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4/9/2016 SurfaceWaterDrainageforLowIncomeCommunities(WorldHealthOrganisation):Acknowledgements

SurfaceWaterDrainageforLowIncomeCommunities(WorldHealthOrganisation)

(introduction...)
Acknowledgements
1.Surfacewaterdrainageinurbanareas
2.Drainageoptions
3.Rehabilitationandmaintenance
4.Communityparticipation
Annex1.Glossary
Annex2.Designcalculations
Annex3.Termsofreferenceforconsultants
Annex4.Resourcesfortheorientationofthedrainagecommittee

(introduction...)

WorldHealthOrganization
Geneva1991

Acknowledgements

TheUnitedNationsEnvironmentProgrammeandtheWorldHealthOrganizationwishtothankallthosewhohavetakenpartinthepreparationofthis
publication,inparticularthetwoprincipalauthors:DrS.CairncrossoftheLondonSchoolofHygieneandTropicalMedicine,andDrE.A.R.Ouano,
consultingengineer,Manila,Philippines.TheauthorsdrewheavilyonatrainingmodulepreparedbytheUnitedNationsCentreforHumanSettlements
(Habitat),whosecooperationinprovidingthismaterialisgratefullyacknowledged.Finally,thanksareduetoGTZ(AgencyforTechnicalCooperation,
FederalRepublicofGermany)foritsgenerousfinancialassistance,whichmadepossiblethepublicationofthisbook.

TheWorldHealthOrganizationisaspecializedagencyoftheUnitedNationswithprimaryresponsibilityforinternationalhealthmattersandpublichealth.
Throughthisorganization,whichwascreatedin1948.thehealthprofessionsofsome165countriesexchangetheirknowledgeandexperiencewiththeaim
ofmakingpossibletheattainmentbyallcitizensoftheworldbytheyear2000ofalevelofhealththatwillpermitthemtoleadasociallyandeconomically
productivelife.

BymeansofdirecttechnicalcooperationwithitsMemberStates.andbystimulatingsuchcooperationamongthem.WHOpromotesthedevelopmentof
comprehensivehealthservices,thepreventionandcontrolofdiseases,theimprovementofenvironmentalconditions,thedevelopmentofhealth
manpower,thecoordinationanddevelopmentofbiomedicalandhealthservicesresearch,andtheplanningandimplementationofhealthprogrammes.

Thesebroadfieldsofendeavourencompassawidevarietyofactivities,suchasdevelopingsystemsofprimaryhealthcarethatreachthewholepopulation
ofMembercountriespromotingthehealthofmothersandchildrencombatingmalnutritioncontrollingmalariaandothercommunicablediseases
includingtuberculosisandleprosyhavingachievedtheeradicationofsmallpox.promotingmassimmunizationagainstanumberofotherpreventable
diseasesimprovingmentalhealthprovidingsafewatersuppliesandtraininghealthpersonnelofallcategories.

Progresstowardsbetterhealththroughouttheworldalsodemandsinternationalcooperationinsuchmattersasestablishinginternationalstandardsfor
biologicalsubstances,pesticidesandpharmaceuticalsformulatingenvironmentalhealthcriteriarecommendinginternationalnonproprietarynamesfor
drugsadministeringtheInternationalHealthRegulationsrevisingtheInternationalClassificationofDiseases,Injuries,andCausesofDeathand
collectinganddisseminatinghealthstatisticalinformation.

FurtherinformationonmanyaspectsofWHO'sworkispresentedintheOrganization'spublications.

WHOLibraryCataloguinginPublicationData

Surfacewaterdrainageforlowincomecommunities.

1.Drainage,Sanitary
2.Cityplanning
3.Consumerparticipation
4.Developingcountries

ISBN9241544163(NLMClassification:WA671)

WORLDHEALTHORGANIZATION1991

PublicationsoftheWorldHealthOrganizationenjoycopyrightprotectioninaccordancewiththeprovisionsofProtocol2oftheUniversalCopyright
Convention.ForrightsofreproductionortranslationofWHOpublications,inpartorintoto,applicationshouldbemadetotheOfficeofPublications,
WorldHealthOrganization,Geneva,Switzerland.TheWorldHealthOrganizationwelcomessuchapplications.

Thedesignationsemployedandthepresentationofthematerialinthispublicationdonotimplytheexpressionofanyopinionwhatsoeveronthepartofthe
SecretariatoftheWorldHealthOrganizationconcerningthelegalstatusofanycountry,territory,cityorareaorofitsauthorities,orconcerningthe
delimitationofitsfrontiersorboundaries.

Thementionofspecificcompaniesorofcertainmanufacturers'productsdoesnotimplythattheyareendorsedorrecommendedbytheWorldHealth
Organizationinpreferencetoothersofasimilarnaturethatarenotmentioned.Errorsandomissionsexcepted,thenamesofproprietaryproductsare
distinguishedbyinitialcapitalletters.

TYPESETININDIA
PRINTEDINENGLAND
90/8386Macmillan/Clays6500

1.1Theproblem

Manylowincomecommunitiesindevelopingcountriesconsiderstormwaterdrainagetobetheirmosturgentneedasfarasurbaninfrastructureis
concerned.Thisispartlybecausetheirhousesareoftenbuiltonunsuitableland.Inareassufficientlyclosetothecitycentreforthejourneytoworktobe
affordable,landpricestendtobebeyondtheirmeans.Theonlylandtheycanafford,oronwhichtheownerswillallowthemtostayassquatters,island
thatisunsuitableforotherpurposes.Thisisoftenonsteephillsidessubjecttoerosionandlandslides,oritislowlying,marshylandoftensubjectto
flooding.

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Historically,mostofthemajorcitiesofthedevelopingworldarosealongthecoastasports,oftenontheestuariesofriverswhichservedascommercial
arteriesforthetransportofgoodstoandfromthehinterland.Itisthecoastalregionsoftheworldthathavethehighestaveragerainfall(Fig.1),buttheflat
estuarineterrainandoftenimpermeablealluvialsoilsmakedrainagedifficult.

Eveninthearidareaswhereaveragerainfallislow,tropicalrainfallwhenitcomesismoreintensethanintemperateclimates,andthelackofvegetation
andofadequatedrainagemeansthattorrentsofwatercanforminminutes,causingdamagetohomesandpropertywhichwilltakeyearstorepair.
Rainwaterisnottheonlyproblem.Leakingwatermains,wastewaterfromwashingandbathing,andthesewagefromoverflowingseptictanksandblocked
sewersconstitutehealthhazards,damagebuildings,andcancausefloodingifanadequatedrainagesystemdoesnotexist.

Thelackofdrainageisespeciallyseriouswherethegroundiseithersteeplyslopingorveryflat.Onverysteepsites,asinpartsofLuanda,RiodeJaneiro
andHongKong,stormwaterflowsfastandviolently,damagingbuildings,erodingthelandandsometimescausinglandslides.Soilerodedfromahillside
isusuallydepositedatthefootoftheslopethesoilerodedinasinglerainstormhasbeenknowntoburyhousescompletelyinthisway.Inothercasesthe
landisflatincitiessuchasBangkok,Calcutta,Colombo,DaresSalaam,Jakarta,Guayaquil,Lagos,ManilaandRecife,manyneighborhoodsareflooded
atleastonceortwiceayear,andpeoplehavetolearntocopewithwaterinsidetheirdwellings.Sometimespeoplebuildtheirhousesonstiltsandconnect
thembyelevatedpathways.However,theirconstructionisrickety,anditisveryeasytoloseone'sbalanceandfallintothemuddy,pollutedwater
underneath.

Fig.1.Areasoftheworldwithmorethan1.5maverageannualrainfall

1.2Healthconsequences
Deathsduetodrowninginfloodsorburialbeneathlandslidesorcollapsinghomesareperhapsthemostdramaticsignsofthesufferingthatdrainagecan
helptoalleviate.Lessnoticeabletoanoutsider,butofgreaterimpactontheresidents'livesinapoorcommunity,isthesteadytollofdisease,disabilityand
deathtakenbystandingwater.

Firstinpublichealthimportancearethemany"faecaloral"infectionsacquiredbyconsumptionofcontaminatedfoodanddrink.Themicroscopic
pathogensthatcausethemarefoundintheexcreteofinfectedpeopleoranimals.Surfacewaterbecomescontaminatedwiththesepathogensfromsources
suchasblockedsewersandoverflowingseptictanks,andoftenfromdefecationintheopenbylivestockandbypeoplewhohavenotoilet.This
contaminatedsurfacewatercantheninfectpeopleinmanyways.Itcancontaminatetheirhands,theirutensilsortheirdrinkingwatersupply(Fig.2).
Childrenareparticularlyexposedtoinfectionwhenplayingorbathinginsurfacewater.

Fig.2.Stagnantwateranddiseasetransmissionthehealthconsequencesofpoordrainage

Thefaecaloraldiseasesincludethewellknownwaterrelateddiseasesthatareoftenfatal,suchascholeraandtyphoidfever,butalsothemanycommon
diarrhoealdiseasesthatparticularlyaffectyoungchildrenindevelopingcountries,contributingtomalnutritionanddeath.Infact,thesediarrhoealdiseases
areoftenresponsibleformorechildmortalitythananyothercauseofdeath.Importantmeasuresfortheircontrolareanimprovedwatersupplyandbetter
sanitation,butthesearealmostimpossibletoinstallinareassubjecttofrequentflooding.

Incountrieswhereschistosomiasisisendemic,poorlydrainedurbanareaspresentampleopportunitiesfortransmissionofthedisease(Fig.2).
Contaminationofstandingwaterwiththefaecesofinfectedpersons(or,foroneformofthedisease,withtheirurine)enablestheschistosomes,the
microscopicparasitesthatcausethisinfection,toreachthesmallaquaticsnailsinwhosebodiestheymultiply.Fromeveryinfectedsnail,thousandsof
schistosomesemergeandswiminthewater.Localresidentsbecomeinfectedwhentheyenterthewaterandtheschistosomespenetratetheirskin.

Schistosomiasismaysometimesbethoughtofasaruraldisease,butitisoftennolessprevalentinurbanareaswheredrainageislacking.Someofthe

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speciesofsnailhostthriveandbreedrapidlyintheheavilypollutedstagnantwaterwhichoftenaccumulatesthere.Moreover,asingleinfectedpersoninan
urbanareacancausesufficientcontaminationtoinfectverylargenumbersofthepeoplelivinginhisorhercrowdedneighbourhood,becauseevenasmall
numberofsnails,onceinfected,canproducemanythousandsofschistosomesoveralongperiodoftime.

Anotherimportantgroupofdiseasesrelatedtopoordrainageistransmittedbymosquitos.Differentdiseasesaretransmittedbydifferentspeciesof
mosquito,andeachchoosesdifferentbodiesofwaterinwhichtobreed.Somepreferwaterthatisheavilypolluted,somepreferitcleansomebreedin
floodedareas,someinthedrainsthemselvesiftheyareblockedbyrubbishorvegetationorarelaidunevenlysothatthereisstandingwaterinthem.

Malariaisthebestknownofthemosquitoborneinfections,andistransmittedbyAnophelesspecies,manyofwhichbiteanimalsaswellashumans.
Transmissioncanbeparticularlyintenseinurbanareaswheretherearerelativelyfewanimalstodivertthevectorspeciesofmosquitosfromhumanblood
meals.Anophelinemesquitesdonotusuallybreedinheavilypollutedwater,butcanmultiplyinswamps,pools,puddles,andalsoinstreamsand
stormwatercanalsinwhichthereisstandingwater.Anophelinemosquitosbreedinginpoorlydrainedareascantransmitmalariatoadjacentpartsoftown.
Aparticulardangerinacityisthesignificantamountofinternationaltraveltoandfromit,whichincreasestheriskofimportationofnewandpossibly
drugresistantstrainsofthemalariaparasite.

Anotherfamilyofmosquitos,theAedesspecies,cantransmitseveralviruses,suchasthosethatcausedengueandyellowfever.Urbanepidemicsmay
result.Inrecentyears,amorevirulentformofdenguehasbeenobserved,knownasdenguehaemorrhagicfever(DHF).BothDHFandyellowfeverare
oftenfatal.Aedesmosquitosusuallybreedinclearwater,forinstanceindomesticstoragevessels,buttheyhavealsobeenfoundtomultiplyinswampy
andfloodedareas,andinopendrainsandstormwatercanals.

Finally,thereistheparticularlyurbanproblemofbancroftianfilariasis,whichcancauseelephantiasis(irreversibleswellingofthelegs)aswellasother
disablingsymptoms.AlthoughtransmittedinruralareasbyAnophelesspecies,whichappeartobetheoriginalvectorsofthedisease,itseemstohave
adaptedtotransmissioninurbanareasbytheCulexpipiensgroup(Fig.3),whichgenerallymultiplyinheavilypollutedbodiesofwater.Transmissionof
thediseaseisarelativelyinefficientprocess,sothatmanyyearsofexposuretointensenighttimemosquitobitingareneededfortheaveragecaseto
develop.Nevertheless,morethan80millionpeopleinthedevelopingworldareinfected.Inmanycountries,suchasIndia,itisespeciallyprevalentin
urbanareas.FilariasistransmissionbyCulexpipiensmosquitosisnowcommoninAsia,isoccurringincitiesontheeasterncoastsofAfricaandSouth
America,andmaysoonbegininthelargepoorlydrainedurbanareasofWestAfricawhereboththediseaseandthevectormosquitoalreadyexist.

Fig.3.GeographicaldistributionofCulexpipiensmosquitosandbancroftianfilariasis(from:Curtis,C.F.&Feachem,R.G.SanitationandCulexpipiens
mosquitoes:abriefreview.Journaloftropicalmedicineandhygiene,84:1725(1981)).

Drainageconstructionisaneffectivemosquitocontrolmeasure.Itischeaperthanapplicationofinsecticidesanddoesnothavetoberepeatedregularlyin
manycases,itcostslessthanayear'ssupplyofinsecticide.Unlikeinsecticides,itcanhavenodetrimentaleffectontheenvironmentonthecontrary,it
constitutesanenvironmentalimprovement.Moreover,thedangerofmosquitos'developingresistance,astheyhavebeenknowntodotoinsecticides,does
notapply.

1.3Implicationsfortownplanning
Theurbanpoormayoftenbuildonlandwithdrainageproblems,butgoodurbanplanningcanhelptoavoidmakingthoseproblemsworse.

Oneofthesimplestplanningmeasuresistosetoutregularplotsbeforehousebuildingstartsinanarea,leavingspaceforwellalignedroads.Adequate
roadwidthandalignmentwillmakeitmucheasiertobuilddrainswhentheyareneededlater.Siteandserviceschemesareexpensiveandtakealongtime
toplanandimplement,butsucha"siteonly"schemeshouldbewithinthemeansofanymunicipality.Oncetheoveralllayoutofaneighbourhoodhasbeen
planned,residents(orfutureresidents)canbeshownhowtosetoutindividualrectangularplotswithnothingmoresophisticatedthanatapemeasure,or
evenapieceofstringwithknotsatregularintervals.Somedegreeofdisciplineoverhousebuildingisnecessary,toensurethatplotboundariesare
observed,andtopreventhousesfromobstructingexistingdrainagepathsorfromoccupyinglandneededforfuturedrainageworks.Theresidents
themselvesareinthebestpositiontoenforcethisdiscipline.

Thedevelopmentofresidentialareascanincreasedrainageproblemsinotherways.Asvegetationisremoved,thecapacityofthegroundtoretainwater
andresisterosionisreduced.Theincreasingareacoveredbyroofsandroadsurfacesdiminishestheareaofgroundintowhichwatercaninfiltrate,leaving
agreatervolumeofwatertoberemovedbydrainage.Lowlyingareassubjecttofloodingplayaroleinstoringthewaterfromsuddenrainstormsuntilit
candrainawaygraduallywhenthesearefilledinforhousing,theresultmaybefloodinginotherareas.

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Roadsmustbebuiltabovethefloodlevel,andtheresultingembankmentscanobstructnaturallinesofdrainage,orcanchannelwateralongsidethem
causingerosion.Insomecases,asinpartsofBangkok,roadshavebeenbuiltbyfillinginexistingchannels,causingseriousflooding.Wherethenatural
drainagechannelsarenotfilledinorobstructedbybuildings,theyoftenbecomeblockedbydomesticrefuse.

Ontheotherhand,drainageimprovementsinoneareaarecloselylinkedwithdrainageproblemselsewhere,andarebestplannedinthecontextofthecity
asawhole,oratleastofawholecatchmentarea.Betterdrainageinoneneighbourhoodmeansthatsurfacewaterflowsawayfaster,imposingagreater
burdenonthecapacityofthesystemdownstream.Atthesametime,drainageimprovementsatalocallevelmaybeoflittleuseifwaterstillbacksup
becausethedownstreamcapacityisinsufficient.ThishasbeenaseriousprobleminJakarta,whereimprovedlocaldrainswereoftensubmergedbywater
heldbackbyconstrictionsinthecity'smajorcanals.

Ofcourse,itispossibleforacommunitytomakelocalimprovements,evenwithoutthefullinvolvementofthecityplanningauthorities,butatleastsome
considerationshouldbegiventothebodyofwaterintowhichanewdrainagesystemwilldischarge.Whetherthisisamainsewer,river,lakeorsea,the
maximumleveltowhichitfloodswillnormallysettheminimumlevelforthedrainagesystem.Thedischargeofdrainagewateralsoaffectsthequalityof
the"receivingwater"intowhichitflows,especiallywhensewageorseptictankeffluentisreleasedintothedrains.InBangalore,forexample,the
dischargeofsewageintoseveraldamsinthecityledtointensebreedingofmosquitosuntilmeasuresweretakentobreachorbypassthem.

1.4Theneedforcollaboration
Drainageimprovementsarenotonlyajobforadrainageengineer.Theyinvolveseveralprofessionsandneedthecooperationofseveralsectorsiftheyare
tosucceed.Drainageisofgreatconcerntotownplannersand,ifsomehouseshavetoberelocatedtomakeroomfornewdrains,architectsandbuilders
mayalsobeinvolved.Drainsareusuallybuiltbesideroads,andtheroadsdepartmentwillhaveaninterestbecausegooddrainageisessentialtoprotectthe
roadsurface.

Maintenanceofthedrainagesystemdependsonanefficientserviceforcollectionofsolidwaste,aswithoutonethedrainswillsoonfillwithrubbish.
Moreover,thestreetcleaningandsolidwastecollectionservicewilloftenbethemostsuitablemunicipaldepartmenttocleanthedrainsregularly,asitwill
havethenecessaryvehiclestoremovethesolidmaterialssuchassilt,vegetationandrefusethatwillaccumulateinthem.Thehealthdepartmentwillbe
concernedtoensurethatthecleaningisdonewellandregularly,andthatthedrainsarenotbuiltinsuchawayastomakethisdifficultortopromote
diseasetransmission.Thisinturninvolvesseveralspecialities,suchasmedicalentomology.

Thecommunityhasakeyroletoplay.Whetherornotlocalresidentsparticipateinconstruction,theircooperationisneededinobtainingthenecessary
land.Somepeoplemayhavetosacrificepartoftheirpremises,oragreetorelocatetheirhouses,tomakeroomforthenewdrains.Whetherornotthe
communitytakesresponsibilityformaintainingthesystem,aresponsibleattitudeontheirpartwillbeagreathelptowardsitsupkeep,reducingtheamount
ofrubbishthrownintothedrains,anddamagedonetothembyvehicles,buildingworkorvandalism.Asingleuncooperativeresidentwhoblocksthewater
flow,orneglectstocleanhisorhersectionofthedrainageline,canharmtheinterestsofthewholecommunity.Properdrainagethereforecallsforthe
closecooperationofthecommunityanditsleaders,andalsoofthosewhoworkwiththecommunity,suchaseducatorsandhealthworkers.

Acooperativeattitudeisnotenough,however.Effectivecollaborationbetweenmunicipaldepartmentsandinvolvementofthecommunityhave
institutionalimplications.Attheleveloflocalgovernment,themostfundamentalconsiderationisthatsomedepartmentatleastmusthavetheprimary
responsibilityforurbandrainage.Inmanycitiesthereisnocleardefinitionofwhoisresponsibleforcleaningandmaintainingthenaturalandmanmade
drainagesystem,andinsomeitisnotevenclearwhoistobuildit,orwhichnationalgovernmentdepartmentistofinancemajordrainageworks.An
exampleoftheabsurdsituationsthatcanariseinsuchcasesisforonedepartmenttoremoverubbishfromthedrains,forthesolidwastecollectionservice
torefusetocollecttherubbishfromwhereitisdumpedontheadjoiningroads,andfortheroadsdepartmenttosweepitbackintothedrainsagain!

Ideally,theregularcleaningofurbandrainsshouldbethejobofthestreetcleaningandsolidwastecollectionservice.However,othersectorswillusually
beresponsiblefordrainageconstructionandrepairs,sothatseveralsectorsareinevitablyinvolved.Somearrangementforregularliaisonmeetingsshould
thereforebesetup,andasingledepartmentshouldberesponsibleforconveningthem.Thehealthdepartmentshouldberepresented.

Someinstitutionalarrangementsarealsoneededinthecommunity,tomobilizeandcoordinatethecommunity'scontributionandtoensurethatitisnot
underminedbytheantisocialbehaviourofaminority.Ifpossible,itisbesttobuildonexistingcommunityinstitutions,althoughthesemayalreadybefully
occupiedwithotherdaytodaytasks.Inmanycases,ausefulinitialstepwillbetoformadrainagecommitteetoorganizethecommunity'scontributionto
planning,implementationandmaintenanceofdrainageimprovements.Communityinstitutionsarediscussedfurtherinsection4.

1.5Developmentofadrainageprogramme

Atypicalneighbourhooddrainageimprovementprogrammepassesthroughfourprincipalphases:

initiation,
planning,
construction,and
maintenance.

Thefirsttwoofthesearefundamental,astheydetermineallthatfollows.

Initiationofaprogrammemayarisefromthecommunity'sownrealizationoftheneedforbetterdrainage,possiblyafterexperiencingaparticularlyserious
floodorseeingdrainageimprovementsinotherneighbourhoods.Inmanycases,however,itiscatalysedbysomeexternalagency,suchasthemunicipality,
apoliticalpartyornongovernmentalorganization,orbyaconcernedindividualsuchasateacherorhealthworker.Thisphaseinvolvesidentificationofthe
needfordrainage,formationofaconsensusregardingthescopeoftheproblemandthedesiredsolution,andestablishmentofadrainagecommittee,at
leastonaninterimbasis.Wheretheinitiativecomesfromoutside,itisalsolikelytoincludeacertainamountofworkinthecommunitytodevelop
awarenessoftheproblemandmobilizesupportforadrainageprogramme.

Planningisthemostimportantphaseofall,asitinvolvesthemostfundamentaldecisions.Themoredecisionsthatcanbetakenattheplanningstage,the
betteritisforthefutureoftheprogramme.

Themostbasicdecisionforthecommunityiswhethertoimplementthedrainageprogrammeonaformalbasisthroughthelocalauthorities,ortoattempta
"doityourself"projectonitsown.Formaldrainageprojectstendtobeexpensive,sothatthefirsttaskofthedrainagecommitteeistolobbyandpersuade
thelocalauthoritytoagreetosupporttheprogramme(unlessofcoursetheauthorityitselfinitiatedthescheme).Theauthoritywillusuallyhavetoobtain
financefromsomeotheragency,whichislikelytorequireafeasibilitystudyanddesignbyaconsultingengineerbeforeacontractorisgiventhejobof
buildingthenewdrainagesystem.Allthistakestimetypicallythreetotenyearsandmembersofthecommunitymayprefertocarryoutsome"doit
yourself"interimmeasuresthemselves,whiletheywait(Fig.4).

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Fig.4.Possiblesequencesofeventsinsolvinglocaldrainage

Whicheverapproachisfollowed,itisimportanttodefinenotonlythelayoutanddesignofthenewdrainagesystembutalsothecommunity'sroleinthe
constructionandmaintenancephases,andhowitscontributionistobeorganized.

Constructionandmaintenancearediscussedindetailintheremainderofthisbook.Thefollowingdescriptionofhowthesectionsarearrangedmayhelpto
guidethereader.

Thetechnicalaspectsofdrainagedesignandconstructionareconsideredinsection2.Muchofthisinformationwillalsobeofinteresttonontechnical
readers.Sections2.1and2.2areespeciallyimportantastheyexplainbasicconceptsinlaylanguage.Section2.9describeshowacommunitycanplanits
owndrainageimprovementswithoutexternalsupport,andwillalsobeofinteresttoanengineermakingafirstapproachtoalocaldrainageproblem.

Section3discussesrehabilitationandmaintenance.Mostofthechapteristechnical,butlayreaderswillnotfinditdifficulttofollow.Institutionalaspects
ofmaintenancearediscussedinsection3.4.

Section4considersparticipationbythecommunityindrainageschemes,asubjectwhoseimportancetendstobeunderrated.Thereadershouldatleast
lookatsection4.1beforedecidingwhethertoreadtherest!

AglossaryoftermsisprovidedinAnnex1,andotherannexescoverdesigncalculations,termsofreferenceforconsultants,andresourcesforthe
orientationofthedrainagecommittee.

1.6Selectedreading
CAIRNCROSS,S.Urbandrainageindevelopingcountries.Parasitologytoday,2(7):200202(1986).

CAIRNCROSS,S.&FEACHEM,R.G.Environmentalhealthengineeringinthetropics:anintroductorytext.Chichester,JohnWiley&Sons,1983.

CURTIS,C.F.&FEACHEM,R.G.SanitationandCulexpipiensmosquitoes:abriefreview.Journaloftropicalmedicineandhygiene,84:1725(1981).

DAVIDSON,F.&PAYNE,G.Urbanprojectsmanual:aguidetoupgradingandnewdevelopmentprojectsaccessibletolowincomegroups.Liverpool,
LiverpoolUniversityPress,1983.

HARPHAM,T.,ed.Intheshadowofthecity:healthcareandtheurbanpoor.Oxford,OxfordUniversityPress,1988.

MCAUSLAN,P.Urbanlandandshelterforthepoor.London,InternationalInstituteforEnvironmentandDevelopment,1985.

TABIBZADEH,I.etal.Spotlightonthecities.Improvingurbanhealthindevelopingcountries.Geneva,WorldHealthOrganization,1989.

Urbanizationanditsimplicationsforchildhealth.Potentialforaction.Geneva,WorldHealthOrganization,1988.

2.1Thedrainagehierarchy

Thedrainageproblemsofanindividualneighbourhoodarepartofahierarchyofproblemsrelatedtothedrainagenetworkofthewholecityand
correspondingwiththehierarchyofdrainswhichcomposeit.Thesedrainsrangefromthemajorcanalsorlargesewerswhichcollectwaterfromlarge
areasofthecitydowntothesmallditchesordrainpipesthatrunalongtheroadsideorserveindividualproperties.

Atthemostbasicpositioninthehierarchyisthereceivingwaterbodyintowhichthesystemdischarges.Thismaybethesea,alakeorariver.Thewater
levelinthereceivingwaterbodyfixestheminimumlevelofthedrainagechannels,becausethepumpingofstormwaterisnotfeasibleforanybutthe
wealthiestcommunities.Evenifitwerepossibletoaffordpumpslargeenoughtohandletheamountsofwaterinvolved,theywouldnotbepractical
becauseofthemanydifficultiesofmaintenanceandtheextentofthedamagethatwouldresultfrommalfunctionorbreakdownofthepumps.Thewater
levelinthereceivingwaterbodycomesveryclosetogroundlevelinmanyflatlowincomeareas,whichmeansthedrainscannotbemadeverydeep.

Nextinthehierarchyistheprimarydrainagesystem,composedofmaindrains,sometimescalledinterceptordrains.Theseservelargeareasofacityorthe
cityasawhole,andoftenfollowthelineofnaturaldrainagechannelssuchasriversorstreams.Thedesign,constructionandmaintenanceofacity's
primarydrainsrequireextensiveengineeringskillsandalargefinancialbase,andarewellbeyondthemeansofanindividualcommunity.Thesedrainsare
notconsideredhere.

Finallythereisthesecondarydrainagesystem,anetworkofsmalldrainswithineachneighbourhood.Thesearesometimesknownasmicrodrainageor
laterals,andeachservesasmallcatchmentarea,rangingfromasinglepropertytoseveralblocksofhouses.Thispublicationdealsprincipallywiththe
secondarylevelofthedrainagesystem.Atthislevel,improvementscanbemadewithmodestinvestments,andlowcostsolutionsareoftenappropriate.

2.2Factorsaffectingstormwaterflows

Notallthewaterfallingasrainneedstoberemovedbythedrainagesystem.Someofitwillinfiltrateintotheground,whilesomemaystandinpuddles
andotherdepressionsandeventuallyevaporate.Theproportionthatrunsawayoverthegroundsurfaceandhastobecarriedinthedrainagesystemis
knownastherunoffcoefficient.Inpractice,thereislittlechanceforevaporationduringarainstorm,sothattherunoffcoefficienttousewhencalculating
thesizeofthedrainsrequiredisbasedontheinfiltrationcapacityoftheground.Thisdependsmainlyonsoilconditions,theslopeoftheterrain,andon
landuse:

Soilconditions.Waterseepsmorereadilyintosandysoilthanintoclayorrockyground.

Terrain.Waterflowsmorerapidlydownasteepslope,leavingitlesstimetoinfiltratethanwhenitstandsormovesslowlyinaflatarea.

Landuse.Vegetationtrapsmuchofthewaterandalsoloosensthesoil,thusmakinginfiltrationeasier.Roofsandpavedsurfaces,ontheother
hand,preventinfiltration.

Runoffcoefficientsarethereforehigherinareasofclaysoilorrock,onsteepslopesandindenselybuiltupareaswithlittlevegetation.Asanexampleof
this,thequantityofwatertobedrainedfromahighdensityhousingareamaybe56timesgreaterthanitwaswhentheareawasundevelopedandcovered
withvegetation.

Therateatwhichwaterentersthedrainagesystemdependsontherunoffcoefficient,butalsoontherateofrainfall.Ofcoursethiscanvary,fromaheavy
downpourtoalightshower,anditishardtoestimatethemaximumintensityofrainfallthatwilloccurinagivenyear,becauseoftheunpredictabilityof
theweather.However,byanalysingpastrainfallrecords,itispossibletomakeanestimateoftheprobabilityofanyparticularrateoccurring.Themore
severetherainstorm(i.e.,thehighertherateofrainfall),thelowertheprobabilityofitsoccurring.

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Thisprobabilityisusuallyexpressedasa"returnperiod".Arainstormwithaprobabilityof1in20ofhappeninginanyparticularyearissaidtohavea
returnperiodof20years,andiscalleda20yearstorm.Thisdoesnotmean,ofcourse,thatithappensexactlyevery20years,butthatonaverageitwill
happenthatoftenanaverageoffivetimesacentury.

Ifadrainagesystemisdesignedforanunusuallysevererainstormwitha100yearreturnperiod,itmayneverbefullyusedwithinitslifetime.Themoney
spentinconstructingasystemwithsuchalargecapacitymighthavebeenbetterspentonbuildingsmallerdrainsinareasthathavenone.Choosingthe
optimalreturnperiodforthedesignofanurbandrainagesystemisadifficultjudgementbasedonweighingtheriskofthedrainsoverflowing,andthe
damagethismightcause,againstthecostofbuildinglargerdrainstopreventit.

Areturnperiodoffiveyearsiswidelyusedtodesignprimarydrainagesystemsintropicalcities,butshorterperiods(threeyearsorless)aremoresuitable
formicrodrainagewithinresidentialareas,whereanoccasionaloverflowislesslikelytocauseseriousdamage.Inalowincomearea,wherethevalueof
propertyliabletodamageisrelativelysmall,andonlylimitedfundsareavailablefordrainage,theappropriatereturnperiodmaybeshorterstill.In
Mombasa,forexample,aoneyearreturnperiodhasbeenadoptedforallbutthelargestdrains.InCalcuttasomedrainshavebeendesignedforareturn
periodofonlytwomonths.Afewinchesoffloodingseveraltimeseachyearmaybeagreatimprovementonwaistdeepwaterforweeksonend.

Thedamagethatcanbedonetoroadsbystormwaterisoftenthemajorjustificationfordrainageinlowincomeareas.Onsteepslopes,asingleheavy
rainstormthatmakesthedrainsoverflowcancauseenormousdamagebyerosion,sothatalongerreturnperiodmaybejustifiedthaninflatareas.

Annex2givesfurtherdetailsofhowtoestimatestormwaterflowsandusethemtocalculatethesizeofdrainsfordesignpurposes.

2.3Problemsofsteepslopes
Slopinglandeasilysuffersfromerosionwhenthevegetationcoverisdamagedandwhenintensivelandusebaresthesoil.Itisthereforeimportantto
preventwaterfromrushingdowninuncontrolledflowsthatmayunderminehousesandturnpathsandstreetsintoimpassablegulleys.Asaruleofthumb,
slopesofmorethan5%canbeconsideredsteepslopes.

Onsteepterrain,theonlywaytokeepwaterinthesoilisthroughterracingsoastoreducetheslope.Variousmethodsexistandareusedtocontrolerosion
onagriculturalland.However,thesecanbeappliedinanurbanareaonlyiftheneighbourhoodhasnotalreadybeenfullybuiltup.

Whenthewaterisconcentratedinanaturalorartificiallineofdrainagerunningdownasteepslope,itcanflowatgreatspeedandthuscauseconsiderable
damage.Variousmethodscanbeusedtoleadthewaterdowngraduallyandinmanageablequantities:

(a)Divertingthewaterhorizontallybyabankbuiltalongthecontourorbyturnoutdrains(Fig.5),thusreducingthespeedofwaterflowand
avoidingtheaccumulationofallthewaterfromthewholeslopeinasingledrain.

Fig.5.Turnoutdrainstodivertwaterfromasteepslope

(b)Leadingthewaterinacontrolledzigzagthroughbafflesbuiltintothedraintoslowdowntheflow(Fig.6(a)).

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Fig.6.Typesofconstructionforsteepdrains

(c)Buildingstepsintothedrain(Fig.6(b)).Theareaontowhichthewaterfallsfromeachstepisbuilttoresisttheforceofthefallingwater.
Stepdrainsarepracticaliftheslopeexceeds30%,butotherwisetheybecometooexpensive.

(d)Checkwalls(Fig.6(c))arealessexpensivesolutiontotheproblem,andcanbeusedinunlineddrains.Thewaterdepositssiltbehindeach
checkwall,graduallybuildingupasteppeddrain.Thecheckwallsshouldbesetwellintothegroundoneachsideandbeneaththem,toensure
thatthewaterdoesnotcutawaypastthem.Inparticular,thefoundationofeachwallshouldnotbehigherthanthecrestofthenextone
downstream.

Checkwallscanbebuiltofvariousmaterialsbesidesconcreteormasonry(Fig.7).Pilesoflargestoneshelptodissipatetheenergyofthewaterasitflows
throughthetortuousspacesbetweenthestones.Thestonesmustbelargeenoughtoresistbeingcarrieddownstreambythewater.

Inareaswhererocksofsufficientsizearenotavailable,smallerrocksmaybetiedtogetherinalargebundleorbaleknownasagabion.Agabionismade
byfillingalargebasketofgalvanizedwiremeshwithstones,tomakealargerectangularbundleofabout0.51.0m.Thesecanbebuiltupintoawall
however,itisadvisabletofillthemonlyafterputtingtheminposition.Bamboostripsmaybeusedasasubstituteforwire,althoughtheywillrotawayina
fewyears.Asthebamboodeteriorates,weakcementcanbeappliedsparinglytotheexteriorofthegabion,takingcarenottoblockcompletelythespaces
betweentherocks.Whenagabionisnewlyplaced,therockshavetosettledownaweakconcretewouldeasilycrackwhereaswireandbambooare
flexible.

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Fig.7.Typesofcheckwallordissipator

Inareaswithamoderategroundslopeofabout410%,drainagechannelsmaybelinedwithconcrete,masonryorvegetationtopreventscouringofthe
channelbottom.Channelliningsarediscussedinsection2.6.

2.4Problemsofflatareas
Inflatlowlyingareassubjecttoflooding,amajorproblemoftenresultsfromtherelativelyhighlevelofthereceivingwaterbody.Thislimitstheslopeto
whichdrainscanbelaid,sothatwaterflowsalongthemquiteslowly.Togetherwiththedifficultyofdiggingdeepdrainagechannelswherethe
groundwaterlevelishigh,thismeansthatdrainshavetoberelativelywideinordertohavesufficientcapacity.

Sometimesthereisnoalternativetousinglandfilltoraisethelevelofthegroundinallorpartoftheneighbourhood.Landfilllimitedtothestreetswill
causeincreasedfloodingofpeople'splotsandhouses,sothatadequatequantitiesshouldbeprovided,sufficientlyclosetopeople'shousesforthemtocart
itawayandspreaditontheirpremises.Theyshouldbehelpedtojudgehowtoplaceitbymarkspaintedinadvanceoneachhouseshowingthelevelto
whichthegroundshouldberaisedbythelandfill.

Theideaofpeopleplacingrubbleandsoilinsidetheirhousestoraisethefloorlevelmayseemstrangetosome,buttherearelowincomeurbanareas
whoseresidentshavebeengladofupto50cmoflandfillplacedinthisway.Theirhouseswilleventuallyneedmodificationorrebuildingasaresult,but
theimpactoflandfillcansotransformanareathatresidentsoftenwishtobuildanewhousemoreappropriatefortheimprovedsurroundings,oncethey
areconvincedthatitwillbesafefromflooddamage.

Thewaterlevelinthereceivingwaterbodyoftenfluctuates,owingtotidaleffectsortheflowofwaterintoitfromothercatchmentareas.Thesevariations
inlevelcanbeanalysedintermsoftheirreturnperiodwhenadecisionismadeastothedepthoflandfillrequired.

Alternatively,tidalvariationsinlevelcanbeturnedtoadvantagebyinstallingasluicegateattheoutletfromthedrainagesystemwhichisopenedatlow
tideandclosedwhenthelevelrises.Theneedforlandfillcanalsobeavoidedbybuildingalargeembankmentordikealongthebankofariverliableto
flood,orrightaroundtheresidentialareacreatinga"polder"(Fig.8).Ofcourse,someinstallationsuchasasluicegateisneededtoallowawayoutfor
waterdrainedfromthearea.However,nosucharrangementshouldbeconsideredwithoutverythoroughstudybyanengineerandaguaranteeofreliable
operationandmaintenance.Adikethatoverflowsorasluicegatethatfailstofunctioncoulddoenormousdamage.

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Fig.8.Thepoldersystem

Anotherdifficultyinthedrainageofflatareasisthedepositionofsedimentinthedrains,owingtotheslowspeedofflowofthewater.Wherepossible,
drainagesystemsshouldbedesignedtoproduceaminimum"selfcleansing"speedofflow,atleastwhenthedrainsarerunningfull,sothatwaterwill
carrythesedimentalongwithit.Inadrainagechannelwitharectangularcrosssection,thewaterwillflowslowlyinathinlayeronthebottomafterlight
ormoderaterain.Moreover,anyirregularitiesintheflatbottomwillcreatepuddlesinwhichmosquitoscanbreed.Buildingadrainagechannelwith
slopingsidesandanarrowbottomhelpstomaintainasteadyflowspeedwhateverthewaterlevelinthechannel.Arefinementofthisprincipleistobuilda
channelwithacompositesection(Fig.9).Thecentralchannelwithanarrowbottomistocarrytheflowindryweatherandmoderaterain,whiletheouter
channelisfortheoccasionalheavyfloodflow.Theouterchannelfloorshouldpreferablyslopegentlydowntothecentralchannelor"cunette".

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Fig.9.Crosssectionsoftypicalcompositedrainagechannels

Aselfcleansingspeedofflowalsorequiresaminimumslope,whichisgreaterforsmalldrainsthanforlargeones.Roughlyspeaking,achannel1015cm
widewillneedaminimumslopeofabout1%toachieveaselfcleansingspeedofflow.Achanneltwicethesizeneedsroughlyhalftheslope.Such
minimumslopesarenotalwaysachievable,though,astheremaynotbeasufficientdropinlevelfromthestreettothereceivingwaterbody.Howeverwell
thesystemisdesigned,somesedimentisboundtobedeposited,sothatregularcleaningisessentialtokeepthedrainsworking.

2.5Openorcloseddrains
Engineersandadministratorsoftenhaveapreferenceforcloseddrainsratherthanopenchannels,probablybecausetheyaremoreaccustomedtothem.Yet
closeddrainshaveseveraldisadvantages:

(a)Theycostmoretobuild,becausetheyrequiredeeperexcavation,mustwithstandheavyloadsonthestreetoverhead,andalsorequire
expensiveadditionalworkssuchasmanholesandinlets.

(b)Constructiondefects,deteriorationandaccumulationofdebrisorsedimentaremoredifficulttomonitorthaninanopendrain.

(c)Thedesign,constructionandmaintenanceofcloseddrainsrequiremoresophisticatedengineeringtechniques.

(d)Sincecloseddrainsarelaidbeneaththeground,asmallerdropinleveltothereceivingwaterbodyisavailabletoobtainasufficient
minimumslopetoensureselfcleaningflowspeeds.

(e)Mosquitobreedingincloseddrainsismoredifficulttocontrol.

(f)Slowlymovingsewageproducesgasesthatcanattackcementandconcreteinacloseddrainifitisnotwellventilated.

Themainadvantageofcloseddrainsisthattheydonottakeupsurfacespace.Theyalsoreducetheriskofchildrenplayinginorfallingintopolluted
water,andthepossibilityofvehiclesdamagingthedrainsorfallingintothem.Itisneverthelessafactthatopendrainagechannelsareusedandmaintained
ingoodhygienicandaestheticconditionsinsophisticatedcitiessuchasAmsterdamandSingapore.Closeddrainsshouldbebuiltinlowincometropical
areasonlyafterverycarefulconsiderationoftheotheroptions.

Ifopenchannelsarebuilt,carefulthoughtshouldbegiventothequestionofaccessbridgesacrossthemtoadjoiningproperties,forpeopleandvehicles.
Withoutsuchprovision,residentsarelikelytoplacesteppingstonesinthedrains,fillthemwithearthorobstructtheminotherways.Theworstoptionisa
drainagesystemthatispartlyopenandpartlyclosed,sothatrubbishthrownintotheopensectionblockstheclosedsections,whereitishardertoremove.
Waterdammedupbehindtheblockageprovidesashadystretchofpollutedstandingwaterinwhichmosquitoscanbreedprolifically.

Someshortcoveredsectionsarealmostinevitable,however,atroadcrossingsandunderaccessbridges.Anirongrilleshouldbeplacedattheupstream
endofeachsuchsectiontokeepoutsolids.IfthesearemadeasshowninFig.10,thenitwillbeeasiertoremovetheaccumulateddebrisbypullingitup
thebarswitharake.

Thebottomlevelofacoveredsectionshouldnotbeanylowerthanthebottomofthechanneldownstreamofit.Otherwisewaterwillstandinit,enabling
mosquitostobreed,anditwillalsobelikelytobecomeblockedwithsilt.Ifthepipeisoflargediameterandifprotectingitfromdamagebytrafficwould
entailburyingitatalevellowerthanthatofthechanneldownstream,thenanalternativeisneeded,suchasawide,shallowculvert(e.g.,areinforcedpipe)
protectedwithaconcreteslabcover.

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Fig.10.Atypeofgrillewhichcanbecleanedeasilywitharake

Itissometimesaconventionalpracticetobuildasmallbasin,calledasilttrap,attheentrancetoaclosedsection.However,inmostlowincomeareas
thesefillveryquicklywithsandorrubbish,sothattheyareoflittleuseinpractice.Becausetheyarealsobreedingsitesformosquitos,theyshouldbe
avoided.

2.6Channeldesignandconstruction
Thecheapestdrainsofallareunlinedchannels,whichcanbecutalongtheroadsidewitharoadgrader.Thesidesofanunlineddrainshouldnotslopeby
morethan1in2toensurethattheywillbestable.Iftheslopealongthedrainisgreaterthanabout1%,thedrainmaybedamagedbyscouring,andsome
liningwillusuallyberequiredtoprotectthechannelbottomfromthefastflowingwater.Forslopesof15%,partialliningislikelytobesufficientandwill
costlessthancompletelining(Fig.11).Inapartiallylineddrain,specialprotectionisneededatthemostvulnerablepoints,suchasculverts,drain
junctions,sharpbends,andsteepsections.

Anothercheapmeasure,especiallysuitablefortheupperpartofapartiallylinedchannel,istolayturforsowgrass,whoserootswillhelptoholdthesoil
inplace.Themostsatisfactorygrassesarethosethatspreadsidewaysandcoverthesurfaceofthesoil.Theirrapidgrowthcanbeencouragedwith
fertilizer,bylayingtopsoil,andbybuildingtemporarycheckwallstocausesilttobedeposited.

Forrelativelygentleslopes,theliningdoesnothavetobeofsolidconcreteormasonry.Compactedgravelorstonewillbesufficient.Varioustypesof
permanentandtemporaryliningareshowninFig.12.Drainswithverticalsidesalwaysneedaliningtosupportthesides.Asthistypeofchannelisused
onlywhenspaceisinshortsupplyandwhenthedrainshavetopassclosetohouses,theliningmustbestrongenoughtoprotectadjacenthouse
foundations.

Lineddrainagechannelsoftenfailbecausetheliningdoesnotallowwatertoenterfromthegroundateitherside.Eitherthiscauseswaterpressuretobuild
upandoverturnthelinings,orthewaterrunsalongsidethedrain,cuttingaparallelchannel.Thesolutionistoprovideweepholes,about10mmin
diameter,intheliningatthesides.Thiscanbedonewithshortlengthsofpiperunninghorizontallythroughthemasonryandembeddedinthemortar,
spacedatintervalsofnotmorethan1m.

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Fig.11.Crosssectionsoftypicalunlined,partiallylinedandlineddrains

Inverynarrowstreetswhereheavyvehiclesdonotpassandspaceisatapremium,theroaditselfmaybedesignedtofunctionasadrain(Fig.13).Thisis
possibleonlyiftheslopeislessthan5%andiftheroadhasasurfacesuchascompactedgravelorstonetoprotectitfromerosion.Alternatively,drainage
channelsmaybeprovidedwithremovablecovers(Fig.13),whichshouldhaveholesornotchesinthemtoenablewatertoenterandmakeiteasierto
removethemtocleanthedrainbeneath.Thelatterapproachcanalsobeusedonverysteepsections,withaseriesofprefabricatedchannelelementslaidas
asteppeddrainbeneathapedestrianstairway.Fig.14showsadesignofthiskindusedinthecityofSalvador,Brazil.

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Fig.12.Typesofdrainagechannellining

Thesmallestchannels,lessthan300mmdeep,donotneedweepholes,andcanconvenientlybelinedwithbrickorwithprecastconcreteelements(Fig.
15).Elementsshouldweighlessthan50kg,sothattheycanbecarriedandlaidinplacebytwopersonswithoutmachinery.Precastchannelsshould
preferablybelaidonabedofcompactedsand,50mmthick.Asinglechannelsizecanbeadaptedforlargerflowsbylayingitdeeperandbuildingupthe
sideswithmasonry.

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Fig.13.Combineddrainsandpathways

Prefabricatedelementshavetheadvantageovermasonryorinsituconcreteliningsinthattheycanbelaidrelativelyquickly.Masonrydrainstakealong
timetobuild,andconcretepouredinplacerequiresseveraldaystoset.Meanwhile,localtrafficisdisrupted,andthefreshmasonryorconcretecanbe
ruinedbyasuddendownpourofrain.Ifthedrainsarebuiltinthedryseasontoavoidanunexpectedrainstorm,theremaybeashortageofwatertocure
theconcreteinplace.Inacoveredworkshop,elementsareprotectedfromthesunandrain,waterforcuringcanbemadeavailable,andqualitycontrolis
easierandbetterthaninconventionalconstructionwork.

Fig.14.Combinedfootpathanddrainmadeofprefabricatedelements,asusedinSalvador,Brazil

2.7Closeddrains
Acommontypeofcloseddrainisconstructedfromprefabricatedsectionsofcementpipe,typically1mlongand50mmindiameter.Atongueontheend
ofeachsectionfitsintothenext,ensuringthattheyareproperlyaligned(Fig.16(a)).Ifcloseddrainsareusedtoconveysewageaswellasrainwaterthe
drainagesystemisknownasacombinedsewersystem,andanotherkindofpipeconnectionisnormallyusedtopreventthesewagefromleakingoutand
contaminatingthegroundwater(Fig.16(b)).

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Fig.15.Crosssectionsofthreetypesofsmallopendrain

Thetrenchesinwhichpipesarelaidarenormallydugatleast0.5mwiderthanthepipediameter,anddeepenoughforthetopofthepipestobecovered
withatleast1mofsoil.Beforethepipeislaid,a50mmthickbedofsandisplacedinthetrench,compactedandcarefullylevelledtogiveanevenslope.
Thepipesarelaidoverthesandandaspiritlevelisplacedoneachpipetochecktheevennessoftheslope.Thenmoresandisaddedandcompacted
beneathandaroundeachpipeuntilitishalfburied.Finallytheexcavatedsoilisreplacedinlayers150mmthick,eachofwhichiscompactedcarefully.
Thepurposeofthesandbeddingandtheminimumdepthof1mistoprotectthepipesfromdamagebyheavyvehiclespassingoverthem.Inareaswith
onlyverylightvehiculartrafficthesandbedcanbeomittedandthepipeslaidatshallowerdepth.

Fig.16.Jointingofreinforcedconcretepipes

Acloseddrainagesystemmustbeprovidedwithinletsforthewatertoreachitfromtheroadsurface.Theseshouldbecoveredwithagrilletoprevent
leavesandothercoarsesolidsfromenteringandblockingthesystem.Oneinletisusuallyprovidedevery3050malongtheroad,dependingontheslope
andrainfallintensity.Forthesamereasonthatsilttrapsarenotrecommended(seesection2.5above),gullypotsshouldnotbeprovidedatdraininlets.

Tofacilitatecleaningandmaintenance,manholesshouldbeprovidedatintervalsof120150mforpipesofmorethan0.6mindiameter,and70100mfor
smallerpipes.Theyarealsorequiredwhereverthepipeschangeindiameterordirection,andatintersections.Furtherdetailsonthedesignand
constructionofcloseddrainsaregiveninstandardworksonsewerage.

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2.8Construction

Buildingadrainagesystemrequiresskilledsupervision,butmanytaskscanbedonebythecommunity.Theyinclude:

excavationwork(digging)
transportofsoil,water,sandandcement
compactingofsoilorsandinthedrainfoundation
prefabricationofdrainelements
wateringandcuringofdrainelements
transportandstorageofdrainelements
accountingfordrainelementsandguardingthem
finishingandplantingofembankments
providingfoodforvolunteerworkers.

Mostofthesetasksrequirelittlespecialskillandcanbedoneafteranhourofinstruction.Theonlytaskrequiringrealtrainingistheproductionof
prefabricateddrainelements.

Theprefabricationofdrainelementscaneasilybelearntbysemiskilledcommunitymembers,forwhomitmayalsoprovetobeanattractivemethodof
incomegeneration.Inmanycitiesthereisareadymarketforprefabricatedelementsofthistype.

TwosimpleprefabricationmethodsareshowninFig.17.ThefirstwasdevelopedbytheNationalHousingAuthorityofThailandandofferedtosmall
contractors.TheothertypeofelementwasdesignedbytheRoorkeeResearchCentreinIndiaandwasintendedtoformthebottompartofshallow,
partiallylineddrains,althoughitcanbeusedasasmalldrainonitsown,asshowninFig.15.Themouldiscoveredbyplasticsheetingoroiled
newspapersbeforethereinforcementandcementmortarareplacedonit.Awoodenboardwithasemicirclecutoutofitismovedalongthechannelto
ensurethatthemortarhasthecorrectthickness.

Thepurposeofthereinforcementistopreventbreakageduringtransportoftheelements,sothatiftheyarenottobetakenlongdistancesthechickenwire
canbereplacedwithcheaperalternativessuchassisalorcoconutfibre.Thismakestheelementveryflexiblewhilethemortarisstillwet,sothatathird
castingmethodcanbeused.Themortarisplacedonaplasticsheetwhileitliesonaflatsurface.Arectangularwoodenframelyingonthesheetisusedto
givethelayerofmortartherightlengthandwidth.Thevegetablefibresarespreadonthemortarwhenithasbeenplacedtohalfthefinalthickness.When
allthemortarisinplace,astraightedgeisusedacrosstheframetoensurethatithasaneventhicknessthedepthofthewoodenframe.Finally,theframeis
removedandtheplasticsheetisliftedupbytwowoodenbattenspreviouslyfixedalongthesides,anddrapedoverasemicircularconcretechannelusedas
aconcavemould.

Fig.17.Methodsofcastingprefabricateddrainagechannel

Aftertwodaysofsetting,theelementsareremovedfromtheirmouldsandcuredfor514dayssoastostrengthentheconcrete.Astheobjectiveofcuring
istopreventrapidevaporationofwaterfromthesurface,curingisbestdonebyplacingtheelementsinatankfilledwithwater.However,itisalso
acceptabletocovertheelementswithmatsorfabricwhicharethensprayedeveryeveningwithwater,orotherwisekeptwet,foratleastfivedays.

Constructionshouldalwaysstartfromthedownstreamend.Thiskeepstheworkingareadryandmakesiteasiertochecktheslope.Checkingtheslopeby
eyeisrisky.Simplycheckingthatwaterflowsawaydownthenewlylaiddrainwillensurethatitslopestherightway,butinflatareasitmayleadtothe
drainbeinglaidattoosteepaslope,makingitimpossibletomaintainanadequateslopefurtherupstream.

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Ifsurveyingequipmentisnotavailable,asimplealternativeisalongplastichosefilledwithwater(Fig.18).Makesuretherearenobubblesinit,andlift
upbothends.Thewaterlevelateachendofthehosewillbethesame.Ifaslopeof,forinstance,0.4%(0.004m/m)isdesired,thismeansadifferencein
levelalonga10mlengthofdrainof0.004x10=0.04m.Ifthehoseisheldsoastokeepthewaterlevel1.00mabovethebottomofthetrenchatthe
downstreamend,thebottomshouldthereforebe0.96m(1.000.04)beneaththewaterlevelatapoint10mupstream.Thesamemethodcanbeusedto
checkthelevelofthedrainelementswhentheyarelaid,usingapieceofstringtochecktheirhorizontalalignment.Aspiritlevelshouldbeusedtocheck
theslopeofindividualelements.

Fig.18.Layingdrainstoanevenslopeusingawaterhoselevel

Itisnotadvisabletousesuchsimplemethodswhenlayingcloseddrains.Atrainedsurveyorwithpropersurveyingequipmentisrequired.

Thecommunity'sroleindrainageconstructioncanbeconsiderable(Fig.19),butmunicipalauthoritiescannotrelyonsuchcommunityparticipationto
worksmoothlyinallcases,especiallyifunpaidworkisinvolved.Ifacontractorhasbeenengagedfortheconstructionwork,heorshemayprefertouse
hisorherownstaffsoastomaintaincontroloftheconstructionschedule.Ifthecontractorhastowaitforthecommunitytogetorganized,the
municipalitymaybechargedforoverheadsandstaffsalariesincurredduringthedelay.Itisoftenpreferabletowriteintothecontractanobligationtogive
prioritytohiringlocalpeopleandtotrainingalocalmaintenanceteam.

Ifthecommunityistoparticipateinconstruction,substantialeffortmustbedevotedbeforehandtomobilizingcommunitymembersandorganizingtheir
contribution,andtheiradviceandagreementmustbesoughtfromthebeginningoftheplanningstage.Adrainageschemewhichisnotacceptedbythe
communityissuretofail.Communityparticipationisdiscussedinfurtherdetailinsection4.

Fig.19.Tasksindrainageconstruction

2.9''Doityourself''drainage
Ideally,acommunitydrainageschemeshouldbedevelopedwithalocalauthorityorotherbodywhichhasthecapacitytoprovideengineeringexpertise.
However,somecommunitiesmaywishtoundertakesomeimprovementsiftheyproveunabletoobtainsuchtechnicalassistance,orwhilewaitingforitto
materialize.Thissectionsuggestshowtheymightdoso,takingadvantageoftheresidents'abilitytomonitortheresultsoftheirworkandmakeprogressive
modificationsinsubsequentyears.

Thefollowinginitialsteps(a)(g)arerecommendedtoanygrouporindividualwishingtoplanadrainagescheme.Nospecializedtrainingisneededto
carrythemout.Engineerscarryingoutinitialstudiesmayalsofindthemusefulassuggestions.Forsteps(h)(m),itisdesirabletohavethehelpofan

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engineer.

(a)Beforeyoustartyoursurvey,itwillbewisetoobtainamapofthearea.Mapsareusuallyobtainablefromthecityplanningdepartment,the
landregistryorthenationalsurveydepartment.Ifnouptodatemapisavailable,youcanuseaerialphotographs,oratracingmadefroman
originalphotograph.Quitesuitablephotographsforthispurposecanbetakenwithanordinarycamerafromasmallaeroplane,flyingata
heightofabout600m.Atthislowaltitude,surveyflightscanbedoneunderanyreasonableweatherconditions.Theshadowscastbyclouds
willnotinterferewithinterpretationofthephotographs.Asalastresortasketchmapcanbemadethesectiononplanetablemethodsina
bookonsurveyingwilldescribehowthiscanbedonewithoutsophisticatedequipment.Themapshouldbeofaconvenientscale,preferablyat
least1:5000.Ascaleof1:1000isbest.Amapthatisoftoosmallascalecanbeexpandedwithapantograph,orbydividingitintosquaresand
copyingitontolargersquares.Youcanthensketchindetails,visitingtheareatoseeifanyfeaturesaremissingorneedtobechanged.

(b)Walkaroundthearea.Asktheresidentsabouttheprobablecausesofrecentfloodingorlandslides.Residentsmaynothaveatechnical
background,buttheycanusuallyidentifythesourceofthewaterthatcausedtheproblem.Longstandingresidentsmayevenbeabletorelate
floodorlandslideproblemstoparticulareventsinthepast,especiallytomajorcivilworkscarriedoutinthevicinity,suchasthebuildingof
roadorrailwayembankmentsorcuttings,orthefillinginofdepressions.

(c)Trytoestablishthewaterlevelsreachedduringaspecificflood.Residentscandescribethedepthintermsoftheiranatomy(ankles,knees,
waist)orbypointingtopartsoftheirfenceorhouse.Marksfromafloodmaystillbevisibleonwalls.Useatapemeasuretoexpressthisasa
depthincentimetres,andwriteeachmeasurementonyourmapoftheareaattheappropriatepoint.Sincewaterfindsitsownlevel,these
measurementswillgiveyouagoodideaofthetopographyoftheareathegreatestdepthswillbeinthelowestlyingareas.

(d)Notethenaturaldirectionofflowofwastewaterfromhouses,andofsurfacewaterfromrainstorms.Markexistinglinesofdrainageonthe
map,includingbothnaturalstreamsandmanmadechannels,notingproblemssuchasstretchesofchannelblockedbygarbage,eroded
sections,areasofstandingwater,andlandslides.Makeanoteofstructuresbuiltalongthewaterwayswhichcouldobstructdrainageorprevent
futurewidening.

(e)Notethedischargepointandthewaterlevelinthereceivingstream,riverorsea.Asktheresidentsaboutwaterlevelfluctuationsinthe
receivingwaterbody,particularlythemaximumwaterlevelsreachedinthelastfewyearsand,ifpossible,thedatesonwhichtheyoccurred.If
thereceivingwaterbodyisariver,thewaterresourcesorhydrologydepartmentmaybeabletohelp,particularlybygivingyouthedatesand
probablereturnperiodsofmajorfloods,whichyoucanthencomparewithwitnesses'accountsofwhichareaswerefloodedonthose
occasions.Ifthereceivingwateristhesea,thelocalportauthoritycanprovidetidaltables.ThehighesttidesnormallyoccurinMarch/April
andSeptember/October.

(f)Prepareasketchofthedrainageimprovementsmosturgentlyneeded,showingwhereexpansionofexistingchannelsisrequired,where
newdrainswillhavetobedug,andwhereprotectionagainsterosionistobeprovidedinsteepareas.Drainsshouldasfaraspossiblefollow
existingorplannedroadandpathalignments.Nevertheless,someexistingstructuresmayhavetobemoved,andtheseshouldbemarkedon
thesketchmap.Fig.20showstheresultofsteps(a)(f)inaparticularcommunity.

(g)Callameetingoftheresidentsandpresenttheproposedschemetothemfortheirsuggestionsandapproval.Theirintimateknowledgeof
theareaputstheminagoodpositiontoofferpracticaladvice.

(h)Designtheinitialimprovements.Intheabsenceoftheinformationortechnicalassistanceneededtomakedetaileddesigncalculations,itis
besttostartwithunlinedchannelsforfloodcontrolandbouldercheckwalls(ordissipators)tocontrolerosion.Unlinedchannels0.3mwide
areausefulsizeforthesmallbranchesalongindividualstreetsandalleysiftheyprovetobetoonarrow,theycanbewidenedatalaterdate.
Acloselookatexistinglinesofdrainage,includingnaturalchannelsandespeciallyconstrictionswhichcausewatertobackupbehindthem
duringstorms,willgiveagoodideaofthebestsizeforthemajordrains.Ifindoubt,channels1mwidewouldbeaconvenientsizetostart
with.Forsteepareas,largeboulders,preferablyatleast30cmindiameter,canbeusedtobuilddissipatorcheckwallsheldinplacebywooden
stakes(seeFig.7,page18).Ifthebouldersarewashedaway,itmaybepossibletocollectthemandpackthemingabions.Thespacesbetween
thestonesshouldnotbeblockedwithmortar,asthiswillonlydeflectthedirectionofthewaterflow,causingerosionatanotherpoint.Itis
betterforthewatertoflowbetweenthestones,dissipatingitsenergyasitdoesso.

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Fig.20.Sketchforplanningadrainagesystem

(i)Excavatethechannels,startingfromthedownstreamendandworkingupstream.Todrainflatareas,fixthedownstreamendofthesystem
atthelowestlevelpossiblewithoutitsbecomingsubmergedbyatypicalfloodofthereceivingwaterbody,evenifthismeanswatermayflow
somedistanceupthechannelsathightide.Theslopeshouldbecarefullycontrolledusingawaterhose(seesection2.8).Asastart,ariseof
0.2mforevery100mwouldbeareasonableminimumslopeforachannelthatis1mwide,and0.5mforevery100minachannel0.3m
wide.Iftheslopeofthegroundallowsit,agreaterslopeisbetter.Iftheslopeisgreaterthan5minevery100m,placecheckwallsassoonas
possibleafterexcavatingthechannel,oneforevery1mdropinlevel.

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Fig.21.Troubleshootingdiagnosingproblemsinanunlineddrainagecanal

(j)Oncethechannelhasbeenexcavated,visitafterrainhasfallenandnotewhichsectionscontainstandingwater.Thesearelowpoints.Either
raisethebottomlevelbybackfillingwithgravelorsoil,ordeepenthebottomdownstreamsothatthewatercanflowaway.Lookalsoforearly
signsoffutureerosion,suchaswaterbypassingthecheckwallsorrunningparalleltothechannel.

(k)Addatemporaryliningifdesired,suchasthewoodorbambooliningshowninFig.12.Temporaryscreenstoholdbackrubbishcanbe
installedacrossthesmallerchannelsusingwoodorbamboostakes,withgapsof2050mmbetweenthem.Allocateresponsibilitiesforweekly
cleaningofeachscreenandorganizeamonthlyworkpartytoclearthemajorchannels.

(l)Monitorthesystem'sfunctioningduringatleastonewetseason,notingareasofscouring,overflow,stagnantwater,siltdeposition,orother
problems.Waterwilltendtoerodeanddeepenachannelifitistoonarrowandsteep,andtodepositsiltifitistoowideandtheslopeis
insufficient.Fig.21showssomeofthechangesthatcanoccurinatypicalunlinedchannel,andhowtheycanbeusedtodiagnosetheneedfor
suitablemeasures.

(m)Afteroneortwoyears,thechannelsizesandslopesshouldbemoreorlessestablished.Thecommunitymaynowdecidetolinethe
channels,buildpermanentbarscreens,roadcrossings,checkwalls,etc.

2.10Selectedreading
CHATTERJEE,S.&BHUNIA,A.K.DrainageproblemofmetropolitanCalcuttaanditssolution.JournaltheInstitutionofCivilEngineers(India),50
(10,partPH3):8392(1970).

HILLMAN,F.Prefabricatedfibrereinforcedcementirrigationchannels.Waterlines,4(4):2225(1986).

MANOHARN,S.Applicationofferrocementdrainageflumeinslumupgrading.Journalofferrocement,12(4):373383(1982).

OKUN,D.A.&PONGHIS,G.Communitywastewatercollectionanddisposal.Geneva,WorldHealthOrganization,1975.

SHARMA,P.C.&KUMAR,A.Ferrocementchannelsforsmallscaleirrigation.Appropriatetechnology,9(3):78(1982).

WATKINS,L.H.&FIDDES,D.Highwayandurbanhydrologyinthetropics.London,PentechPress,1984.

3.1Causesofdrainagefailure

Somecommunitiessufferfromdrainageproblemsnotbecausetheyhavenodrains,butbecausetheexistingdrainagesystemhascollapsed,become
blocked,orisotherwiseinneedofrepairandrehabilitation.Manymorewillfindthatthenearestconvenientpointofdischargeforanewdrainagesystem
isanexistingprimarydrainagepipeorcanalthatneedsattentionifitistofunctionproperly.

Collapseandblockagearetheprincipaltypesofdrainagefailure.Eachofthesecanhaveseveralcauses.Collapseofdrainscanoccurthrough:

erosionofthebottomandsidesofthedrain(scouring)
excessivepressureofwaterinthegroundbeneathandbesidethedrainlining
vehiclespassingoverortooclosebesidethedrainsrootgrowth,especiallyfromnearbytrees
crowncorrosionincloseddrainscontainingsewage.

Thecausesofblockagecanbe:

accumulationofrefuse,leavesandearthinthedrain

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structuressuchashousesorbridgepierserectedinthedrainandobstructingtheflow
excessivevegetationgrowingindrainagechannels

siltdepositedinlowsectionsowingtomisalignmentorwheretheslopeisinsufficientandcleaningisnotregularenough.

Ifrehabilitationofafailedsystemistohaveagoodchanceofsuccess,diagnosisandeliminationoftheoriginalcausesoffailurearerequiredaswellas
treatmentoftheimmediatesymptoms.Eachpossiblecauseofcollapsehasitscure.

(a)ErosioninanunlinedchannelisillustratedinFig.21(page39)alongwiththeappropriateremedies.Inalineddrain,erosioncanmeanthe
liningitselfisnotrobustenough,andamoreresistantliningisneeded.Acommonweakpointisatthejointsbetweenchannelorpipe
elements,whichshouldbesealedwithcementmortar.Wheretheslopeisgreaterthan10%,bafflesorstepsofsomekindareneeded(seeFig.
6,page17).Scouringontheoutsideofachannelliningcanmeanthatwaterisnotenteringthedrainbutrunningparalleltoit.Ifthelining
risesabovegroundlevel,itneedsnotchesinthesidessothatthewatercanflowin.Smallearthbanksrunningdiagonallyacrosstheroadwill
alsohelptodivertwatertothedrainattheside.Alternatively,scouringbesidethedraincanmeanthatitoverflowsduringstorms,indicating
thatmorefrequentcleaning,alargerdrain,ormorefrequentturnoutsarerequired(seeFig.5,page16).Incloseddrainsthatareoverloaded,
watercanescapeintothegroundthroughthejointsowingtothepressureinsidethepipe.Whenthepressuredrops,thewaterrunsbackinto
thedrain,carryingsoilwithitandexcavatingacavityoverthedrainwhichwilleventuallycollapse.Thesolutionistosealthejointswith
cementgroutor,preferably,tobuildalargerdrain.

(b)Waterpressurefromtheoutsideorpressureresultingfromtheswellingofclaycanbecontrolledbyusingasandbedding(seeFig.15)and
providingweepholesinthelining(seeFig.11).

(c)Vehiclescaneasilydamageopendrains.Ifvehicledamagerecursfrequently,thedrainsshouldbeprotectedbysomeformofbarriersuch
asarailorakerbstone.Ifthedamageisduetovehiclesattemptingtocrossthedrain,thenanadequatevehiclecrossingshouldbebuiltoverit.
Vehicledamagetocovereddrainsindicatesthattheyshouldeitherbelaiddeeperorbeprotectedbyconcrete.

(d)Rootsfromnearbytreeswilltendtogrowintodrains,especiallyiftheycontainstandingwaterandtheliningsarenotimpermeable.The
mosteffectiveprotection,iftheproblempersists,istoremovealltreeswithin5mofthedrain.

(e)Crowncorrosionoccursincloseddrainscontainingsewage,wheregasesfromthesewagecanattackandweakencement,particularlyover
thecrownorcoverofthedrain.

Thecuresformostofthecausesofblockagearefairlyeasytosee:collectionofrefuse,removalofstructures,andclearingofvegetation.Ifthedrainshave
anevenandadequateslope,itshouldnotbenecessarytoremovesiltclearingthevegetation,whoserootsholdthesiltinplace,shouldenablethenext
heavyflowinthedraintowashitaway.

However,theslopeisnotalwayseven.Thedrainmayhavebeenbadlylaid,thesandbeddingbeneathsomesectionsmayhavebeenerodedcausingthem
tosink,orthelackofweepholesorasandbeddingmayhavecausedtheliningtobeliftedbythepressureofwaterfromthesurroundingground.Uneven
settlementofthegroundiscommoninflatareasofclaysoil,andisanothercauseofunevenslope.Damagebyvehiclesandearthquakescanalsocause
distortion,orevenmisalignmentofsectionsofdrainagechannelorpipe,resultinginblockagebysedimentorothersolids.Insuchcases,thedrainsshould
berebuilttoanevenslope,althoughslightirregularitiescanbecorrectedbyfillinginthedepressionswithcementmortar.

Finally,thedrainitselfmaybeingoodcondition,butmayfailtofunctioncorrectlyowingtoinsufficientcapacity.Evenadrainthatwaslargeenough
whenbuiltmayprovetobetoosmallfortheincreasesinrunoffflowwhichaccompanyincreasedbuildingdevelopmentinthecatchmentarea.

3.2Rehabilitationofexistingsystems
Therearemanydrainagesystemsinurbanareasthatarefunctioningimperfectlyornotatallowingtooneormoreofthecausesoffailurelistedinthe
previoussection.Beforeanewsystemisenvisaged,thefirststepistoascertainwhetheradrainagesystemalreadyexistsandwhetheritcanbe
rehabilitated.Localresidentswillnormallyknowifoneexistsintheirarea,buttheymaynotbeawareofexistingmaindrains,especiallycloseddrains,
whichareoutsidetheirneighbourhood,andintowhichafuturelocalmicrodrainagesystemcoulddischarge.

Municipalrecords,includingolddrainagemasterplans,shouldbeconsultedfordetailsofanypreviousdrainageconstructioninthevicinity,andthearea
shouldbevisitedonfoottochecktheiraccuracyandtolookfortelltalesignssuchasoldmanholes,orpiecesofpipeorconcreteexposedbyerosion,
especiallyalongmajorstreetsanddownstreamoftheareawherebetterdrainageisneeded.

Removecoverslabsfromdrainagechannels,takingcarethatthereisnoriskofpedestrians'orvehicles'fallingintothemaccidentally.Startingatthe
downstreamend,removesiltandsolids.Specialtoolsforcleaningchannelsaredescribedinsection3.3.Afterclearing,flushthedrainagelinewithwater.
Thefireservicesmaybeabletohelpwiththis.

Inspectionofcloseddrains
Theinspectionofcloseddrainsismoredifficultanddangerous,andshouldbecarriedoutunderexpertsupervision.Thefirststepistodrawasketchmap
ofthesystem,ifrecorddrawingsarenotavailable.Themapshouldshowallexistingmanholes,inletsandotherdrainagestructures.Ifthegapbetweenany
twomanholesisverylongcomparedtothatbetweenmostothers,itislikelythatoneortwoothermanholeshavebeenburiedordestroyedbetweenthem.
Fromtheregularmanholespacing,itshouldbepossibletocalculatethemostlikelylocationofamissingmanhole.Localresidents,whomayknowof
buriedmanholes,shouldalsobeconsulted.Theprobablesitesofmissingmanholesshouldbeexcavated,touncoverthem.

Nooneshouldenteranymanholeuntilithasbeenadequatelyventilated.Asaprecaution,themanholesupstreamanddownstreamofthesectiontobe
inspectedshouldbeopenedatleasttwohoursbeforehand.Tosavetime,anumberofmanholescanbeopenedsimultaneously.Furtherventilationcanbe
achievedbyintroducingtheairhosefromacompressor,ifoneisavailable.Inspectionshouldstartasfardownstreamaspossible,andworkupstream.
Waterinfloodedmanholesshouldbepumpedouttothenextmanholedownstreamusingasumppump,ofthetypeusedbyconstructionfirmsfor
excavations.Alternatively,thewatercouldbebaledoutwithbucketsorremovedwithasiphon,butthisislikelytotakeaverylongtime.

Oncethemanholehasbeenventilated,afurthersafetycheckisnecessarytoensurethatitissafetoenter.Alightedcandleoraminer'ssafetylampis
loweredintothemanhole.Iftheflamedies,itmeansthatthereisinsufficientoxygeninsideandthatanyoneenteringthemanholecouldbesuffocatedby
thegasesproducedbysewageandsediment.However,nonakedlightshouldbeuseduntilthemanholehasbeenventilated,asitcouldcausethosegasesto
explode.

Afinalsafetyprecaution,nolessnecessary,isthatnooneshouldenteramanholewithoutalifeline.Asparelifelineshouldbereadyforuseifnecessary.
Accessstepsinanoldmanholeareliabletobeseriouslycorrodedandmuchlesssecurethantheyappear.Theyareoftenslippery.Atleasttwopeople
shouldremainabovegroundtopulloutthethirdmemberofthepartyincaseofemergency.Theyshouldneverfollowthethirdmemberintothemanhole,
eveninanemergency,astheycouldallbekilled.Evenifthemanholeisproperlyvented,thepersoninspectingitshoulddisturbthesettledsludgeandsilt
aslittleaspossible.Thesesometimescontainpoisonousgases,whichcouldbereleasedwhenthesedimentisagitated.Ifadrainiscompletelyblockedso
thatitcannotbeinspected,materialshouldberemovedonlyfromtheupstreamend.ThesesafetyprecautionsareillustratedinFig.22.

Thealignmentofacloseddraincanbecheckedbytwopeopleinconsecutivemanholesusingaflashlightandamirror,asshowninFig.23.Firstthe
flashlightandthemirrorareheldwithin510cmofthebottomofthepipe(knownastheinvert),andthentheyarebothraisedtojustbelowthecrown.If
thereisanyirregularityintheverticalalignmentofthedrainpipe,itwillbedetectedinoneofthesepositions,sinceitwillobscuretheflashlightbeam.
Thisprocedurewillalsomakeminordefectsandobstructionsvisible.

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Themostlikelyplacetofindcracksandmisalignmentisimmediatelyadjacenttothemanhole,owingtounevensettlementofthegroundafterpipelaying
(Fig.24).Anotherproblemtolookforiscrowncorrosion,whichcaneasilybediscoveredbyattemptingtodigintothepipematerialatthesidesandtop
withapenknifeoralargenail.

Drainagepipesoflessthan1mindiametercannotbeenteredsafely,andgreatcareshouldbetakeninenteringlargerdrains.Thedangersinclude
poisonousgas,caveins,suddenrushesofwaterfromcloggedsectionsorfromstorms,andevenwildanimals.Nakedlightssuchasmatchesorcandles
shouldnotbeusedinaclosedsewerorwithin3mofanyopenmanhole.Aminer'ssafetylampispreferabletoaflashlight,toavoidtheriskofexplosions.

Fig.22.Safetyinenteringcloseddrains

Fig.23.Checkingthealignmentofcloseddrains

Rehabilitation
Somesectionsmayrequirecompleterebuilding,butothersmayonlyneedtobeclearedofobstructionsandflushedwithwater.Deterioratedorcracked
concreteormasonryshouldbemadegood,carebeingtakentoavoidmajorirregularities,especiallyatjoints,whichmayholdbacksolidobjectsandcause
blockage.Thesurfacetoberepairedshouldberoughenedbyhittingitwithasledgehammer,andthenplasteredwithgoodqualitycementmortar.If
plasteringisneededonthebottomofthedrain,firstdivertthewaterflowawayfromtheworkingareabybuildingasmalldamofearthorsandbagsand
diggingatemporaryparallelchannelorbypumping.

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Fig.24.Commonfailuresitesincloseddrains

Somefittingsmaybedamagedorhavedisappeared,especiallymetalliconessuchasmanholecovers,inletscreensandgrilles,whichmayhavebeenstolen
andsoldasscrapmetal.Thecommunitymaydecidetoreplacethesewithconcreteequivalents,ortofixmetalscreensintoconcrete.Thismakesdrain
maintenancealittlelesseasy,butminimizestheftifitisaproblem.Ifclosedsectionsarefrequentlyblockedbyrefuse,additionalscreensshouldbe
installedattheupstreamendtokeeptherefuseout(seesection2.5).Existingcoversandinletsshouldbecleaned,andrepairedorreplacedifnecessary,
andsteelfittingspaintedwithtwocoatsoftarorprimerpaint.

Ifthedrainagesystemhassluicegates(Fig.25),thehandle,platesandguidechannelsintheframeshouldbechecked.Rustandoldpaintshouldbe
removedwithasteelbrush.Anyholesshouldbepatchedbyweldingasteelplateoverthem.Thegateandframeshouldbepaintedwiththreeorfourcoats
ofanepoxyorotherequallydurabletypeofpaint.Thestemandguideplatesshouldbewellgreased.

Fig.25.Requirementsformaintenanceofsluicegates

3.3Maintenancetechnicalaspects
Themostimportantmaintenancetaskistoremoverefuse,siltandothersolidmaterialfromthedrains.Alldrainsshouldbecleanedatleasttwiceayear,
preferablyatthestartandendoftherainyseason.Somedrains,especiallythesecondarydrainsandhouseconnections,willneedtobeclearedmore
frequently.Smallopenchannelsinflatareasarelikelytorequirecleaningonaweeklybasis.Unlinedchannelsneedtoberegularlyclearedofvegetation.

Itisimportanttoestablishthecleaningofdrainsasaroutineactivityatregularintervals,andnotwaituntilthesystemfailsasaresultofblockage.
Repairingthedamagedonewhenthesystemfails,includingdamagetothedrainsthemselves,cancostfarmorethanregularpreventivemaintenance.

Drainclearingmustbecoordinatedwiththecollectionanddisposalofsolidwaste,sothatsolidmaterialremovedfromthedrainswillnotbeleftwhere
raincanwashitbackorwhereitcanbeanuisanceandahealthhazard,encouragingthebreedingofratsandflies.

Openchannels

Cleaningofopenchannelsisusuallydonemanually,withthehelpofspades,hoes,shovelsandscoops.Itcanbedisagreeableandstrenuousworkifitis
donewiththewrongtools,especiallyifthedrainsaredeep.Itisworthwhilehavingsomespecialtoolsthatcancleanthedrainsovertheirwholelength,
suchasshovelsthatjustfitintothedrain.

Onetoolthathasprovedtobeusefulforcleaningdeepandnarrowdrainsisanagriculturalhoewithanextralonghandle(Fig.26).Anothertool,also

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showninFig.26,istheAhmedDavisshovel.ThiswasdevelopedinTunisia,whereitwasfoundtoreducecleaningtimeby30%.Onepersonpushesthe
shoveldeepintothedrainusingthehandle,andthentheotherpullsitforwardandupwardusingthesteelwiresattachedtothefrontend.Thesizeand
shapeoftheshovelaredeterminedbythesizeandshapeofthedrains.Itmayhelptopierceseveralsmallholesinthebottomoftheshovelsothatwaterin
thesolidsfromthedraincanrunoutwhentheshovelislifted.

Fig.26.Toolsforcleaningdrains

Theresponsibilityformaintenanceofasystemofdrainagechannelsisoftendividedbetweenseveralresidents,neighbourhoodsorworkteams,each
responsibleforaparticularsection.Ifso,itisadvisabletoinstallgrillesacrossthechannelsatthedownstreamendofeachsection.Thisensuresthatsolids
arenotcarriedalongtothenextsection,imposinganexcessiveburdenonthatsection'steam.

Closeddrains

Inthecleaningofcloseddrains,allthesafetyprecautionsdescribedinsection3.2shouldbescrupulouslyobserved.

Themostcommontoolusedinremovingsiltandsolidsisabuckettiedinthemiddleofasteelcable(Fig.27).Thecableshouldbeatleasttwiceaslongas
thelongestdistancebetweenmanholes.Oneendisthreadedintothedrainagelinewiththebucketfacingdownstream,andwoundontoawindlassonthe
groundbesidethenextmanhole.Asthebucketispulleddowntheline,itscoopsthesolidsandsilt.Thebucketdiametermustbeatleast5cmsmallerthan
theinternaldiameterofthedrainagepipetoallowexcesssolidstopassaroundit,andensurethatthebucketdoesnotbecomejammedagainstobstructions.

Fig.27.Cleaningofcloseddrainsusingabucket

Excessiveforceshouldnotbeusedtopullthebucketifitsticks,asthismaycompressthesolids,makingthemstillmoredifficulttoremove.Instead,it
shouldbewinchedbackandasmallerbucketoranauger(describedbelow)usedforthefirstpass.Whenthebucketreachesthedownstreammanhole,it
shouldberemovedwiththesolidsanddetachedfromthecable.Thecableiswoundbackandthebucketreattached.Theprocedureisrepeateduntilthe
drainiscleaned.

Ifthedrainagelineisblocked,orthesolidsaretoostifftoberemovedusingthebucket,thelinecanbeclearedbyanauger(Fig.28).Theaugerislikea
largedrillbit,andisrotatedbymeansofaleverinsertedintooneofachainofconnecteddrivingrods.Therodsarenormally1015mmindiameterand
madeofstainlesssteel.Watertrappedupstreamoftheblockagedoesnothavetoberemoved.Whentheaugerpenetratesthesolidsobstructingtheline,this
waterwillhelptoflushthesolidsaway.

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Fig.28.Cleaningofcloseddrainsusinganauger

3.4Maintenanceinstitutionalaspects
Theneedtocoordinatedrainagemaintenancewithsolidwastedisposalhasalreadybeenmentioned.Coordinationisnecessaryfortworeasons.First,the
solidsremovedfromthedrainmustbeadequatelydisposedof.Second,thedrainscannotbekeptclearwithouteffectivesolidwastedisposal.Ifsolid
wastesarenotcollectedregularly,residentswillhavelittlechoicebuttothrowtheirrubbishintothedrainagechannels,ortodumpitinthestreetsand
openspaceswhereitwillbedispersedbystormwater,windandanimals,muchofiteventuallyreachingthedrains.Themosteffectivewaytoensuregood
coordinationbetweendrainagemaintenanceandrefusedisposalisforboththeseactivitiestobetheresponsibilityofthesamemunicipaldepartmentor
neighbourhoodcommittee.

Maintenance,includingtheinspection,cleaningandrepairofthedrainagesystem,mustbeinstitutionalizedifitistobekeptupthroughoutthelifeofthe
system.Forthisreason,theultimateresponsibilityshouldpreferablybewiththemunicipality,whichhaspaidstaffwhocancarryoutthework.Itismuch
moredifficulttomobilizeacommunityonavoluntarybasistocarryoutaroutinetask,yearafteryear,thantowintheiractiveparticipationforthelimited
periodrequiredforconstruction.Nevertheless,thereisamplescopeforparticipationbythecommunityindrainagemaintenance.Section4describeshow
thiscanbeorganized.

3.5Selectedreading

Safetyinsewersandatsewageworks.London,InstitutionofCivilEngineers,1967.

FLINTOFF,F.Managementofsolidwastesindevelopingcountries.NewDelhi,WHORegionalOfficeforSouthEastAsia,1984(WHORegional
Publications,SouthEastAsiaSeriesNo.1).

4.1Theneedforparticipation
Participationinplanning

Adrainagesystem,likeanyotheritemofinfrastructure,ispartofthebuiltenvironmentofacommunity,andresidentsmayfinditinappropriateand
unacceptableiftheyhavenotparticipatedinthekeyplanningdecisions.Traditionally,theplanninganddesignofurbansurfacewaterdrainagesystems
havebeencarriedoutbygovernmentalormunicipalagencies,withouttheinvolvementofthelocalresidentsandwithlimited,ifany,consultationwith
them.However,thetechnicalandplanningstaffofsuchagenciesdonotnormallyliveinlowincomecommunitiesandcaneasilybemistakenaboutlocal
needs,customsandaspirationsunlessthecommunityisgivenachancetostateitsviews.

Opendrainstakeupacertainamountofland,ascarcecommodityinmanylowincomeurbancommunitiesandonethatresidentsmaybeunwillingto
sacrificeunlesstheyareconvincedthatitisfortheirbenefit.Housesmayhavetoberelocatedandrebuilttomakewayfornewdrains,andresidentsmust
bedissuadedfromerectingnewstructuresthatwouldobstructthedrainagesystem.Thepositioniscomplicatedbytheproblemsoflandtenurewhichbeset
manyurbanslumsandshantytowns.Forexample,theconventionalproceduresusedbyamunicipalityforcompulsorypurchaseoflandareclearly
inapplicableinacommunityofsquatterswithnolegaltitletothelandonwhichtheyhavebuilt.Thelandrequirementofadrainagesystemcanmakeita

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burningissueandcangiverisetogreatbitternessunlessthecommunityhasparticipatedinplanningthesystem.

Adrainagesystemisveryvulnerabletoabuse,evenbyasinglememberofthecommunity.Aresidentcaneffectivelyblockadrainagelinebydumpinga
moderateamountofrubbishinit,andthusrenderuselessthewholesystemupstream.Deliberateblockageandotherformsofsabotagearenotunknown,
butapathyandneglectcanhaveequallyseriousconsequencesinthelongterm.Communityparticipationinplanningisthemosteffectivemeansof
generatingtheinterestandinvolvementoflocalresidents,andisessentialforthesuccessofadrainageproject.

Residentscanalsocontributemuchtothedesignofadrainagesystembecauseoftheirdetailedknowledgeofthearea.Forexample,theshortageof
accuratehydrologicaldataforurbanareascaneasilyleadtounnecessarilyexpensivedrainagesystemsbeingdesigned,unlesswitnesses'recollectionsof
pastfloodsaretakenintoaccount.Manyothertypesofinformationcanbecollectedbyresidentsonavoluntarybasis,avoidingtheneedforexpensive
surveys.

Participationinconstruction

Communityparticipationinconstructionisnotessential,buthasseveraladvantages.Voluntarylabourcanpermitsignificantsavingsincost,animportant
considerationformostmunicipalitiesindevelopingcountries,whichhaveonlyverylimitedfundstoinvestininfrastructure.Itcanalsohelptodevelopa
senseofownershipandaclimateofcooperationwhichwillfacilitatetheresponsibleuseandsatisfactorymaintenanceofthesystem.Community
participationinconstruction,whetherpaidorunpaid,willensurethatresidentsacquireaknowledgeofthedrainagesystemandmanyskillswhichwill
helpthemtoparticipateinmaintainingit.Lastly,constructionbythecommunitymaybetheonlypossiblesolutionwhenmunicipalauthoritiesarenotable,
forwhateverreasons,toprovideadrainagesystemfortheneighbourhood.

Participationinmaintenance

Thereisnoneedtoarguethecaseforcommunityparticipationindrainagemaintenance.Toooften,lowincomecommunitiesareexpectedtomaintain
theirdrainagesystemswithminimalassistance,eitherasaresultofwishfulthinkingonthepartofmunicipalauthoritiesorbydefault,becausethe
municipalitysimplydoesnothavetheresourcesorcapacitytomaintainthesystemithasinstalled.Rather,whatthecommunityneedsissupporttoenable
ittocarryoutitspartoftheworkmoreeffectively.Thisincludesnotonlytechnicalandmaterialsupport,particularlyintheformoftrainingandthe
provisionofspecializedequipmentwherenecessary,butalsosupportforthedevelopmentofcommunityinstitutionsandprocedurestoorganizethetask.

4.2Communityinstitutions
Communityparticipationisnotaspontaneous,automaticprocess.Itrequiresaninitiativetolaunchit,andmanagementtoorganizeit.Inpractice,
communitiescanparticipateonlythroughcommunityinstitutions.Ontheotherhand,theseinstitutionsdonotneedtobecreatedoutofnothing.Alow
incomeurbancommunityisnottheunorganizedmassitmayseemtooutsiders.Usually,avarietyofinstitutionsarealreadyinexistence,someofthem
withahighdegreeoforganizationandconsiderablepowertoinfluencepeople'sattitudesandbehaviour.Theyareofmanydifferentkinds,suchasthe
following:

residents'associationsandamenitygroups,
women'sorganizations,
politicalparties,
labourunions,
religiousbodies,
culturalassociations,
ethnicor"homeboy"associations,
rotatingcreditassociations,
burialsocieties,
schools,parentteacherassociations,
healthposts,healthcommittees,communityhealthworkers.

Someofthemmaybeformallyrecognizedandaffiliatedtoregionalornationalbodies.Othersmayhavedevelopedinformallyinresponsetospecificlocal
needs.Theiractivitiesandinfluenceoftenrangemuchwiderthanthepurposesforwhichtheywereoriginallyestablished.Theyareoftenfarmoreactive
andinfluentialinlowincomecommunitiesthanthecorrespondinginstitutionsinwealthierneighbourhoods.Inaddition,someindividualsmaybe
recognizedinformallyasleadersinthecommunityowingtotheireducation,wealth,ageorexperience.

Theinitiativetostartdiscussionofthepossibilityofdrainageimprovementswilloftencomefromanindividualwhoalreadyplaysaprominentroleinone
oftheseorganizations,suchastheschoolteacher,religiousleaderorpartysecretary.Whentheinitiativecomesfromanoutsidebodysuchasthe
municipality,theseinstitutionsarevaluable"entrypoints"throughwhichafirstapproachtothecommunitycanbemade.Indeed,manyresidentsmayfeel
slightediftheapproachisnotmadethroughtheexistingcommunityinstitutions.

Thedrainagecommittee

Itwillnormallybenecessarytoestablishadrainagecommitteetoorganizethecommunity'scontributiontoadrainageproject.Thisismostlikelyto
succeedifitisnotacompletelynewstructure,butisbuiltontoexistingcommunityinstitutionswhoseauthorityisgenerallyaccepted.Thedrainage
committeewillenjoytheestablishedauthorityofthecommunity'sleadersifitisanswerabletothem.

Thecommitteeshouldberepresentativeofthecommunity.Itstaskwillbeeasierifitincludeswomenandmembersfromtheprincipalethnicandreligious
groupsinthecommunity,andfromvariouspartsoftheneighbourhood.Ontheotherhand,itshouldnotbetoolargeasthiscanmakeithardertoreach
consensusdecisionsandtoensurethatallthemembersplayanactiverole.Itispreferabletohavefewerthan10members.Theactiveparticipationofthe
committeememberscanbeencouragedbyallocatingspecificrolesamongthem,suchasChairperson,SecretaryandTreasurer,withothermembers
responsiblefortechnicalaspects,liaisonwiththemunicipality,publicrelations,organizationofvoluntarylabour,relocationofaffectedhouses,andsoon.
Someofthesemayhavedeputiesifthenumberofmembersissufficient.

Inmanycases,themembersofthecommitteewillbewillingtoworkonavoluntarybasis,buttherearecircumstancesinwhichsomeremunerationforthe
workdoneonadrainagecommitteecanbejustified.Thisisespeciallythecasewhentheworkofthedrainagecommitteepermitssignificantcostsavings
tothemunicipality.

Oneofthefirststepsforthecommitteeistoapproachthelocalmunicipalitytoseekitshelp,eitherdirectlyorthroughlocalleaders.Evenifthemunicipal
authoritycannotaffordtoprovidematerialresources,itmaybeabletoofferotherkindsofassistance,suchastechnicalguidance,adviceregarding
possiblesourcesoffunds,andliaisonwithotherrelevantbodies,includingothercommunitieswhichhavesuccessfullyundertakendrainageimprovements.
Inaddition,themunicipalitycanhelptoavoidconflictwiththepolice.Whilecommunitymeetingsandparticipationareencouragedinmostcountries,
therearesomecaseswhereagroupofpeoplemeetingregularlyinalowincomehighdensityhousingareacouldbesuspectedofsubversiveactivity.

Ifthemunicipalauthorityiswillingtohelp,everyeffortshouldbemadetoensureclosecollaborationbetweenitandthecommittee.Thedrainage
committee,foritspart,shouldbriefmunicipalofficialsonitsdecisionsandsendthemminutesofmeetingsor,better,inviterepresentativesofrelevant
departmentstoattend.Itcouldalsooffertoassistwithdatacollectionandothertasks.Themunicipality,ontheotherhand,shouldconsultthecommittee
aboutplanninganddesigndecisions,allowingittimetoconsultthecommunitybeforereplying.Itcanarrangeregularbriefingsforcommitteememberson
theprogressoftheproject.

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SomeresourcesthatwouldbeusefulfortheorientationofadrainagecommitteearedescribedinAnnex4.

4.3Creatingawareness
Aprerequisiteforacommunity'sactiveandwillingparticipationinadrainageschemeisanawarenessoftheneedforit,ofitsfeasibility,andofthe
benefitsitcanbestow.Inmanylowincomecommunitiesthereisnolackofawarenessoftheproblemdrainageoftenfiguresfirstonthelistoffeltneeds
forcommunityinfrastructure.However,thedrainagecommittee(oranyonewishingtosetoneup)willneedtodeveloppublicawarenessthatthe
communityitselfcanandshoulddosomethingtoimprovethesituation.Afurtherrequirementistogenerateaclimateofresponsibilityforthedrainage
systemonceithasbeenbuilt.

Arangeofmethodscanbeusedtogivepublicitytothedrainagecommitteeanditsobjectives,includingpublicmeetings,postersanddoortodoor
canvassing.Schoolchildrenareaparticularlyvaluableresource.Theyareusuallymorereadytoacceptnewideas,theyhavetimeandenergywhichcanbe
mobilizedforvariousactivities,andtheycaninfluencetheirfamiliesathome.

However,people'sattitudesandbehaviourarenoteasilyinfluencedbyaonewayflowofinformationandexhortationstoparticipate.Afarmoreeffective
strategyistostimulatediscussioninsuchawaythatresidentscometoseeforthemselvestheadvantagesofcontributingtowardsadrainageschemeand
theimportanceofaresponsibleattitudetowardsit.

Fourprincipalincentivescanhelpmotivatepeopletoparticipateinadrainageproject:

comfortandsafety,
financialgain,
status,
grouppressure.

Comfortandsafety

Aneffectiveargumentfordrainageistheprospectofnolongerhavingtowalkthroughpoolsofstagnantwaterandsewage,orofhavingnomore
collapsinghousesandlandslides.Theseimprovementsmakeitworthwhileforresidentstoundertakeimprovementstotheirhouses,andopenthewayfor
otheraspectsofinfrastructuresuchaswatersupplyandsanitation.Improveddrainagemakesaccesseasierforvehicleseveniffewresidentsownamotor
car,manywillbekeentoensureeasyaccessforemergencyvehiclessuchasambulancesandfireengines.Theprospectofreducedmosquitonuisanceisa
furtherinducement,oncepeoplehavebeenshownthatmosquitosbreedinstagnantwater.Thehealthbenefitsofdrainagehavebeendescribedinsection1,
andshouldbeexplainedtothecommunity.

Financialgain

Drainageimprovementscanincreasepropertyvalues,makinghousesmoreprofitabletosellortolet.Ifconvincingfactsandfigurescanbeprovidedto
demonstratethatadrainageprojectisaffordabletothecommunityandgiveseconomicreturns,theprospectoffinancialgaincanbeeffectivemotivation.

Status

Whetherornotresidentswishtosellorlettheirhouses,betterdrainagecangivetheirneighbourhoodtheappealofwealthierdistrictsandconferstatuson
thecommunityanditsmembers.Additionalstatusmayattachtothosemostactivelyinvolvedintheproject.

Grouppressure

Grouppressurecanbeoneofthemostpowerfulincentivesforparticipatinginacommunityeffort,onceaconsensushasbeenachieved.Everycommunity
exertsconsiderableinternalpressureonitsmemberstocomplywithitsnormsanddecisionsthosewhodeviatemaybeshunned,ridiculedorhumiliated,
butformosttheexampleofthemajorityissufficienttopersuadethemtojoinin.However,thiscanbeeffectiveonlywhenthemajorityhasalreadybeen
motivatedtoparticipatebyreachingaconsensusthroughdiscussion.

Twoeffectivemeanstoencouragediscussion,whilehelpingtofocusit,arepicturesandquestions.Pictorialmaterialmaybeintheformofcartoons,felt
boardsonwhichadhesivefigurescanbeplacedandmovedaround,orslides,filmsorvideosshowingdrainageproblemsandareaswheredrainagehas
beenimproved.Residentscanbeaskedtocommentonthismaterial,rearrangeitortellimaginarystoriesaboutit.Othervisualaidscanbeimprovised
fromlocalmaterials:forexample,aglassjarcontainingmosquitolarvae,ortwomodelsofthelocaltopography,onewithsmalldrainagechannelscutinto
it,tobewateredwithawateringcantosimulaterain.

Carefullychosenquestionscanalsoservetostartupadiscussion.Thefollowingaresomeexamples:

"Whydoesfloodingoccurinneighbourhoodslikeours,butneverinthecentreoftown?"
"Whyaretheresomanymosquitosinourarea?"
"Ifadrainageschemewerebuilthere,howwouldthataffectthevalueofourhouses?"

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Fig.29.Communityparticipationinplanningisessentialforsuccess

Theprocesstakestime,andcanleadinunexpecteddirections.Therearenoshortcuts,however.Alowincomecommunitythatissimplytoldwhatit
shoulddomayappeartoreactpositivelyduringmeetingsandsurveys,butmaywithholditscooperationwhenthetimecomesforaction.Itisadvisablenot
torushanydecisions,buttogivethecommunitytimetodiscusstheproblemandreachaconsensus.

4.4Aprogrammeofaction
Oncethedrainagecommitteehasbeenformedandthecommunityhasagreedtosupportitsefforts,itistimetoplanaprogrammefortheimplementation
ofthedrainageproject.Thisplanningisnotthesameasthetechnicaldesignofthescheme.Itisnotnecessarytohavethecompleteddesigninorderto
makethemainplanningdecisions,althoughitisanadvantagetohavesomeideaoftheprincipaltechnicaloptions.Thecommitteemayfindithelpfulto
startwithsteps(a)(f)insection2.9togivethemsomeideaofthelikelyscopeoftheproject.

Inordertodeveloptheprogrammeofaction,theimplementationoftheprojectshouldbedividedintoseparatephasesandactivities,suchasthefollowing.

Planninganddesign

Collectionofdata
Outliningtechnicalsolutions
Selectionofthebestalternative
Detaileddesign
Costcalculations
Fundraising

Construction

Acquisitionofland
Relocationofbuildings
Preparationofstoragefacilities,castingyard,etc.
Purchaseofmaterialsandequipment
Skilledconstructionworkandsupervision
Unskilledconstructionwork
Provisionofwaterforconstruction
Storing,guardingandaccountingformaterialsandequipment
Providingfoodforvoluntaryworkers

Maintenance

Routinedraincleaning
Reportingofdefectsandblockages
Twiceyearlyinspection
Repair
Paymentformaintenance
Passingofbylawsregardingtheuseofdrains
Enforcementofbylaws.

Foreachactivity,adecisionisneededastowhichindividualsaretocarryitout,whentheywilldoso,howtheywillbeorganizedandtowhomtheywill
beresponsible.Thismeansthatduringtheplanningstage,decisionsmustbetakenaboutwhatthecommunitywilldointhefuture.Themoredecisionsthat
canbetakenduringthisplanningstage,thebetteritisforthefutureoftheproject.

Itisnotnecessaryorevenadvisableforthedrainagecommitteetotakethesedecisionsalone.Someofthemwillbedeterminedinpracticebywhatthe
municipalitycanoffer,butmanyoftheactivitieswillhavetobeperformedbythecommunityorbythosewhomithiresforthepurpose,andthefinal
decisionabouttheseisbestlefttoameetingofthecommunityoritsrepresentatives.Nevertheless,thecommitteeshouldfirstconsiderthealternatives
availabletoit,sothatitcanadvisesuchameetingoftheadvantagesanddisadvantagesofeachalternative.

Itiseasierforthecommunitytodiscussaproposedprogrammeofactionifthereissomeestimateofthetimingofeachactivity.Municipalstaffmaybe

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abletoadviseonthetimelikelytoberequiredforeachtask.

Theprogrammeshouldbepresentedtooneormoremeetingsofthecommunityfordiscussion,possiblemodificationandfinalapproval.Publicmeetings
areespeciallyusefulintheearlystages,astheyhelptoensurethat:

residentshaveaclearideaofwhatisbeingdecided,anddonotrelyonrumoursandsecondhandaccounts,whichmaybeincorrect

thecommunityfeelsithassomecontroloverthedecisionmakingandcanthereforeidentifywiththeconclusions

maximumuseismadeoflocalknowledge,toreachthemostcosteffectivesolution.

Eachmeetingshouldbeginwithapresentationoftheoptionsunderconsideration.Itispreferabletoseekcommentsandsuggestionsfromtheparticipants
first,beforethecommittee'srecommendedsolutiontoeachproblemispresented.Inthisway,themeetingcantaketheformofa"brainstorming"session,
whichisaverycreativeprocess.Ideasaresuggestedbytheparticipantsandwrittenuponablackboard.Thesecretofsuccessfulbrainstormingisto
observefourbasicrules:

(1)Donotcriticizesuggestions.
(2)Donotalteroredittheideas,buttakethemjustastheycome.
(3)Encourageevenfarfetchedideas,astheymaytriggermorepracticalones.
(4)Themoreideasthebetterdonotstopassoonasthereisapauseinthediscussion.

Oncealistofsuggestionshasbeencompiledinthisway,themeetingcanbeaskedtocommentonthem,andthedrainagecommitteeaskedtogivemore
detailedconsiderationtothebestones.

Onthisbasis,amoredetailedprogrammecanbedevelopedandpresentedtoanothermeeting.Thewholeprocessmaytakeonetotwomonths,andshould
culminateinthedrawingupofwrittenagreementsbetweenthepartiesconcerned,settingoutresponsibilitiesfordesign,forconstruction,andforuseand
maintenance.Ifengineeringconsultantsorcontractorsaretobeengaged,specialisthelpshouldbesoughtindraftingsuitablecontractsandtermsof
reference.Theagreementsandcontractsshouldincludeprovisionforfurtherconsultationwiththecommunity,particularlyduringthedesignstage.Annex
3listssomeofthepointstocheckindrawinguptermsofreferenceforafeasibilitystudyofacommunitydrainagesystem.

Beforeconstructioncanbegin,thereshouldbeareasonabledegreeofcertaintythatsufficientfundswillbeavailable.Wherenecessary,fundraisingwithin
thecommunity,andeffortstoobtainfundsfromexternalsources,canstartwhiletheprogrammeofactionisstillbeingdeveloped.

Therearemanytasksthecommunitycanperformintheconstructionofadrainagesystem(seesection2.8),buttheirparticipationmustbecarefully
planned.Mostimportantly,theplansmustspecifywhichpeoplewillberesponsibleforeachtaskandwhowillsupervisethem.Certaintasksmaybe
organizedbystreetorblockresidentsofagivenstreetmayworkonthedrainageoftheirownstreet,ormayworkonaparticularday,onarotasystem.
Somelighttaskscouldbetheresponsibilityofschoolchildren,oroftheelderly.

Plansshouldbemadeinadvancefordealingwithpeoplewhofailtoparticipate.Somecommunitymembersmayprefertocontributecashormaterials
ratherthantheirlabourtotheprojects.Thedrainagecommitteeshouldconsiderwhatformsofpressureitwillbringtobearonthosewhocontribute
nothing.Sanctionswillbemucheasiertoapplyiftheyhavebeenagreeduponbeforehandbythecommunity.

Thedrainagecommitteewillwishtocallanothermeetingwhenthedrainagesystemiscompleted.Thiscantaketheformofacelebration,butitisalso
appropriatetoconsiderthemaintenanceofthenewsystem,eitherunderthesamedrainagecommitteeorareconstitutedone.

4.5Participationinmaintenance
Asmentionedinsection3.4,themaintenanceofadrainagesystemrequiresspecificinstitutionalarrangements,preferablywithamunicipaldepartment
assumingtheultimateresponsibilityforthistask.

Whetherornotamunicipaldepartmentassumestheresponsibilityformaintenance,aneighbourhooddrainagecommitteecanatleastmonitorthe
functioningofthesystemandreportdefectsanddeficienciestotheofficialsresponsible.Inmanycases,thecommunitycanalsocarryoutmuchofthe
routinemaintenancework.Theremustthenbegoodcoordinationandacleardivisionofresponsibilities.Residentsmustknowtowhomtheyshouldreport
anyproblemssuchasdamageorblockages.Itiscertainlyadvisablethatthecommunityshouldappointadrainagecommitteetoplanandsupervisethe
maintenancework.Thiscommitteeshouldliaisewiththemunicipalitytoensurethepromptcollectionofsolidsremovedfromthedrainsandthe
unhindereddischargeofstormwaterintotheprimarydrainagesystemlinkingtheirneighbourhoodwiththereceivingwaterbody.

Onepossibilityisforeachhouseholdtotakeresponsibilityforthesectionofdrainpassingthroughorinfrontofitsplot.However,ifthisistowork
successfully,ithastwoprerequisites:(1)thearrangementmustbeacceptedbythecommunityatlargeand(2)someadditionalprocedureisneededto
monitorandbringpressuretobearonthosewhoneglecttheirresponsibility(Fig.30).Theprocessisillustratedbytheexampleofoneselfhelpupgrading
schemeinBandung,Indonesia,wherehouseownersagreedtoberesponsibleforthedailycleaningofthedrainsinfrontoftheirhouses.Aneighbourhood
coordinatorinspectedthedrainstwiceaweekandrecordedhisfindings.Theresponsetothefriendlyinspectionswasverygood,andtheinspectorassisted
inthemanufactureofsimplescoopsandscraperstofacilitatethecleaningofthesmallculvertsunderthehouseentrances.Soon,itbecameadailyroutine
performedbyeveryselfrespectinghouseholder.

Theotherapproachisforaspecificgroupofresidentstocleanthewholesystem.Thishastheadvantagethattheycanbesuppliedwithanyspecial
equipmentneeded,suchasshovelsandhandcartsorwheelbarrows.Thecompositionofthegroupcouldchangeregularlyonarotatingbasissothat
everyonetakesaturn,underthesupervisionofthestandingdrainagecommittee.Alternatively,theycouldbeafixedsectionofthecommunity,suchasthe
membersofayouthorganization.Whetherthemembershipofthegroupisfixedorrotating,theymusthavesomeincentivetocarryoutthework,orbe
subjecttosomesanctioniftheyfailtodoso.

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Fig.30.Everybodymustcooperateindrainagemaintenance

Poordrainagemaintenancedoesnotalwaysgiverisetoproblemsimmediately.Theaccumulationofsedimentorrubbishinthedrainsandthedeterioration
ofthesystemcanoccurprogressivelyoveraperiodoftime,unnoticeduntilamajoreffortisneededtorestorethesystemtogoodworkingorder.In
additiontoorganizingroutinemaintenance,thedrainagecommitteewouldbewelladvisedtoestablishonedayeachyearwhenthecommunityis
mobilizedtogivethewholesystemathoroughcleaningandoverhaul.Itwouldbemostconvenienttofixthisdayneartheendofthedryseason,when
thereislittlewaterinthedrainssothatcleaningandrepaircanbecarriedouteasily.

Clearly,communityparticipationinmaintenanceneedsproperplanningandorganization.However,ifthemunicipalityneglectsitsresponsibilityfor
maintainingtheprimarydrainagesystem,waterfromtheneighbourhoodandadjoiningareasmaybackupandcauseflooding,causingresidentstolose
heart.Acommunityhasthebestchanceofachievingsuccessfulmaintenancewhenitworksinpartnershipwiththemunicipality.

4.6Selectedreading
APPLETON,B.&CAIRNCROSS,S.Minimumevaluationprocedure(MEP)forwatersupplyandsanitationprojects.UnpublishedWHOdocument,May
1985(InternationalDrinkingWaterSupplyandSanitationDecade,CWSSeries,No.6).Availableonrequestfrom:DivisionofEnvironmentalHealth,
WorldHealthOrganization,1211Geneva27,Switzerland.

CHAUHAN,S.K.Whoputsthewaterinthetaps?CommunityparticipationinThirdWorlddrinkingwater,sanitationandhealth.London,International
InstituteforEnvironmentandDevelopment,1983.

MUIR,J.RuralhealthinnorthernPakistan.Waterlines,5(2):1014(1986).

WHYTE,A.Communityparticipationinwatersupplyandsanitationconcepts,strategiesandmethods.TheHague,InternationalReferenceCentrefor
CommunityWaterSupplyandSanitation,1981(TechnicalPaperNo.17).

WHYTE,A.Guidelinesforplanningcommunityparticipationactivitiesinwatersupplyandsanitationprojects.Geneva,WorldHealthOrganization,1986
(OffsetPublicationNo.96).

VANWIJKSIJBESMA,C.Participationofwomeninwatersupplyandsanitationrolesandrealities.TheHague,InternationalReferenceCentrefor
CommunityWaterSupplyandSanitation,1985(TechnicalPaperNo.22).

Annex1.Glossary

alluvial Depositedbyariver,normallyonafloodplainneartheriver'smouth

baffle Slaborboardpartlyclosingadrainagechanneltodivertorslowdowntheflowofwater

bedding Sandorgravelplacedbeneathadrainagepipeorchannelelementtosupportitevenly

bylaws Lawsmadeatlocallevel

catchmentarea Areaofgroundfromwhichrainwaterwillflowtoasinglepoint

checkwall Wallplacedacrossadrainagechanneltopreventscouring

concentration Timerequiredforrainwaterfromalloveracatchmentareatoflowtoasingle

time point

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crown Thehighestpointinthecrosssectionofapipe

culvert Drainforcarryingwaterunderneatharoadorpathway

curing Treatmentofconcretebykeepingitssurfacedampforthefirstsevendaysafterplacing,toensureitdevelopsitsfullstrength

dissipator Checkwallbuiltoflooseboulderswhichallowswatertopassthroughthebouldersbutslowsitdown,dissipatingitsenergy

element Precastsectionofdrainagechannelliningorpipe

erosion Removalofsoilbytheactionofwater

gabion Bundleorbaleofstonesboundinwireorothermesh

grader Machineusedforroadconstructionandmaintenance,withabladefixedbetweenitsfrontandrearwheels

groundwater Waterlocatedbeneaththegroundsurface

gullypot Basinincorporatedintotheinletsofsomecloseddrainagesystemstocollectsediment,whichmustberemovedfromit
regularly

impermeable Describesamaterialthroughwhichwatercannotpass

insituconcrete Concreteplacedandallowedtosetinthepositionwhereitwillremain

infiltrate (ofafluid)Topassintotheporesorsmallspacesinasolid,e.g.,soil

infrastructure Permanentfacilitiesforthecommonuseofacommunity

invert Thelowestpointinthecrosssectionofapipe

landfill Earthorrubblespreadoverthegroundtoraisethelevel

manhole Undergroundchamberofbrickorconcrete,permittingentrytocloseddrainsandsewers

masonry Constructionofbrickorstonesheldtogetherwithmortar

mortar Mixtureofcement,sandandwater

municipality Organoflocalgovernmentinacityorurbandistrict

parasite Anorganismthatlivesonorinanotherlivingorganismanddrawsnourishmentfromit

pantograph Instrumentformechanicalcopyingofdrawingsorplansonthesameoradifferentscale

planimeter Instrumentformeasuringareasonpaper

polder Lowlyingareaoflandprotectedfromfloodingbyanembankment

primarydrainagesystem Systemoflargedrains,eachservingawideareaofacity

receivingwaterbody Bodyofwaterintowhichwaterflowsfromadrainagesystem

refuse Rubbish,garbage

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returnperiod Averageintervalbetweenstormsorfloodsofagivenseverity

runoff Waterfromrainfall,flowingoverthegroundandintodrainsandstreams

runoff Proportionofrainwaterthatflowsoverthegroundandisthuslikelytoenter

coefficient adrainagesystem

scouring Washingawayofsoil(erosion)around,beneathorinthebedofadrain

secondarydrainage Networkofsmalldrainswithinaneighbourhoodservingasmallcatchmentareaanddischargingintotheprimarydrainage
system system

selfcleansingspeedof Speedofflowinadrainorsewersufficienttopreventtheaccumulationofsediment
flow

sewage Humanexcreteandwastewater,flushedalongasewer

sewer Apipecontainingwastewaterorsewage

slope Gradientinclinationtothehorizontal

sludge Mixtureofsolidsandwaterdepositedonthebottomofdrains,septictanks,etc.

sluicegate Structurethatcanbeopenedorclosedtocontrolthepassageofwater

stormwater Waterfromrainfallflowinginadrainorsewer

topography Shapeofthegroundsurface,includingthepositionofnaturalandmanmadefeatures

trapezoidal Describesadrainagechannelwithslopingsidesandaflatbottom

turnout Draintakingwaterawayfromthesideofaroad

weephole Smallholeinadrainagechannelliningthroughwhichwatercanflow,torelievegroundwaterpressure

Annex2.Designcalculations
Basicconcepts

Thebasicconceptsofreturnperiodandrunoffcoefficientareexplainedinsection2.2.Twootherimportantconceptsareinvolvedindrainagedesign
calculations:rainfallintensityandconcentrationtime.

Rainfallisnormallymeasuredinmillimetres1mmofrainfallonaflatareaofland,withnoinfiltrationintotheground,evaporationintotheair,orrunoff
todrainage,wouldfloodtheareatoadepthof1mm.Rainfallintensityisameasureoftherateatwhichrainisfalling,andisusuallyexpressedin
mm/hour.

Theintensityofrainfallvariesduringeachstorm,reachingapeakvaluemuchgreaterthantheaverageforthewholestorm.Veryhighratesofrainfallcan
comeinburstslastingafewminutes,butnotlongenoughtocausefloodingorseriouserosion.Animportantquestionthereforeistheperiodoftimeover
whichrainfallistobecalculated.Foradurationofafewminutes,veryhighintensitieswouldbereachedadraindesignedonthisbasiswouldbe
unnecessarilylargeandexpensive.However,iftherainfallintensityistakenastheaveragefortheentiredurationofthestorm,thiswouldgivetoolowa
figure,anddrainsdesignedusingitwouldbeoverloadedformuchofthetime.Thewayinwhichrainfallintensityisrelatedtodurationandreturnperiodis
illustratedbyFig.A2.1,whichisbasedonrecordsforthecityofCebu,Philippines.(Note:thecurvesinFig.A2.1cannotbeusedinothercities,because
rainfallconditionsvarygreatlyindifferentpartsoftheworld.)

Thecorrectdurationtouseindesigningadrainisthe"concentrationtime"ofthecatchmentareawhichitserves.Thatis,theamountoftimerequiredfor
waterfallingonthemostfarflungpointinthecatchmentareatorunovertheground,intothedrainagesystem,anddownstreamtothedrainthatistobe
designed.Smallercatchmentareashaveshorterconcentrationtimes.Waterflowsfasterdownrelativelysteepslopes,sothatconcentrationtimesarealso
shorterinhillyareas.

However,veryshortburstsofrainfalllastinglessthan15minutesareunlikelytodoseriousdamage.Thus,areasonableruleofthumbforsmallcatchment
areas(lessthan5ha)istouseaconcentrationtimeof15minutes.Whereaveragelandslopesaregreaterthan0.5%,thistimecanbeusedforareasupto
20ha.Inflatterareas,slightlylongerconcentrationtimescanbeusedforareasover4ha.Areasonableapproximationwouldbetoaddoneminuteforeach
extrahectareupto20ha.Forlargercatchmentareas,itisadvisabletoconsultanengineer.

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Fig.A2.1.RainfallintensitydurationgraphforCebu,Philippines

Calculatingstormwaterflow

Inordertodesignadrainitisfirstnecessarytocalculatethemaximumstormwaterflowthatitwillberequiredtocarry.Thisinvolvesthefollowingsteps.

(a)Decideontheappropriatereturnperiodandconcentrationtime.
(b)Findthemaximumrainfallintensityforthoseconditions(1mm/h).
(c)Calculatethecatchmentareaservedbythedrain(Aha).
(d)Estimatetherunoffcoefficientforthatcatchment(C).
(e)FromI,AandC,calculatethepeakflowthemaximumquantityofwatertobedrainedpersecond.

Thesestepsarediscussedbelow.

(a)Returnperiodandconcentrationtime.Thechoiceoftheseisdescribedinsection2.2andonpages7374,respectively.

(b)Rainfallintensity.Ideally,thisshouldbefoundfromanintensitydurationgraphofthesameformasFig.A2.1.However,agraphcompiled
foronecityshouldnotbeusedforanothercitywithoutprofessionaladvice.Rainfalldatacanbeobtainedfromthedepartmentofhydrologyor
waterresources.Ifintensitydurationdataarenotavailable,anestimatecanbemadeusingthemaximumdailyrainfallfortheappropriate
returnperiod.Ineachclimaticzone,maximumrainfallin15minutesisafairlyconstantpercentageofthemaximumdailytotaltypically
between10%and40%.

(c)Catchmentarea.Thisismostconvenientlyestimatedfromamap.Firsttheedgesofthecatchmentareaaredrawn.Someinvestigationin
thefieldmaybeneededtoascertainthefullextentoftheareafromwhichsurfacewaterwillruntothedrainbeingdesigned.Theareaonthe
mapcanthenbemeasuredwithaplanimeter,orestimatedbydividingitintosquares.Squareswhosesidesareequivalentto100monthemap
willeachhaveanareaof1ha.Forsmallerareas,smallersquarescanbeused.Each10x10msquarewillhaveanareaof0.01ha.

(d)Runoffcoefficient.Asindicatedpreviously,therunoffcoefficientdependsonsoilconditions,terrainandlanduse.Thefirststepisto
determinetherunoffcoefficient(Cu)fortheuncoveredareas,thatis,fortheareaswhicharenotpavedorcoveredbybuildings.ValuesofCu
aregiveninTableA2.1.Thenanestimatemustbemadeofthepercentage(P)ofthetotalcatchmentareathatiscoveredbyimpermeable
pavementsortheroofsofbuildings.Thiscouldbedonefromanaerialphotograph,buttheprocessisverylaborious.Areasonableestimate
canbemadefromthepopulationdensityusingTableA2.2.Thentheoverallrunoffcoefficientforthecatchmentarea(C)canbederivedusing
Fig.A2.2.

(e)Peakflow.Forsmallcatchments,thisisbestcalculatedusingthe"rationalmethod",expressedbytheformula:

Q=2.78CIA

TableA2.1.ValuesofCu.therunoffcoefficientforareasnotpavedorcoveredwithbuildings

I.Humidregions

Soilpermeability

Averagegroundslope verylow(rockandclay) low(clayloam) medium(sandyloam) high(sandandgravel)

Flat:01% 0.55 0.40 0.20 0.05

Gentle:14% 0.75 0.55 0.35 0.20

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Medium:410% 0.85 0.65 0.45 0.30

Steep:>10% 0.95 0.75 0.55 0.40

II.Semiaridregions

Soilpermeability

Averagegroundslope verylow(rockandclay) low(clayloam) medium(sandyloam) high(sandandgravel)

Flat:01% 0.75 0.40 0.05 0.0

Gentle:14% 0.85 0.55 0.20 0.0

Medium:410% 0.95 0.70 0.30 0.0

Steep:>10% 1.00 0.80 0.50 0.05

aFromWATKINS,L.H.aFIDDES,D.Highwayandurbanhydrologyinthetropics.London,PentechPress,1984.
bIncaseofdoubt,partIcanbeusedforthoseregionsoftheworldshadedblackinFig.I,andpartIIfortheremainder.

TableA2.2.Typicalvaluesofthepercentageofimpermeablepavedandcoveredareasinlowincomeurbansettlements(P)

Populationdensity(residents/ha) P(%)

050 012

100 25

200 50

300 75

>400 100

Fig.A2.2.Diagramforderivingtherunoffcoefficient(C)fromthecoefficientfortheunpavedarea(Cu)andthepercentageofpavedarea(P)

where

Q=flow(1/s)
C=runoffcoefficient
I=rainfallintensity(mm/h)
A=catchmentarea(ha).

Forcatchmentareaslargerthanabout5ha,othercalculationmethodsaremoreaccurate,buttheytendtoberathermorecomplex.

Example

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CalculatetheflowcapacityneededforadraininaflatpartofCebu,Philippines,withaclaysoil.Thedrainservesacatchmentareaof3hainhabitedby
600people.

(a)Theareaisflat,sothereisnodangeroferosion.Arelativelyshortreturnperiod(say,3years)isthereforesuitable.Theareaislessthan4
ha,soconcentrationtimecanbetakenas15min.

(b)UsingFig.A2.1,forareturnperiodof3yearsandadurationof15min.therainfallintensity1=107mm/ha.

(c)CatchmentareaA=3ha.

(d)ThePhilippinesisinahumidregion.UsingTableA2.1,foraflat,clayterrain,Cu=0.55.

Populationdensity=600/3=200residents/ha.

UsingTableA2.2,percentagepavedareaP=50.HenceusingFig.A2.2,therunoffcoefficientC=0.77.

(e)Finally,tocalculatetheflow:

Q =2.78CIA

=2.78x0.77x107x3

=6871/s

Calculatingdrainsize

Oncetheflowhasbeendetermined,itispossibletoderivetherequireddimensionsofthedraincrosssection.EngineersoftendothisusingtheManning
formula:

where

Q=flowinthedrain(m3/s)
A=areaofthechannelcrosssection(m2)
R=the"hydraulicradius"ofthedraincrosssection(m)tocalculatethis,dividethecrosssectionalareabythe"wettedperimeter",thatis,the
lengthoftheperimeterofthechannelcrosssectionwhichisincontactwiththewater,notcountingthewatersurface
S=slopeofthedrainfora1%slope,S=0.01
n=aconstantthatdependsontheroughnessofthechannelliningtypicalvaluesofnare:

n=0.015forasmoothconcreteorplasteredbrickmasonry
n=0.025forstraightunlinedchannelsfreeofvegetation
n=0.035forunlinedchannelswithshortgrassandfewweeds.

However,manyreaderswillfinditsimplertouseFig.A2.3.Thisisadesignchartforachannelwiththetrapezoidalcrosssectionshownintheinset,
whichhasnoliningorvegetation(n=0.025).ThechanneldepthDobtainedfromFig.A2.3canbeusedtoderivethedimensionsofchannelsandpipes
withothershapesandothertypesoflining.Theprocedurethenisasfollows:

Fig.A2.3.Designchartforsmalldrainswithatrapezoidalcrosssectionandnoliningorvegetation

(a)Findthemaximumflowin1/s,asdescribedonpages7478.

(b)Findtheslopeofthesectiontobedesignedin%(1%meansaverticaldropof1minevery100mofdrain).

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(c)UseFig.A2.3tofindthevalueofDforthisslopeandflow.

(d)Ifthedrainisnotatrapezoidalchannel,multiplyDbythefactorgiveninFig.A2.4toderivethedimensionsfortheappropriateshapeof
crosssection.IfthedraincrosssectiondoesnotcorrespondexactlytoanyoftheshapesshowninFig.A2.4,choosethenearestequivalentand
followthemethodtofindthesizerequiredforthestandardcrosssection.Thenplanforthedimensionsofthedraintohavethesamecross
sectionalareaasthestandardcrosssectiondesign.

(e)Ifthedrainistohaveasmoothlining,orifthesidesandbottomwillbecoveredwithshortgrass,thedimensionswillneedfurther
adjustment:

forsmoothconcreteorplasteredbrickmasonrylining,multiplythedimensionsby0.83(i.e.,reduceby17%)

Fig.A2.4.Calculatingthedimensionsofvarioustypesofdrain,usingvaluesofchanneldepth(D)fromFig.A2.3

forunlinedchannelswithshortgrassandfewweeds,multiplythedimensionsby1.13(i.e.,increaseby13%),

forasmoothearthorunplasteredmasonrylining,noadjustmentisneeded.

(f)Finally,calculatetheaveragespeedofflowofthewaterwhenthedrainisrunningfull.Iftheflowissorapidthatitwouldcauseerosionof
anunlinedchannel,thechannelshouldbelined,oratleaststabilizedwithgrass.Step(e)aboveshouldthenberepeatedforalinedorgrassed
channel.Ontheotherhand,toolowaspeedwillfailtoachieveselfcleansingandsoallowsedimenttoaccumulate.Ifpossible,aspeedofat
least0.5m/sshouldbeachievedinalldrainswhenflowingfull.Aspeedof1.0m/swouldbebetterstill.

Checkingthespeedofflow

Oncethedimensionsofadrainhavebeenchosen,thecrosssectionalareacanbecalculatedfromthem.Theaveragespeedofflowcanbefoundfromthe
formula:

V=10Q/A

where

V=flowspeedinm/s
Q=flowinl/s
A=crosssectionalareaincm2.

IfthisspeedisfoundtobegreaterthanthecorrespondingvalueinTableA2.3,thereisadangerofseriouserosionunlessthedrainislinedorprovidedwith
checkwalls(seesection2.3).TableA2.3alsogivesmaximumpermissiblespeedsofflowinchannelswhosesidesandbasearestabilizedbyafirmcoverof
grass.

TableA2.3.Permissibleflowspeedstopreventerosioninunlineddrainagechannels'

Typeofsoil Typicalparticlesize(mm) Permissiblespeed(m/s)

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Finesand 0.05 0.4

Sandyloam 0.7

Mediumsand 1.0 0.8

Siltyloam 0.8

Ordinaryfirmloam 1.0

Volcanicash 1.0

Coarsesand 2.5 1.0

Stiffclay 1.5

Alluvialsilt 1.5

Shalesandhardpans 1.8

Finegravel 5 1.5

Coarsegravel 10 1.8

Cobblesandshingles 40 2.4

Grasscover,erodiblesoils 1.2

Grasscover,stablesoils 1.8

Example

Designasquareconcretechanneltodrainapeakflowof6871/S.Thechannelbedlevelfalls40cmalonga50mlength.

(a)FlowQ=687l/s

(b)Slope=(0.4x100)/50=0.8%

(c)Ontheleftsideofthedesignchart(Fig.A2.3),findthe0.8%slope,andonthebottomofthechartfindtheapproximatepoint
correspondingto6871/s(veryslightlytotheleftofthe700l/spoint).Findwherethecorrespondinghorizontalandverticallinescrossthe
pointismarkedinFig.A2.3.ThispointisroughlyhalfwaybetweenthetwoslopinglinesforD=40cmandD=50cmrespectively.By
interpolation,takeD=45cm.

(d)UsingFig.A2.4(c),itcanbeseenthatthisvaluemustbeincreasedby56%togivethewidthofasquarechannel:

45x1.56=70cm

(e)Sincetheliningisofconcrete,thewidthcanbeadjustedtoallowforthereducedfrictionfromthesmoothchannelsides.Thedimensions
canbereducedby17%:

70x0.83=58cm

Roundinguptheresulttoaconvenientvalue,thedraincanbe60cmdeepand60cmwide.

(f)Thischannelwillhaveacrosssectionalareaof3600cm2.ThespeedofflowVwillthereforebe

V=(10x687)/3600=1.9m/s

Thisspeedofflowwouldcauseerosioninalmostanyunlineddrain,butnotinawellbuiltconcretechannel.Aspeedof1.9m/sismorethan
enoughforselfcleansingsiltdepositionwillnotbeaprobleminthisdrain.

Annex3.Termsofreferenceforconsultants
Manydrainageschemesaredesignedbyconsultingengineers.However,thesearenotusuallyforlowincomecommunities.Thereisthereforeadanger
thatconsultingengineersmaydesigndrainagesystemsforlowincomeareaswhichareinappropriateorunaffordableunlessthetermsofreferencefortheir
workaredraftedtomakeitveryclearwhatsortofsolutionisdesired.Amunicipalitythathasalreadyobtainedfundsfortheconstructionofadrainage
systemwillgenerallyhaveafairlyclearideaofitsrequirements,andwillusuallyfindthatconsultants'workismostsatisfactorywhentheyarecontracted
toperformclearlyspecifieddesigntaskswithintheframeworkofthoseneeds.

However,nationalandinternationalfundingagenciesoftenrequirethat,beforetheyagreetopayfortheconstructionofadrainagesystem,itshouldbethe
subjectofafeasibilitystudybyareputablefirmofconsultingengineers.Insuchacasethefundingagencywillhaveitsownrequirementsandwillwishto

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participateindraftingthetermsofreferenceforthefeasibilitystudy.Nevertheless,themunicipalityorthecommunity'srepresentativescansuggestclauses
inthetermsofreferencetoensurethat:

thefullbenefitsoftheproposeddrainageschemearedemonstrated

thestudyisconductedinsuchawayastoarriveatthemostcosteffectivesolution

anaccurateassessmentismadeasearlyaspossibleoftheresourcesthatwillberequiredformaintenanceofthesystem

constructionofthemosturgentlyneededpartsofthesystemisnotdelayedanymorethannecessarybythelengthyprocessofproject
preparation,approvalanddesignand

thecommunityisinvolvedinkeydecisions.

Thesefactorsarediscussedinturn.

Benefits

Thehealthconsequencesofinadequatedrainage,describedinsection1.2,indicatethehealthbenefitswhichimproveddrainagecanbestow.Thesecanbe
furtherdocumentedbytheconsultants,usingexistinghealthstatisticsortheresultsofanycommunityhealthsurveysthathavebeencarriedout.

Inadditiontothehealthbenefits,themostsignificanteconomicbenefitswillstemfromthepreventionofdamagebyfloodorerosionto:

publicinfrastructure,particularlyroads
privateproperty,especiallyhouses,
domesticfurnitureandothermovableproperty.

Amoneyvaluecanbeputonthesebenefits.Privatepropertyinalowincomecommunitycanbevaluedatagivenpercentageoftheminimumwage.

Otherbenefitscaninclude:

enhancementoflandvalue,
reducedtrafficdelays,
reducedlossesofincome,rent,salesandproduction,
reducedcleanupandmaintenancecosts,
reducedemergencyreliefcosts,
greatersenseofsecurity,
improvedaestheticenvironment,and
moreopportunitiesforrecreation.

Costeffectiveness

Thetechnicaloptionsoutlinedinsection2indicatethatdrainagesystemsneednotbeexpensive.Thedesigncriteriaexplainedtherecanbevariedtogive
optionswithdifferentcostsandbenefits,andthebestoptionchosen.Thisappliesparticularlytothefollowingchoices:

returnperiod(section2.2),
openorcloseddrains(section2.5),
channellining(section2.6).

Thetermsofreferenceforafeasibilitystudyshouldrequireananalysisofthecostsandbenefitsofthepossibleoptions,sothatthesedecisionsarenot
takenarbitrarily.

Itisdifficulttocalculateexactlyhowthemanybenefitsofdrainagewillbealteredbychangesindesigncriteriatoallowoccasionalshallowflooding.The
problemcanbesimplifiedbyassumingthatthedamagecausedbyafloodisproportionaltoa"damageindex"D:

D=FxQxT

where

F=frequencyofoccurrenceoftheflood(say,numberoftimesina10yearperiod)
Q=quantityofwaterthatcannotbedrainedawayimmediately(mmofrainfall)
T=timeforwhichthefloodlasts(hours).

TheestimatedcostCofeachoptioncanbecomparedwiththevalueofDtofindtheoptionwiththehighestratioofC:D.

Maintenancerequirements

Thesearediscussedinsection3.Atypicalvaluefortheannualcostofmaintenancewouldbeabout8%oftheconstructioncostofthesystem.The
feasibilitystudyshouldmakeamoreaccurateestimate,includinganassessmentofthehumanresourcesandequipmentthatwillbeneeded.

Urgentconstruction

Thetermsofreferencecanauthorizetheconsultantstoproceedwithdetaileddesignofthemosturgentlyneededcomponentsofthesystem(say,toavalue
of10%or20%ofthetotalestimatedvalueofthesystem)oncethechoiceofsolutionhasbeenagreed,butwithouttheneedforanewcontractornew
approvalbythefundingagency.

Communityinvolvement

Itisconventionalinanyconsultancyagreementtostipulatestagesatwhichtheclient'sopinionorapprovalistobesought.Theclientinthiscasewill
usuallybethemunicipality.Thereisnoreasonwhythecommunityshouldnotbeinvolvedinthisprocess.Asfarasthetermsofreferenceareconcerned,
responsibilityforensuringthatthecommunityparticipatesindecisionmakingcouldbeassignedtotheclientortheconsultant.Thelattercouldeither
followlineslaiddownbytheclientorbeaskedtoproposeaprocedureforcommunityparticipationwhenbiddingforthecontract.

Annex4.Resourcesfortheorientationofthedrainagecommittee
Section4,oncommunityparticipation,providesguidanceontheestablishmentandfunctionsofthedrainagecommittee.Wheresuchacommitteeis
establishedthemembersshouldgathertoexchangeinformationaboutthelocaldrainagesituation.Theyshouldalsoattempttoassimilategeneral
informationaboutcommonmethodsandmaterialsforsolvingdrainageproblems.Thiswillfacilitateagreementonwhatneedstobedoneandinwhat
sequence.Thebooksanddocumentslistedbelowareusefulsourcesofgeneralinformationaboutdrainageandcommunityparticipationthatarelikelyto

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bereadilyavailablefromlibrariesorothersourcesofUnitedNationspublications.Drainagecommitteesmayalsorequestsuchinformationfromnational
and/orlocalpublicworksorhealthauthorities.TheunpublishedWHOdocumentslistedherecanbeobtainedfromDivisionofEnvironmentalHealth,
WorldHealthOrganization1211Geneva27,SwitzerlandunpublishedHabitatdocumentsareavailablefromtheUnitedNationsCentreforHuman
Settlements,Nairobi,Kenya.

Usefulbooksanddocuments

CAIRNCROSS,S.&FEACHEM,R.G.Environmentalhealthengineeringinthetropics:anintroductorytext.Chichester,JohnWiley&Sons,1983.

OKUN,D.A.&PONGHTS,G.Communitywastewatercollectionanddisposal.Geneva,WorldHealthOrganization,1975.

WHYTE,A.Guidelinesforplanningcommunityparticipationactivitiesinwatersupplyandsanitationprojects.Geneva,WorldHealthOrganization,1986
(WHOOffsetPublicationNo.96).

Improvingenvironmentalhealthconditionsinlowincomesettlements:acommunitybasedapproachtoidentifyingneedsandpriorities.Geneva,World
HealthOrganization,1987(OffsetPublicationNo.100).

Catalogueofexternalsupport,3rded.UnpublishedWHOdocument,

December1985(InternationalDrinkingWaterSupplyandSanitationDecade,CWSSeries,No.7).

Watersupplyandsanitationfordevelopingcountries.Aninternationalsourcelistofaudiovisualmaterials.UnpublishedWHOdocument,April1987
(InternationalDrinkingWaterSupplyandSanitationDecade,CWSSeries,No.8).

Environmentalaspectsofwatermanagementinmetropolitanareasofdevelopingcountries.Unpublisheddocument,UnitedNationsCentreforHuman
Settlements(Habitat),Nairobi,1984.

Deliveryofbasicinfrastructuretolowincomesettlements:issuesandoptions.Unpublisheddocument,UnitedNationsCentreforHumanSettlements
(Habitat),Nairobi,1986.

Communityparticipationinlowcostsanitation.Trainingmodule.Unpublisheddocument,UnitedNationsCentreforHumanSettlements(Habitat),
Nairobi,1986.

Communityparticipationandlowcostdrainage.Trainingmodule.Unpublisheddocument,UnitedNationsCentreforHumanSettlements(Habitat),
Nairobi,1986.

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