This article is about the country. For the bird, see Turkey (bird). For other us es, see Turkey (disambiguation). "Trkiye" redirects here. For the newspaper, see Trkiye (newspaper). Coordinates: 39N 35E Republic of Turkey Trkiye Cumhuriyeti (Turkish) Flag of Turkey Flag Anthem: "Istikll Marsi" "The Independence March" Menu 0:00 Location of Turkey Capital Ankara 3955'N 3250'E Largest city Istanbul 411'N 2857'E Official languages Turkish Spoken languages See section[1] Demonym Turkish Turk Government Unitary parliamentary constitutional republic President Tayyip Erdogan Prime Minister Binali Yildirim Speaker of the Grand National Assembly Ismail Kahraman Legislature Grand National Assembly Succession to the Ottoman Empire Government of the Grand National Assembly 23 April 1920 Declaration of Republic 29 October 1923 Current constitution 7 November 1982 Area Total 783,356 km2 (302,455 sq mi) (37th) Water (%) 1.3 Population 2016 census 79,814,871[2] (18th) Density 102[3]/km2 (264.2/sq mi) (107th) GDP (PPP) 2016 estimate Total $1.665 trillion[4] (17th) Per capita $21,198[4] (60th) GDP (nominal) 2015 estimate Total $861 billion[5] (17th) Per capita $11,014[5] (62nd) Gini (2013) 40.0[6] medium 56th HDI (2014) Increase 0.761[7] high 72nd Currency Turkish lira ? (TRY) Time zone FET (UTC+3) Date format dd/mm/yyyy (AD) Drives on the right Calling code +90 ISO 3166 code TR Internet TLD .tr Website www.turkiye.gov.tr Turkey (Listeni/'t??rki/; Turkish: Trkiye ['ty?cije]), officially the Republic of Turkey (Turkish: About this sound Trkiye Cumhuriyeti (helpinfo); pronounced ['ty? cije d??um'hu?ijeti]), is a transcontinental country in Eurasia, mainly in Anato lia in Western Asia, with a smaller portion on the Balkan peninsula in Southeast Europe.[8] Turkey is a democratic, secular, unitary, parliamentary republic wit h a diverse cultural heritage.[9] Turkey is bordered by eight countries: Greece to the west; Bulgaria to the northwest; Georgia to the northeast; Armenia, the A zerbaijani exclave of Nakhchivan and Iran to the east; and Iraq and Syria to the south. The Aegean Sea is to the west, the Black Sea to the north, and the Medit erranean Sea to the south. The Bosphorus, the Sea of Marmara, and the Dardanelle s, which together form the Turkish Straits, divide Thrace and Anatolia; they als o separate Europe and Asia.[10] Turkey's location has given it geopolitical and strategic importance throughout history.[11][12] Turkey has been inhabited since the Paleolithic[13] by various ancient Anatolian civilisations, as well as Assyrians, Greeks, Thracians, Phrygians, Urartians an d Armenians.[14][15][16] After Alexander the Great's conquest, the area was Hell enized, a process which continued under the Roman Empire and its transition into the Byzantine Empire.[15][17] The Seljuk Turks began migrating into the area in the 11th century, starting the process of Turkification, which was accelerated by the Seljuk victory over the Byzantines at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071.[18 ] The Seljuk Sultanate of Rm ruled Anatolia until the Mongol invasion in 1243, wh en it disintegrated into small Turkish beyliks.[19] In the mid-14th century the Ottomans started uniting Anatolia and created an emp ire encompassing much of Southeast Europe, West Asia and North Africa, becoming a major power in Eurasia and Africa during the early modern period. The empire r eached the peak of its power in the 16th century, especially during the reign (1 520 1566) of Suleiman the Magnificent. It remained powerful and influential for tw o more centuries, until important setbacks such as the Great Turkish War (1683 99) and the Russo-Turkish War (1768 74) forced it to cede strategic territories in Eu rope, signalling the loss of its former military strength and wealth. The Tanzim at reforms of the 19th century, which aimed to modernise the Ottoman state, prov ed to be inadequate in most fields, and failed to stop the dissolution of the em pire.[20] Established in 1876 and suspended by Sultan Abdlhamid II in 1878, the O ttoman constitution and parliament were restored with the Young Turk Revolution in 1908. In the same year, Bulgaria declared its independence and Austria-Hungar y annexed Bosnia-Herzegovina. The Italo-Turkish War (1911 1912) encouraged the Bal kan League to declare the Balkan Wars (1912 1913), which caused the Ottoman Empire to lose the majority of its remaining territories in Europe and triggered the l argest ethnic cleansing of Turks in the Balkan peninsula since the Russo-Turkish War (1877 78), resulting in the mass migrations of Turks to Anatolia. The disappo intment in these losses led to the 1913 Ottoman coup d'tat which effectively put the country under the control of the Three Pashas, who decided to join the Centr al Powers of World War I (1914 1918) that were ultimately defeated by the Allied P owers. During the war, the Ottoman government committed ethnic cleansing or geno cide against its Armenian, Assyrian and Pontic Greek citizens.[21] Following the war, the conglomeration of territories and peoples that formerly comprised the Ottoman Empire was divided into several new states.[22] The Turkish War of Independence (1919 1922), initiated by Mustafa Kemal Atatrk and his colleagues against the occupying Allies, resulted in the abolition of monarc hy in 1922 and the establishment of the Republic of Turkey in 1923, with Atatrk a s its first president.[23] Turkey's official language is Turkish, a Turkic langu age spoken natively by 84.5% of the population.[24] According to polls, between 78.1% and 81.3% of the country's citizens identify themselves as ethnic Turks.[2 4] Other ethnic groups include legally recognised (Armenians, Greeks, Jews) and unrecognised (Kurds, Circassians, Arabs, Albanians, Bosniaks, Georgians, etc.) m inorities.[24] Kurds are the largest ethnic minority group, making up approximat ely 18% of the population.[9] The vast majority of the citizens are Sunni Muslim , while Alevi Muslims are the largest religious minority, followed by Christians and Jews of various denominations.[9] Turkey is a charter member of the UN, an early member of NATO, and a founding member of the OECD, OSCE, OIC and G-20. Aft er becoming one of the first members of the Council of Europe in 1949, Turkey be came an associate member of the EEC in 1963, joined the EU Customs Union in 1995 and started accession negotiations with the European Union in 2005.[25] Turkey' s growing economy and diplomatic initiatives have led to its recognition as a re gional power.[26][27][28][29] Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 2.1 Prehistory of Anatolia and Eastern Thrace 2.2 Antiquity and Byzantine period 2.3 Seljuks and the Ottoman Empire 2.4 Republic of Turkey 3 Administrative divisions 4 Politics 4.1 Human rights 4.2 Law 4.3 Foreign relations 4.4 Military 5 Geography 5.1 Biodiversity 5.2 Climate 6 Economy 6.1 History 6.2 Tourism 6.3 Infrastructure 6.4 Science and technology 7 Demographics 7.1 Languages 7.2 Religion 7.2.1 Islam 7.2.2 Christianity 7.2.3 Judaism 7.2.4 Agnosticism and atheism 7.3 Education 7.4 Healthcare 8 Culture 8.1 Visual arts 8.2 Literature and theatre 8.3 Music and dance 8.4 Architecture 8.5 Cuisine 8.6 Sports 8.7 Media and cinema 9 See also 10 Notes 11 References 12 Further reading 13 External links Etymology Main article: Name of Turkey The name of Turkey (Turkish: Trkiye) is based on the ethnonym Trk. The first recor ded use of the term "Trk" or "Trk" as an autonym is contained in the Old Turkic ins criptions of the Gktrks (Celestial Turks) of Central Asia (c. 8th century).[30] Th e English name Turkey first appeared in the late 14th century and is derived fro m Medieval Latin Turchia.[31] The Greek cognate of this name, Tourkia (Greek: ??????a) was used by the Byzanti ne emperor and scholar Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus in his book De Administra ndo Imperio,[32][33] though in his use, "Turks" always referred to Magyars.[34] Similarly, the medieval Khazar Empire, a Turkic state on the northern shores of the Black and Caspian seas, was referred to as Tourkia (Land of the Turks) in By zantine sources.[35] The medieval Arabs referred to the Mamluk Sultanate as al-D awla al-Turkiyya (State of Turkey).[36][37] The Ottoman Empire was sometimes ref erred to as Turkey or the Turkish Empire among its European contemporaries.[38] History Main article: History of Turkey See also: History of Anatolia and History of Thrace Prehistory of Anatolia and Eastern Thrace Main articles: Prehistory of Anatolia and Prehistory of the Balkans See also: Ancient Anatolians, Ancient kingdoms of Anatolia, and Thracians Some henges at Gbekli Tepe were erected as far back as 9600 BC, predating those o f Stonehenge, England by over seven millennia.[39] The Lion Gate in Hattusa, capital of the Hittite Empire. The city's history date s back to the 6th millennium BC.[40] The Anatolian peninsula, comprising most of modern Turkey, is one of the oldest permanently settled regions in the world. Various ancient Anatolian populations have lived in Anatolia, from at least the Neolithic period until the Hellenistic period.[15] Many of these peoples spoke the Anatolian languages, a branch of th e larger Indo-European language family.[41] In fact, given the antiquity of the Indo-European Hittite and Luwian languages, some scholars have proposed Anatolia as the hypothetical centre from which the Indo-European languages radiated.[42] The European part of Turkey, called Eastern Thrace, has also been inhabited sin ce at least forty thousand years ago, and is known to have been in the Neolithic era by about 6000 BC.[16] Gbekli Tepe is the site of the oldest known man-made religious structure, a templ e dating to circa 10,000 BC,[39] while atalhyk is a very large Neolithic and Chalco lithic settlement in southern Anatolia, which existed from approximately 7500 BC to 5700 BC. It is the largest and best-preserved Neolithic site found to date a nd in July 2012 was inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.[43] The settlemen t of Troy started in the Neolithic Age and continued into the Iron Age.[44] The earliest recorded inhabitants of Anatolia were the Hattians and Hurrians, no n-Indo-European peoples who inhabited central and eastern Anatolia, respectively , as early as ca. 2300 BC. Indo-European Hittites came to Anatolia and gradually absorbed the Hattians and Hurrians ca. 2000 1700 BC. The first major empire in th e area was founded by the Hittites, from the 18th through the 13th century BC. T he Assyrians conquered and settled parts of southeastern Turkey as early as 1950 BC until the year 612 BC.[45][46] Urartu re-emerged in Assyrian inscriptions in the 9th century BC as a powerful northern rival of Assyria.[47] Following the collapse of the Hittite empire c. 1180 BC, the Phrygians, an Indo- European people, achieved ascendancy in Anatolia until their kingdom was destroy ed by the Cimmerians in the 7th century BC.[48] Starting from 714 BC, Urartu sha red the same fate and dissolved in 590 BC,[49] when it was conquered by the Mede s. The most powerful of Phrygia's successor states were Lydia, Caria and Lycia. The gymnasium of Sardis, capital of ancient Lydia (c. 1200 BC 546 BC), the success or state of ancient Arzawa (15th 13th centuries BC). Walls of the acropolis of Troy VIIa, the site of the Trojan War (c. 1200 BC) tha t inspired Homer's Iliad. Antiquity and Byzantine period Main articles: Classical Anatolia, Byzantine Anatolia, and States in late mediev al Anatolia See also: Byzantine Empire, Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia, Achaemenid Empire, and Successors of the Byzantine Empire The Library of Celsus in Ephesus was built by the Romans in 114 117 CE.[50][51] Th e Temple of Artemis in Ephesus, built by king Croesus of Lydia in the 6th centur y BC, was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Originally a church, later a mosque, and now a museum, the Hagia Sophia in Istan bul was built by the Byzantine emperor Justinian I in 532 537 CE.[52] Starting around 1200 BC, the coast of Anatolia was heavily settled by Aeolian an d Ionian Greeks. Numerous important cities were founded by these colonists, such as Miletus, Ephesus, Smyrna (now Izmir) and Byzantium (now Istanbul), the latte r founded by Greek colonists from Megara in 657 BC. The firs 9.83 MB, el
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Oligarchy power of few Aristocracy Military junta Plutocracy Stratocracy Timocracy Theocracy Kritar chy Particracy Autocracy power of one Despotism Illiberal democracy Semi-authoritarian Dictatorship Hybrids Anocracy Power ideology Monarchy vs. Republic socio-political ideologies Absolute Constitutional Directorial Legalist Parliamentary Semi-presidential Presidential Authoritarian vs. Libertarian socio-economic ideologies Capitalism Colonialism Communism Distributism Feudalism Socialism Anarchism vs. Statism civil-liberties ideologies Anarchy Minarchy Totalitarianism Global vs. Local geo-cultural ideologies Central City-state National unity World Politics portal v t e A supranational union is a type of multinational political union where negotiate d power is delegated to an authority by governments of member states. The concep t of supranational union is sometimes used to describe the European Union (EU), as a new type of political entity.[1] The EU is the only entity which provides f or international popular elections,[dubious discuss] going beyond the level of p olitical integration normally afforded by international treaty. The term "supran ational" is sometimes used in a loose, undefined sense in other contexts, someti mes as a substitute for international, transnational or global. Another method o f decision-making in international organisations is intergovernmentalism, in whi ch state governments play a more prominent role. Contents 1 Origin as a legal concept 2 Distinguishing features of a supranational union 3 Supranationalism in the European Union 3.1 Categorising European supranationalism 4 Comparing the European Union and the United States 5 Democratic deficit in the EU and other supranational unions 6 Other international organisations with some degree of integration 7 See also 8 Notes and references 9 External links Origin as a legal concept With its founding Statute of 1949 and its Convention of Human Rights and Fundame ntal Freedoms, which came into force in 1953, the Council of Europe created a sy stem based on human rights and the rule of law. Robert Schuman, French Foreign m inister, initiated the debate on supranational democracy in his speeches at the United Nations,[2] at the signing of the Council's Statutes and at a series of o ther speeches across Europe and North America.[3] The term "supranational" occurs in an international treaty for the first time (t wice) in the Treaty of Paris, 18 April 1951. This new legal term defined the Com munity method in creating the European Coal and Steel Community and the beginnin g of the democratic re-organisation of Europe. It defines the relationship betwe en the High Authority or European Commission and the other four institutions. In the treaty, it relates to a new democratic and legal concept. The Founding Fathers of the European Community and the present European Union sa id that supranationalism was the cornerstone of the governmental system. This is enshrined in the Europe Declaration made on 18 April 1951, the same day as the European Founding Fathers signed the Treaty of Paris.[4] "By the signature of this Treaty, the participating Parties give proof of their determination to create the first supranational institution and that thus they a re laying the true foundation of an organised Europe. This Europe remains open t o all nations. We profoundly hope that other nations will join us in our common endeavour." This declaration of principles that included their judgement for the necessary f uture developments was signed by Konrad Adenauer (West Germany), Paul van Zeelan d and Joseph Meurice (Belgium), Robert Schuman (France), Count Sforza (Italy), J oseph Bech (Luxembourg), and Dirk Stikker and Jan van den Brink (The Netherlands ). It was made to recall future generations to their historic duty of uniting Eu rope based on liberty and democracy under the rule of law. Thus, they viewed the creation of a wider and deeper Europe as intimately bound to the healthy develo pment of the supranational or Community system.[4] This Europe was open to all nations who were free to decide, a reference/or an i nvitation and encouragement of liberty to the Iron Curtain countries. The term s upranational does not occur in succeeding treaties, such as the Treaties of Rome , the Maastricht Treaty, the Treaty of Nice or the Constitutional Treaty or the very similar Treaty of Lisbon. Distinguishing features of a supranational union A supranational union is a supranational polity which lies somewhere between a c onfederation that is an association of States and a federation that is a state.[ 1] The European Economic Community was described by its founder Robert Schuman a s midway between confederalism which recognises the complete independence of Sta tes in an association and federalism which seeks to fuse them in a super-state.[ 5] The EU has supranational competences, but it possesses these competences only to the extent that they are conferred on it by its member states (Kompetenz-Kom petenz).[1] Within the scope of these competences, the union exercises its power s in a sovereign manner, having its own legislative, executive, and judicial aut horities.[1] The supranational Community also has a chamber for organised civil society including economic and social associations and regional bodies.[6] Unlike states in a federal super-state, member states retain ultimate sovereignt y, although some sovereignty is shared with, or ceded to, the supranational body . Supranational agreements encourage stability and trust, because governments ca nnot break international accords at a whim. The supranational action may be time -limited. This was the case with the European Coal and Steel Community, which wa s agreed for 50 years with the possibility of renewal. Supranational accords may be permanent, such as an agreement to outlaw war between the partners. Full sov ereignty can be reclaimed by withdrawing from the supranational arrangements but the member state would also lose the great advantages offered by mutualities, e conomies of scale, common external tariffs and other commonly agreed standards s uch as improved international trust and democracy and common external positions. [citation needed] A supranational union, because it is an agreement between sovereign states, is b ased on international treaties. The European treaties in general are different f rom classical treaties as they are constitutionalizing treaties, that is, they p rovide the basis for a European level of democracy and European rule of law. The y have something in the nature of a constitution and like the British constituti on, not necessarily a single document. They are based on treaties between its me mber governments but have normally to undergo a closer democratic scrutiny than other treaties because they are more far-ranging, affecting many areas of citize ns' lives and livelihoods. Decision-making is partly intergovernmental and partly supranational within the Community areas. The latter provides a higher degree of institutional scrutiny b oth via the Parliament and through the Consultative Committees. Intergovernmenta lism provides for less democratic oversight, especially where the institution su ch as the Council of Ministers or the European Council takes place behind closed doors, rather than in a parliamentary chamber.[citation needed] A supranational authority can have some independence from member state governmen ts in specific areas, although not as much independence as with a federal govern ment.[citation needed] Supranational institutions, like federal governments, imp ly the possibility of pursuing agendas in ways that the delegating states did no t initially envision. Democratic supranational Communities, however, are defined by treaty and by law. Their activity is controlled by a Court, democratic insti tutions and the rule of law.[citation needed] The union has legal supremacy over its member states (only) to the extent that i ts member state governments have conferred competences on the union. It is up to the individual governments to assure that they have full democratic backing in each of the member states. The citizens of the member states, though retaining t heir nationality and national citizenship, additionally become citizens of the u nion.[1] The European Union, the only clear example of a supranational union, has a parli ament with legislative oversight, elected by its citizens.[1] To this extent, a supranational union like the European Union has characteristics that are not ent irely dissimilar to the characteristics of a federal state like the United State s of America. However, the differences in scale become apparent if one compares the United States federal budget with the budget of the European Union (which am ounts only to about one percent of combined GDP) or the size of the federal civi l service of the United States with the Civil Service of the European Union.[7] Because decisions in some EU structures are taken by majority votes, it is possi ble for a member state to be obliged by the other members to implement a decisio n.[citation needed] The states retain the competence for adding this additional supranational competence.[citation needed] Supranationalism in the European Union European Union Flag of the European Union This article is part of a series on the politics and government of the European Union Executive [show] Legislative [show] Judiciary [show] Central Bank [show] Court of Auditors [show] Other bodies [show] Policies and issues [show] Elections [show] Law [show] European Council [show] v t e Historically the concept was introduced and made a concrete reality by Robert Sc human when the French Government agreed to the principle in the Schuman Declarat ion and accepted the Schuman Plan confined to specific sectors of vital interest of peace and war. Thus commenced the European Community system beginning with t he European Coal and Steel Community. The six founder States (France, Italy, Ger many, The Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg) agreed on the goal: making "war not only unthinkable but materially impossible". They agreed about the means: puttin g the vital interests, namely coal and steel production, under a common High Aut hority, subject to common democratic and legal institutions. They agreed on the European rule of law and a new democratic procedure. The five institutions (besides the High Authority) were a Consultative Committee (a chamber representing civil society interests of enterprises, workers and con sumers), a parliament, and a Council of government ministers. A Court of Justice would decide disputes coming from governments, public or private enterprises, c onsumer groups, any other group interests or even an individual. A complaint cou ld be lodged in a local tribunal or national courts, where appropriate. Member s tates have yet to fulfil and develop the articles in the Paris and Rome treaties for full democracy in the European Parliament and other institutions such as th e Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of Regions. Schuman described supranational unions as a new stage in human development. It c ontrasted with destructive nationalisms of the nineteenth and twentieth centurie s that began in a glorious patriotism and ended in wars.[8] He traced the beginn ing concept of supranationality back to the nineteenth century, such as the Post al Union, and the term supranational is used around the time of the First World War. Democracy, which he defined as "in the service of the people and acting in agreement with it", was a fundamental part of a supranational community. However , governments only began to hold direct elections to the European Parliament in 1979, and then not according to the treaties. A single electoral statute was spe cified in the treaty for Europe's first community of coal and steel in 1951. Civ il society (largely non-political) was to have its own elected chamber in the Co nsultative Committees specific to each Community as democratically agreed, but t he process was frozen (as were Europe's parliamentary elections) by Charles de G aulle and other politicians who opposed the Community method. Today supranationalism only exists in the two European Communities inside the EU : the Economic Community (often called the European Community although it does n ot legally cover all State activities) and Euratom (the European Atomic Energy C ommunity, a non-proliferation community, in which certain potentialities have be en frozen or blocked). Supranational Communities provide powerful but generally unexploited and innovatory means for democratic foreign policy, by mobilising ci vil society to the democratically agreed goals of the Community. The first Community of Coal and Steel was agreed only for fifty years. Oppositio n, mainly by enterprises which had to pay a small European tax of less than 1% a nd government ministers in the Council, led to its democratic mandate not being renewed. Its jurisprudence and heritage remains part of the European Community s ystem. De Gaulle attempted to turn the European Commission into a political secretariat under his control in the Fouchet Plan but this move was thwarted by such democr ats in the Benelux countries as Paul-Henri Spaak, Joseph Luns and Joseph Bech as well as a large wave of other pro-Europeans in all the Community countries. The supranational Community method came under attack, not only from de Gaulle bu t also from other nationalists and Communists. In the post-de Gaulle period, rat her than holding pan-European elections under a single statute as specified in a ll the treaties, governments held and continue to hold separate national electio ns for the European Parliament. These often favour the major parties and discrim inate against smaller, regional parties.[9] Rather than granting elections to or ganised civil society in the consultative committees, governments created a thre e-pillar system under the Amsterdam Treaty and Maastricht Treaty, mixing intergo vernmental and supranational systems. Two pillars governing External policy and Justice and Home affairs are not subject to the same democratic controls as the Community system. In the Lisbon Treaty and the earlier nearly identical Constitutional Treaty, the democratic independence of the five key institutions is further blurred. This m oves the project from full democratic supranationalism in the direction of not j ust intergovernmentalism but the politicisation of the institutions, and control by two or three major party political organisations. The Commission defines key legal aspects of the supranational system because its members must be independe nt of commercial, labour, consumer, political or lobby interests (Article 9 of t he Paris Treaty). The Commission was to be composed of a small number of experie nced personalities, whose impartiality was beyond question. As such, the early p residents of the Commission and the High Authority were strong defenders of Euro pean democracy against national, autocratic practice or the rule of the strong o ver the weak. The idea in the Constitutional and Lisbon Treaties is to run the European Commis sion as a political office. Governments would prefer to have a national member i n the Commission, although this is against the principle of supranational democr acy. (The original concept was that the Commission should act as a single impart ial college of independent, experienced personalities having public confidence. One of the Communities was defined in the treaty with a Commission with fewer me mbers than the number of its member states.) Thus, the members of the Commission are becoming predominantly party-political, and composed of sometimes rejected, disgraced or unwanted national politicians. The first president of the High Authority was Jean Monnet, who never joined a po litical party, as was the case with most of the other members of the Commissions . They came from diverse liberal professions, having made recognised European co ntributions. Governments also wish to retain the secrecy of their deliberations in the Counci l of Ministers or the European Council, which discusses matters of the most vita l interest to European citizens. While some institutions such as the European Pa rliament have their debates open to the public, others such as the Council of Mi nisters and numerous committees are not. Schuman wrote in his book, Pour l'Europ e[10] (For Europe), that in a democratic supranational Community "the Councils, committees and other organs should be placed under the control of public opinion that was effectual without paralysing their activity nor useful initiatives". Categorising European supranationalism Joseph H. H. Weiler, in his seminal[peacock term] work The Dual Character of Sup ranationalism, states that there are two main facets to European supranationalis m, although these seem to be true of many supranational systems. These are: Normative supranationalism: The Relationships and hierarchy which exist betw een Community policies and legal measures on one hand and the competing policies and legal measures of the member states on the other (the executive dimension) Decisional supranationalism: The institutional framework and decision making by which such measures are initiated, debated, formulated, promulgated and, fin ally, executed (the legislative-judicial dimension) In many ways, the split sees the separation of powers confined to merely two bra nches. Comparing the European Union and the United States This section may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. The specific problem is: The table is illegible on mobile (February 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) In the Lisbon Treaty, the distribution of competences in various policy areas be tween member states and the European Union is redistributed in three categories. In 19th century USA, it had exclusive competences only. Competences not explici tly listed belong to lower levels of governance. EU exclusive competence The Union has exclusive competence to make directives and conclude international agreements when provided for in a Union legislative act. the customs union the establishing of the competition rules necessary for the functioning of t he internal market monetary policy for the member states whose currency is the euro the conservation of marine biological resources under the common fisheries p olicy common commercial (trade) policy Pix.gif Pix.gif Pix.gif Pix.gif Pix.gif EU shared competence Member states cannot exercise competence in areas where the Union has done so. the internal market social policy, for the aspects defined in this Treaty economic, social and territorial cohesion agriculture and fisheries, excluding the conservation of marine biological r esources environment consumer protection transport trans-European Networks energy the area of freedom, security and justice common safety concerns in public health matters, for the aspects defined in this Treaty Common Foreign and Security Policy Pix.gif Pix.gif Pix.gif Pix.gif Pix.gif EU supporting competence The Union can carry out actions to support, co-ordinate or supplement member sta tes' actions. the protection and improvement of human health industry culture tourism education, youth, sport and vocational training civil protection (disaster prevention) adminislism in the colonial era was often framed purely in opposition to col onial rule and was therefore frequently unclear or contradictory about its other objectives.[7] According to historian Robert I. Rotberg, African nationalisms w ould not have emerged without colonialism.[8] Its relation to Pan-Africanism was also ambiguous with many nationalist leaders professing Pan-African loyalties b ut still refusing to commit to supranational unions. African nationalists of the period have also been criticised for their continued use of ideas and policies associated with colonial states.[7] In particular, nationalists usually attempte d to preserve national frontiers created arbitrarily under colonial rule after i ndependence and create a national sense of national identity among the hetrogeno us populations inside them.[8] Sub-Saharan Africa Ghanaian nationalists celebrating the 50th anniversary of national independe nce in 2007 See also Africa portal iconCulture portal History portal iconPolitics portal African Nationalist Movement African socialism African studies African Union Ethnic nationalism Organisation of African Unity Pan-African colours Types of nationalism By country Afrikaner nationalism Ethiopian nationalism Libyan nationalism Nigerian nationalism Notes African nationalism Archived 21 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine. Rotberg 1966, p. 33. Davidson 1978, p. 165. Davidson 1978, pp. 166-7. Davidson 1978, p. 167. Davidson 1978, p. 202. Davidson 1978, p. 374. Rotberg 1966, p. 37. References Davidson, Basil (1978). Let Freedom Come: Africa in Modern History (First US ed.). Boston: Little-Brown. ISBN 0-316-17435-1.. Rotberg, Robert I. (May 1966). "African Nationalism: Concept or Confusion?" . The Journal of Modern African Studies. 4 (1): 33 46. JSTOR 159414 . Further reading Almond Gabriel and James S. Coleman, The Politics of the Developing Areas (1971) Eze, M. The Politics of History in Contemporary Africa (Springer, 2010.) Hodgkin, Thomas. Nationalism in Colonial Africa (1956). Hussain, Arif. "The educated elite: collaborators, assailants nationalists: A note on African nationalists and nationalism." Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria 7.3 (1974): 485-497. Ohaegbulam, Festus Ugboaja. Nationalism in colonial and post-colonial Africa (University Press of America, 1977). Shepherd, George W., junior (1962). The Politics of African Nationalism: Cha llenge to American Policy. New York: F.A. Praeger. [show] v t e Pan-Africanism [show] v t e Africa articles Categories: African and Black nationalismPolitics of Africa Navigation menu Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Article Talk Read Edit View history Search Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Italiano Edit links This page was last modified on 4 February 2017, at 01:05. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply. B 7 Notes 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External links Terminology The word nation was used before 1800 in Europe to refer to the inhabitants of a country as well as to collective identities that could include shared history, l aw, language, political rights, religion and traditions, in a sense more akin to the modern conception.[11] Nationalism is a newer word; in English the term dates from 1844, although the c oncept is older.[12] It became important in the 19th century.[13] The term incre asingly became negative in its connotations after 1914. Glenda Sluga notes that "The twentieth century, a time of profound disillusionment with nationalism, was also the great age of internationalism."[14] History The growth of a national identity was expressed in a variety of symbolic ways, i ncluding the adoption of a national flag. Pictured, the Union Jack of a newly cr eated United Kingdom in 1801, formed by the merger of the Kingdoms of Great Brit ain and Ireland. "Nationalism" is the term historians used to characterize the modern sense of na tional political autonomy and self-determination from the late 18th century onwa rds.[15] For example, German nationalism emerged as a reaction against Napoleoni c control of Germany as the Confederation of the Rhine around 1805 14.[16][17] Lin da Colley in Britons, Forging the Nation 1707 1837 (Yale University Press, 1992) e xplores how the role of nationalism emerged about 1700 and developed in Britain reaching full form in the 1830s. Typically historians of nationalism in Europe b egin with the French Revolution (1789), not only for its impact on French nation alism but even more for its impact on Germans and Italians and on European intel lectuals.[18] With the emergence of a national public sphere and an integrated, country-wide e conomy in the 18th-century the British people began to identify with the country at large, rather than the smaller units of their family, town or province. The early emergence of a popular patriotic nationalism took place in the mid-18th ce ntury, and was actively promoted by the British government and by the writers an d intellectuals of the time.[19] National symbols, anthems, myths, flags and nar ratives were assiduously constructed by nationalists and widely adopted. The Uni on Jack was adopted in 1801 as the national one.[20] Thomas Arne composed the pa triotic song "Rule, Britannia!" in 1740,[21] and the cartoonist John Arbuthnot i nvented the character of John Bull as the personification of the English nationa l spirit in 1712.[22] The political convulsions of the late 18th century associated with the American and French revolutions massively augmented the widespread appeal of patriotic na tionalism.[23][24] The Prussian scholar Johann Gottfried Herder (1744 1803) originated the term in 17 72 in his "Essay on the Origins of Language." stressing the role of a common lan guage.[25][26] He attached exceptional importance to the concepts of nationality and of patriotism "he that has lost his patriotic spirit has lost himself and the whole worlds about himself", whilst teaching that "in a certain sense every human perfection is national".[27] 19th century Main article: International relations of the Great Powers (1814 1919) The political development of nationalism and the push for popular sovereignty cu lminated with the ethnic/national revolutions of Europe. During the 19th century nationalism became one of the most significant political and social forces in h istory; it is typically listed among the top causes of World War I.[28][29] Napoleon's conquests of the German and Italian states around 1800 06 played a majo r role in stimulating nationalism and the demands for national unity.[30] Germany Revolutionaries in Vienna with German tricolor flags, May 1848 In the German states west of Prussia Napoleon abolished many of the old or medie val relics, such as dissolving the Holy Roman Empire in 1806.[31] He imposed rat ional legal systems and demonstrated how dramatic changes were possible. For exa mple, his organization of the Confederation of the Rhine in 1806 promoted a feel ing of nationalism. Nationalists sought to encompass masculinity in their quest for strength and unity.[32] It was Prussian chancellor Otto von Bismarck who ach ieved German unification through a series of highly successful short wars agains t Denmark, Austria and France which thrilled the pan-German nationalists in the smaller German states. They fought in his wars and eagerly joined the new German Empire, which Bismarck ran as a force for balance and peace in Europe after 187 1.[33] in the 19th century German nationalism was promoted by Hegelian-oriented academi c historians who saw Prussia as the true carrier of the German spirit, and the p ower of the state as the ultimate goal of nationalism. The three main historians were Johann Gustav Droysen (1808 1884), Heinrich von Sybel (1817 1895) and Heinrich von Treitschke (1834 1896). Droysen moved from liberalism to an intense nationali sm that celebrated Prussian Protestantism, efficiency, progress, and reform, in striking contrast to Austrian Catholicism, impotency and backwardness. He ideali zed the Hohenzollern kings of Prussia. His large-scale History of Prussian Polit ics (14 vol 1855 1886) was foundational for nationalistic students and scholars. V on Sybel founded and edited the leading academic history journal, Historische Ze itschrift and as the director of the Prussian state archives published massive c ompilations that were devoured by scholars of nationalism.[34] The most influential of the German nationalist historians, was Treitschke who ha d an enormous influence on elite students at Heidelberg and Berlin universities. [35] Treitschke vehemently attacked parliamentarianism, socialism, pacifism, the English, the French, the Jews, and the internationalists. The core of his messa ge was the need for a strong, unified state a unified Germany under Prussian super vision. "It is the highest duty of the State to increase its power," he stated. Although he was a descendant of a Czech family he considered himself not Slavic but German: "I am 1000 times more the patriot than a professor."[36] Italy Main articles: Italian nationalism and Italian unification People cheering as Giuseppe Garibaldi enters Naples in 1860 Italian nationalism emerged in the 19th century and was the driving force for It alian unification or the "Risorgimento" (meaning the Resurgence or revival). It was the political and intellectual movement that consolidated different states o f the Italian peninsula into the single state of the Kingdom of Italy in 1861. T he memory of the Risorgimento is central to Italian nationalism but it was based in the liberal middle classes and proved weak.[37] Two major groups remained op posed, the South (called the Mezzogiorno) and the devout Catholics. The new gove rnment treated the South as a conquered province with ridicule for its "backward " and poverty stricken society, its poor grasp of the Italian language, and its traditions. The liberals had always been strong opponents of the pope and the ve ry well organized Catholic Church. The pope had been in political control of cen tral Italy; he lost that in 1860 and lost Rome in 1870. He had long been the lea der of opposition to modern liberalism and refused to accept the terms offered b y the new government. He called himself a prisoner in the Vatican and forbade Ca tholics to vote or engage in politics. The Catholic alienation lasted until 1929 . The liberal government under Francesco Crispi sought to enlarge his political base by emulating Bismarck and firing up Italian nationalism with a hyper-aggres sive foreign policy. It crashed and his cause was set back. Historian R.J.B. Bos worth says of his nationalistic foreign policy that Crispi: pursued policies whose openly aggressive character would not be equaled unti l the days of the Fascist regime. Crispi increased military expenditure, talked cheerfully of a European conflagration, and alarmed his German or British friend s with this suggestions of preventative attacks on his enemies. His policies wer e ruinous, both for Italy's trade with France, and, more humiliatingly, for colo nial ambitions in East Africa. Crispi's lust for territory there was thwarted wh en on 1 March 1896, the armies of Ethiopian Emperor Menelik routed Italian force s at Adowa ... in what has been defined as an unparalleled disaster for a modern army. Crispi, whose private life (he was perhaps a trigamist) and personal fina nces...were objects of perennial scandal, went into dishonorable retirement.[38] Meanwhile, a third major group emerged that was hostile to nationalism as radica l socialist elements became a force in the industrial North, and they too reject ed liberalism. Italy joined the Allies in the First World War after getting prom ises of territory, but its war effort was a fiasco that discredited liberalism a nd paved the way for Benito Mussolini and his fascism. That involved a highly ag gressive nationalism that led to a series of wars, an alliance with Hitler's Ger many, and humiliation and hardship in the Second World War. After 1945 the Catho lics returned to government and tensions eased somewhat, but the Mezzogiorno rem ained poor and ridiculed. The working class now voted for the Communist Party, a nd it looked to Moscow not Rome for inspiration, and was kept out of the nationa l government even as it controlled industrial cities across the North. In the 21 st century the Communists are gone but political and cultural tensions remained high as shown by separatist Padanian nationalism in the North.[39] Beginning in 1821, the Greek War of Independence began as a rebellion by Greek r evolutionaries against the ruling Ottoman Empire. Greece Main article: Greek War of Independence The Greek drive for independence from the Ottoman Empire in the 1820s and 1830s inspired supporters across Christian Europe, especially in Britain. France, Russ ia and Britain intervened to make this nationa #18 ?at? ???st?a??? ???f?????, G?????? ??a?d?? (et?f?as?) Download (PDF) | Read onlineMirrors: [1] [2]Reviews