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Gilt by Association: A Review of Post World War II American Higher Education

Amanda Mitchell

Siena Heights University

November 23, 2016

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Gilt by Association: A Review of Post World War II American Higher Education

The state of higher education in the United States has gone through many significant

changes since its emergence in the seventeenth century. One of the most important eras for

change was experienced during the years 1945-1970, referred to as the Golden Age of higher

education (Thelin, 2011). This post-war timespan brought about laws, titles, and innovations in

the education system that would affect higher education for years to come. Three main changes

stand out for this period including the introduction of the GI Bill, the introduction of

standardized testing, and desegregation of higher education institutions.

GI Bill

History. At the end of World War II, many soldiers returned from combat with little

prospect for work. The transition from war-time to peace-time was a major concern for the

federal government and the American citizens alike. The Servicemans Readjustment Act, passed

in 1944, was focused on remedying the situation that many veterans faced by offering

unemployment benefits to be paid for one year in the hope that factories could be retooled for

peace-time work. Expansion of the law included education benefits for the veterans as well as a

monthly allowance for living expenses. These education benefits included tuition, fees, books,

and supplies necessary to be paid directly to the institution that the veteran attended. Upon its

adoption, sceptics thought that the program would fail due to the opinion that most veterans

would reject the offer for an education in favor of seeking a job; however, the benefits were

surprisingly well received and access to education increased greatly (Thelin, 2011).

Veterans as students. Many returning veterans took advantage of the GI Bill and

enrolled in higher education institutions throughout the country. The legislation protected the

veterans from wasting their benefits on diploma mills and unaccredited programs by requiring
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that the institutions they attended be federally approved (Thelin, 2011). In a study conducted by

Laub and Sampson, research suggests that many veterans applied their education benefits toward

gaining a high school diploma, enrolling in vocational programs, and attending community

colleges rather than pursuing a traditional education path at the university level. These

opportunities offered veterans long-term advantages in the labor market and bridged the gap

between the middle class and those who may not have had the opportunity to attend higher

education institutions prior to their military service.

Many veterans attended traditional universities and participated in campus life activities

including sports, fraternities, and the arts. Varsity sports experienced a large influx of men trying

out for teams which created a highly competitive atmosphere in college sports. Another

important social impact the GI Bill had on higher education was the dynamic shift back toward a

male-dominated campus that lasted until the 1970s. Although the education benefits were

extended to women, the enrollment information demonstrated more men utilizing the GI Bill

during this period. The impact on racial relations was limited during this era even though GI Bill

benefits were also extended to black veterans; the separate but equal doctrine still reigned and

many of these students would have to wait for appropriate legislature to remedy the inequalities

that they experienced (Thelin, 2011).

Effects on higher education. In addition to social changes, the GI Bill brought about

many institutional changes in higher education. The increase in the number of students applying

for higher education institutions prompted a major change in the way colleges reviewed

applicants; decisions had to be made quickly even though the students rarely had traditional

records to review. Furthermore, colleges needed to ensure that the students were moving through

academic programs at a steady pace to make room for the incoming veterans ready to use their
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benefits; colleges saw the introduction of waiving courses, advanced placement testing, and

awarding credit for experience to aid in pushing the admissions and education processes along.

Campuses also saw significant physical changes after the GI Bill was passed. Many schools did

not have sufficient space for the number of incoming students and elected to build classrooms,

laboratories, dormitories, and other essential structures to accommodate the increasing

enrollments (Thelin, 2011).

Impact on the future. One of the lasting impacts of the GI Bill is the impetus for the

creation of the middle class as it is known today. The barriers faced by many veterans after

World War II were broken down and the average life experience in America was changed

forever. Moving forward, the effects of the GI Bill are still prevalent in many ways. It provided

the framework for future legislation to be drafted and administered at the federal level and to

spark a positive effect on those who utilized the program (Neilberg, 2007.)

Standardized Testing

Introduction to the SAT. As a new age of higher education dawned and students were

applying with renewed vigor, institutions had to develop methods to review applications and

accept appropriate students without spending an inordinate amount of time on each application.

The College Entrance Examination Board, or CEEB, is an educational board that was mostly

associated with prestigious colleges and universities beginning in the early 1900s (Thelin,

2011). In 1926, the CEEB developed a standardized test known as the Scholastic Aptitude Test,

or more simply the SAT (Atkinson & Geiser, 2009). After World War II, the test was modified

from its original version of extended essays toward test sections that could be easily graded.

While the reactions to the SAT and its effectiveness were mixed, it proved to be a substantial tool

in college admissions and preparation for college and is still utilized today (Thelin, 2011).
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Impact on students. According to Atkinson and Geiser (2009), the SAT proved to be an

effective tool in college admissions but its reach and impact on students was questioned. The test

easily identified students who were prepared for college without regard to their socioeconomic

status, race, or gender. This greatly improved the equity in college admissions especially after

World War II. Conversely, some critics challenged that the SAT was not an accurate measure of

intelligence or aptitude and pigeon-holed students into a score that did not reflect them

accurately. Furthermore, the SAT was believed to be too far removed from the high school

curriculum to be considered fair when measuring a students abilities.

In response to the negative feedback about the SAT, another standardized test was

developed that would aim to flow from standards in assessing a students aptitude. The ACT, or

American College Testing, emerged in 1959 as a competitor to the SAT to offer a different

perspective on standardized testing. Unlike the SAT, this test was developed from curriculum

surveys and focused more on the learning content than on a students ability to test well. Both

tests have experienced significant shortcomings in accurately portraying a students readiness for

college courses and are therefore considered secondary to a students achievement tests during

high school (Atkinson & Geiser, 2009).

Future issues. Moving forward, college admissions are still heavily reliant on

standardized test scores resulting in massive test preparation and changes in teaching methods

for high school students. Future issues that could potentially effect standardized tests range from

testing sites and whether they are conducive to all students all the way to whether the test

material accurately reflects what colleges expect incoming freshman to have already mastered.

While the tests still provide a quick look into whether or not a student should be admitted, they
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do not offer a full look into a given students potential at the collegiate level and should be

regarded as only a part of the admissions process.

Desegregation of Higher Education

History. Desegregation of higher education institutions was a frequently visited topic in

the post World War II era and affected many students of all races. While many institutions

reported that they were working to end segregation on their campuses, most efforts were dismal

at best. Black students who took the first steps toward desegregation by attending traditionally

white schools were met with hostility and inequality from all aspects of their educational

experience. According to Thelin (2011), these students endured isolation, shunning, and

sabotage, along with exclusion from the real college life (p.304). Schools in the South had an

especially obstinate attitude toward Black students and were some of the last to conform to

desegregation practices. The separate but equal doctrine that most schools followed to reduce

conflict was only marginally successful and seldom offered equal opportunities (Thelin, 2011, p.

305).

Legal aspect. The legal implications of desegregation from 1945-1970 focused on the

educational institution and saw the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964; this act consisted of

guarantees to students that offered a safe and equal learning environment. Per the act, no person

in the United States shall, on the ground of race, color, or national origin, be excluded from

participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subject to discrimination under any program or

activity receiving Federal financial assistance (Leas & Stefkovich, 1994). Once this law went

into effect, schools were under more strict controls about which students were accepted to their

programs and how those students were treated on campus. In order to keep their federal funding,
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the institutions had to keep up with the provisions in the law and treat all students equally.

Although it took time, many institutions eventually conformed to the provisions of the law.

Outcomes. Over the past several decades, studies have been conducted to measure the

results of the passage of desegregation laws for black students. One of these studies conducted

by Crain and Wells (1994) attempted to measure the long-term relationships between black

students who were educated in a desegregated environment and their experiences later in life.

According to the research, desegregated black students have many advantages as compared to

students who had a segregated learning experience including but not limited to desegregated

social and professional networks, desegregated employment, and careers in white-collar

professions (Crain & Wells, 1994). Overall, desegregation had positive outcomes and offered

many more opportunities for black students.

Future issues. Although there have been many advances in desegregating academia,

there are still racial issues being experienced by students of all races across the nation. The fact

remains that all citizens deserve equal rights and therefore should be treated as equals. Higher

education institutions face great pressure from outside sources that expect them to treat all

students as equal and offer them the same opportunities regardless of their race. Moving forward,

judiciary entities have been armed with legislature that protects individual constitutional rights

regarding academic issues involving race. While the prejudices of individuals cannot be checked

automatically, the laws that guarantee equal rights stand in place thanks to the legislature pursued

in the post World War II era.

Conclusion

Higher education in America experienced numerous changes during the post World War

II era that stood the test of time. The introduction of the GI Bill, standardized testing, and
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desegregation were all instrumental in the development of higher education as it is known today.

Without such innovations, there is no telling where higher education would be or if it would have

had such a profound impact of the numerous students who relied on it for their educations.
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References

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Laub, J. H., & Sampson, R. J. (1996). Socioeconomic achievement in the life course of

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