazzoli
be seen as just the tip, albeit sharply evident, of the much wider iceberg of internationalization as
interpreted by universities (Campagna & Pulcini, 2014) and the more general anglification process of
academia which is also under way in Italy (Costa & Coleman, 2013; Pulcini & Campagna, 2015).
Against this background, English (in Italy) may appear to be perceived more as a threat; in this respect,
the title of two volumes specifically addressing the issues referred to above are self-evident: Fuori litaliano
dalluniversit? Inglese, internazionalizzazione, politica linguistica [Should the Italian language get out of
university? English, internationalization, language policy] (Maraschio & De Martino, 2013) and Linglese
non basta: una lingua per la societ [English is not enough: a language for the society] (Villa, 2013).
Notwithstanding such a defensive attitude, it is undeniable that English is considered at the same time
an essential opportunity due to the global reach afforded by this language when used as a lingua franca,
here intended as any use of English among speakers of different first languages for whom English is the
communicative medium of choice, and often the only option (Seidlhofer, 2011, p. 7). The unavoidable
nature of such a choice or option is acknowledged by most Italian learners despite their difficulties in
grappling with English. As Severgnini (2014) put it in the title of a provocative review of an equally
provocative English language book by Gutirrez (2014, 2015), English is very sexy (evitarlo
impossibile) [(avoiding it is impossible)].
2. The English in Italy project
The English in Italy project3 includes a number of research strands, each of which addresses the presence
and use of English in Italy in a variety of communicative situations and for different purposes. The main
areas of investigation are listed below:
Language contact, with a special focus on anglicisms in general and specialized language (e.g. Italian
financial discourse and the use of English loans making it a lingua not so franca);
EMI (English medium instruction) in higher education and research publications;
Translation and interpreting (T&I), particularly the influence of English on audiovisual translation
(dubbing and subtitling), the language of conferencing mediated by simultaneous interpreters, and
the importance of T&I skills in ELF settings;
Migratory contexts, again looking at language contact but considering multilingual communities and
urban varieties of Italian;
It is clear that the scope of the project is not limited to studying the use of ELF, as it encompasses other
spheres of usage in which reference is made to English as a native language too. Nevertheless, my specific
interest lies in the areas of EMI as well as conferencing, which involve academic and professional
communities of practice and are especially relevant to the use of ELF. In this respect, two different
approaches have been adopted so far: (1) an interview-based survey was carried out as part of the
investigation in academic settings; (2) a corpus-based analysis has been initiated as part of the study in
professional contexts.
Within the academic context, an interview-based survey was piloted in spring 2014 in order to design
a wider (internet-based) survey that will be carried out at a subsequent stage. The aim is to explore to
what extent English is used, particularly as a lingua franca, in research and teaching activities by academics
based in Italy, and whether there is any scope for language mediation services (i.e. translation and
interpreting)4.
In professional settings, on the other hand, the language of conferencing is being studied by means of
the Directionality in Simultaneous Interpreting Corpus5 (Bendazzoli, 2012), in which English is represented in
3 The members of the research group are Virginia Pulcini (PI), Claudio Bendazzoli, Cecilia Boggio, Giorgia Borri, Luisa Bozzo, Sandra
Campagna, Cristiano Furiassi, Gerardo Mazzaferro, Alessandra Molino, Vincenza Minutella, and Maria Francesca Toma
(http://englishinitaly.wordpress.com).
4 Translation and Interpreting scholars have only recently taken up the ELF perspective to study its implications. See, for example, Albl-
Mikasa (2013a, 2013b, 2012, 2010), Reithofer (2010), and Taviano (2013).
5 The DIRSI Corpus is an electronic corpus of source and target speeches delivered at three medical conferences mediated by professional

multiple ways, i.e. not only as a lingua franca used by participants (English NSs and NNSs) for direct
communication, but also by simultaneous interpreters in mediated communication, for whom English
becomes a working language (active or passive).
In the following sections I present the preliminary results obtained from the first approach and discuss
some of the challenges arising from the mediated side of ELF in academic settings.
3. ELF and language mediation in academic settings
As a first step in the study of ELF usage in Italian academic settings6, an interview-based survey was
carried out in my own department at the School of Management and Economics7 (University of Torino,
Italy). The study was planned to be the pilot stage of a larger internet-based survey that will be designed
on the basis of the responses obtained in the interviews. The aim of the interview-based survey was
twofold: on the one hand, understanding to what extent English, and in particular ELF, is used in research
and teaching activities, both in written and oral communication; on the other hand, finding out whether
there is any scope for language mediation, i.e. translation and interpreting, in fulfilling the same activities.
The semi-structured interviews were based on a set of 38 items, including 29 closed questions and 9
open questions. The interviews were audio-recorded and only the answers to open questions and any
extra comment to closed questions were fully transcribed (approximately 43,000 words). In total, 50
interviews were collected (34 male and 16 female respondents): 45 from members of the Department of
Economic and Social Studies; 4 from members of the Department of Management; 1 from the
Department of History (University of Bologna). The following table (Table 1) shows the research fields
covered by respondents, who are mostly representative of social sciences:
Table 1. Number of survey respondents by research field.
Research field Number of

respondents
Economics and Statistics 36
Political and Social Studies 5
Foreign Languages 3
Geography 2
Agriculture and Veterinary Studies 1
Anthropology 1
Law 1
Maths and IT 1
At the beginning of each interview, participants were asked to express a self evaluation of their English
language proficiency level for each communicative skill (reading, listening, writing, and speaking) on a
scale from 1 to 6. Since most respondents were not familiar with CEFR8 levels, these were not used.
However, the score system was designed to mirror the scale structure of CEFR levels as can be seen in
Table 2 below:
Table 2. English language proficiency self-evaluation scale.
simultaneous interpreters from/into Italian and English (http://cartago.lllf.uam.es/static/dir-si/dir-si.html).

6 The study of English as a Lingua franca in Academic settings (ELFA) was pioneered by Mauranen with the creation of a relevant spoken
corpus (Mauranen, 2003). See Mauranen (2007) for an overview of the ELFA research agenda.
7 The School of Management and Economics comprises two departments: the Department of Management and the Department of
Economic and Social Studies. Prof. Sandra Campagna and I conducted the interviews and decided to contact first our own colleagues at
the Department of Economic and Social Studies; some interviews also involved some members of Department of Management and one
of the Department of History (University of Bologna).
8 The Common European Framework of Reference consists of three main proficiency levels comprising two sub-levels of proficiency
each: A1 and A2 are elementary; B1 and B2 are intermediate; C1 and C2 are advanced (see
https://europass.cedefop.europa.eu/en/resources/european-language-levels-cefr).

Reading Listening Writing Speaking

1 2
elementary 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6
intermediate
advanced
elementary
intermediate
advanced
elementary
intermediate
advanced
elementary
intermediate
advanced
The interviews were held in Italian and participants were reassured that the aim was not to put their
language competence to the test. In fact, we were very much interested in cases where low or even zero
competence was reported.
The responses provided in the self-assessment section are displayed in the following table (Table 3).
It is interesting to note that out of the four communicative skills considered, speaking is the one that was
assigned the lowest scores (though the majority indicated a high intermediate or a low advanced
competence level). Listening and writing obtained similar scores, with slightly higher levels reported in
the advanced band. Finally, reading is the skill with the highest reported command, including subjects
with lower levels of competence in the other skills.
Table 3. Survey respondents self-assessment of their English communicative skills.

NA elem. interm. advanced
(A1+A2) (B1+B2) (C1+C2)
Reading 0 0 11 39
(4+7) (27+12)
Listening 0 6 20 24
(1+5) (9+11) (20+4)
Writing 0 4 20 26
(2+2) (7+ 13) (22+4)
Speaking 1 5 26 18
(1+4) (9+17) (16+2)
It is worth specifying that many respondents pointed out that their communicative competence may be
pretty high within their field of specialization, but this would not apply to casual conversation or more
general communication.
The preliminary results concerning each communicative skill in research activities are presented below,
first with reference to written communication (3.1) and then with reference to oral communication
(3.2).
3.1 Written communication

As was expected, considering the general scenario presented above (1), all respondents confirmed that
there is a growing demand for English to communicate in writing not just with NSs but above all with
other NNSs making up the scientific community. Obviously there are major differences depending on
the research fields under consideration. Some of them, e.g. mathematics and statistics, have been
traditionally written about in English even by senior researchers based in Italy since the beginning of their
academic career, whereas other fields, such as social studies and history, have counted on a well-rooted
tradition of written scientific communication in Italian that is now being replaced by English. The survey
respondents agree that writing in English is a must for junior researchers and is also becoming more than
just an option for senior colleagues who are more likely to have a weaker command. This trend is in line
with the internationalization process affecting research and teaching, but in Italy it has also been

influenced by recent research quality assessment initiatives9, in which higher evaluation scores were
assigned to contributions (e.g. volumes, chapters, papers and so on) published in international (non-
Italian) outlets. This has often meant that a contribution written in Italian, thus published with a domestic
publisher, would be ranked lower than the same contribution published as an international research
product, in many cases written in English, with a strong impact on the editorial policies of many domestic
journals and book series, which are now switching to an almost English-only approach10. Whereas there
is general acceptance of this trend, the need to preserve the Italian language in specific scientific fields is
particularly felt whenever research results need to be disseminated to the general public and, above all,
to local authorities (the latter are often sources of funding). Moreover, there is still a common perception
of the ENL standard as a golden rule for publications submitted to top-ranked journals, whereas attitudes
appear to be more flexible in case of lower targets.
Overall, respondents stated that they can manage the relevant LSP in English (albeit with some major
differences or issues due to false friends) fairly well, but difficulties arise as soon as they have to deal with
complex reasoning, highly structured argumentation, rhetorical devices and subtleties. As a result, editing
and proofreading services are much more popular than translation ones, above all for top-ranked outlets.
Indeed in-house language support services are offered or simply recommended by most journals, though
they are quite expensive and in the respondents experience it is not always possible to afford them due
to the scarcity of research funds. That is why they are used only for prestigious outlets, where ENL
remains a sought-after benchmark regardless of the prevalently ELF composition of the target research
community. There seems to be plenty of cheaper proofreading services advertised online, but feedbacks
from those who resorted to them are not always positive. Freelancers also send emails to offer their
translation and proofreading services. However, translators are not particularly trusted due to their
assumed lack of command of specific terminology; once again, what ELF academic writers need is
support to improve their style, wording and formal aspects. Only in a few cases professional translators
were involved, and respondents always mentioned the fact that they know these professionals personally
and that they sometimes had briefing sessions with them to discuss terminological issues.
Moving to other types of written texts, the use of English has become an obligation in case of
institutional communication directed to a more and more international community of students (though
international students are rarely NSs in the context taken into account) and scholars. This is the case
regardless of individuals skills in English writing, therefore it can be expected that specific strategies are
adopted. For instance, syllabuses to be published online, including the description of course aims and
methods, must be provided by lecturers both in Italian and in English. In this case, the subjects with
zero, elementary or low intermediate command have had their syllabuses translated from Italian into
English, or simply proofread, by a native speaker (rarely a professional translator). Most of the time aid
was sought from other colleagues with higher proficiency or from native English language instructors
working in the same institution. The subjects with high intermediate or advanced competence do not
normally ask for any help to draft this type of texts in English, thus feeling at ease with the notion of
ELF rather than ENL in the final output.
Another example concerns abstracts that are sent in response to a call for papers: even for paper
proposals that will be delivered in languages other than English, submitting an abstract in English has
become mandatory in a growing number of cases. Once again, translation or proofreading services are
provided by colleagues or language instructors and rarely by professional translators.
A large majority of respondents also mentioned recommendation letters among the texts they are
required to write in English. These are usually needed by students willing to apply to study programs
9 Notably the so called VQR or Valutazione della Qualit della Ricerca 2004-2010 conducted by the Ministry of Education was based
on three main criteria: rilevanza; originalit/innovazione; internazionalizzazione [significance; originality/innovation;
internationalization] (http://anvur.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=28&ltemid=119&lang=it).
10 See, for instance, the case of the Italian Economic Journal, which was announced in late 2014 and is presented as A Continuation of
Rivista Italiana degli Economisti and Giornale degli Economisti. In particular, ItEJ merges the Rivista Italiana degli Economisti (RIE), the
journal founded by the Italian Economic Association in 1996, with the Giornale degli Economisti (GdE), founded in 1875 and enriched
by contributions from renowned economists, including Amoroso, Black, Barone, De Viti de Marco, Edgeworth, Einaudi, Modigliani,
Pantaleoni, Pareto, Slutsky, Tinbergen and Walras (http://www.springer.com/economics/journal/40797).

abroad and such requests are also made to colleagues who possess low competence in English writing.
In this case there seems to be greater acceptance of ELF over the ENL standard; at the same time, ready-
made templates retrieved from online dedicated websites and applicants support are among the strategies
used to produce these texts.
Finally, another example of ELF written communication that has become increasingly common
concerns referee reports in evaluating papers and research project applications. However, this text type
was mentioned during some of the last interviews and could not be explored in greater detail.
In general terms, only 15 respondents declared that the need to produce texts in English has always
characterized their academic activities, whereas 33 respondents agreed that the influence of the English
language in their written production is a recent phenomenon, which started approximately at the
beginning of the new millennium. Only 7 subjects reported that they have no scientific publications in
English: three of them are specialized in linguistic studies for other languages (French and German) and
three others have been active in scientific research for more than 35 years now and belong to the senior
generation of academics for whom English may still be an option. However, as mentioned above, this is
true up to a certain point, since course syllabuses, abstracts, recommendation letters for students, and
referee reports were mentioned by the vast majority of subjects, if not all of them, as part of their written
production in a language that is constantly moving along a continuum between being used as a lingua
franca and keeping its native standards in mind.
3.2 Oral communication

Considering the self-assessment of communicative competence provided by respondents (3), both
listening and speaking skills are relatively weaker than reading and writing skills. A recurrent comment in
this respect was that the main difficulties lie in managing casual and informal exchanges much more than
oral communication based on technicalities and LSP.
As regards speaking, presenting papers in English has now become common practice even in local
events with an exclusively domestic audience (i.e. only Italian NSs are present). Although this may sound
pointless, there are two factors at the basis of this sort of extreme ELF situation: on the one hand,
technical English terms are so commonly used in Italian academic discourse that scholars find it is easier
to express themselves entirely in English; on the other hand, the use of multimedia communication, e.g.
streaming or posting videos on dedicated repositories online, extends the scope of the audience in absentia
and the use of ELF can guarantee maximum access to international recipients.
Interpreting is perceived as a luxury and more suitable in case of events open to the general public or
involving local authorities. In the academic circles taken into consideration, counting on interpreting
services is more the exception than the rule. Interestingly, should interpreters be available, two thirds of
respondents said that they would prefer to speak English anyway, even in case of low intermediate
competence, as they feel they would have greater command of content, which is what counts most,
regardless of form; they also prefer to have direct communication and feel the recourse to interpreting
equipment as burdensome. This does not apply in case of high-level meetings in which utmost
importance is attached to form. Other reasons also concern personal satisfaction and face saving
(prestige), or ones academic affiliation.
As regards listening skills, again there is general distrust of interpreting services, as they are perceived
as distracting. On the other hand, some respondents admitted that some accents are particularly hard to
understand, e.g. speakers of ELF with French, Indian, Chinese (and Italian) accents, though many
reported considerable recent improvements. In fact, the main obstacle to understanding oral
communication was attributed to a lack of public speaking skills, which were reported to be generally
good in case of NSs. Similarly, comprehension difficulties are also found in case of read outputs, but
again this would not be the case with NSs who are perceived as following a clear layout in their
presentations. Some respondents even mentioned the fact that they feel sorry for NSs who are likely to
be annoyed by unskilled presenters mistreating the English language as they speak what is considered an
impoverished version of English. Among the reasons behind respondents preference to deliver their
paper presentations without the help of conference interpreters is the widespread use of slides, which

provide enormous support to both the presenter and the audience. However, when slides are not
available, as is the case in Q&A sessions and debates, interpreters would be most welcome to aid
participants in expressing their views effectively and understanding counter arguments and observations
made by other speakers.
4. Conclusion and future research
In this paper I presented the preliminary results obtained from an interview-based survey on the use of
ELF for academic purposes in Italy, considering both written and oral communication in research
activities, as well as the scope of language mediation (i.e. translation and interpreting). The survey also
included other questions concerning teaching activities, but due to space limitations these were not
included here.
The next steps will be to move from this pilot study to a large scale, internet-based survey that will be
designed to investigate the most controversial issues raised by respondents. As part of the English in Italy
research project, another research strand will address spoken communication using a corpus of
conference presentations mediated by simultaneous interpreters, thus representing English not only as a
lingua franca, but also as an active or passive working language. Hopefully, these multiple approaches
will be helpful to obtain a fuller picture of the global lingua franca par excellence and its major
implications in professional and academic settings.
About the author
Claudio Bendazzoli is assistant professor of English Language and Translation at the University of Torino. He obtained an MA in
Conference Interpreting (Italian, English, Spanish) and a PhD in Interpreting Studies from the Department of Interpreting and Translation
of the University of Bologna at Forl, Italy. His main research interests are Interpreting Studies, Corpus Linguistics, theatre and drama
education applied to interpreter training, Ethnography of communication, Business English, Web 2.0, English as a medium of instruction,
ELF. Email: claudio.bendazzoli@unito.it
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ELF AND WRITING
Finally, Renata Povolns study investigates Czech university students

experiences in developing academic writing skills in an increasingly ELF-
dominated world.

Povoln, R. (2016). Exploring academic writing skills of Czech university students. In N. Tsantila, J. Mandalios & M. Ilkos
(Eds.), ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives (pp.385-391). Athens: Deree The American College of Greece.
Exploring academic writing skills of Czech university students
Renata Povoln
Abstract
With the establishment of English as the lingua franca of academic communication all over the world the necessity to produce academic
texts in English has become an essential skill for university students in all fields of study. This paper compares the results of two surveys
into the academic writing skills of students of English at the Faculty of Education, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic. The aim of
the investigation is twofold: a) to receive data on students previous experience and knowledge of writing in English, their current writing
and academic writing skills, their needs and prospective goals in further university studies; and b) to assess the results obtained in 2009 and
2014 and reflect them in the (re)designing of courses on academic writing at a university in order to equip the students with the academic
writing skills required for their professional career in the globalized academic discourse community. The data shows students need to receive
well-planned systematic instructions on discipline-, genre- and culture-specific academic writing conventions because their previous
schooling, at secondary and language schools or university, was focused mainly on general writing skills. Moreover, it is crucial to continue
building an efficient system of consistent courses in which the teaching of academic writing is not limited to academic writing courses but
is a natural component of other courses so that exposure to expert academic texts written in English together with instruction provided by
teachers of academic writing and thesis supervisors on argumentation strategies and stylistic appropriateness can enhance the development
and improvement of students own skills.
Keywords: English as a lingua franca, Czech university students, academic writing skills, academic writing courses, citing, paraphrasing,
plagiarism
1. Introduction
It is indisputable that English has been established as the lingua franca of all academic communication
and the necessity to produce texts in English has become an essential condition for anyone considering
university studies and/or a professional career in any branch of science, research and academia. However,
as "there are no native speakers of academic English" (Mauranen, Hynninen, & Ranta, 2010, p. 184),
many recent studies of academic English often postulate the question whether the prevailing Anglo-
American academic writing conventions should be regarded as the model for expert as well as novice
writers from other discourse communities (Flowerdew, 2008). This has resulted in a more flexible
approach to academic writing in English which takes into account existing variation in meaning, content
and organization of academic texts across different disciplines, languages and cultures (Duszak, 1997)
and which is in harmony with a functional perspective of academic writing "that concentrates on the
writer and the writing process and, even more, on the reader and the cognitive construction of discourse
in a community" (Schmied, 2011, p. 1, cf. Hyland, 2010).
Traditionally, the best opportunity for integration of novice non-native speakers of English into the
academic discourse community and their accommodation to its literacy conventions is provided by
universities, where students undergo the proces of "secondary socialization" (Mauranen et al. 2010, p.
184) facilitated by instruction and involvement in the activities of the target discourse community
(Flowerdew, 2000). According to Hinkel (2004), the choice of adequate approaches to teaching academic
writing should consider the level of language proficiency achieved by students and the differences in
literacy traditions between students mother tongue and English. Since interference between Czech and
Anglo-American academic writing conventions affects the teaching of academic English, it is important
to investigate with what kind of instruction students are provided in academic writing courses and by
thesis supervisors (cf. Dontcheva-Navratilova & Povoln, 2014).
With the increasing amount of information available and the necessity to present it to large audiences,
the ability to produce and interpret written texts ranks among the most essential skills of all educated
people. Owing to the importance of the written mode of communication in academic settings, the
teaching and learning of academic writing skills in English have become central issues in many
linguistically and pedagogically oriented studies dealing with the assessment of native and non-native
Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic. povolna@ped.muni.cz

Czech university students writing skills Povoln
writers performance in terms of genre, cross-cultural and disciplinary variation (Hewings, 2006, Paltridge
& Starfield, 2007).
Writing in general and academic writing in particular present a challenge to both learners and teachers
as it is a highly complex productive skill involving several complementary and overlapping aspects, such
as the knowledge of language structures and the content of the written work, the awareness of the
functions of text, the stages of the writing process, the interactive dimension of the written discourse, as
well as genre and disciplinary conventions (Hyland, 1996). Non-native writers of English face more and
different challenges than native speakers, which stem from their linguistic competence and differences in
academic literacy traditions and writing conventions between their mother tongue and English (Hinkel,
2004). Non-native writers are often disadvantaged linguistically owing to their lower level of fluency in
English and insufficient command of academic English. They are also disadvantaged rhetorically and
interpersonally due to their insufficient knowledge of disciplinary and genre conventions in academic
writing, the uncertainty of the existing academic writing style conventions, and the diffferences in the
traditions of literacy related to socially and culturally determined genre practices in the particular discourse
community to which they belong (Hyland, 2002).
Accordingly, when designing academic writing courses, teachers need to bear in mind that students at
different levels and in different learning contexts need to learn to produce various types of texts for
different purposes and due to their previous schooling and writing experience they might have developed
certain writing habits, which are often culturally determined.
2. Data and methodology
The article discusses the results of two surveys in which the author concentrates on the needs analysis of
students in the Bachelors degree programmes at the Department of English Language and Literature,
Faculty of Education, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic. The results are drawn from
questionnaires, i.e. a method of data collection particularly suitable for present situation analysis (Dudley-
Evans & St John, 1998; Jordan, 1997). Apart from items concerning the students present situation, the
questionnaires include questions aimed at the students knowledge of basic academic style issues, such as
working with sources, paraphrasing and plagiarism with the aim to identify students needs concerning
their awareness of academic style and knowledge of academic writing skills.
The questionnaires were administered to students in the second year of the Bachelors degree
programmes of teacher training in English in 2009 and 2014. Altogether 123 students completed the
questionnaire, namely 46 students in 2009 (G1) and 77 in 2014 (G2). Since they were asked to answer
the questionnaires anonymously and more than 90% were females, it was decided that consideration of
gender differences in the investigation was not relevant.
All students were given the same questionnaire so that their current needs and expectations collected
in 2009 and 2014 could be compared. The questionnaire, which comprises 15 questions, is divided into
two sections: 1) questions in Section One titled Writing in General concern writing in general, 2) questions
in Section Two titled Academic Writing concern instructions received on and knowledge of some basic
academic style issues. Most items are multiple-choice questions. Only a few are yes/no questions,
sometimes supplemented by open-ended questions, which ask respondents to specify reasons for their
affirmative answers.
The section Writing in General was designed to collect the data that enables the mapping of students
previous experience and writing strategies, e.g. what kinds of writing tasks they have done previously,
what instructions on the process of writing they have received during their studies and what resources
they use when collecting data on a certain topic. The section Academic Writing focuses on the students
goals and expectations concerning their future academic writing tuition in connection with their
Bachelors thesis. This part also includes questions which reveal the students awareness of basic concepts
in academic writing style, such as citation styles, paraphrasing, citing and plagiarism.

The Bachelors degree students participating in the project were all students who studied English and
another subject, such as Czech, German, French, History, Mathematics, Civics, Geography and Special
Pedagogy. These respondents were involved in what is usually labelled a double-subject Bachelors study
programme. At the time when the needs analysis was carried out, most students did not have any teaching
experience since they had started their university education immediately after completing their secondary
education.
3.1 Writing in general: Results and discussion

The results from Section One show that when considered in percentages of occurrence all respondents
had approximately the same amount of experience in writing comparison essays (61-69%). The results
concerning other types of essays indicate greater differences: the students in G2 had more experience of
writing argumentative (84 vs. 59%) and advantages/disadvantages essays (86 vs. 78%). This finding is
very important, since "the presentation of information and [above all] argumentation is usually something
that language users are not very much aware of, but which is extremely important in academic writing"
(Schmied, 2011, p. 12). By contrast, both groups had little or no experience of producing research papers
(22-34%), which is hardly surprising when we realize that all were at the beginning of their studies. As
regards the type/token ratio, most respondents produced different types of academic genres only in a
few cases (1-5).
In agreement with what is usually recommended in academic style manuals (Bennett, 2009), most
respondents had received instruction on the overall organization of the text (85-92%) and its language
and style (67-79%) before writing an essay. Slightly more students from G2 than G1 (34 vs. 26%) had
been instructed on the process of argumentation, i.e. they had received instruction on how to form their
reasoning, justify their beliefs, and draw conclusions; this difference is quite surprising because more
students from G1 had already attended or were attending a course in general writing at the time of the
analysis. Only a few students in each group admitted they had not been given any instruction at all (7%)
and/or had been advised on grammar and citing (10-15%), which is rather unexpected since both
grammatical issues and referencing are traditionally mentioned among features included in manuals on
academic writing.
As regards courses in academic writing, 20 students from G1 (46%) and only 17 from G2 (22%) had
either had a chance to attend such a course or were attending it at the time of the analysis. Those who
had received advice and/or encouragement from their teachers mostly remembered they had been
advised to avoid plagiarism (87-93%) and understand and consider the format of the text they were
supposed to produce (52-57%). Almost half of all students (48%) had been encouraged to revise and edit
their texts. What is quite important is the much higher number of students in G2 who wrote drafts of
their texts (55 vs. 37%) and/or did some research before writing (42 vs. 20%). The same tendency is
evidenced with brainstorming (88 vs. 50%) and citing sources carefully (70 vs. 46%). This difference
seems to be caused by the students increasing awareness of the stages necessary to undertake when
producing an academic text, which also includes the necessity to consider the format of the text before
writing it, to prepare a draft of it, and, finally, to revise and edit the text. Since fewer students in G2 had
attended or were attending a course in academic writing, it is highly probable that they had received more
instructions by teachers in courses other than academic writing.
With regard to the possible (re)designing of a syllabus for an efficient academic writing course which
would help students acquire academic literacy necessary for success in their studies and future teaching
profession, the questionnaires also included items asking about research they had done prior to writing.
The results testify all respondents who claimed they did some research before writing an essay used the
internet as their main source. This comprises all students in G1 and 78% in G2. The second source of
reference to which many respondents often resorted was by order of frequency books (72% in G1 and
49% in G2). My results prove that the students in G2 were more aware of the possibility of using other
sources than the internet before writing an academic text, which is evidenced by the higher numbers of

those who used magazines/newspaper articles (32 vs. 21%), professional journals (13 vs. 10%) and also
personal interviews (14 vs. 10%).
Summing up, it can be stated the students who participated in the investigation in 2014 are more
confident in general about the process of writing an academic text. They more frequently tend to do
some research and brainstorming prior to writing, consider the format of the text, write drafts, attempt
to cite sources carefully, and revise and edit their texts. Moreover, they seem to be more aware of the
wide choice of sources they can resort to while writing, including magazines/newspaper articles and
professional journals.
3.2 Academic writing

Section Two comprises questions concerning students experience in academic writing and their
knowledge of some relevant academic style issues. In order to be able to apply my results to the process
of designing an efficient course, it was considered necessary to relate these findings to the field of interest
on which the students intended to concentrate in their Bachelors theses. It is assumed that, apart from
instruction on and practice in features typical of academic English in general, students need information
concerning the format of the thesis, its content and possible ways of argumentation, as well as instruction
on field-specific academic writing conventions, which go hand in hand with topics from the areas of
linguistics, literature and cultural studies.
The double-subject students can choose topics from linguistics, literature and cultural studies. ELT
methodology can be taken only in the Masters degree programme. Most students from G1 showed a
clear preference for cultural studies and linguistics (37 vs. 18%) and other subjects they were studying
including common core subjects, such as Psychology and Pedagogy (24%). By contrast, the results from
G2 indicated more equally distributed interests in particular fields of English language studies: literature
(19%), cultural studies (14%) and linguistics (10%). A relatively high number of respondents (35%) were
planning to write their theses in subjects other than English. It must be noted a few respondents (13%)
did not provide any answer when the questionnaire was administered, probably because they had not yet
decided about their main field of interest.
As regards the writing of Bachelors theses, the results show the students were highly motivated to
use sources, especially in order to master an appropriate style of academic writing (50% in G1; 35% in
G2), while only a few of them (15 vs. 9%) wanted to achieve a better overall quality of their work (cf.
mejrkov, Dane, & Svtl, 1999). The students from G2 were also motivated to use sources since they
expected to find relevant theoretical knowledge (4%) and learn how to avoid mistakes (4%). Similarly,
only a few respondents (3%) stated openly they used sources because they had learned they needed to
use them when writing an academic text. Among the sources they were planning to use, (hand)books
and/or textbooks (39% in G1 vs. 35% in G2), and internet and web pages (33 vs. 23%) were mentioned
most. In accordance with the students awareness that sources must be used in academic writing, the
respondents in G2 stated they were planning to use articles (4%), previous Bachelors theses (5%) and
Google and/or net translator (5%). It should be added about 20% of all students did not provide any
answer. These were mostly students intending to concentrate in their Bachelors theses on topics chosen
from their second major subject or common core subjects.
In order to find out what students have already learnt about academic English while studying on their
Bachelors programmes, they were asked questions about their knowledge of important academic style
issues before they started their university studies and at the moment when the investigation was carried
out. The highest number claimed that before starting their studies they had known what plagiarism was
(89% in G1 and 75% in G2) and a slightly lower number believed the same about paraphrasing (50 vs.
57%). More respondents in G1 (35%) than G2 (23%) knew what an academic writing style was, which is
probably caused by the fact that quite a lot of students in G2 (35%) intended to write their theses on
different topics than those from English language studies. The lowest number (24% in G1 and 12% in
G2) knew about possible citation and referencing styles, such as APA, MLA and Chicago style. In spite
of the differences, my findings have proved that it is crucial for students to become "aware of the
conventions involved in a BA thesis in their specialisation" (Schmied, 2011, p. 5) and thus it is of great

importance to introduce courses in academic writing as early as possible (cf. mejrkov, Dane, & Svtl,
1999), preferably in the first year of the Bachelors degree programme.
My results show that during their studies the students had improved in their knowledge of academic
style issues, above all in their knowledge of possible citation and referencing styles (54% in G1 and 83%
in G2); they also prove the students had received tuition in some of the most important academic style
concepts in the first half of their Bachelors studies.
When the respondents were asked whether they knew what an academic writing style was, only 20%
in G1 and 22% in G2 felt they did and that they also knew what its typical features were. Some of them
provided an adequate or partly correct definition, some of which follow:
- A way of writing at a high formal level, with regard to the form and relevant content and specific rules
of argumentation.
- Academic writing usually has topics that are of interest to the academic community. It has its rules
and is supposed to inform or argue about something.
- Style which is used for writing academic works essays, Bachelors thesis and has some rules we must
follow.
As illustrated, many Bachelors students knew the most important characteristics of academic English,
such as complexity, formality, precision, objectivity, explicitness, accuracy, hedging and responsibility
(Hamp-Lyons & Heasley, 2006). However, a higher number of students, namely 72% in G1 and 74% in
G2, noted they had heard the term academic writing style but were not totally familiar with its typical
features. Only a few (9% in G1; 3% in G2) admitted they were not familiar with the concept of academic
writing style at all, which is still quite a good result.
As evident from the responses that follow, the students who intended to attend a course on academic
writing expected to receive instruction in vocabulary and collocation and how to cite sources and avoid
plagiarism. They also admitted they expected advice from experienced people and feedback on mistakes
after writing an essay:
- It would be good to write essays and then talk about mistakes which students usually make.
- Actually I take part in an academic writing course and I especially appreciate vocabulary and collocation.
- What is acceptable and what is not; what is important to know before writing; I would like to hear some advice from
experienced people.
As regards the citing of sources used in academic texts, many respondents (48-51%) stated they had been
given instruction by their teachers and/or many (46%) answered they had tried to find out themselves or
both.
When asked to provide a definition of paraphrasing, the students from G2 offered much more
favourable answers. A considerably higher number in G2 (73 vs. 22%) provided an adequate definition.
Moreover, only 14% in G2, in contrast to 52% in G1, provided only a partly correct, inaccurate definition.
Here are some definitions found in the data:
- Using different/my own words for saying what someone else said and it is necessary to mention his name. (a right
definition)
- I use the idea of what somebody else said and use my own words to explain it to someone else. (a partly right
definition)
- I say what someone else has said in my own words. (a wrong definition)
As regards plagiarism, the respondents were offered four possible definitions. Most students recognized
the copying of material/someone elses ideas without acknowledging the source (87% in G1; 91% in G2)
as plagiarism. Next is the use of material from the internet without mentioning the source (74 vs. 64%)

and the paraphrasing of someone elses ideas without mentioning the source (70 vs. 39%). As evident,
my results concerning the last two definitions of plagiarism indicate the students in G2 had even greater
difficulty in recognizing plagiarism, which is not in harmony with the fact that 75% of them claimed they
knew what plagiarism was. By contrast, the greatest difficulty for those in G1 was to recognize as
plagiarism the use of material where the author has been identified but quotation marks to mark his/her
original words are not used (only 48%); surprisingly, this way of plagiarising was recognized by the
respondents from G2 in a relatively high number of cases (72%).
Summing up, it can be concluded most Bachelors students prefer to write their future thesis on a
topic related to English language studies, either literature or cultural studies. Although the needs analysis
has brought slightly better results from the respondents in G2, it can be maintained that most students
in both groups can recognize definitions of paraphrasing and plagiarism and need more instruction in
and practice in referencing.
4. Conclusions
Based on the results discussed, it can be confirmed that when entering university the students of English
included in the investigation have previously received tuition mainly in general writing skills and for many
of them academic English and its specific features are first encountered at university. Therefore it is
essential to continue building an efficient system of consistent courses while drawing on the students
previous experience and currect knowledge of academic English. A good syllabus for an academic writing
course should reflect the move from teaching general academic writing skills in the first year of the
Bachelors degree programme to field-specific academic writing conventions required in the later stages
of the Bachelors study so that the students can acquire academic literacy necessary for becoming
competent writers in academic English.
Future research should include further comparisons of students assessments of their needs,
expectations and views on academic writing courses and experience from cooperation with teachers of
academic writing and supervisors of Bachelors theses, as well as corpus-based analyses of Bachelors
theses exploring students skills in argumentation, paraphrasing, referencing, working with sources and
other specific features of academic English.
About the author

Renata Povoln is Associate Professor of English Linguistics at Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic. She specialises in discourse
analysis, pragmatics and conversation analysis, focusing mainly on coherence, cohesion and discourse markers in spoken and written
discourse. She is the author of two monographs, Spatial and Temporal Adverbials in English Authentic Face-to-Face Conversation (2003) and Interactive
Discourse Markers in Spoken English (2010), and co-editor of Coherence and Cohesion in Spoken and Written Discourse (2009) and Discourse
Interpretations: Approaches and Applications (2012). She is co-editor of the linguistics journal Discourse and Interaction. Email:
povolna@ped.muni.cz
References
Bennett, K. (2009). English academic style manuals: A survey. Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 8(1),
43-54.
mejrkov, S., Dane, F., & Svtl, J. (1999). Jak napsat odborn text (How to write a scientific text). Prague:
Leda.
Dontcheva-Navratilova, O., & Povoln, R. (2014). Analysing the development of academic writing skills
in English as a lingua franca. In C. Haase & N. Orlova (Eds.), ELT: Harmony and diversity (pp. 17-54).
Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
Dudley-Evans, T., & St John, M. J. (1998). Developments in English for specific purposes. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press
Duszak, A. (1997). Cross-cultural academic communication: A discourse-community view. In A. Duzsak
(Ed.), Culture and styles of academic discourse (pp. 1-39). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.

Flowerdew, J. (2000). Discourse community, legitimate peripheral participation, and the nonnative-
English-speaking scholar. TESOL Quarterly, 34(1), 127-150.
Flowerdew, J. (2008). Scholarly writers who use English as an additional language: What can Goffmans
"Stigma" tell us? Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 7(2), 77-86.
Hamp-Lyons, L., & Heasley, B. (2006). Study writing. A course in writing skills for academic purposes (2nd ed.).
Hewings, M. (2006). (Ed.), Academic writing in context. London: Continuum.
Hinkel, E. (2004). Teaching academic ESL writing. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Hyland, K. (2010). Constructing proximity: Relating to readers in popular and professional science. Journal
of English for Academic Purposes, 9(2), 116-127.
Hyland, K. (2006). English for academic purposes. An advanced resource book. Abingdon: Routledge.
Hyland, K. (2002). Options on identity in academic writing. ELT Journal, 56(4), 351-358.
Hyland, K. (1996). Second language writing. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Jordan, R. R. (1997). English for academic purposes. A guide and resource book for teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Mauranen, A., Hynninen, N., & Ranta, E. (2010). English as an academic lingua franca: The ELFA
project. English for Specific Purposes 29(3), 183-190.
Paltridge, B., & Starfield, S. (2007). Thesis and dissertation writing in a second language. Oxford: Routledge.
Schmied, J. (2011). Academic writing in Europe: A survey of approaches and problems. In J. Schmied
(Ed.), Academic writing in Europe: Empirical perspectives. REAL Studies 5 (pp. 1-22). Gttingen: Cuvillier
Verlag.

LIST OF AUTHORS
NAME PAGE
Jacqueline Aiello 293
Sami Basheer Al- Hasnawi 300
Laurie Anderson 136
Yasemin Bayyurt 184, 261, 308
Berat Baser 95
Bill Batziakas 220
Claudio Bendazzoli 376
Luciana Cabrini Simoes Calvo 267, 278
Laura Centonze 51
Thomas Christiansen 60
Esma Biricik Deniz 308
Derya Duran 178
Atef El Kadri 268
Michele Salles El Kadri 268, 278
Roxani Faltzi 368
Anny Georgountzou 330
Alexia Giannakopoulou 283
Telma Gimenez 122, 278
Enrico Grazzi 16
Maria Grazia Guido 156
Ana Monica Habjan 234
Iren Hovhannisyan 201, 359
Pietro Luigi Iaia 71
Melpomeni Ilkos 2
Tomokazu Ishikawa 87
Edgar Joycey 322
Dimitra Karoulla-Vrikki 145
Vasilia Kazamia 322
Elif Kemaloglu-Er 261
Sophia Kitsou 129
Kurt Kohn 25
Zeynep Kocoglu 193
Androniki Kouvdou 349
Faruk Kural 184, 193
Claudia Kunschak 227
Joshua Lee 227
Lucilla Lopriore 8
Jane Mandalios 2
Harushige Nakakoji 104
Paul L. Mc.Bride 341
Veronica Quinn Novotna 112
George ONeal 241

Yonca zkan 308
Sophia Papaefthymiou-Lytra 5
Taisa Pinetti Passoni 122
Renata Povolna 385
Mariarosaria Provenzano 71
Ratchaporn Rattanaphumma 212
Anamika Sharma 43
Domingos Savio Pimentel Sinqueira 315
Areti-Maria Sougari 359
Juliana da Silva Souza 315
Reiko Takahashi 33
Marta Tryzna 249
Natasha Tsantila 2, 330
Marina Tzoannopoulou 78
Paola Vettorel 8

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ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives

Deree-The American College of Greece: Cataloging-in-Publication Data

ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives

ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives i

ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives vi

ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives vii

ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives 1

Collecting ELF Corpora and describing ELF

ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives 2

Colloquium 2: ELF-aware teacher education. Convenor: Yasemin Bayyurt:

ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives 3

ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives 4

ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives 5

Revealing this is not the case of course.

ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives 6

ELF-aware classroom practices and teaching materials: Issues and new

ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives 7

Keywords: World Englishes, ELF, EFL classroom, teacher education

Roma Tre University. lucilla.lopriore@uniroma3.it

ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives 8

2.Shifting perspectives in the language classroom

2.1 A shift in language planning constructs

ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives 9

ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives 10

2.3 A shift in devising tasks and classroom activities

3. Exploitation of existing ELT materials

ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives 11

3.1.1 English in the world

3.2 World Englishes

ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives 12

4. Implications and concluding remarks

ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives 13

About the authors

ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives 14

Cambridge Scholars Publishing.

ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives 15

Network-based language teaching and ELF

Keywords: ELF, telecollaboration, intercultural competence

ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives 16

ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives 17

language pedagogy needs to go beyond focusing so predominantly on the reproduction of encoded

3. Intercultural telecollaboration: Italy-Finland

ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives 18

3.1 Step 1: Preparation

ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives 19

3.2 Step 2: Implementation

3.3 Step 3: Peer review

ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives 20

About the author

ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives 21

ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives 22

2) Do you think it's important to learn about other peoples' cultures?

ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives 23

6) How would you define the Italians/Finns?

7) Could you mention three famous Italian/Finnish people?

9) If yes, please explain why.

o More English vocabulary

12) How do you consider your command of ELF?

o Adequate to communicate with my foreign partners.

ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives 24

Teaching towards ELF competence in the English classroom

University of Tbingen, Germany. Email: Kurt.Kohn@uni-tuebingen.de

ELF: Pedagogical and interdisciplinary perspectives 25