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SurfaceWaterDrainageforLowIncomeCommunities(WorldHealthOrganisation)
(introduction...)
Acknowledgements
1.Surfacewaterdrainageinurbanareas
2.Drainageoptions
3.Rehabilitationandmaintenance
4.Communityparticipation
Annex1.Glossary
Annex2.Designcalculations
Annex3.Termsofreferenceforconsultants
Annex4.Resourcesfortheorientationofthedrainagecommittee
(introduction...)
WorldHealthOrganization
Geneva1991
Acknowledgements
TheUnitedNationsEnvironmentProgrammeandtheWorldHealthOrganizationwishtothankallthosewhohavetakenpartinthepreparationofthis
publication,inparticularthetwoprincipalauthors:DrS.CairncrossoftheLondonSchoolofHygieneandTropicalMedicine,andDrE.A.R.Ouano,
consultingengineer,Manila,Philippines.TheauthorsdrewheavilyonatrainingmodulepreparedbytheUnitedNationsCentreforHumanSettlements
(Habitat),whosecooperationinprovidingthismaterialisgratefullyacknowledged.Finally,thanksareduetoGTZ(AgencyforTechnicalCooperation,
FederalRepublicofGermany)foritsgenerousfinancialassistance,whichmadepossiblethepublicationofthisbook.
TheWorldHealthOrganizationisaspecializedagencyoftheUnitedNationswithprimaryresponsibilityforinternationalhealthmattersandpublichealth.
Throughthisorganization,whichwascreatedin1948.thehealthprofessionsofsome165countriesexchangetheirknowledgeandexperiencewiththeaim
ofmakingpossibletheattainmentbyallcitizensoftheworldbytheyear2000ofalevelofhealththatwillpermitthemtoleadasociallyandeconomically
productivelife.
BymeansofdirecttechnicalcooperationwithitsMemberStates.andbystimulatingsuchcooperationamongthem.WHOpromotesthedevelopmentof
comprehensivehealthservices,thepreventionandcontrolofdiseases,theimprovementofenvironmentalconditions,thedevelopmentofhealth
manpower,thecoordinationanddevelopmentofbiomedicalandhealthservicesresearch,andtheplanningandimplementationofhealthprogrammes.
Thesebroadfieldsofendeavourencompassawidevarietyofactivities,suchasdevelopingsystemsofprimaryhealthcarethatreachthewholepopulation
ofMembercountriespromotingthehealthofmothersandchildrencombatingmalnutritioncontrollingmalariaandothercommunicablediseases
includingtuberculosisandleprosyhavingachievedtheeradicationofsmallpox.promotingmassimmunizationagainstanumberofotherpreventable
diseasesimprovingmentalhealthprovidingsafewatersuppliesandtraininghealthpersonnelofallcategories.
Progresstowardsbetterhealththroughouttheworldalsodemandsinternationalcooperationinsuchmattersasestablishinginternationalstandardsfor
biologicalsubstances,pesticidesandpharmaceuticalsformulatingenvironmentalhealthcriteriarecommendinginternationalnonproprietarynamesfor
drugsadministeringtheInternationalHealthRegulationsrevisingtheInternationalClassificationofDiseases,Injuries,andCausesofDeathand
collectinganddisseminatinghealthstatisticalinformation.
FurtherinformationonmanyaspectsofWHO'sworkispresentedintheOrganization'spublications.
WHOLibraryCataloguinginPublicationData
Surfacewaterdrainageforlowincomecommunities.
1.Drainage,Sanitary
2.Cityplanning
3.Consumerparticipation
4.Developingcountries
ISBN9241544163(NLMClassification:WA671)
WORLDHEALTHORGANIZATION1991
PublicationsoftheWorldHealthOrganizationenjoycopyrightprotectioninaccordancewiththeprovisionsofProtocol2oftheUniversalCopyright
Convention.ForrightsofreproductionortranslationofWHOpublications,inpartorintoto,applicationshouldbemadetotheOfficeofPublications,
WorldHealthOrganization,Geneva,Switzerland.TheWorldHealthOrganizationwelcomessuchapplications.
Thedesignationsemployedandthepresentationofthematerialinthispublicationdonotimplytheexpressionofanyopinionwhatsoeveronthepartofthe
SecretariatoftheWorldHealthOrganizationconcerningthelegalstatusofanycountry,territory,cityorareaorofitsauthorities,orconcerningthe
delimitationofitsfrontiersorboundaries.
Thementionofspecificcompaniesorofcertainmanufacturers'productsdoesnotimplythattheyareendorsedorrecommendedbytheWorldHealth
Organizationinpreferencetoothersofasimilarnaturethatarenotmentioned.Errorsandomissionsexcepted,thenamesofproprietaryproductsare
distinguishedbyinitialcapitalletters.
TYPESETININDIA
PRINTEDINENGLAND
90/8386Macmillan/Clays6500
1.1Theproblem
Manylowincomecommunitiesindevelopingcountriesconsiderstormwaterdrainagetobetheirmosturgentneedasfarasurbaninfrastructureis
concerned.Thisispartlybecausetheirhousesareoftenbuiltonunsuitableland.Inareassufficientlyclosetothecitycentreforthejourneytoworktobe
affordable,landpricestendtobebeyondtheirmeans.Theonlylandtheycanafford,oronwhichtheownerswillallowthemtostayassquatters,island
thatisunsuitableforotherpurposes.Thisisoftenonsteephillsidessubjecttoerosionandlandslides,oritislowlying,marshylandoftensubjectto
flooding.
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Historically,mostofthemajorcitiesofthedevelopingworldarosealongthecoastasports,oftenontheestuariesofriverswhichservedascommercial
arteriesforthetransportofgoodstoandfromthehinterland.Itisthecoastalregionsoftheworldthathavethehighestaveragerainfall(Fig.1),buttheflat
estuarineterrainandoftenimpermeablealluvialsoilsmakedrainagedifficult.
Eveninthearidareaswhereaveragerainfallislow,tropicalrainfallwhenitcomesismoreintensethanintemperateclimates,andthelackofvegetation
andofadequatedrainagemeansthattorrentsofwatercanforminminutes,causingdamagetohomesandpropertywhichwilltakeyearstorepair.
Rainwaterisnottheonlyproblem.Leakingwatermains,wastewaterfromwashingandbathing,andthesewagefromoverflowingseptictanksandblocked
sewersconstitutehealthhazards,damagebuildings,andcancausefloodingifanadequatedrainagesystemdoesnotexist.
Thelackofdrainageisespeciallyseriouswherethegroundiseithersteeplyslopingorveryflat.Onverysteepsites,asinpartsofLuanda,RiodeJaneiro
andHongKong,stormwaterflowsfastandviolently,damagingbuildings,erodingthelandandsometimescausinglandslides.Soilerodedfromahillside
isusuallydepositedatthefootoftheslopethesoilerodedinasinglerainstormhasbeenknowntoburyhousescompletelyinthisway.Inothercasesthe
landisflatincitiessuchasBangkok,Calcutta,Colombo,DaresSalaam,Jakarta,Guayaquil,Lagos,ManilaandRecife,manyneighborhoodsareflooded
atleastonceortwiceayear,andpeoplehavetolearntocopewithwaterinsidetheirdwellings.Sometimespeoplebuildtheirhousesonstiltsandconnect
thembyelevatedpathways.However,theirconstructionisrickety,anditisveryeasytoloseone'sbalanceandfallintothemuddy,pollutedwater
underneath.
Fig.1.Areasoftheworldwithmorethan1.5maverageannualrainfall
1.2Healthconsequences
Deathsduetodrowninginfloodsorburialbeneathlandslidesorcollapsinghomesareperhapsthemostdramaticsignsofthesufferingthatdrainagecan
helptoalleviate.Lessnoticeabletoanoutsider,butofgreaterimpactontheresidents'livesinapoorcommunity,isthesteadytollofdisease,disabilityand
deathtakenbystandingwater.
Firstinpublichealthimportancearethemany"faecaloral"infectionsacquiredbyconsumptionofcontaminatedfoodanddrink.Themicroscopic
pathogensthatcausethemarefoundintheexcreteofinfectedpeopleoranimals.Surfacewaterbecomescontaminatedwiththesepathogensfromsources
suchasblockedsewersandoverflowingseptictanks,andoftenfromdefecationintheopenbylivestockandbypeoplewhohavenotoilet.This
contaminatedsurfacewatercantheninfectpeopleinmanyways.Itcancontaminatetheirhands,theirutensilsortheirdrinkingwatersupply(Fig.2).
Childrenareparticularlyexposedtoinfectionwhenplayingorbathinginsurfacewater.
Fig.2.Stagnantwateranddiseasetransmissionthehealthconsequencesofpoordrainage
Thefaecaloraldiseasesincludethewellknownwaterrelateddiseasesthatareoftenfatal,suchascholeraandtyphoidfever,butalsothemanycommon
diarrhoealdiseasesthatparticularlyaffectyoungchildrenindevelopingcountries,contributingtomalnutritionanddeath.Infact,thesediarrhoealdiseases
areoftenresponsibleformorechildmortalitythananyothercauseofdeath.Importantmeasuresfortheircontrolareanimprovedwatersupplyandbetter
sanitation,butthesearealmostimpossibletoinstallinareassubjecttofrequentflooding.
Incountrieswhereschistosomiasisisendemic,poorlydrainedurbanareaspresentampleopportunitiesfortransmissionofthedisease(Fig.2).
Contaminationofstandingwaterwiththefaecesofinfectedpersons(or,foroneformofthedisease,withtheirurine)enablestheschistosomes,the
microscopicparasitesthatcausethisinfection,toreachthesmallaquaticsnailsinwhosebodiestheymultiply.Fromeveryinfectedsnail,thousandsof
schistosomesemergeandswiminthewater.Localresidentsbecomeinfectedwhentheyenterthewaterandtheschistosomespenetratetheirskin.
Schistosomiasismaysometimesbethoughtofasaruraldisease,butitisoftennolessprevalentinurbanareaswheredrainageislacking.Someofthe
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speciesofsnailhostthriveandbreedrapidlyintheheavilypollutedstagnantwaterwhichoftenaccumulatesthere.Moreover,asingleinfectedpersoninan
urbanareacancausesufficientcontaminationtoinfectverylargenumbersofthepeoplelivinginhisorhercrowdedneighbourhood,becauseevenasmall
numberofsnails,onceinfected,canproducemanythousandsofschistosomesoveralongperiodoftime.
Anotherimportantgroupofdiseasesrelatedtopoordrainageistransmittedbymosquitos.Differentdiseasesaretransmittedbydifferentspeciesof
mosquito,andeachchoosesdifferentbodiesofwaterinwhichtobreed.Somepreferwaterthatisheavilypolluted,somepreferitcleansomebreedin
floodedareas,someinthedrainsthemselvesiftheyareblockedbyrubbishorvegetationorarelaidunevenlysothatthereisstandingwaterinthem.
Malariaisthebestknownofthemosquitoborneinfections,andistransmittedbyAnophelesspecies,manyofwhichbiteanimalsaswellashumans.
Transmissioncanbeparticularlyintenseinurbanareaswheretherearerelativelyfewanimalstodivertthevectorspeciesofmosquitosfromhumanblood
meals.Anophelinemesquitesdonotusuallybreedinheavilypollutedwater,butcanmultiplyinswamps,pools,puddles,andalsoinstreamsand
stormwatercanalsinwhichthereisstandingwater.Anophelinemosquitosbreedinginpoorlydrainedareascantransmitmalariatoadjacentpartsoftown.
Aparticulardangerinacityisthesignificantamountofinternationaltraveltoandfromit,whichincreasestheriskofimportationofnewandpossibly
drugresistantstrainsofthemalariaparasite.
Anotherfamilyofmosquitos,theAedesspecies,cantransmitseveralviruses,suchasthosethatcausedengueandyellowfever.Urbanepidemicsmay
result.Inrecentyears,amorevirulentformofdenguehasbeenobserved,knownasdenguehaemorrhagicfever(DHF).BothDHFandyellowfeverare
oftenfatal.Aedesmosquitosusuallybreedinclearwater,forinstanceindomesticstoragevessels,buttheyhavealsobeenfoundtomultiplyinswampy
andfloodedareas,andinopendrainsandstormwatercanals.
Finally,thereistheparticularlyurbanproblemofbancroftianfilariasis,whichcancauseelephantiasis(irreversibleswellingofthelegs)aswellasother
disablingsymptoms.AlthoughtransmittedinruralareasbyAnophelesspecies,whichappeartobetheoriginalvectorsofthedisease,itseemstohave
adaptedtotransmissioninurbanareasbytheCulexpipiensgroup(Fig.3),whichgenerallymultiplyinheavilypollutedbodiesofwater.Transmissionof
thediseaseisarelativelyinefficientprocess,sothatmanyyearsofexposuretointensenighttimemosquitobitingareneededfortheaveragecaseto
develop.Nevertheless,morethan80millionpeopleinthedevelopingworldareinfected.Inmanycountries,suchasIndia,itisespeciallyprevalentin
urbanareas.FilariasistransmissionbyCulexpipiensmosquitosisnowcommoninAsia,isoccurringincitiesontheeasterncoastsofAfricaandSouth
America,andmaysoonbegininthelargepoorlydrainedurbanareasofWestAfricawhereboththediseaseandthevectormosquitoalreadyexist.
Fig.3.GeographicaldistributionofCulexpipiensmosquitosandbancroftianfilariasis(from:Curtis,C.F.&Feachem,R.G.SanitationandCulexpipiens
mosquitoes:abriefreview.Journaloftropicalmedicineandhygiene,84:1725(1981)).
Drainageconstructionisaneffectivemosquitocontrolmeasure.Itischeaperthanapplicationofinsecticidesanddoesnothavetoberepeatedregularlyin
manycases,itcostslessthanayear'ssupplyofinsecticide.Unlikeinsecticides,itcanhavenodetrimentaleffectontheenvironmentonthecontrary,it
constitutesanenvironmentalimprovement.Moreover,thedangerofmosquitos'developingresistance,astheyhavebeenknowntodotoinsecticides,does
notapply.
1.3Implicationsfortownplanning
Theurbanpoormayoftenbuildonlandwithdrainageproblems,butgoodurbanplanningcanhelptoavoidmakingthoseproblemsworse.
Oneofthesimplestplanningmeasuresistosetoutregularplotsbeforehousebuildingstartsinanarea,leavingspaceforwellalignedroads.Adequate
roadwidthandalignmentwillmakeitmucheasiertobuilddrainswhentheyareneededlater.Siteandserviceschemesareexpensiveandtakealongtime
toplanandimplement,butsucha"siteonly"schemeshouldbewithinthemeansofanymunicipality.Oncetheoveralllayoutofaneighbourhoodhasbeen
planned,residents(orfutureresidents)canbeshownhowtosetoutindividualrectangularplotswithnothingmoresophisticatedthanatapemeasure,or
evenapieceofstringwithknotsatregularintervals.Somedegreeofdisciplineoverhousebuildingisnecessary,toensurethatplotboundariesare
observed,andtopreventhousesfromobstructingexistingdrainagepathsorfromoccupyinglandneededforfuturedrainageworks.Theresidents
themselvesareinthebestpositiontoenforcethisdiscipline.
Thedevelopmentofresidentialareascanincreasedrainageproblemsinotherways.Asvegetationisremoved,thecapacityofthegroundtoretainwater
andresisterosionisreduced.Theincreasingareacoveredbyroofsandroadsurfacesdiminishestheareaofgroundintowhichwatercaninfiltrate,leaving
agreatervolumeofwatertoberemovedbydrainage.Lowlyingareassubjecttofloodingplayaroleinstoringthewaterfromsuddenrainstormsuntilit
candrainawaygraduallywhenthesearefilledinforhousing,theresultmaybefloodinginotherareas.
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Roadsmustbebuiltabovethefloodlevel,andtheresultingembankmentscanobstructnaturallinesofdrainage,orcanchannelwateralongsidethem
causingerosion.Insomecases,asinpartsofBangkok,roadshavebeenbuiltbyfillinginexistingchannels,causingseriousflooding.Wherethenatural
drainagechannelsarenotfilledinorobstructedbybuildings,theyoftenbecomeblockedbydomesticrefuse.
Ontheotherhand,drainageimprovementsinoneareaarecloselylinkedwithdrainageproblemselsewhere,andarebestplannedinthecontextofthecity
asawhole,oratleastofawholecatchmentarea.Betterdrainageinoneneighbourhoodmeansthatsurfacewaterflowsawayfaster,imposingagreater
burdenonthecapacityofthesystemdownstream.Atthesametime,drainageimprovementsatalocallevelmaybeoflittleuseifwaterstillbacksup
becausethedownstreamcapacityisinsufficient.ThishasbeenaseriousprobleminJakarta,whereimprovedlocaldrainswereoftensubmergedbywater
heldbackbyconstrictionsinthecity'smajorcanals.
Ofcourse,itispossibleforacommunitytomakelocalimprovements,evenwithoutthefullinvolvementofthecityplanningauthorities,butatleastsome
considerationshouldbegiventothebodyofwaterintowhichanewdrainagesystemwilldischarge.Whetherthisisamainsewer,river,lakeorsea,the
maximumleveltowhichitfloodswillnormallysettheminimumlevelforthedrainagesystem.Thedischargeofdrainagewateralsoaffectsthequalityof
the"receivingwater"intowhichitflows,especiallywhensewageorseptictankeffluentisreleasedintothedrains.InBangalore,forexample,the
dischargeofsewageintoseveraldamsinthecityledtointensebreedingofmosquitosuntilmeasuresweretakentobreachorbypassthem.
1.4Theneedforcollaboration
Drainageimprovementsarenotonlyajobforadrainageengineer.Theyinvolveseveralprofessionsandneedthecooperationofseveralsectorsiftheyare
tosucceed.Drainageisofgreatconcerntotownplannersand,ifsomehouseshavetoberelocatedtomakeroomfornewdrains,architectsandbuilders
mayalsobeinvolved.Drainsareusuallybuiltbesideroads,andtheroadsdepartmentwillhaveaninterestbecausegooddrainageisessentialtoprotectthe
roadsurface.
Maintenanceofthedrainagesystemdependsonanefficientserviceforcollectionofsolidwaste,aswithoutonethedrainswillsoonfillwithrubbish.
Moreover,thestreetcleaningandsolidwastecollectionservicewilloftenbethemostsuitablemunicipaldepartmenttocleanthedrainsregularly,asitwill
havethenecessaryvehiclestoremovethesolidmaterialssuchassilt,vegetationandrefusethatwillaccumulateinthem.Thehealthdepartmentwillbe
concernedtoensurethatthecleaningisdonewellandregularly,andthatthedrainsarenotbuiltinsuchawayastomakethisdifficultortopromote
diseasetransmission.Thisinturninvolvesseveralspecialities,suchasmedicalentomology.
Thecommunityhasakeyroletoplay.Whetherornotlocalresidentsparticipateinconstruction,theircooperationisneededinobtainingthenecessary
land.Somepeoplemayhavetosacrificepartoftheirpremises,oragreetorelocatetheirhouses,tomakeroomforthenewdrains.Whetherornotthe
communitytakesresponsibilityformaintainingthesystem,aresponsibleattitudeontheirpartwillbeagreathelptowardsitsupkeep,reducingtheamount
ofrubbishthrownintothedrains,anddamagedonetothembyvehicles,buildingworkorvandalism.Asingleuncooperativeresidentwhoblocksthewater
flow,orneglectstocleanhisorhersectionofthedrainageline,canharmtheinterestsofthewholecommunity.Properdrainagethereforecallsforthe
closecooperationofthecommunityanditsleaders,andalsoofthosewhoworkwiththecommunity,suchaseducatorsandhealthworkers.
Acooperativeattitudeisnotenough,however.Effectivecollaborationbetweenmunicipaldepartmentsandinvolvementofthecommunityhave
institutionalimplications.Attheleveloflocalgovernment,themostfundamentalconsiderationisthatsomedepartmentatleastmusthavetheprimary
responsibilityforurbandrainage.Inmanycitiesthereisnocleardefinitionofwhoisresponsibleforcleaningandmaintainingthenaturalandmanmade
drainagesystem,andinsomeitisnotevenclearwhoistobuildit,orwhichnationalgovernmentdepartmentistofinancemajordrainageworks.An
exampleoftheabsurdsituationsthatcanariseinsuchcasesisforonedepartmenttoremoverubbishfromthedrains,forthesolidwastecollectionservice
torefusetocollecttherubbishfromwhereitisdumpedontheadjoiningroads,andfortheroadsdepartmenttosweepitbackintothedrainsagain!
Ideally,theregularcleaningofurbandrainsshouldbethejobofthestreetcleaningandsolidwastecollectionservice.However,othersectorswillusually
beresponsiblefordrainageconstructionandrepairs,sothatseveralsectorsareinevitablyinvolved.Somearrangementforregularliaisonmeetingsshould
thereforebesetup,andasingledepartmentshouldberesponsibleforconveningthem.Thehealthdepartmentshouldberepresented.
Someinstitutionalarrangementsarealsoneededinthecommunity,tomobilizeandcoordinatethecommunity'scontributionandtoensurethatitisnot
underminedbytheantisocialbehaviourofaminority.Ifpossible,itisbesttobuildonexistingcommunityinstitutions,althoughthesemayalreadybefully
occupiedwithotherdaytodaytasks.Inmanycases,ausefulinitialstepwillbetoformadrainagecommitteetoorganizethecommunity'scontributionto
planning,implementationandmaintenanceofdrainageimprovements.Communityinstitutionsarediscussedfurtherinsection4.
1.5Developmentofadrainageprogramme
Atypicalneighbourhooddrainageimprovementprogrammepassesthroughfourprincipalphases:
initiation,
planning,
construction,and
maintenance.
Thefirsttwoofthesearefundamental,astheydetermineallthatfollows.
Initiationofaprogrammemayarisefromthecommunity'sownrealizationoftheneedforbetterdrainage,possiblyafterexperiencingaparticularlyserious
floodorseeingdrainageimprovementsinotherneighbourhoods.Inmanycases,however,itiscatalysedbysomeexternalagency,suchasthemunicipality,
apoliticalpartyornongovernmentalorganization,orbyaconcernedindividualsuchasateacherorhealthworker.Thisphaseinvolvesidentificationofthe
needfordrainage,formationofaconsensusregardingthescopeoftheproblemandthedesiredsolution,andestablishmentofadrainagecommittee,at
leastonaninterimbasis.Wheretheinitiativecomesfromoutside,itisalsolikelytoincludeacertainamountofworkinthecommunitytodevelop
awarenessoftheproblemandmobilizesupportforadrainageprogramme.
Planningisthemostimportantphaseofall,asitinvolvesthemostfundamentaldecisions.Themoredecisionsthatcanbetakenattheplanningstage,the
betteritisforthefutureoftheprogramme.
Themostbasicdecisionforthecommunityiswhethertoimplementthedrainageprogrammeonaformalbasisthroughthelocalauthorities,ortoattempta
"doityourself"projectonitsown.Formaldrainageprojectstendtobeexpensive,sothatthefirsttaskofthedrainagecommitteeistolobbyandpersuade
thelocalauthoritytoagreetosupporttheprogramme(unlessofcoursetheauthorityitselfinitiatedthescheme).Theauthoritywillusuallyhavetoobtain
financefromsomeotheragency,whichislikelytorequireafeasibilitystudyanddesignbyaconsultingengineerbeforeacontractorisgiventhejobof
buildingthenewdrainagesystem.Allthistakestimetypicallythreetotenyearsandmembersofthecommunitymayprefertocarryoutsome"doit
yourself"interimmeasuresthemselves,whiletheywait(Fig.4).
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Fig.4.Possiblesequencesofeventsinsolvinglocaldrainage
Whicheverapproachisfollowed,itisimportanttodefinenotonlythelayoutanddesignofthenewdrainagesystembutalsothecommunity'sroleinthe
constructionandmaintenancephases,andhowitscontributionistobeorganized.
Constructionandmaintenancearediscussedindetailintheremainderofthisbook.Thefollowingdescriptionofhowthesectionsarearrangedmayhelpto
guidethereader.
Thetechnicalaspectsofdrainagedesignandconstructionareconsideredinsection2.Muchofthisinformationwillalsobeofinteresttonontechnical
readers.Sections2.1and2.2areespeciallyimportantastheyexplainbasicconceptsinlaylanguage.Section2.9describeshowacommunitycanplanits
owndrainageimprovementswithoutexternalsupport,andwillalsobeofinteresttoanengineermakingafirstapproachtoalocaldrainageproblem.
Section3discussesrehabilitationandmaintenance.Mostofthechapteristechnical,butlayreaderswillnotfinditdifficulttofollow.Institutionalaspects
ofmaintenancearediscussedinsection3.4.
Section4considersparticipationbythecommunityindrainageschemes,asubjectwhoseimportancetendstobeunderrated.Thereadershouldatleast
lookatsection4.1beforedecidingwhethertoreadtherest!
AglossaryoftermsisprovidedinAnnex1,andotherannexescoverdesigncalculations,termsofreferenceforconsultants,andresourcesforthe
orientationofthedrainagecommittee.
1.6Selectedreading
CAIRNCROSS,S.Urbandrainageindevelopingcountries.Parasitologytoday,2(7):200202(1986).
CAIRNCROSS,S.&FEACHEM,R.G.Environmentalhealthengineeringinthetropics:anintroductorytext.Chichester,JohnWiley&Sons,1983.
CURTIS,C.F.&FEACHEM,R.G.SanitationandCulexpipiensmosquitoes:abriefreview.Journaloftropicalmedicineandhygiene,84:1725(1981).
DAVIDSON,F.&PAYNE,G.Urbanprojectsmanual:aguidetoupgradingandnewdevelopmentprojectsaccessibletolowincomegroups.Liverpool,
LiverpoolUniversityPress,1983.
HARPHAM,T.,ed.Intheshadowofthecity:healthcareandtheurbanpoor.Oxford,OxfordUniversityPress,1988.
MCAUSLAN,P.Urbanlandandshelterforthepoor.London,InternationalInstituteforEnvironmentandDevelopment,1985.
TABIBZADEH,I.etal.Spotlightonthecities.Improvingurbanhealthindevelopingcountries.Geneva,WorldHealthOrganization,1989.
Urbanizationanditsimplicationsforchildhealth.Potentialforaction.Geneva,WorldHealthOrganization,1988.
2.1Thedrainagehierarchy
Thedrainageproblemsofanindividualneighbourhoodarepartofahierarchyofproblemsrelatedtothedrainagenetworkofthewholecityand
correspondingwiththehierarchyofdrainswhichcomposeit.Thesedrainsrangefromthemajorcanalsorlargesewerswhichcollectwaterfromlarge
areasofthecitydowntothesmallditchesordrainpipesthatrunalongtheroadsideorserveindividualproperties.
Atthemostbasicpositioninthehierarchyisthereceivingwaterbodyintowhichthesystemdischarges.Thismaybethesea,alakeorariver.Thewater
levelinthereceivingwaterbodyfixestheminimumlevelofthedrainagechannels,becausethepumpingofstormwaterisnotfeasibleforanybutthe
wealthiestcommunities.Evenifitwerepossibletoaffordpumpslargeenoughtohandletheamountsofwaterinvolved,theywouldnotbepractical
becauseofthemanydifficultiesofmaintenanceandtheextentofthedamagethatwouldresultfrommalfunctionorbreakdownofthepumps.Thewater
levelinthereceivingwaterbodycomesveryclosetogroundlevelinmanyflatlowincomeareas,whichmeansthedrainscannotbemadeverydeep.
Nextinthehierarchyistheprimarydrainagesystem,composedofmaindrains,sometimescalledinterceptordrains.Theseservelargeareasofacityorthe
cityasawhole,andoftenfollowthelineofnaturaldrainagechannelssuchasriversorstreams.Thedesign,constructionandmaintenanceofacity's
primarydrainsrequireextensiveengineeringskillsandalargefinancialbase,andarewellbeyondthemeansofanindividualcommunity.Thesedrainsare
notconsideredhere.
Finallythereisthesecondarydrainagesystem,anetworkofsmalldrainswithineachneighbourhood.Thesearesometimesknownasmicrodrainageor
laterals,andeachservesasmallcatchmentarea,rangingfromasinglepropertytoseveralblocksofhouses.Thispublicationdealsprincipallywiththe
secondarylevelofthedrainagesystem.Atthislevel,improvementscanbemadewithmodestinvestments,andlowcostsolutionsareoftenappropriate.
2.2Factorsaffectingstormwaterflows
Notallthewaterfallingasrainneedstoberemovedbythedrainagesystem.Someofitwillinfiltrateintotheground,whilesomemaystandinpuddles
andotherdepressionsandeventuallyevaporate.Theproportionthatrunsawayoverthegroundsurfaceandhastobecarriedinthedrainagesystemis
knownastherunoffcoefficient.Inpractice,thereislittlechanceforevaporationduringarainstorm,sothattherunoffcoefficienttousewhencalculating
thesizeofthedrainsrequiredisbasedontheinfiltrationcapacityoftheground.Thisdependsmainlyonsoilconditions,theslopeoftheterrain,andon
landuse:
Soilconditions.Waterseepsmorereadilyintosandysoilthanintoclayorrockyground.
Terrain.Waterflowsmorerapidlydownasteepslope,leavingitlesstimetoinfiltratethanwhenitstandsormovesslowlyinaflatarea.
Landuse.Vegetationtrapsmuchofthewaterandalsoloosensthesoil,thusmakinginfiltrationeasier.Roofsandpavedsurfaces,ontheother
hand,preventinfiltration.
Runoffcoefficientsarethereforehigherinareasofclaysoilorrock,onsteepslopesandindenselybuiltupareaswithlittlevegetation.Asanexampleof
this,thequantityofwatertobedrainedfromahighdensityhousingareamaybe56timesgreaterthanitwaswhentheareawasundevelopedandcovered
withvegetation.
Therateatwhichwaterentersthedrainagesystemdependsontherunoffcoefficient,butalsoontherateofrainfall.Ofcoursethiscanvary,fromaheavy
downpourtoalightshower,anditishardtoestimatethemaximumintensityofrainfallthatwilloccurinagivenyear,becauseoftheunpredictabilityof
theweather.However,byanalysingpastrainfallrecords,itispossibletomakeanestimateoftheprobabilityofanyparticularrateoccurring.Themore
severetherainstorm(i.e.,thehighertherateofrainfall),thelowertheprobabilityofitsoccurring.
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Thisprobabilityisusuallyexpressedasa"returnperiod".Arainstormwithaprobabilityof1in20ofhappeninginanyparticularyearissaidtohavea
returnperiodof20years,andiscalleda20yearstorm.Thisdoesnotmean,ofcourse,thatithappensexactlyevery20years,butthatonaverageitwill
happenthatoftenanaverageoffivetimesacentury.
Ifadrainagesystemisdesignedforanunusuallysevererainstormwitha100yearreturnperiod,itmayneverbefullyusedwithinitslifetime.Themoney
spentinconstructingasystemwithsuchalargecapacitymighthavebeenbetterspentonbuildingsmallerdrainsinareasthathavenone.Choosingthe
optimalreturnperiodforthedesignofanurbandrainagesystemisadifficultjudgementbasedonweighingtheriskofthedrainsoverflowing,andthe
damagethismightcause,againstthecostofbuildinglargerdrainstopreventit.
Areturnperiodoffiveyearsiswidelyusedtodesignprimarydrainagesystemsintropicalcities,butshorterperiods(threeyearsorless)aremoresuitable
formicrodrainagewithinresidentialareas,whereanoccasionaloverflowislesslikelytocauseseriousdamage.Inalowincomearea,wherethevalueof
propertyliabletodamageisrelativelysmall,andonlylimitedfundsareavailablefordrainage,theappropriatereturnperiodmaybeshorterstill.In
Mombasa,forexample,aoneyearreturnperiodhasbeenadoptedforallbutthelargestdrains.InCalcuttasomedrainshavebeendesignedforareturn
periodofonlytwomonths.Afewinchesoffloodingseveraltimeseachyearmaybeagreatimprovementonwaistdeepwaterforweeksonend.
Thedamagethatcanbedonetoroadsbystormwaterisoftenthemajorjustificationfordrainageinlowincomeareas.Onsteepslopes,asingleheavy
rainstormthatmakesthedrainsoverflowcancauseenormousdamagebyerosion,sothatalongerreturnperiodmaybejustifiedthaninflatareas.
Annex2givesfurtherdetailsofhowtoestimatestormwaterflowsandusethemtocalculatethesizeofdrainsfordesignpurposes.
2.3Problemsofsteepslopes
Slopinglandeasilysuffersfromerosionwhenthevegetationcoverisdamagedandwhenintensivelandusebaresthesoil.Itisthereforeimportantto
preventwaterfromrushingdowninuncontrolledflowsthatmayunderminehousesandturnpathsandstreetsintoimpassablegulleys.Asaruleofthumb,
slopesofmorethan5%canbeconsideredsteepslopes.
Onsteepterrain,theonlywaytokeepwaterinthesoilisthroughterracingsoastoreducetheslope.Variousmethodsexistandareusedtocontrolerosion
onagriculturalland.However,thesecanbeappliedinanurbanareaonlyiftheneighbourhoodhasnotalreadybeenfullybuiltup.
Whenthewaterisconcentratedinanaturalorartificiallineofdrainagerunningdownasteepslope,itcanflowatgreatspeedandthuscauseconsiderable
damage.Variousmethodscanbeusedtoleadthewaterdowngraduallyandinmanageablequantities:
(a)Divertingthewaterhorizontallybyabankbuiltalongthecontourorbyturnoutdrains(Fig.5),thusreducingthespeedofwaterflowand
avoidingtheaccumulationofallthewaterfromthewholeslopeinasingledrain.
Fig.5.Turnoutdrainstodivertwaterfromasteepslope
(b)Leadingthewaterinacontrolledzigzagthroughbafflesbuiltintothedraintoslowdowntheflow(Fig.6(a)).
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Fig.6.Typesofconstructionforsteepdrains
(c)Buildingstepsintothedrain(Fig.6(b)).Theareaontowhichthewaterfallsfromeachstepisbuilttoresisttheforceofthefallingwater.
Stepdrainsarepracticaliftheslopeexceeds30%,butotherwisetheybecometooexpensive.
(d)Checkwalls(Fig.6(c))arealessexpensivesolutiontotheproblem,andcanbeusedinunlineddrains.Thewaterdepositssiltbehindeach
checkwall,graduallybuildingupasteppeddrain.Thecheckwallsshouldbesetwellintothegroundoneachsideandbeneaththem,toensure
thatthewaterdoesnotcutawaypastthem.Inparticular,thefoundationofeachwallshouldnotbehigherthanthecrestofthenextone
downstream.
Checkwallscanbebuiltofvariousmaterialsbesidesconcreteormasonry(Fig.7).Pilesoflargestoneshelptodissipatetheenergyofthewaterasitflows
throughthetortuousspacesbetweenthestones.Thestonesmustbelargeenoughtoresistbeingcarrieddownstreambythewater.
Inareaswhererocksofsufficientsizearenotavailable,smallerrocksmaybetiedtogetherinalargebundleorbaleknownasagabion.Agabionismade
byfillingalargebasketofgalvanizedwiremeshwithstones,tomakealargerectangularbundleofabout0.51.0m.Thesecanbebuiltupintoawall
however,itisadvisabletofillthemonlyafterputtingtheminposition.Bamboostripsmaybeusedasasubstituteforwire,althoughtheywillrotawayina
fewyears.Asthebamboodeteriorates,weakcementcanbeappliedsparinglytotheexteriorofthegabion,takingcarenottoblockcompletelythespaces
betweentherocks.Whenagabionisnewlyplaced,therockshavetosettledownaweakconcretewouldeasilycrackwhereaswireandbambooare
flexible.
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Fig.7.Typesofcheckwallordissipator
Inareaswithamoderategroundslopeofabout410%,drainagechannelsmaybelinedwithconcrete,masonryorvegetationtopreventscouringofthe
channelbottom.Channelliningsarediscussedinsection2.6.
2.4Problemsofflatareas
Inflatlowlyingareassubjecttoflooding,amajorproblemoftenresultsfromtherelativelyhighlevelofthereceivingwaterbody.Thislimitstheslopeto
whichdrainscanbelaid,sothatwaterflowsalongthemquiteslowly.Togetherwiththedifficultyofdiggingdeepdrainagechannelswherethe
groundwaterlevelishigh,thismeansthatdrainshavetoberelativelywideinordertohavesufficientcapacity.
Sometimesthereisnoalternativetousinglandfilltoraisethelevelofthegroundinallorpartoftheneighbourhood.Landfilllimitedtothestreetswill
causeincreasedfloodingofpeople'splotsandhouses,sothatadequatequantitiesshouldbeprovided,sufficientlyclosetopeople'shousesforthemtocart
itawayandspreaditontheirpremises.Theyshouldbehelpedtojudgehowtoplaceitbymarkspaintedinadvanceoneachhouseshowingthelevelto
whichthegroundshouldberaisedbythelandfill.
Theideaofpeopleplacingrubbleandsoilinsidetheirhousestoraisethefloorlevelmayseemstrangetosome,buttherearelowincomeurbanareas
whoseresidentshavebeengladofupto50cmoflandfillplacedinthisway.Theirhouseswilleventuallyneedmodificationorrebuildingasaresult,but
theimpactoflandfillcansotransformanareathatresidentsoftenwishtobuildanewhousemoreappropriatefortheimprovedsurroundings,oncethey
areconvincedthatitwillbesafefromflooddamage.
Thewaterlevelinthereceivingwaterbodyoftenfluctuates,owingtotidaleffectsortheflowofwaterintoitfromothercatchmentareas.Thesevariations
inlevelcanbeanalysedintermsoftheirreturnperiodwhenadecisionismadeastothedepthoflandfillrequired.
Alternatively,tidalvariationsinlevelcanbeturnedtoadvantagebyinstallingasluicegateattheoutletfromthedrainagesystemwhichisopenedatlow
tideandclosedwhenthelevelrises.Theneedforlandfillcanalsobeavoidedbybuildingalargeembankmentordikealongthebankofariverliableto
flood,orrightaroundtheresidentialareacreatinga"polder"(Fig.8).Ofcourse,someinstallationsuchasasluicegateisneededtoallowawayoutfor
waterdrainedfromthearea.However,nosucharrangementshouldbeconsideredwithoutverythoroughstudybyanengineerandaguaranteeofreliable
operationandmaintenance.Adikethatoverflowsorasluicegatethatfailstofunctioncoulddoenormousdamage.
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Fig.8.Thepoldersystem
Anotherdifficultyinthedrainageofflatareasisthedepositionofsedimentinthedrains,owingtotheslowspeedofflowofthewater.Wherepossible,
drainagesystemsshouldbedesignedtoproduceaminimum"selfcleansing"speedofflow,atleastwhenthedrainsarerunningfull,sothatwaterwill
carrythesedimentalongwithit.Inadrainagechannelwitharectangularcrosssection,thewaterwillflowslowlyinathinlayeronthebottomafterlight
ormoderaterain.Moreover,anyirregularitiesintheflatbottomwillcreatepuddlesinwhichmosquitoscanbreed.Buildingadrainagechannelwith
slopingsidesandanarrowbottomhelpstomaintainasteadyflowspeedwhateverthewaterlevelinthechannel.Arefinementofthisprincipleistobuilda
channelwithacompositesection(Fig.9).Thecentralchannelwithanarrowbottomistocarrytheflowindryweatherandmoderaterain,whiletheouter
channelisfortheoccasionalheavyfloodflow.Theouterchannelfloorshouldpreferablyslopegentlydowntothecentralchannelor"cunette".
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Fig.9.Crosssectionsoftypicalcompositedrainagechannels
Aselfcleansingspeedofflowalsorequiresaminimumslope,whichisgreaterforsmalldrainsthanforlargeones.Roughlyspeaking,achannel1015cm
widewillneedaminimumslopeofabout1%toachieveaselfcleansingspeedofflow.Achanneltwicethesizeneedsroughlyhalftheslope.Such
minimumslopesarenotalwaysachievable,though,astheremaynotbeasufficientdropinlevelfromthestreettothereceivingwaterbody.Howeverwell
thesystemisdesigned,somesedimentisboundtobedeposited,sothatregularcleaningisessentialtokeepthedrainsworking.
2.5Openorcloseddrains
Engineersandadministratorsoftenhaveapreferenceforcloseddrainsratherthanopenchannels,probablybecausetheyaremoreaccustomedtothem.Yet
closeddrainshaveseveraldisadvantages:
(a)Theycostmoretobuild,becausetheyrequiredeeperexcavation,mustwithstandheavyloadsonthestreetoverhead,andalsorequire
expensiveadditionalworkssuchasmanholesandinlets.
(b)Constructiondefects,deteriorationandaccumulationofdebrisorsedimentaremoredifficulttomonitorthaninanopendrain.
(c)Thedesign,constructionandmaintenanceofcloseddrainsrequiremoresophisticatedengineeringtechniques.
(d)Sincecloseddrainsarelaidbeneaththeground,asmallerdropinleveltothereceivingwaterbodyisavailabletoobtainasufficient
minimumslopetoensureselfcleaningflowspeeds.
(e)Mosquitobreedingincloseddrainsismoredifficulttocontrol.
(f)Slowlymovingsewageproducesgasesthatcanattackcementandconcreteinacloseddrainifitisnotwellventilated.
Themainadvantageofcloseddrainsisthattheydonottakeupsurfacespace.Theyalsoreducetheriskofchildrenplayinginorfallingintopolluted
water,andthepossibilityofvehiclesdamagingthedrainsorfallingintothem.Itisneverthelessafactthatopendrainagechannelsareusedandmaintained
ingoodhygienicandaestheticconditionsinsophisticatedcitiessuchasAmsterdamandSingapore.Closeddrainsshouldbebuiltinlowincometropical
areasonlyafterverycarefulconsiderationoftheotheroptions.
Ifopenchannelsarebuilt,carefulthoughtshouldbegiventothequestionofaccessbridgesacrossthemtoadjoiningproperties,forpeopleandvehicles.
Withoutsuchprovision,residentsarelikelytoplacesteppingstonesinthedrains,fillthemwithearthorobstructtheminotherways.Theworstoptionisa
drainagesystemthatispartlyopenandpartlyclosed,sothatrubbishthrownintotheopensectionblockstheclosedsections,whereitishardertoremove.
Waterdammedupbehindtheblockageprovidesashadystretchofpollutedstandingwaterinwhichmosquitoscanbreedprolifically.
Someshortcoveredsectionsarealmostinevitable,however,atroadcrossingsandunderaccessbridges.Anirongrilleshouldbeplacedattheupstream
endofeachsuchsectiontokeepoutsolids.IfthesearemadeasshowninFig.10,thenitwillbeeasiertoremovetheaccumulateddebrisbypullingitup
thebarswitharake.
Thebottomlevelofacoveredsectionshouldnotbeanylowerthanthebottomofthechanneldownstreamofit.Otherwisewaterwillstandinit,enabling
mosquitostobreed,anditwillalsobelikelytobecomeblockedwithsilt.Ifthepipeisoflargediameterandifprotectingitfromdamagebytrafficwould
entailburyingitatalevellowerthanthatofthechanneldownstream,thenanalternativeisneeded,suchasawide,shallowculvert(e.g.,areinforcedpipe)
protectedwithaconcreteslabcover.
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Fig.10.Atypeofgrillewhichcanbecleanedeasilywitharake
Itissometimesaconventionalpracticetobuildasmallbasin,calledasilttrap,attheentrancetoaclosedsection.However,inmostlowincomeareas
thesefillveryquicklywithsandorrubbish,sothattheyareoflittleuseinpractice.Becausetheyarealsobreedingsitesformosquitos,theyshouldbe
avoided.
2.6Channeldesignandconstruction
Thecheapestdrainsofallareunlinedchannels,whichcanbecutalongtheroadsidewitharoadgrader.Thesidesofanunlineddrainshouldnotslopeby
morethan1in2toensurethattheywillbestable.Iftheslopealongthedrainisgreaterthanabout1%,thedrainmaybedamagedbyscouring,andsome
liningwillusuallyberequiredtoprotectthechannelbottomfromthefastflowingwater.Forslopesof15%,partialliningislikelytobesufficientandwill
costlessthancompletelining(Fig.11).Inapartiallylineddrain,specialprotectionisneededatthemostvulnerablepoints,suchasculverts,drain
junctions,sharpbends,andsteepsections.
Anothercheapmeasure,especiallysuitablefortheupperpartofapartiallylinedchannel,istolayturforsowgrass,whoserootswillhelptoholdthesoil
inplace.Themostsatisfactorygrassesarethosethatspreadsidewaysandcoverthesurfaceofthesoil.Theirrapidgrowthcanbeencouragedwith
fertilizer,bylayingtopsoil,andbybuildingtemporarycheckwallstocausesilttobedeposited.
Forrelativelygentleslopes,theliningdoesnothavetobeofsolidconcreteormasonry.Compactedgravelorstonewillbesufficient.Varioustypesof
permanentandtemporaryliningareshowninFig.12.Drainswithverticalsidesalwaysneedaliningtosupportthesides.Asthistypeofchannelisused
onlywhenspaceisinshortsupplyandwhenthedrainshavetopassclosetohouses,theliningmustbestrongenoughtoprotectadjacenthouse
foundations.
Lineddrainagechannelsoftenfailbecausetheliningdoesnotallowwatertoenterfromthegroundateitherside.Eitherthiscauseswaterpressuretobuild
upandoverturnthelinings,orthewaterrunsalongsidethedrain,cuttingaparallelchannel.Thesolutionistoprovideweepholes,about10mmin
diameter,intheliningatthesides.Thiscanbedonewithshortlengthsofpiperunninghorizontallythroughthemasonryandembeddedinthemortar,
spacedatintervalsofnotmorethan1m.
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Fig.11.Crosssectionsoftypicalunlined,partiallylinedandlineddrains
Inverynarrowstreetswhereheavyvehiclesdonotpassandspaceisatapremium,theroaditselfmaybedesignedtofunctionasadrain(Fig.13).Thisis
possibleonlyiftheslopeislessthan5%andiftheroadhasasurfacesuchascompactedgravelorstonetoprotectitfromerosion.Alternatively,drainage
channelsmaybeprovidedwithremovablecovers(Fig.13),whichshouldhaveholesornotchesinthemtoenablewatertoenterandmakeiteasierto
removethemtocleanthedrainbeneath.Thelatterapproachcanalsobeusedonverysteepsections,withaseriesofprefabricatedchannelelementslaidas
asteppeddrainbeneathapedestrianstairway.Fig.14showsadesignofthiskindusedinthecityofSalvador,Brazil.
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Fig.12.Typesofdrainagechannellining
Thesmallestchannels,lessthan300mmdeep,donotneedweepholes,andcanconvenientlybelinedwithbrickorwithprecastconcreteelements(Fig.
15).Elementsshouldweighlessthan50kg,sothattheycanbecarriedandlaidinplacebytwopersonswithoutmachinery.Precastchannelsshould
preferablybelaidonabedofcompactedsand,50mmthick.Asinglechannelsizecanbeadaptedforlargerflowsbylayingitdeeperandbuildingupthe
sideswithmasonry.
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Fig.13.Combineddrainsandpathways
Prefabricatedelementshavetheadvantageovermasonryorinsituconcreteliningsinthattheycanbelaidrelativelyquickly.Masonrydrainstakealong
timetobuild,andconcretepouredinplacerequiresseveraldaystoset.Meanwhile,localtrafficisdisrupted,andthefreshmasonryorconcretecanbe
ruinedbyasuddendownpourofrain.Ifthedrainsarebuiltinthedryseasontoavoidanunexpectedrainstorm,theremaybeashortageofwatertocure
theconcreteinplace.Inacoveredworkshop,elementsareprotectedfromthesunandrain,waterforcuringcanbemadeavailable,andqualitycontrolis
easierandbetterthaninconventionalconstructionwork.
Fig.14.Combinedfootpathanddrainmadeofprefabricatedelements,asusedinSalvador,Brazil
2.7Closeddrains
Acommontypeofcloseddrainisconstructedfromprefabricatedsectionsofcementpipe,typically1mlongand50mmindiameter.Atongueontheend
ofeachsectionfitsintothenext,ensuringthattheyareproperlyaligned(Fig.16(a)).Ifcloseddrainsareusedtoconveysewageaswellasrainwaterthe
drainagesystemisknownasacombinedsewersystem,andanotherkindofpipeconnectionisnormallyusedtopreventthesewagefromleakingoutand
contaminatingthegroundwater(Fig.16(b)).
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Fig.15.Crosssectionsofthreetypesofsmallopendrain
Thetrenchesinwhichpipesarelaidarenormallydugatleast0.5mwiderthanthepipediameter,anddeepenoughforthetopofthepipestobecovered
withatleast1mofsoil.Beforethepipeislaid,a50mmthickbedofsandisplacedinthetrench,compactedandcarefullylevelledtogiveanevenslope.
Thepipesarelaidoverthesandandaspiritlevelisplacedoneachpipetochecktheevennessoftheslope.Thenmoresandisaddedandcompacted
beneathandaroundeachpipeuntilitishalfburied.Finallytheexcavatedsoilisreplacedinlayers150mmthick,eachofwhichiscompactedcarefully.
Thepurposeofthesandbeddingandtheminimumdepthof1mistoprotectthepipesfromdamagebyheavyvehiclespassingoverthem.Inareaswith
onlyverylightvehiculartrafficthesandbedcanbeomittedandthepipeslaidatshallowerdepth.
Fig.16.Jointingofreinforcedconcretepipes
Acloseddrainagesystemmustbeprovidedwithinletsforthewatertoreachitfromtheroadsurface.Theseshouldbecoveredwithagrilletoprevent
leavesandothercoarsesolidsfromenteringandblockingthesystem.Oneinletisusuallyprovidedevery3050malongtheroad,dependingontheslope
andrainfallintensity.Forthesamereasonthatsilttrapsarenotrecommended(seesection2.5above),gullypotsshouldnotbeprovidedatdraininlets.
Tofacilitatecleaningandmaintenance,manholesshouldbeprovidedatintervalsof120150mforpipesofmorethan0.6mindiameter,and70100mfor
smallerpipes.Theyarealsorequiredwhereverthepipeschangeindiameterordirection,andatintersections.Furtherdetailsonthedesignand
constructionofcloseddrainsaregiveninstandardworksonsewerage.
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2.8Construction
Buildingadrainagesystemrequiresskilledsupervision,butmanytaskscanbedonebythecommunity.Theyinclude:
excavationwork(digging)
transportofsoil,water,sandandcement
compactingofsoilorsandinthedrainfoundation
prefabricationofdrainelements
wateringandcuringofdrainelements
transportandstorageofdrainelements
accountingfordrainelementsandguardingthem
finishingandplantingofembankments
providingfoodforvolunteerworkers.
Mostofthesetasksrequirelittlespecialskillandcanbedoneafteranhourofinstruction.Theonlytaskrequiringrealtrainingistheproductionof
prefabricateddrainelements.
Theprefabricationofdrainelementscaneasilybelearntbysemiskilledcommunitymembers,forwhomitmayalsoprovetobeanattractivemethodof
incomegeneration.Inmanycitiesthereisareadymarketforprefabricatedelementsofthistype.
TwosimpleprefabricationmethodsareshowninFig.17.ThefirstwasdevelopedbytheNationalHousingAuthorityofThailandandofferedtosmall
contractors.TheothertypeofelementwasdesignedbytheRoorkeeResearchCentreinIndiaandwasintendedtoformthebottompartofshallow,
partiallylineddrains,althoughitcanbeusedasasmalldrainonitsown,asshowninFig.15.Themouldiscoveredbyplasticsheetingoroiled
newspapersbeforethereinforcementandcementmortarareplacedonit.Awoodenboardwithasemicirclecutoutofitismovedalongthechannelto
ensurethatthemortarhasthecorrectthickness.
Thepurposeofthereinforcementistopreventbreakageduringtransportoftheelements,sothatiftheyarenottobetakenlongdistancesthechickenwire
canbereplacedwithcheaperalternativessuchassisalorcoconutfibre.Thismakestheelementveryflexiblewhilethemortarisstillwet,sothatathird
castingmethodcanbeused.Themortarisplacedonaplasticsheetwhileitliesonaflatsurface.Arectangularwoodenframelyingonthesheetisusedto
givethelayerofmortartherightlengthandwidth.Thevegetablefibresarespreadonthemortarwhenithasbeenplacedtohalfthefinalthickness.When
allthemortarisinplace,astraightedgeisusedacrosstheframetoensurethatithasaneventhicknessthedepthofthewoodenframe.Finally,theframeis
removedandtheplasticsheetisliftedupbytwowoodenbattenspreviouslyfixedalongthesides,anddrapedoverasemicircularconcretechannelusedas
aconcavemould.
Fig.17.Methodsofcastingprefabricateddrainagechannel
Aftertwodaysofsetting,theelementsareremovedfromtheirmouldsandcuredfor514dayssoastostrengthentheconcrete.Astheobjectiveofcuring
istopreventrapidevaporationofwaterfromthesurface,curingisbestdonebyplacingtheelementsinatankfilledwithwater.However,itisalso
acceptabletocovertheelementswithmatsorfabricwhicharethensprayedeveryeveningwithwater,orotherwisekeptwet,foratleastfivedays.
Constructionshouldalwaysstartfromthedownstreamend.Thiskeepstheworkingareadryandmakesiteasiertochecktheslope.Checkingtheslopeby
eyeisrisky.Simplycheckingthatwaterflowsawaydownthenewlylaiddrainwillensurethatitslopestherightway,butinflatareasitmayleadtothe
drainbeinglaidattoosteepaslope,makingitimpossibletomaintainanadequateslopefurtherupstream.
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Ifsurveyingequipmentisnotavailable,asimplealternativeisalongplastichosefilledwithwater(Fig.18).Makesuretherearenobubblesinit,andlift
upbothends.Thewaterlevelateachendofthehosewillbethesame.Ifaslopeof,forinstance,0.4%(0.004m/m)isdesired,thismeansadifferencein
levelalonga10mlengthofdrainof0.004x10=0.04m.Ifthehoseisheldsoastokeepthewaterlevel1.00mabovethebottomofthetrenchatthe
downstreamend,thebottomshouldthereforebe0.96m(1.000.04)beneaththewaterlevelatapoint10mupstream.Thesamemethodcanbeusedto
checkthelevelofthedrainelementswhentheyarelaid,usingapieceofstringtochecktheirhorizontalalignment.Aspiritlevelshouldbeusedtocheck
theslopeofindividualelements.
Fig.18.Layingdrainstoanevenslopeusingawaterhoselevel
Itisnotadvisabletousesuchsimplemethodswhenlayingcloseddrains.Atrainedsurveyorwithpropersurveyingequipmentisrequired.
Thecommunity'sroleindrainageconstructioncanbeconsiderable(Fig.19),butmunicipalauthoritiescannotrelyonsuchcommunityparticipationto
worksmoothlyinallcases,especiallyifunpaidworkisinvolved.Ifacontractorhasbeenengagedfortheconstructionwork,heorshemayprefertouse
hisorherownstaffsoastomaintaincontroloftheconstructionschedule.Ifthecontractorhastowaitforthecommunitytogetorganized,the
municipalitymaybechargedforoverheadsandstaffsalariesincurredduringthedelay.Itisoftenpreferabletowriteintothecontractanobligationtogive
prioritytohiringlocalpeopleandtotrainingalocalmaintenanceteam.
Ifthecommunityistoparticipateinconstruction,substantialeffortmustbedevotedbeforehandtomobilizingcommunitymembersandorganizingtheir
contribution,andtheiradviceandagreementmustbesoughtfromthebeginningoftheplanningstage.Adrainageschemewhichisnotacceptedbythe
communityissuretofail.Communityparticipationisdiscussedinfurtherdetailinsection4.
Fig.19.Tasksindrainageconstruction
2.9''Doityourself''drainage
Ideally,acommunitydrainageschemeshouldbedevelopedwithalocalauthorityorotherbodywhichhasthecapacitytoprovideengineeringexpertise.
However,somecommunitiesmaywishtoundertakesomeimprovementsiftheyproveunabletoobtainsuchtechnicalassistance,orwhilewaitingforitto
materialize.Thissectionsuggestshowtheymightdoso,takingadvantageoftheresidents'abilitytomonitortheresultsoftheirworkandmakeprogressive
modificationsinsubsequentyears.
Thefollowinginitialsteps(a)(g)arerecommendedtoanygrouporindividualwishingtoplanadrainagescheme.Nospecializedtrainingisneededto
carrythemout.Engineerscarryingoutinitialstudiesmayalsofindthemusefulassuggestions.Forsteps(h)(m),itisdesirabletohavethehelpofan
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engineer.
(a)Beforeyoustartyoursurvey,itwillbewisetoobtainamapofthearea.Mapsareusuallyobtainablefromthecityplanningdepartment,the
landregistryorthenationalsurveydepartment.Ifnouptodatemapisavailable,youcanuseaerialphotographs,oratracingmadefroman
originalphotograph.Quitesuitablephotographsforthispurposecanbetakenwithanordinarycamerafromasmallaeroplane,flyingata
heightofabout600m.Atthislowaltitude,surveyflightscanbedoneunderanyreasonableweatherconditions.Theshadowscastbyclouds
willnotinterferewithinterpretationofthephotographs.Asalastresortasketchmapcanbemadethesectiononplanetablemethodsina
bookonsurveyingwilldescribehowthiscanbedonewithoutsophisticatedequipment.Themapshouldbeofaconvenientscale,preferablyat
least1:5000.Ascaleof1:1000isbest.Amapthatisoftoosmallascalecanbeexpandedwithapantograph,orbydividingitintosquaresand
copyingitontolargersquares.Youcanthensketchindetails,visitingtheareatoseeifanyfeaturesaremissingorneedtobechanged.
(b)Walkaroundthearea.Asktheresidentsabouttheprobablecausesofrecentfloodingorlandslides.Residentsmaynothaveatechnical
background,buttheycanusuallyidentifythesourceofthewaterthatcausedtheproblem.Longstandingresidentsmayevenbeabletorelate
floodorlandslideproblemstoparticulareventsinthepast,especiallytomajorcivilworkscarriedoutinthevicinity,suchasthebuildingof
roadorrailwayembankmentsorcuttings,orthefillinginofdepressions.
(c)Trytoestablishthewaterlevelsreachedduringaspecificflood.Residentscandescribethedepthintermsoftheiranatomy(ankles,knees,
waist)orbypointingtopartsoftheirfenceorhouse.Marksfromafloodmaystillbevisibleonwalls.Useatapemeasuretoexpressthisasa
depthincentimetres,andwriteeachmeasurementonyourmapoftheareaattheappropriatepoint.Sincewaterfindsitsownlevel,these
measurementswillgiveyouagoodideaofthetopographyoftheareathegreatestdepthswillbeinthelowestlyingareas.
(d)Notethenaturaldirectionofflowofwastewaterfromhouses,andofsurfacewaterfromrainstorms.Markexistinglinesofdrainageonthe
map,includingbothnaturalstreamsandmanmadechannels,notingproblemssuchasstretchesofchannelblockedbygarbage,eroded
sections,areasofstandingwater,andlandslides.Makeanoteofstructuresbuiltalongthewaterwayswhichcouldobstructdrainageorprevent
futurewidening.
(e)Notethedischargepointandthewaterlevelinthereceivingstream,riverorsea.Asktheresidentsaboutwaterlevelfluctuationsinthe
receivingwaterbody,particularlythemaximumwaterlevelsreachedinthelastfewyearsand,ifpossible,thedatesonwhichtheyoccurred.If
thereceivingwaterbodyisariver,thewaterresourcesorhydrologydepartmentmaybeabletohelp,particularlybygivingyouthedatesand
probablereturnperiodsofmajorfloods,whichyoucanthencomparewithwitnesses'accountsofwhichareaswerefloodedonthose
occasions.Ifthereceivingwateristhesea,thelocalportauthoritycanprovidetidaltables.ThehighesttidesnormallyoccurinMarch/April
andSeptember/October.
(f)Prepareasketchofthedrainageimprovementsmosturgentlyneeded,showingwhereexpansionofexistingchannelsisrequired,where
newdrainswillhavetobedug,andwhereprotectionagainsterosionistobeprovidedinsteepareas.Drainsshouldasfaraspossiblefollow
existingorplannedroadandpathalignments.Nevertheless,someexistingstructuresmayhavetobemoved,andtheseshouldbemarkedon
thesketchmap.Fig.20showstheresultofsteps(a)(f)inaparticularcommunity.
(g)Callameetingoftheresidentsandpresenttheproposedschemetothemfortheirsuggestionsandapproval.Theirintimateknowledgeof
theareaputstheminagoodpositiontoofferpracticaladvice.
(h)Designtheinitialimprovements.Intheabsenceoftheinformationortechnicalassistanceneededtomakedetaileddesigncalculations,itis
besttostartwithunlinedchannelsforfloodcontrolandbouldercheckwalls(ordissipators)tocontrolerosion.Unlinedchannels0.3mwide
areausefulsizeforthesmallbranchesalongindividualstreetsandalleysiftheyprovetobetoonarrow,theycanbewidenedatalaterdate.
Acloselookatexistinglinesofdrainage,includingnaturalchannelsandespeciallyconstrictionswhichcausewatertobackupbehindthem
duringstorms,willgiveagoodideaofthebestsizeforthemajordrains.Ifindoubt,channels1mwidewouldbeaconvenientsizetostart
with.Forsteepareas,largeboulders,preferablyatleast30cmindiameter,canbeusedtobuilddissipatorcheckwallsheldinplacebywooden
stakes(seeFig.7,page18).Ifthebouldersarewashedaway,itmaybepossibletocollectthemandpackthemingabions.Thespacesbetween
thestonesshouldnotbeblockedwithmortar,asthiswillonlydeflectthedirectionofthewaterflow,causingerosionatanotherpoint.Itis
betterforthewatertoflowbetweenthestones,dissipatingitsenergyasitdoesso.
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Fig.20.Sketchforplanningadrainagesystem
(i)Excavatethechannels,startingfromthedownstreamendandworkingupstream.Todrainflatareas,fixthedownstreamendofthesystem
atthelowestlevelpossiblewithoutitsbecomingsubmergedbyatypicalfloodofthereceivingwaterbody,evenifthismeanswatermayflow
somedistanceupthechannelsathightide.Theslopeshouldbecarefullycontrolledusingawaterhose(seesection2.8).Asastart,ariseof
0.2mforevery100mwouldbeareasonableminimumslopeforachannelthatis1mwide,and0.5mforevery100minachannel0.3m
wide.Iftheslopeofthegroundallowsit,agreaterslopeisbetter.Iftheslopeisgreaterthan5minevery100m,placecheckwallsassoonas
possibleafterexcavatingthechannel,oneforevery1mdropinlevel.
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Fig.21.Troubleshootingdiagnosingproblemsinanunlineddrainagecanal
(j)Oncethechannelhasbeenexcavated,visitafterrainhasfallenandnotewhichsectionscontainstandingwater.Thesearelowpoints.Either
raisethebottomlevelbybackfillingwithgravelorsoil,ordeepenthebottomdownstreamsothatthewatercanflowaway.Lookalsoforearly
signsoffutureerosion,suchaswaterbypassingthecheckwallsorrunningparalleltothechannel.
(k)Addatemporaryliningifdesired,suchasthewoodorbambooliningshowninFig.12.Temporaryscreenstoholdbackrubbishcanbe
installedacrossthesmallerchannelsusingwoodorbamboostakes,withgapsof2050mmbetweenthem.Allocateresponsibilitiesforweekly
cleaningofeachscreenandorganizeamonthlyworkpartytoclearthemajorchannels.
(l)Monitorthesystem'sfunctioningduringatleastonewetseason,notingareasofscouring,overflow,stagnantwater,siltdeposition,orother
problems.Waterwilltendtoerodeanddeepenachannelifitistoonarrowandsteep,andtodepositsiltifitistoowideandtheslopeis
insufficient.Fig.21showssomeofthechangesthatcanoccurinatypicalunlinedchannel,andhowtheycanbeusedtodiagnosetheneedfor
suitablemeasures.
(m)Afteroneortwoyears,thechannelsizesandslopesshouldbemoreorlessestablished.Thecommunitymaynowdecidetolinethe
channels,buildpermanentbarscreens,roadcrossings,checkwalls,etc.
2.10Selectedreading
CHATTERJEE,S.&BHUNIA,A.K.DrainageproblemofmetropolitanCalcuttaanditssolution.JournaltheInstitutionofCivilEngineers(India),50
(10,partPH3):8392(1970).
HILLMAN,F.Prefabricatedfibrereinforcedcementirrigationchannels.Waterlines,4(4):2225(1986).
MANOHARN,S.Applicationofferrocementdrainageflumeinslumupgrading.Journalofferrocement,12(4):373383(1982).
OKUN,D.A.&PONGHIS,G.Communitywastewatercollectionanddisposal.Geneva,WorldHealthOrganization,1975.
SHARMA,P.C.&KUMAR,A.Ferrocementchannelsforsmallscaleirrigation.Appropriatetechnology,9(3):78(1982).
WATKINS,L.H.&FIDDES,D.Highwayandurbanhydrologyinthetropics.London,PentechPress,1984.
3.1Causesofdrainagefailure
Somecommunitiessufferfromdrainageproblemsnotbecausetheyhavenodrains,butbecausetheexistingdrainagesystemhascollapsed,become
blocked,orisotherwiseinneedofrepairandrehabilitation.Manymorewillfindthatthenearestconvenientpointofdischargeforanewdrainagesystem
isanexistingprimarydrainagepipeorcanalthatneedsattentionifitistofunctionproperly.
Collapseandblockagearetheprincipaltypesofdrainagefailure.Eachofthesecanhaveseveralcauses.Collapseofdrainscanoccurthrough:
erosionofthebottomandsidesofthedrain(scouring)
excessivepressureofwaterinthegroundbeneathandbesidethedrainlining
vehiclespassingoverortooclosebesidethedrainsrootgrowth,especiallyfromnearbytrees
crowncorrosionincloseddrainscontainingsewage.
Thecausesofblockagecanbe:
accumulationofrefuse,leavesandearthinthedrain
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structuressuchashousesorbridgepierserectedinthedrainandobstructingtheflow
excessivevegetationgrowingindrainagechannels
siltdepositedinlowsectionsowingtomisalignmentorwheretheslopeisinsufficientandcleaningisnotregularenough.
Ifrehabilitationofafailedsystemistohaveagoodchanceofsuccess,diagnosisandeliminationoftheoriginalcausesoffailurearerequiredaswellas
treatmentoftheimmediatesymptoms.Eachpossiblecauseofcollapsehasitscure.
(a)ErosioninanunlinedchannelisillustratedinFig.21(page39)alongwiththeappropriateremedies.Inalineddrain,erosioncanmeanthe
liningitselfisnotrobustenough,andamoreresistantliningisneeded.Acommonweakpointisatthejointsbetweenchannelorpipe
elements,whichshouldbesealedwithcementmortar.Wheretheslopeisgreaterthan10%,bafflesorstepsofsomekindareneeded(seeFig.
6,page17).Scouringontheoutsideofachannelliningcanmeanthatwaterisnotenteringthedrainbutrunningparalleltoit.Ifthelining
risesabovegroundlevel,itneedsnotchesinthesidessothatthewatercanflowin.Smallearthbanksrunningdiagonallyacrosstheroadwill
alsohelptodivertwatertothedrainattheside.Alternatively,scouringbesidethedraincanmeanthatitoverflowsduringstorms,indicating
thatmorefrequentcleaning,alargerdrain,ormorefrequentturnoutsarerequired(seeFig.5,page16).Incloseddrainsthatareoverloaded,
watercanescapeintothegroundthroughthejointsowingtothepressureinsidethepipe.Whenthepressuredrops,thewaterrunsbackinto
thedrain,carryingsoilwithitandexcavatingacavityoverthedrainwhichwilleventuallycollapse.Thesolutionistosealthejointswith
cementgroutor,preferably,tobuildalargerdrain.
(b)Waterpressurefromtheoutsideorpressureresultingfromtheswellingofclaycanbecontrolledbyusingasandbedding(seeFig.15)and
providingweepholesinthelining(seeFig.11).
(c)Vehiclescaneasilydamageopendrains.Ifvehicledamagerecursfrequently,thedrainsshouldbeprotectedbysomeformofbarriersuch
asarailorakerbstone.Ifthedamageisduetovehiclesattemptingtocrossthedrain,thenanadequatevehiclecrossingshouldbebuiltoverit.
Vehicledamagetocovereddrainsindicatesthattheyshouldeitherbelaiddeeperorbeprotectedbyconcrete.
(d)Rootsfromnearbytreeswilltendtogrowintodrains,especiallyiftheycontainstandingwaterandtheliningsarenotimpermeable.The
mosteffectiveprotection,iftheproblempersists,istoremovealltreeswithin5mofthedrain.
(e)Crowncorrosionoccursincloseddrainscontainingsewage,wheregasesfromthesewagecanattackandweakencement,particularlyover
thecrownorcoverofthedrain.
Thecuresformostofthecausesofblockagearefairlyeasytosee:collectionofrefuse,removalofstructures,andclearingofvegetation.Ifthedrainshave
anevenandadequateslope,itshouldnotbenecessarytoremovesiltclearingthevegetation,whoserootsholdthesiltinplace,shouldenablethenext
heavyflowinthedraintowashitaway.
However,theslopeisnotalwayseven.Thedrainmayhavebeenbadlylaid,thesandbeddingbeneathsomesectionsmayhavebeenerodedcausingthem
tosink,orthelackofweepholesorasandbeddingmayhavecausedtheliningtobeliftedbythepressureofwaterfromthesurroundingground.Uneven
settlementofthegroundiscommoninflatareasofclaysoil,andisanothercauseofunevenslope.Damagebyvehiclesandearthquakescanalsocause
distortion,orevenmisalignmentofsectionsofdrainagechannelorpipe,resultinginblockagebysedimentorothersolids.Insuchcases,thedrainsshould
berebuilttoanevenslope,althoughslightirregularitiescanbecorrectedbyfillinginthedepressionswithcementmortar.
Finally,thedrainitselfmaybeingoodcondition,butmayfailtofunctioncorrectlyowingtoinsufficientcapacity.Evenadrainthatwaslargeenough
whenbuiltmayprovetobetoosmallfortheincreasesinrunoffflowwhichaccompanyincreasedbuildingdevelopmentinthecatchmentarea.
3.2Rehabilitationofexistingsystems
Therearemanydrainagesystemsinurbanareasthatarefunctioningimperfectlyornotatallowingtooneormoreofthecausesoffailurelistedinthe
previoussection.Beforeanewsystemisenvisaged,thefirststepistoascertainwhetheradrainagesystemalreadyexistsandwhetheritcanbe
rehabilitated.Localresidentswillnormallyknowifoneexistsintheirarea,buttheymaynotbeawareofexistingmaindrains,especiallycloseddrains,
whichareoutsidetheirneighbourhood,andintowhichafuturelocalmicrodrainagesystemcoulddischarge.
Municipalrecords,includingolddrainagemasterplans,shouldbeconsultedfordetailsofanypreviousdrainageconstructioninthevicinity,andthearea
shouldbevisitedonfoottochecktheiraccuracyandtolookfortelltalesignssuchasoldmanholes,orpiecesofpipeorconcreteexposedbyerosion,
especiallyalongmajorstreetsanddownstreamoftheareawherebetterdrainageisneeded.
Removecoverslabsfromdrainagechannels,takingcarethatthereisnoriskofpedestrians'orvehicles'fallingintothemaccidentally.Startingatthe
downstreamend,removesiltandsolids.Specialtoolsforcleaningchannelsaredescribedinsection3.3.Afterclearing,flushthedrainagelinewithwater.
Thefireservicesmaybeabletohelpwiththis.
Inspectionofcloseddrains
Theinspectionofcloseddrainsismoredifficultanddangerous,andshouldbecarriedoutunderexpertsupervision.Thefirststepistodrawasketchmap
ofthesystem,ifrecorddrawingsarenotavailable.Themapshouldshowallexistingmanholes,inletsandotherdrainagestructures.Ifthegapbetweenany
twomanholesisverylongcomparedtothatbetweenmostothers,itislikelythatoneortwoothermanholeshavebeenburiedordestroyedbetweenthem.
Fromtheregularmanholespacing,itshouldbepossibletocalculatethemostlikelylocationofamissingmanhole.Localresidents,whomayknowof
buriedmanholes,shouldalsobeconsulted.Theprobablesitesofmissingmanholesshouldbeexcavated,touncoverthem.
Nooneshouldenteranymanholeuntilithasbeenadequatelyventilated.Asaprecaution,themanholesupstreamanddownstreamofthesectiontobe
inspectedshouldbeopenedatleasttwohoursbeforehand.Tosavetime,anumberofmanholescanbeopenedsimultaneously.Furtherventilationcanbe
achievedbyintroducingtheairhosefromacompressor,ifoneisavailable.Inspectionshouldstartasfardownstreamaspossible,andworkupstream.
Waterinfloodedmanholesshouldbepumpedouttothenextmanholedownstreamusingasumppump,ofthetypeusedbyconstructionfirmsfor
excavations.Alternatively,thewatercouldbebaledoutwithbucketsorremovedwithasiphon,butthisislikelytotakeaverylongtime.
Oncethemanholehasbeenventilated,afurthersafetycheckisnecessarytoensurethatitissafetoenter.Alightedcandleoraminer'ssafetylampis
loweredintothemanhole.Iftheflamedies,itmeansthatthereisinsufficientoxygeninsideandthatanyoneenteringthemanholecouldbesuffocatedby
thegasesproducedbysewageandsediment.However,nonakedlightshouldbeuseduntilthemanholehasbeenventilated,asitcouldcausethosegasesto
explode.
Afinalsafetyprecaution,nolessnecessary,isthatnooneshouldenteramanholewithoutalifeline.Asparelifelineshouldbereadyforuseifnecessary.
Accessstepsinanoldmanholeareliabletobeseriouslycorrodedandmuchlesssecurethantheyappear.Theyareoftenslippery.Atleasttwopeople
shouldremainabovegroundtopulloutthethirdmemberofthepartyincaseofemergency.Theyshouldneverfollowthethirdmemberintothemanhole,
eveninanemergency,astheycouldallbekilled.Evenifthemanholeisproperlyvented,thepersoninspectingitshoulddisturbthesettledsludgeandsilt
aslittleaspossible.Thesesometimescontainpoisonousgases,whichcouldbereleasedwhenthesedimentisagitated.Ifadrainiscompletelyblockedso
thatitcannotbeinspected,materialshouldberemovedonlyfromtheupstreamend.ThesesafetyprecautionsareillustratedinFig.22.
Thealignmentofacloseddraincanbecheckedbytwopeopleinconsecutivemanholesusingaflashlightandamirror,asshowninFig.23.Firstthe
flashlightandthemirrorareheldwithin510cmofthebottomofthepipe(knownastheinvert),andthentheyarebothraisedtojustbelowthecrown.If
thereisanyirregularityintheverticalalignmentofthedrainpipe,itwillbedetectedinoneofthesepositions,sinceitwillobscuretheflashlightbeam.
Thisprocedurewillalsomakeminordefectsandobstructionsvisible.
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Themostlikelyplacetofindcracksandmisalignmentisimmediatelyadjacenttothemanhole,owingtounevensettlementofthegroundafterpipelaying
(Fig.24).Anotherproblemtolookforiscrowncorrosion,whichcaneasilybediscoveredbyattemptingtodigintothepipematerialatthesidesandtop
withapenknifeoralargenail.
Drainagepipesoflessthan1mindiametercannotbeenteredsafely,andgreatcareshouldbetakeninenteringlargerdrains.Thedangersinclude
poisonousgas,caveins,suddenrushesofwaterfromcloggedsectionsorfromstorms,andevenwildanimals.Nakedlightssuchasmatchesorcandles
shouldnotbeusedinaclosedsewerorwithin3mofanyopenmanhole.Aminer'ssafetylampispreferabletoaflashlight,toavoidtheriskofexplosions.
Fig.22.Safetyinenteringcloseddrains
Fig.23.Checkingthealignmentofcloseddrains
Rehabilitation
Somesectionsmayrequirecompleterebuilding,butothersmayonlyneedtobeclearedofobstructionsandflushedwithwater.Deterioratedorcracked
concreteormasonryshouldbemadegood,carebeingtakentoavoidmajorirregularities,especiallyatjoints,whichmayholdbacksolidobjectsandcause
blockage.Thesurfacetoberepairedshouldberoughenedbyhittingitwithasledgehammer,andthenplasteredwithgoodqualitycementmortar.If
plasteringisneededonthebottomofthedrain,firstdivertthewaterflowawayfromtheworkingareabybuildingasmalldamofearthorsandbagsand
diggingatemporaryparallelchannelorbypumping.
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Fig.24.Commonfailuresitesincloseddrains
Somefittingsmaybedamagedorhavedisappeared,especiallymetalliconessuchasmanholecovers,inletscreensandgrilles,whichmayhavebeenstolen
andsoldasscrapmetal.Thecommunitymaydecidetoreplacethesewithconcreteequivalents,ortofixmetalscreensintoconcrete.Thismakesdrain
maintenancealittlelesseasy,butminimizestheftifitisaproblem.Ifclosedsectionsarefrequentlyblockedbyrefuse,additionalscreensshouldbe
installedattheupstreamendtokeeptherefuseout(seesection2.5).Existingcoversandinletsshouldbecleaned,andrepairedorreplacedifnecessary,
andsteelfittingspaintedwithtwocoatsoftarorprimerpaint.
Ifthedrainagesystemhassluicegates(Fig.25),thehandle,platesandguidechannelsintheframeshouldbechecked.Rustandoldpaintshouldbe
removedwithasteelbrush.Anyholesshouldbepatchedbyweldingasteelplateoverthem.Thegateandframeshouldbepaintedwiththreeorfourcoats
ofanepoxyorotherequallydurabletypeofpaint.Thestemandguideplatesshouldbewellgreased.
Fig.25.Requirementsformaintenanceofsluicegates
3.3Maintenancetechnicalaspects
Themostimportantmaintenancetaskistoremoverefuse,siltandothersolidmaterialfromthedrains.Alldrainsshouldbecleanedatleasttwiceayear,
preferablyatthestartandendoftherainyseason.Somedrains,especiallythesecondarydrainsandhouseconnections,willneedtobeclearedmore
frequently.Smallopenchannelsinflatareasarelikelytorequirecleaningonaweeklybasis.Unlinedchannelsneedtoberegularlyclearedofvegetation.
Itisimportanttoestablishthecleaningofdrainsasaroutineactivityatregularintervals,andnotwaituntilthesystemfailsasaresultofblockage.
Repairingthedamagedonewhenthesystemfails,includingdamagetothedrainsthemselves,cancostfarmorethanregularpreventivemaintenance.
Drainclearingmustbecoordinatedwiththecollectionanddisposalofsolidwaste,sothatsolidmaterialremovedfromthedrainswillnotbeleftwhere
raincanwashitbackorwhereitcanbeanuisanceandahealthhazard,encouragingthebreedingofratsandflies.
Openchannels
Cleaningofopenchannelsisusuallydonemanually,withthehelpofspades,hoes,shovelsandscoops.Itcanbedisagreeableandstrenuousworkifitis
donewiththewrongtools,especiallyifthedrainsaredeep.Itisworthwhilehavingsomespecialtoolsthatcancleanthedrainsovertheirwholelength,
suchasshovelsthatjustfitintothedrain.
Onetoolthathasprovedtobeusefulforcleaningdeepandnarrowdrainsisanagriculturalhoewithanextralonghandle(Fig.26).Anothertool,also
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showninFig.26,istheAhmedDavisshovel.ThiswasdevelopedinTunisia,whereitwasfoundtoreducecleaningtimeby30%.Onepersonpushesthe
shoveldeepintothedrainusingthehandle,andthentheotherpullsitforwardandupwardusingthesteelwiresattachedtothefrontend.Thesizeand
shapeoftheshovelaredeterminedbythesizeandshapeofthedrains.Itmayhelptopierceseveralsmallholesinthebottomoftheshovelsothatwaterin
thesolidsfromthedraincanrunoutwhentheshovelislifted.
Fig.26.Toolsforcleaningdrains
Theresponsibilityformaintenanceofasystemofdrainagechannelsisoftendividedbetweenseveralresidents,neighbourhoodsorworkteams,each
responsibleforaparticularsection.Ifso,itisadvisabletoinstallgrillesacrossthechannelsatthedownstreamendofeachsection.Thisensuresthatsolids
arenotcarriedalongtothenextsection,imposinganexcessiveburdenonthatsection'steam.
Closeddrains
Inthecleaningofcloseddrains,allthesafetyprecautionsdescribedinsection3.2shouldbescrupulouslyobserved.
Themostcommontoolusedinremovingsiltandsolidsisabuckettiedinthemiddleofasteelcable(Fig.27).Thecableshouldbeatleasttwiceaslongas
thelongestdistancebetweenmanholes.Oneendisthreadedintothedrainagelinewiththebucketfacingdownstream,andwoundontoawindlassonthe
groundbesidethenextmanhole.Asthebucketispulleddowntheline,itscoopsthesolidsandsilt.Thebucketdiametermustbeatleast5cmsmallerthan
theinternaldiameterofthedrainagepipetoallowexcesssolidstopassaroundit,andensurethatthebucketdoesnotbecomejammedagainstobstructions.
Fig.27.Cleaningofcloseddrainsusingabucket
Excessiveforceshouldnotbeusedtopullthebucketifitsticks,asthismaycompressthesolids,makingthemstillmoredifficulttoremove.Instead,it
shouldbewinchedbackandasmallerbucketoranauger(describedbelow)usedforthefirstpass.Whenthebucketreachesthedownstreammanhole,it
shouldberemovedwiththesolidsanddetachedfromthecable.Thecableiswoundbackandthebucketreattached.Theprocedureisrepeateduntilthe
drainiscleaned.
Ifthedrainagelineisblocked,orthesolidsaretoostifftoberemovedusingthebucket,thelinecanbeclearedbyanauger(Fig.28).Theaugerislikea
largedrillbit,andisrotatedbymeansofaleverinsertedintooneofachainofconnecteddrivingrods.Therodsarenormally1015mmindiameterand
madeofstainlesssteel.Watertrappedupstreamoftheblockagedoesnothavetoberemoved.Whentheaugerpenetratesthesolidsobstructingtheline,this
waterwillhelptoflushthesolidsaway.
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Fig.28.Cleaningofcloseddrainsusinganauger
3.4Maintenanceinstitutionalaspects
Theneedtocoordinatedrainagemaintenancewithsolidwastedisposalhasalreadybeenmentioned.Coordinationisnecessaryfortworeasons.First,the
solidsremovedfromthedrainmustbeadequatelydisposedof.Second,thedrainscannotbekeptclearwithouteffectivesolidwastedisposal.Ifsolid
wastesarenotcollectedregularly,residentswillhavelittlechoicebuttothrowtheirrubbishintothedrainagechannels,ortodumpitinthestreetsand
openspaceswhereitwillbedispersedbystormwater,windandanimals,muchofiteventuallyreachingthedrains.Themosteffectivewaytoensuregood
coordinationbetweendrainagemaintenanceandrefusedisposalisforboththeseactivitiestobetheresponsibilityofthesamemunicipaldepartmentor
neighbourhoodcommittee.
Maintenance,includingtheinspection,cleaningandrepairofthedrainagesystem,mustbeinstitutionalizedifitistobekeptupthroughoutthelifeofthe
system.Forthisreason,theultimateresponsibilityshouldpreferablybewiththemunicipality,whichhaspaidstaffwhocancarryoutthework.Itismuch
moredifficulttomobilizeacommunityonavoluntarybasistocarryoutaroutinetask,yearafteryear,thantowintheiractiveparticipationforthelimited
periodrequiredforconstruction.Nevertheless,thereisamplescopeforparticipationbythecommunityindrainagemaintenance.Section4describeshow
thiscanbeorganized.
3.5Selectedreading
Safetyinsewersandatsewageworks.London,InstitutionofCivilEngineers,1967.
FLINTOFF,F.Managementofsolidwastesindevelopingcountries.NewDelhi,WHORegionalOfficeforSouthEastAsia,1984(WHORegional
Publications,SouthEastAsiaSeriesNo.1).
4.1Theneedforparticipation
Participationinplanning
Adrainagesystem,likeanyotheritemofinfrastructure,ispartofthebuiltenvironmentofacommunity,andresidentsmayfinditinappropriateand
unacceptableiftheyhavenotparticipatedinthekeyplanningdecisions.Traditionally,theplanninganddesignofurbansurfacewaterdrainagesystems
havebeencarriedoutbygovernmentalormunicipalagencies,withouttheinvolvementofthelocalresidentsandwithlimited,ifany,consultationwith
them.However,thetechnicalandplanningstaffofsuchagenciesdonotnormallyliveinlowincomecommunitiesandcaneasilybemistakenaboutlocal
needs,customsandaspirationsunlessthecommunityisgivenachancetostateitsviews.
Opendrainstakeupacertainamountofland,ascarcecommodityinmanylowincomeurbancommunitiesandonethatresidentsmaybeunwillingto
sacrificeunlesstheyareconvincedthatitisfortheirbenefit.Housesmayhavetoberelocatedandrebuilttomakewayfornewdrains,andresidentsmust
bedissuadedfromerectingnewstructuresthatwouldobstructthedrainagesystem.Thepositioniscomplicatedbytheproblemsoflandtenurewhichbeset
manyurbanslumsandshantytowns.Forexample,theconventionalproceduresusedbyamunicipalityforcompulsorypurchaseoflandareclearly
inapplicableinacommunityofsquatterswithnolegaltitletothelandonwhichtheyhavebuilt.Thelandrequirementofadrainagesystemcanmakeita
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burningissueandcangiverisetogreatbitternessunlessthecommunityhasparticipatedinplanningthesystem.
Adrainagesystemisveryvulnerabletoabuse,evenbyasinglememberofthecommunity.Aresidentcaneffectivelyblockadrainagelinebydumpinga
moderateamountofrubbishinit,andthusrenderuselessthewholesystemupstream.Deliberateblockageandotherformsofsabotagearenotunknown,
butapathyandneglectcanhaveequallyseriousconsequencesinthelongterm.Communityparticipationinplanningisthemosteffectivemeansof
generatingtheinterestandinvolvementoflocalresidents,andisessentialforthesuccessofadrainageproject.
Residentscanalsocontributemuchtothedesignofadrainagesystembecauseoftheirdetailedknowledgeofthearea.Forexample,theshortageof
accuratehydrologicaldataforurbanareascaneasilyleadtounnecessarilyexpensivedrainagesystemsbeingdesigned,unlesswitnesses'recollectionsof
pastfloodsaretakenintoaccount.Manyothertypesofinformationcanbecollectedbyresidentsonavoluntarybasis,avoidingtheneedforexpensive
surveys.
Participationinconstruction
Communityparticipationinconstructionisnotessential,buthasseveraladvantages.Voluntarylabourcanpermitsignificantsavingsincost,animportant
considerationformostmunicipalitiesindevelopingcountries,whichhaveonlyverylimitedfundstoinvestininfrastructure.Itcanalsohelptodevelopa
senseofownershipandaclimateofcooperationwhichwillfacilitatetheresponsibleuseandsatisfactorymaintenanceofthesystem.Community
participationinconstruction,whetherpaidorunpaid,willensurethatresidentsacquireaknowledgeofthedrainagesystemandmanyskillswhichwill
helpthemtoparticipateinmaintainingit.Lastly,constructionbythecommunitymaybetheonlypossiblesolutionwhenmunicipalauthoritiesarenotable,
forwhateverreasons,toprovideadrainagesystemfortheneighbourhood.
Participationinmaintenance
Thereisnoneedtoarguethecaseforcommunityparticipationindrainagemaintenance.Toooften,lowincomecommunitiesareexpectedtomaintain
theirdrainagesystemswithminimalassistance,eitherasaresultofwishfulthinkingonthepartofmunicipalauthoritiesorbydefault,becausethe
municipalitysimplydoesnothavetheresourcesorcapacitytomaintainthesystemithasinstalled.Rather,whatthecommunityneedsissupporttoenable
ittocarryoutitspartoftheworkmoreeffectively.Thisincludesnotonlytechnicalandmaterialsupport,particularlyintheformoftrainingandthe
provisionofspecializedequipmentwherenecessary,butalsosupportforthedevelopmentofcommunityinstitutionsandprocedurestoorganizethetask.
4.2Communityinstitutions
Communityparticipationisnotaspontaneous,automaticprocess.Itrequiresaninitiativetolaunchit,andmanagementtoorganizeit.Inpractice,
communitiescanparticipateonlythroughcommunityinstitutions.Ontheotherhand,theseinstitutionsdonotneedtobecreatedoutofnothing.Alow
incomeurbancommunityisnottheunorganizedmassitmayseemtooutsiders.Usually,avarietyofinstitutionsarealreadyinexistence,someofthem
withahighdegreeoforganizationandconsiderablepowertoinfluencepeople'sattitudesandbehaviour.Theyareofmanydifferentkinds,suchasthe
following:
residents'associationsandamenitygroups,
women'sorganizations,
politicalparties,
labourunions,
religiousbodies,
culturalassociations,
ethnicor"homeboy"associations,
rotatingcreditassociations,
burialsocieties,
schools,parentteacherassociations,
healthposts,healthcommittees,communityhealthworkers.
Someofthemmaybeformallyrecognizedandaffiliatedtoregionalornationalbodies.Othersmayhavedevelopedinformallyinresponsetospecificlocal
needs.Theiractivitiesandinfluenceoftenrangemuchwiderthanthepurposesforwhichtheywereoriginallyestablished.Theyareoftenfarmoreactive
andinfluentialinlowincomecommunitiesthanthecorrespondinginstitutionsinwealthierneighbourhoods.Inaddition,someindividualsmaybe
recognizedinformallyasleadersinthecommunityowingtotheireducation,wealth,ageorexperience.
Theinitiativetostartdiscussionofthepossibilityofdrainageimprovementswilloftencomefromanindividualwhoalreadyplaysaprominentroleinone
oftheseorganizations,suchastheschoolteacher,religiousleaderorpartysecretary.Whentheinitiativecomesfromanoutsidebodysuchasthe
municipality,theseinstitutionsarevaluable"entrypoints"throughwhichafirstapproachtothecommunitycanbemade.Indeed,manyresidentsmayfeel
slightediftheapproachisnotmadethroughtheexistingcommunityinstitutions.
Thedrainagecommittee
Itwillnormallybenecessarytoestablishadrainagecommitteetoorganizethecommunity'scontributiontoadrainageproject.Thisismostlikelyto
succeedifitisnotacompletelynewstructure,butisbuiltontoexistingcommunityinstitutionswhoseauthorityisgenerallyaccepted.Thedrainage
committeewillenjoytheestablishedauthorityofthecommunity'sleadersifitisanswerabletothem.
Thecommitteeshouldberepresentativeofthecommunity.Itstaskwillbeeasierifitincludeswomenandmembersfromtheprincipalethnicandreligious
groupsinthecommunity,andfromvariouspartsoftheneighbourhood.Ontheotherhand,itshouldnotbetoolargeasthiscanmakeithardertoreach
consensusdecisionsandtoensurethatallthemembersplayanactiverole.Itispreferabletohavefewerthan10members.Theactiveparticipationofthe
committeememberscanbeencouragedbyallocatingspecificrolesamongthem,suchasChairperson,SecretaryandTreasurer,withothermembers
responsiblefortechnicalaspects,liaisonwiththemunicipality,publicrelations,organizationofvoluntarylabour,relocationofaffectedhouses,andsoon.
Someofthesemayhavedeputiesifthenumberofmembersissufficient.
Inmanycases,themembersofthecommitteewillbewillingtoworkonavoluntarybasis,buttherearecircumstancesinwhichsomeremunerationforthe
workdoneonadrainagecommitteecanbejustified.Thisisespeciallythecasewhentheworkofthedrainagecommitteepermitssignificantcostsavings
tothemunicipality.
Oneofthefirststepsforthecommitteeistoapproachthelocalmunicipalitytoseekitshelp,eitherdirectlyorthroughlocalleaders.Evenifthemunicipal
authoritycannotaffordtoprovidematerialresources,itmaybeabletoofferotherkindsofassistance,suchastechnicalguidance,adviceregarding
possiblesourcesoffunds,andliaisonwithotherrelevantbodies,includingothercommunitieswhichhavesuccessfullyundertakendrainageimprovements.
Inaddition,themunicipalitycanhelptoavoidconflictwiththepolice.Whilecommunitymeetingsandparticipationareencouragedinmostcountries,
therearesomecaseswhereagroupofpeoplemeetingregularlyinalowincomehighdensityhousingareacouldbesuspectedofsubversiveactivity.
Ifthemunicipalauthorityiswillingtohelp,everyeffortshouldbemadetoensureclosecollaborationbetweenitandthecommittee.Thedrainage
committee,foritspart,shouldbriefmunicipalofficialsonitsdecisionsandsendthemminutesofmeetingsor,better,inviterepresentativesofrelevant
departmentstoattend.Itcouldalsooffertoassistwithdatacollectionandothertasks.Themunicipality,ontheotherhand,shouldconsultthecommittee
aboutplanninganddesigndecisions,allowingittimetoconsultthecommunitybeforereplying.Itcanarrangeregularbriefingsforcommitteememberson
theprogressoftheproject.
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SomeresourcesthatwouldbeusefulfortheorientationofadrainagecommitteearedescribedinAnnex4.
4.3Creatingawareness
Aprerequisiteforacommunity'sactiveandwillingparticipationinadrainageschemeisanawarenessoftheneedforit,ofitsfeasibility,andofthe
benefitsitcanbestow.Inmanylowincomecommunitiesthereisnolackofawarenessoftheproblemdrainageoftenfiguresfirstonthelistoffeltneeds
forcommunityinfrastructure.However,thedrainagecommittee(oranyonewishingtosetoneup)willneedtodeveloppublicawarenessthatthe
communityitselfcanandshoulddosomethingtoimprovethesituation.Afurtherrequirementistogenerateaclimateofresponsibilityforthedrainage
systemonceithasbeenbuilt.
Arangeofmethodscanbeusedtogivepublicitytothedrainagecommitteeanditsobjectives,includingpublicmeetings,postersanddoortodoor
canvassing.Schoolchildrenareaparticularlyvaluableresource.Theyareusuallymorereadytoacceptnewideas,theyhavetimeandenergywhichcanbe
mobilizedforvariousactivities,andtheycaninfluencetheirfamiliesathome.
However,people'sattitudesandbehaviourarenoteasilyinfluencedbyaonewayflowofinformationandexhortationstoparticipate.Afarmoreeffective
strategyistostimulatediscussioninsuchawaythatresidentscometoseeforthemselvestheadvantagesofcontributingtowardsadrainageschemeand
theimportanceofaresponsibleattitudetowardsit.
Fourprincipalincentivescanhelpmotivatepeopletoparticipateinadrainageproject:
comfortandsafety,
financialgain,
status,
grouppressure.
Comfortandsafety
Aneffectiveargumentfordrainageistheprospectofnolongerhavingtowalkthroughpoolsofstagnantwaterandsewage,orofhavingnomore
collapsinghousesandlandslides.Theseimprovementsmakeitworthwhileforresidentstoundertakeimprovementstotheirhouses,andopenthewayfor
otheraspectsofinfrastructuresuchaswatersupplyandsanitation.Improveddrainagemakesaccesseasierforvehicleseveniffewresidentsownamotor
car,manywillbekeentoensureeasyaccessforemergencyvehiclessuchasambulancesandfireengines.Theprospectofreducedmosquitonuisanceisa
furtherinducement,oncepeoplehavebeenshownthatmosquitosbreedinstagnantwater.Thehealthbenefitsofdrainagehavebeendescribedinsection1,
andshouldbeexplainedtothecommunity.
Financialgain
Drainageimprovementscanincreasepropertyvalues,makinghousesmoreprofitabletosellortolet.Ifconvincingfactsandfigurescanbeprovidedto
demonstratethatadrainageprojectisaffordabletothecommunityandgiveseconomicreturns,theprospectoffinancialgaincanbeeffectivemotivation.
Status
Whetherornotresidentswishtosellorlettheirhouses,betterdrainagecangivetheirneighbourhoodtheappealofwealthierdistrictsandconferstatuson
thecommunityanditsmembers.Additionalstatusmayattachtothosemostactivelyinvolvedintheproject.
Grouppressure
Grouppressurecanbeoneofthemostpowerfulincentivesforparticipatinginacommunityeffort,onceaconsensushasbeenachieved.Everycommunity
exertsconsiderableinternalpressureonitsmemberstocomplywithitsnormsanddecisionsthosewhodeviatemaybeshunned,ridiculedorhumiliated,
butformosttheexampleofthemajorityissufficienttopersuadethemtojoinin.However,thiscanbeeffectiveonlywhenthemajorityhasalreadybeen
motivatedtoparticipatebyreachingaconsensusthroughdiscussion.
Twoeffectivemeanstoencouragediscussion,whilehelpingtofocusit,arepicturesandquestions.Pictorialmaterialmaybeintheformofcartoons,felt
boardsonwhichadhesivefigurescanbeplacedandmovedaround,orslides,filmsorvideosshowingdrainageproblemsandareaswheredrainagehas
beenimproved.Residentscanbeaskedtocommentonthismaterial,rearrangeitortellimaginarystoriesaboutit.Othervisualaidscanbeimprovised
fromlocalmaterials:forexample,aglassjarcontainingmosquitolarvae,ortwomodelsofthelocaltopography,onewithsmalldrainagechannelscutinto
it,tobewateredwithawateringcantosimulaterain.
Carefullychosenquestionscanalsoservetostartupadiscussion.Thefollowingaresomeexamples:
"Whydoesfloodingoccurinneighbourhoodslikeours,butneverinthecentreoftown?"
"Whyaretheresomanymosquitosinourarea?"
"Ifadrainageschemewerebuilthere,howwouldthataffectthevalueofourhouses?"
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Fig.29.Communityparticipationinplanningisessentialforsuccess
Theprocesstakestime,andcanleadinunexpecteddirections.Therearenoshortcuts,however.Alowincomecommunitythatissimplytoldwhatit
shoulddomayappeartoreactpositivelyduringmeetingsandsurveys,butmaywithholditscooperationwhenthetimecomesforaction.Itisadvisablenot
torushanydecisions,buttogivethecommunitytimetodiscusstheproblemandreachaconsensus.
4.4Aprogrammeofaction
Oncethedrainagecommitteehasbeenformedandthecommunityhasagreedtosupportitsefforts,itistimetoplanaprogrammefortheimplementation
ofthedrainageproject.Thisplanningisnotthesameasthetechnicaldesignofthescheme.Itisnotnecessarytohavethecompleteddesigninorderto
makethemainplanningdecisions,althoughitisanadvantagetohavesomeideaoftheprincipaltechnicaloptions.Thecommitteemayfindithelpfulto
startwithsteps(a)(f)insection2.9togivethemsomeideaofthelikelyscopeoftheproject.
Inordertodeveloptheprogrammeofaction,theimplementationoftheprojectshouldbedividedintoseparatephasesandactivities,suchasthefollowing.
Planninganddesign
Collectionofdata
Outliningtechnicalsolutions
Selectionofthebestalternative
Detaileddesign
Costcalculations
Fundraising
Construction
Acquisitionofland
Relocationofbuildings
Preparationofstoragefacilities,castingyard,etc.
Purchaseofmaterialsandequipment
Skilledconstructionworkandsupervision
Unskilledconstructionwork
Provisionofwaterforconstruction
Storing,guardingandaccountingformaterialsandequipment
Providingfoodforvoluntaryworkers
Maintenance
Routinedraincleaning
Reportingofdefectsandblockages
Twiceyearlyinspection
Repair
Paymentformaintenance
Passingofbylawsregardingtheuseofdrains
Enforcementofbylaws.
Foreachactivity,adecisionisneededastowhichindividualsaretocarryitout,whentheywilldoso,howtheywillbeorganizedandtowhomtheywill
beresponsible.Thismeansthatduringtheplanningstage,decisionsmustbetakenaboutwhatthecommunitywilldointhefuture.Themoredecisionsthat
canbetakenduringthisplanningstage,thebetteritisforthefutureoftheproject.
Itisnotnecessaryorevenadvisableforthedrainagecommitteetotakethesedecisionsalone.Someofthemwillbedeterminedinpracticebywhatthe
municipalitycanoffer,butmanyoftheactivitieswillhavetobeperformedbythecommunityorbythosewhomithiresforthepurpose,andthefinal
decisionabouttheseisbestlefttoameetingofthecommunityoritsrepresentatives.Nevertheless,thecommitteeshouldfirstconsiderthealternatives
availabletoit,sothatitcanadvisesuchameetingoftheadvantagesanddisadvantagesofeachalternative.
Itiseasierforthecommunitytodiscussaproposedprogrammeofactionifthereissomeestimateofthetimingofeachactivity.Municipalstaffmaybe
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abletoadviseonthetimelikelytoberequiredforeachtask.
Theprogrammeshouldbepresentedtooneormoremeetingsofthecommunityfordiscussion,possiblemodificationandfinalapproval.Publicmeetings
areespeciallyusefulintheearlystages,astheyhelptoensurethat:
residentshaveaclearideaofwhatisbeingdecided,anddonotrelyonrumoursandsecondhandaccounts,whichmaybeincorrect
thecommunityfeelsithassomecontroloverthedecisionmakingandcanthereforeidentifywiththeconclusions
maximumuseismadeoflocalknowledge,toreachthemostcosteffectivesolution.
Eachmeetingshouldbeginwithapresentationoftheoptionsunderconsideration.Itispreferabletoseekcommentsandsuggestionsfromtheparticipants
first,beforethecommittee'srecommendedsolutiontoeachproblemispresented.Inthisway,themeetingcantaketheformofa"brainstorming"session,
whichisaverycreativeprocess.Ideasaresuggestedbytheparticipantsandwrittenuponablackboard.Thesecretofsuccessfulbrainstormingisto
observefourbasicrules:
(1)Donotcriticizesuggestions.
(2)Donotalteroredittheideas,buttakethemjustastheycome.
(3)Encourageevenfarfetchedideas,astheymaytriggermorepracticalones.
(4)Themoreideasthebetterdonotstopassoonasthereisapauseinthediscussion.
Oncealistofsuggestionshasbeencompiledinthisway,themeetingcanbeaskedtocommentonthem,andthedrainagecommitteeaskedtogivemore
detailedconsiderationtothebestones.
Onthisbasis,amoredetailedprogrammecanbedevelopedandpresentedtoanothermeeting.Thewholeprocessmaytakeonetotwomonths,andshould
culminateinthedrawingupofwrittenagreementsbetweenthepartiesconcerned,settingoutresponsibilitiesfordesign,forconstruction,andforuseand
maintenance.Ifengineeringconsultantsorcontractorsaretobeengaged,specialisthelpshouldbesoughtindraftingsuitablecontractsandtermsof
reference.Theagreementsandcontractsshouldincludeprovisionforfurtherconsultationwiththecommunity,particularlyduringthedesignstage.Annex
3listssomeofthepointstocheckindrawinguptermsofreferenceforafeasibilitystudyofacommunitydrainagesystem.
Beforeconstructioncanbegin,thereshouldbeareasonabledegreeofcertaintythatsufficientfundswillbeavailable.Wherenecessary,fundraisingwithin
thecommunity,andeffortstoobtainfundsfromexternalsources,canstartwhiletheprogrammeofactionisstillbeingdeveloped.
Therearemanytasksthecommunitycanperformintheconstructionofadrainagesystem(seesection2.8),buttheirparticipationmustbecarefully
planned.Mostimportantly,theplansmustspecifywhichpeoplewillberesponsibleforeachtaskandwhowillsupervisethem.Certaintasksmaybe
organizedbystreetorblockresidentsofagivenstreetmayworkonthedrainageoftheirownstreet,ormayworkonaparticularday,onarotasystem.
Somelighttaskscouldbetheresponsibilityofschoolchildren,oroftheelderly.
Plansshouldbemadeinadvancefordealingwithpeoplewhofailtoparticipate.Somecommunitymembersmayprefertocontributecashormaterials
ratherthantheirlabourtotheprojects.Thedrainagecommitteeshouldconsiderwhatformsofpressureitwillbringtobearonthosewhocontribute
nothing.Sanctionswillbemucheasiertoapplyiftheyhavebeenagreeduponbeforehandbythecommunity.
Thedrainagecommitteewillwishtocallanothermeetingwhenthedrainagesystemiscompleted.Thiscantaketheformofacelebration,butitisalso
appropriatetoconsiderthemaintenanceofthenewsystem,eitherunderthesamedrainagecommitteeorareconstitutedone.
4.5Participationinmaintenance
Asmentionedinsection3.4,themaintenanceofadrainagesystemrequiresspecificinstitutionalarrangements,preferablywithamunicipaldepartment
assumingtheultimateresponsibilityforthistask.
Whetherornotamunicipaldepartmentassumestheresponsibilityformaintenance,aneighbourhooddrainagecommitteecanatleastmonitorthe
functioningofthesystemandreportdefectsanddeficienciestotheofficialsresponsible.Inmanycases,thecommunitycanalsocarryoutmuchofthe
routinemaintenancework.Theremustthenbegoodcoordinationandacleardivisionofresponsibilities.Residentsmustknowtowhomtheyshouldreport
anyproblemssuchasdamageorblockages.Itiscertainlyadvisablethatthecommunityshouldappointadrainagecommitteetoplanandsupervisethe
maintenancework.Thiscommitteeshouldliaisewiththemunicipalitytoensurethepromptcollectionofsolidsremovedfromthedrainsandthe
unhindereddischargeofstormwaterintotheprimarydrainagesystemlinkingtheirneighbourhoodwiththereceivingwaterbody.
Onepossibilityisforeachhouseholdtotakeresponsibilityforthesectionofdrainpassingthroughorinfrontofitsplot.However,ifthisistowork
successfully,ithastwoprerequisites:(1)thearrangementmustbeacceptedbythecommunityatlargeand(2)someadditionalprocedureisneededto
monitorandbringpressuretobearonthosewhoneglecttheirresponsibility(Fig.30).Theprocessisillustratedbytheexampleofoneselfhelpupgrading
schemeinBandung,Indonesia,wherehouseownersagreedtoberesponsibleforthedailycleaningofthedrainsinfrontoftheirhouses.Aneighbourhood
coordinatorinspectedthedrainstwiceaweekandrecordedhisfindings.Theresponsetothefriendlyinspectionswasverygood,andtheinspectorassisted
inthemanufactureofsimplescoopsandscraperstofacilitatethecleaningofthesmallculvertsunderthehouseentrances.Soon,itbecameadailyroutine
performedbyeveryselfrespectinghouseholder.
Theotherapproachisforaspecificgroupofresidentstocleanthewholesystem.Thishastheadvantagethattheycanbesuppliedwithanyspecial
equipmentneeded,suchasshovelsandhandcartsorwheelbarrows.Thecompositionofthegroupcouldchangeregularlyonarotatingbasissothat
everyonetakesaturn,underthesupervisionofthestandingdrainagecommittee.Alternatively,theycouldbeafixedsectionofthecommunity,suchasthe
membersofayouthorganization.Whetherthemembershipofthegroupisfixedorrotating,theymusthavesomeincentivetocarryoutthework,orbe
subjecttosomesanctioniftheyfailtodoso.
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Fig.30.Everybodymustcooperateindrainagemaintenance
Poordrainagemaintenancedoesnotalwaysgiverisetoproblemsimmediately.Theaccumulationofsedimentorrubbishinthedrainsandthedeterioration
ofthesystemcanoccurprogressivelyoveraperiodoftime,unnoticeduntilamajoreffortisneededtorestorethesystemtogoodworkingorder.In
additiontoorganizingroutinemaintenance,thedrainagecommitteewouldbewelladvisedtoestablishonedayeachyearwhenthecommunityis
mobilizedtogivethewholesystemathoroughcleaningandoverhaul.Itwouldbemostconvenienttofixthisdayneartheendofthedryseason,when
thereislittlewaterinthedrainssothatcleaningandrepaircanbecarriedouteasily.
Clearly,communityparticipationinmaintenanceneedsproperplanningandorganization.However,ifthemunicipalityneglectsitsresponsibilityfor
maintainingtheprimarydrainagesystem,waterfromtheneighbourhoodandadjoiningareasmaybackupandcauseflooding,causingresidentstolose
heart.Acommunityhasthebestchanceofachievingsuccessfulmaintenancewhenitworksinpartnershipwiththemunicipality.
4.6Selectedreading
APPLETON,B.&CAIRNCROSS,S.Minimumevaluationprocedure(MEP)forwatersupplyandsanitationprojects.UnpublishedWHOdocument,May
1985(InternationalDrinkingWaterSupplyandSanitationDecade,CWSSeries,No.6).Availableonrequestfrom:DivisionofEnvironmentalHealth,
WorldHealthOrganization,1211Geneva27,Switzerland.
CHAUHAN,S.K.Whoputsthewaterinthetaps?CommunityparticipationinThirdWorlddrinkingwater,sanitationandhealth.London,International
InstituteforEnvironmentandDevelopment,1983.
MUIR,J.RuralhealthinnorthernPakistan.Waterlines,5(2):1014(1986).
WHYTE,A.Communityparticipationinwatersupplyandsanitationconcepts,strategiesandmethods.TheHague,InternationalReferenceCentrefor
CommunityWaterSupplyandSanitation,1981(TechnicalPaperNo.17).
WHYTE,A.Guidelinesforplanningcommunityparticipationactivitiesinwatersupplyandsanitationprojects.Geneva,WorldHealthOrganization,1986
(OffsetPublicationNo.96).
VANWIJKSIJBESMA,C.Participationofwomeninwatersupplyandsanitationrolesandrealities.TheHague,InternationalReferenceCentrefor
CommunityWaterSupplyandSanitation,1985(TechnicalPaperNo.22).
Annex1.Glossary
alluvial Depositedbyariver,normallyonafloodplainneartheriver'smouth
baffle Slaborboardpartlyclosingadrainagechanneltodivertorslowdowntheflowofwater
bedding Sandorgravelplacedbeneathadrainagepipeorchannelelementtosupportitevenly
bylaws Lawsmadeatlocallevel
catchmentarea Areaofgroundfromwhichrainwaterwillflowtoasinglepoint
checkwall Wallplacedacrossadrainagechanneltopreventscouring
concentration Timerequiredforrainwaterfromalloveracatchmentareatoflowtoasingle
time point
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crown Thehighestpointinthecrosssectionofapipe
culvert Drainforcarryingwaterunderneatharoadorpathway
curing Treatmentofconcretebykeepingitssurfacedampforthefirstsevendaysafterplacing,toensureitdevelopsitsfullstrength
dissipator Checkwallbuiltoflooseboulderswhichallowswatertopassthroughthebouldersbutslowsitdown,dissipatingitsenergy
element Precastsectionofdrainagechannelliningorpipe
erosion Removalofsoilbytheactionofwater
gabion Bundleorbaleofstonesboundinwireorothermesh
grader Machineusedforroadconstructionandmaintenance,withabladefixedbetweenitsfrontandrearwheels
groundwater Waterlocatedbeneaththegroundsurface
gullypot Basinincorporatedintotheinletsofsomecloseddrainagesystemstocollectsediment,whichmustberemovedfromit
regularly
impermeable Describesamaterialthroughwhichwatercannotpass
insituconcrete Concreteplacedandallowedtosetinthepositionwhereitwillremain
infiltrate (ofafluid)Topassintotheporesorsmallspacesinasolid,e.g.,soil
infrastructure Permanentfacilitiesforthecommonuseofacommunity
invert Thelowestpointinthecrosssectionofapipe
landfill Earthorrubblespreadoverthegroundtoraisethelevel
manhole Undergroundchamberofbrickorconcrete,permittingentrytocloseddrainsandsewers
masonry Constructionofbrickorstonesheldtogetherwithmortar
mortar Mixtureofcement,sandandwater
municipality Organoflocalgovernmentinacityorurbandistrict
parasite Anorganismthatlivesonorinanotherlivingorganismanddrawsnourishmentfromit
pantograph Instrumentformechanicalcopyingofdrawingsorplansonthesameoradifferentscale
planimeter Instrumentformeasuringareasonpaper
polder Lowlyingareaoflandprotectedfromfloodingbyanembankment
primarydrainagesystem Systemoflargedrains,eachservingawideareaofacity
receivingwaterbody Bodyofwaterintowhichwaterflowsfromadrainagesystem
refuse Rubbish,garbage
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returnperiod Averageintervalbetweenstormsorfloodsofagivenseverity
runoff Waterfromrainfall,flowingoverthegroundandintodrainsandstreams
runoff Proportionofrainwaterthatflowsoverthegroundandisthuslikelytoenter
coefficient adrainagesystem
scouring Washingawayofsoil(erosion)around,beneathorinthebedofadrain
secondarydrainage Networkofsmalldrainswithinaneighbourhoodservingasmallcatchmentareaanddischargingintotheprimarydrainage
system system
selfcleansingspeedof Speedofflowinadrainorsewersufficienttopreventtheaccumulationofsediment
flow
sewage Humanexcreteandwastewater,flushedalongasewer
sewer Apipecontainingwastewaterorsewage
slope Gradientinclinationtothehorizontal
sludge Mixtureofsolidsandwaterdepositedonthebottomofdrains,septictanks,etc.
sluicegate Structurethatcanbeopenedorclosedtocontrolthepassageofwater
stormwater Waterfromrainfallflowinginadrainorsewer
topography Shapeofthegroundsurface,includingthepositionofnaturalandmanmadefeatures
trapezoidal Describesadrainagechannelwithslopingsidesandaflatbottom
turnout Draintakingwaterawayfromthesideofaroad
weephole Smallholeinadrainagechannelliningthroughwhichwatercanflow,torelievegroundwaterpressure
Annex2.Designcalculations
Basicconcepts
Thebasicconceptsofreturnperiodandrunoffcoefficientareexplainedinsection2.2.Twootherimportantconceptsareinvolvedindrainagedesign
calculations:rainfallintensityandconcentrationtime.
Rainfallisnormallymeasuredinmillimetres1mmofrainfallonaflatareaofland,withnoinfiltrationintotheground,evaporationintotheair,orrunoff
todrainage,wouldfloodtheareatoadepthof1mm.Rainfallintensityisameasureoftherateatwhichrainisfalling,andisusuallyexpressedin
mm/hour.
Theintensityofrainfallvariesduringeachstorm,reachingapeakvaluemuchgreaterthantheaverageforthewholestorm.Veryhighratesofrainfallcan
comeinburstslastingafewminutes,butnotlongenoughtocausefloodingorseriouserosion.Animportantquestionthereforeistheperiodoftimeover
whichrainfallistobecalculated.Foradurationofafewminutes,veryhighintensitieswouldbereachedadraindesignedonthisbasiswouldbe
unnecessarilylargeandexpensive.However,iftherainfallintensityistakenastheaveragefortheentiredurationofthestorm,thiswouldgivetoolowa
figure,anddrainsdesignedusingitwouldbeoverloadedformuchofthetime.Thewayinwhichrainfallintensityisrelatedtodurationandreturnperiodis
illustratedbyFig.A2.1,whichisbasedonrecordsforthecityofCebu,Philippines.(Note:thecurvesinFig.A2.1cannotbeusedinothercities,because
rainfallconditionsvarygreatlyindifferentpartsoftheworld.)
Thecorrectdurationtouseindesigningadrainisthe"concentrationtime"ofthecatchmentareawhichitserves.Thatis,theamountoftimerequiredfor
waterfallingonthemostfarflungpointinthecatchmentareatorunovertheground,intothedrainagesystem,anddownstreamtothedrainthatistobe
designed.Smallercatchmentareashaveshorterconcentrationtimes.Waterflowsfasterdownrelativelysteepslopes,sothatconcentrationtimesarealso
shorterinhillyareas.
However,veryshortburstsofrainfalllastinglessthan15minutesareunlikelytodoseriousdamage.Thus,areasonableruleofthumbforsmallcatchment
areas(lessthan5ha)istouseaconcentrationtimeof15minutes.Whereaveragelandslopesaregreaterthan0.5%,thistimecanbeusedforareasupto
20ha.Inflatterareas,slightlylongerconcentrationtimescanbeusedforareasover4ha.Areasonableapproximationwouldbetoaddoneminuteforeach
extrahectareupto20ha.Forlargercatchmentareas,itisadvisabletoconsultanengineer.
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Fig.A2.1.RainfallintensitydurationgraphforCebu,Philippines
Calculatingstormwaterflow
Inordertodesignadrainitisfirstnecessarytocalculatethemaximumstormwaterflowthatitwillberequiredtocarry.Thisinvolvesthefollowingsteps.
(a)Decideontheappropriatereturnperiodandconcentrationtime.
(b)Findthemaximumrainfallintensityforthoseconditions(1mm/h).
(c)Calculatethecatchmentareaservedbythedrain(Aha).
(d)Estimatetherunoffcoefficientforthatcatchment(C).
(e)FromI,AandC,calculatethepeakflowthemaximumquantityofwatertobedrainedpersecond.
Thesestepsarediscussedbelow.
(a)Returnperiodandconcentrationtime.Thechoiceoftheseisdescribedinsection2.2andonpages7374,respectively.
(b)Rainfallintensity.Ideally,thisshouldbefoundfromanintensitydurationgraphofthesameformasFig.A2.1.However,agraphcompiled
foronecityshouldnotbeusedforanothercitywithoutprofessionaladvice.Rainfalldatacanbeobtainedfromthedepartmentofhydrologyor
waterresources.Ifintensitydurationdataarenotavailable,anestimatecanbemadeusingthemaximumdailyrainfallfortheappropriate
returnperiod.Ineachclimaticzone,maximumrainfallin15minutesisafairlyconstantpercentageofthemaximumdailytotaltypically
between10%and40%.
(c)Catchmentarea.Thisismostconvenientlyestimatedfromamap.Firsttheedgesofthecatchmentareaaredrawn.Someinvestigationin
thefieldmaybeneededtoascertainthefullextentoftheareafromwhichsurfacewaterwillruntothedrainbeingdesigned.Theareaonthe
mapcanthenbemeasuredwithaplanimeter,orestimatedbydividingitintosquares.Squareswhosesidesareequivalentto100monthemap
willeachhaveanareaof1ha.Forsmallerareas,smallersquarescanbeused.Each10x10msquarewillhaveanareaof0.01ha.
(d)Runoffcoefficient.Asindicatedpreviously,therunoffcoefficientdependsonsoilconditions,terrainandlanduse.Thefirststepisto
determinetherunoffcoefficient(Cu)fortheuncoveredareas,thatis,fortheareaswhicharenotpavedorcoveredbybuildings.ValuesofCu
aregiveninTableA2.1.Thenanestimatemustbemadeofthepercentage(P)ofthetotalcatchmentareathatiscoveredbyimpermeable
pavementsortheroofsofbuildings.Thiscouldbedonefromanaerialphotograph,buttheprocessisverylaborious.Areasonableestimate
canbemadefromthepopulationdensityusingTableA2.2.Thentheoverallrunoffcoefficientforthecatchmentarea(C)canbederivedusing
Fig.A2.2.
(e)Peakflow.Forsmallcatchments,thisisbestcalculatedusingthe"rationalmethod",expressedbytheformula:
Q=2.78CIA
TableA2.1.ValuesofCu.therunoffcoefficientforareasnotpavedorcoveredwithbuildings
I.Humidregions
Soilpermeability
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Medium:410% 0.85 0.65 0.45 0.30
II.Semiaridregions
Soilpermeability
aFromWATKINS,L.H.aFIDDES,D.Highwayandurbanhydrologyinthetropics.London,PentechPress,1984.
bIncaseofdoubt,partIcanbeusedforthoseregionsoftheworldshadedblackinFig.I,andpartIIfortheremainder.
TableA2.2.Typicalvaluesofthepercentageofimpermeablepavedandcoveredareasinlowincomeurbansettlements(P)
Populationdensity(residents/ha) P(%)
050 012
100 25
200 50
300 75
>400 100
Fig.A2.2.Diagramforderivingtherunoffcoefficient(C)fromthecoefficientfortheunpavedarea(Cu)andthepercentageofpavedarea(P)
where
Q=flow(1/s)
C=runoffcoefficient
I=rainfallintensity(mm/h)
A=catchmentarea(ha).
Forcatchmentareaslargerthanabout5ha,othercalculationmethodsaremoreaccurate,buttheytendtoberathermorecomplex.
Example
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CalculatetheflowcapacityneededforadraininaflatpartofCebu,Philippines,withaclaysoil.Thedrainservesacatchmentareaof3hainhabitedby
600people.
(a)Theareaisflat,sothereisnodangeroferosion.Arelativelyshortreturnperiod(say,3years)isthereforesuitable.Theareaislessthan4
ha,soconcentrationtimecanbetakenas15min.
(b)UsingFig.A2.1,forareturnperiodof3yearsandadurationof15min.therainfallintensity1=107mm/ha.
(c)CatchmentareaA=3ha.
(d)ThePhilippinesisinahumidregion.UsingTableA2.1,foraflat,clayterrain,Cu=0.55.
Populationdensity=600/3=200residents/ha.
UsingTableA2.2,percentagepavedareaP=50.HenceusingFig.A2.2,therunoffcoefficientC=0.77.
(e)Finally,tocalculatetheflow:
Q =2.78CIA
=2.78x0.77x107x3
=6871/s
Calculatingdrainsize
Oncetheflowhasbeendetermined,itispossibletoderivetherequireddimensionsofthedraincrosssection.EngineersoftendothisusingtheManning
formula:
where
Q=flowinthedrain(m3/s)
A=areaofthechannelcrosssection(m2)
R=the"hydraulicradius"ofthedraincrosssection(m)tocalculatethis,dividethecrosssectionalareabythe"wettedperimeter",thatis,the
lengthoftheperimeterofthechannelcrosssectionwhichisincontactwiththewater,notcountingthewatersurface
S=slopeofthedrainfora1%slope,S=0.01
n=aconstantthatdependsontheroughnessofthechannelliningtypicalvaluesofnare:
n=0.015forasmoothconcreteorplasteredbrickmasonry
n=0.025forstraightunlinedchannelsfreeofvegetation
n=0.035forunlinedchannelswithshortgrassandfewweeds.
However,manyreaderswillfinditsimplertouseFig.A2.3.Thisisadesignchartforachannelwiththetrapezoidalcrosssectionshownintheinset,
whichhasnoliningorvegetation(n=0.025).ThechanneldepthDobtainedfromFig.A2.3canbeusedtoderivethedimensionsofchannelsandpipes
withothershapesandothertypesoflining.Theprocedurethenisasfollows:
Fig.A2.3.Designchartforsmalldrainswithatrapezoidalcrosssectionandnoliningorvegetation
(a)Findthemaximumflowin1/s,asdescribedonpages7478.
(b)Findtheslopeofthesectiontobedesignedin%(1%meansaverticaldropof1minevery100mofdrain).
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(c)UseFig.A2.3tofindthevalueofDforthisslopeandflow.
(d)Ifthedrainisnotatrapezoidalchannel,multiplyDbythefactorgiveninFig.A2.4toderivethedimensionsfortheappropriateshapeof
crosssection.IfthedraincrosssectiondoesnotcorrespondexactlytoanyoftheshapesshowninFig.A2.4,choosethenearestequivalentand
followthemethodtofindthesizerequiredforthestandardcrosssection.Thenplanforthedimensionsofthedraintohavethesamecross
sectionalareaasthestandardcrosssectiondesign.
(e)Ifthedrainistohaveasmoothlining,orifthesidesandbottomwillbecoveredwithshortgrass,thedimensionswillneedfurther
adjustment:
forsmoothconcreteorplasteredbrickmasonrylining,multiplythedimensionsby0.83(i.e.,reduceby17%)
Fig.A2.4.Calculatingthedimensionsofvarioustypesofdrain,usingvaluesofchanneldepth(D)fromFig.A2.3
forunlinedchannelswithshortgrassandfewweeds,multiplythedimensionsby1.13(i.e.,increaseby13%),
forasmoothearthorunplasteredmasonrylining,noadjustmentisneeded.
(f)Finally,calculatetheaveragespeedofflowofthewaterwhenthedrainisrunningfull.Iftheflowissorapidthatitwouldcauseerosionof
anunlinedchannel,thechannelshouldbelined,oratleaststabilizedwithgrass.Step(e)aboveshouldthenberepeatedforalinedorgrassed
channel.Ontheotherhand,toolowaspeedwillfailtoachieveselfcleansingandsoallowsedimenttoaccumulate.Ifpossible,aspeedofat
least0.5m/sshouldbeachievedinalldrainswhenflowingfull.Aspeedof1.0m/swouldbebetterstill.
Checkingthespeedofflow
Oncethedimensionsofadrainhavebeenchosen,thecrosssectionalareacanbecalculatedfromthem.Theaveragespeedofflowcanbefoundfromthe
formula:
V=10Q/A
where
V=flowspeedinm/s
Q=flowinl/s
A=crosssectionalareaincm2.
IfthisspeedisfoundtobegreaterthanthecorrespondingvalueinTableA2.3,thereisadangerofseriouserosionunlessthedrainislinedorprovidedwith
checkwalls(seesection2.3).TableA2.3alsogivesmaximumpermissiblespeedsofflowinchannelswhosesidesandbasearestabilizedbyafirmcoverof
grass.
TableA2.3.Permissibleflowspeedstopreventerosioninunlineddrainagechannels'
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Finesand 0.05 0.4
Sandyloam 0.7
Siltyloam 0.8
Ordinaryfirmloam 1.0
Volcanicash 1.0
Stiffclay 1.5
Alluvialsilt 1.5
Shalesandhardpans 1.8
Finegravel 5 1.5
Coarsegravel 10 1.8
Cobblesandshingles 40 2.4
Grasscover,erodiblesoils 1.2
Grasscover,stablesoils 1.8
Example
Designasquareconcretechanneltodrainapeakflowof6871/S.Thechannelbedlevelfalls40cmalonga50mlength.
(a)FlowQ=687l/s
(b)Slope=(0.4x100)/50=0.8%
(c)Ontheleftsideofthedesignchart(Fig.A2.3),findthe0.8%slope,andonthebottomofthechartfindtheapproximatepoint
correspondingto6871/s(veryslightlytotheleftofthe700l/spoint).Findwherethecorrespondinghorizontalandverticallinescrossthe
pointismarkedinFig.A2.3.ThispointisroughlyhalfwaybetweenthetwoslopinglinesforD=40cmandD=50cmrespectively.By
interpolation,takeD=45cm.
(d)UsingFig.A2.4(c),itcanbeseenthatthisvaluemustbeincreasedby56%togivethewidthofasquarechannel:
45x1.56=70cm
(e)Sincetheliningisofconcrete,thewidthcanbeadjustedtoallowforthereducedfrictionfromthesmoothchannelsides.Thedimensions
canbereducedby17%:
70x0.83=58cm
Roundinguptheresulttoaconvenientvalue,thedraincanbe60cmdeepand60cmwide.
(f)Thischannelwillhaveacrosssectionalareaof3600cm2.ThespeedofflowVwillthereforebe
V=(10x687)/3600=1.9m/s
Thisspeedofflowwouldcauseerosioninalmostanyunlineddrain,butnotinawellbuiltconcretechannel.Aspeedof1.9m/sismorethan
enoughforselfcleansingsiltdepositionwillnotbeaprobleminthisdrain.
Annex3.Termsofreferenceforconsultants
Manydrainageschemesaredesignedbyconsultingengineers.However,thesearenotusuallyforlowincomecommunities.Thereisthereforeadanger
thatconsultingengineersmaydesigndrainagesystemsforlowincomeareaswhichareinappropriateorunaffordableunlessthetermsofreferencefortheir
workaredraftedtomakeitveryclearwhatsortofsolutionisdesired.Amunicipalitythathasalreadyobtainedfundsfortheconstructionofadrainage
systemwillgenerallyhaveafairlyclearideaofitsrequirements,andwillusuallyfindthatconsultants'workismostsatisfactorywhentheyarecontracted
toperformclearlyspecifieddesigntaskswithintheframeworkofthoseneeds.
However,nationalandinternationalfundingagenciesoftenrequirethat,beforetheyagreetopayfortheconstructionofadrainagesystem,itshouldbethe
subjectofafeasibilitystudybyareputablefirmofconsultingengineers.Insuchacasethefundingagencywillhaveitsownrequirementsandwillwishto
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participateindraftingthetermsofreferenceforthefeasibilitystudy.Nevertheless,themunicipalityorthecommunity'srepresentativescansuggestclauses
inthetermsofreferencetoensurethat:
thefullbenefitsoftheproposeddrainageschemearedemonstrated
thestudyisconductedinsuchawayastoarriveatthemostcosteffectivesolution
anaccurateassessmentismadeasearlyaspossibleoftheresourcesthatwillberequiredformaintenanceofthesystem
constructionofthemosturgentlyneededpartsofthesystemisnotdelayedanymorethannecessarybythelengthyprocessofproject
preparation,approvalanddesignand
thecommunityisinvolvedinkeydecisions.
Thesefactorsarediscussedinturn.
Benefits
Thehealthconsequencesofinadequatedrainage,describedinsection1.2,indicatethehealthbenefitswhichimproveddrainagecanbestow.Thesecanbe
furtherdocumentedbytheconsultants,usingexistinghealthstatisticsortheresultsofanycommunityhealthsurveysthathavebeencarriedout.
Inadditiontothehealthbenefits,themostsignificanteconomicbenefitswillstemfromthepreventionofdamagebyfloodorerosionto:
publicinfrastructure,particularlyroads
privateproperty,especiallyhouses,
domesticfurnitureandothermovableproperty.
Amoneyvaluecanbeputonthesebenefits.Privatepropertyinalowincomecommunitycanbevaluedatagivenpercentageoftheminimumwage.
Otherbenefitscaninclude:
enhancementoflandvalue,
reducedtrafficdelays,
reducedlossesofincome,rent,salesandproduction,
reducedcleanupandmaintenancecosts,
reducedemergencyreliefcosts,
greatersenseofsecurity,
improvedaestheticenvironment,and
moreopportunitiesforrecreation.
Costeffectiveness
Thetechnicaloptionsoutlinedinsection2indicatethatdrainagesystemsneednotbeexpensive.Thedesigncriteriaexplainedtherecanbevariedtogive
optionswithdifferentcostsandbenefits,andthebestoptionchosen.Thisappliesparticularlytothefollowingchoices:
returnperiod(section2.2),
openorcloseddrains(section2.5),
channellining(section2.6).
Thetermsofreferenceforafeasibilitystudyshouldrequireananalysisofthecostsandbenefitsofthepossibleoptions,sothatthesedecisionsarenot
takenarbitrarily.
Itisdifficulttocalculateexactlyhowthemanybenefitsofdrainagewillbealteredbychangesindesigncriteriatoallowoccasionalshallowflooding.The
problemcanbesimplifiedbyassumingthatthedamagecausedbyafloodisproportionaltoa"damageindex"D:
D=FxQxT
where
F=frequencyofoccurrenceoftheflood(say,numberoftimesina10yearperiod)
Q=quantityofwaterthatcannotbedrainedawayimmediately(mmofrainfall)
T=timeforwhichthefloodlasts(hours).
TheestimatedcostCofeachoptioncanbecomparedwiththevalueofDtofindtheoptionwiththehighestratioofC:D.
Maintenancerequirements
Thesearediscussedinsection3.Atypicalvaluefortheannualcostofmaintenancewouldbeabout8%oftheconstructioncostofthesystem.The
feasibilitystudyshouldmakeamoreaccurateestimate,includinganassessmentofthehumanresourcesandequipmentthatwillbeneeded.
Urgentconstruction
Thetermsofreferencecanauthorizetheconsultantstoproceedwithdetaileddesignofthemosturgentlyneededcomponentsofthesystem(say,toavalue
of10%or20%ofthetotalestimatedvalueofthesystem)oncethechoiceofsolutionhasbeenagreed,butwithouttheneedforanewcontractornew
approvalbythefundingagency.
Communityinvolvement
Itisconventionalinanyconsultancyagreementtostipulatestagesatwhichtheclient'sopinionorapprovalistobesought.Theclientinthiscasewill
usuallybethemunicipality.Thereisnoreasonwhythecommunityshouldnotbeinvolvedinthisprocess.Asfarasthetermsofreferenceareconcerned,
responsibilityforensuringthatthecommunityparticipatesindecisionmakingcouldbeassignedtotheclientortheconsultant.Thelattercouldeither
followlineslaiddownbytheclientorbeaskedtoproposeaprocedureforcommunityparticipationwhenbiddingforthecontract.
Annex4.Resourcesfortheorientationofthedrainagecommittee
Section4,oncommunityparticipation,providesguidanceontheestablishmentandfunctionsofthedrainagecommittee.Wheresuchacommitteeis
establishedthemembersshouldgathertoexchangeinformationaboutthelocaldrainagesituation.Theyshouldalsoattempttoassimilategeneral
informationaboutcommonmethodsandmaterialsforsolvingdrainageproblems.Thiswillfacilitateagreementonwhatneedstobedoneandinwhat
sequence.Thebooksanddocumentslistedbelowareusefulsourcesofgeneralinformationaboutdrainageandcommunityparticipationthatarelikelyto
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bereadilyavailablefromlibrariesorothersourcesofUnitedNationspublications.Drainagecommitteesmayalsorequestsuchinformationfromnational
and/orlocalpublicworksorhealthauthorities.TheunpublishedWHOdocumentslistedherecanbeobtainedfromDivisionofEnvironmentalHealth,
WorldHealthOrganization1211Geneva27,SwitzerlandunpublishedHabitatdocumentsareavailablefromtheUnitedNationsCentreforHuman
Settlements,Nairobi,Kenya.
Usefulbooksanddocuments
CAIRNCROSS,S.&FEACHEM,R.G.Environmentalhealthengineeringinthetropics:anintroductorytext.Chichester,JohnWiley&Sons,1983.
OKUN,D.A.&PONGHTS,G.Communitywastewatercollectionanddisposal.Geneva,WorldHealthOrganization,1975.
WHYTE,A.Guidelinesforplanningcommunityparticipationactivitiesinwatersupplyandsanitationprojects.Geneva,WorldHealthOrganization,1986
(WHOOffsetPublicationNo.96).
Improvingenvironmentalhealthconditionsinlowincomesettlements:acommunitybasedapproachtoidentifyingneedsandpriorities.Geneva,World
HealthOrganization,1987(OffsetPublicationNo.100).
Catalogueofexternalsupport,3rded.UnpublishedWHOdocument,
December1985(InternationalDrinkingWaterSupplyandSanitationDecade,CWSSeries,No.7).
Watersupplyandsanitationfordevelopingcountries.Aninternationalsourcelistofaudiovisualmaterials.UnpublishedWHOdocument,April1987
(InternationalDrinkingWaterSupplyandSanitationDecade,CWSSeries,No.8).
Environmentalaspectsofwatermanagementinmetropolitanareasofdevelopingcountries.Unpublisheddocument,UnitedNationsCentreforHuman
Settlements(Habitat),Nairobi,1984.
Deliveryofbasicinfrastructuretolowincomesettlements:issuesandoptions.Unpublisheddocument,UnitedNationsCentreforHumanSettlements
(Habitat),Nairobi,1986.
Communityparticipationinlowcostsanitation.Trainingmodule.Unpublisheddocument,UnitedNationsCentreforHumanSettlements(Habitat),
Nairobi,1986.
Communityparticipationandlowcostdrainage.Trainingmodule.Unpublisheddocument,UnitedNationsCentreforHumanSettlements(Habitat),
Nairobi,1986.
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