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Abstract
Autonomyhasbeenaworkablemethodwhendealingwithintrastateconflictsinthe
modernworld.Whilesomeautonomiessucceed,othersfailed.Theessayfirstlydefinesthe
conceptandroleofautonomy,withvariousinterpretationofscholars.Themainmissionof
theessayistodiscusstheadvantagesanddisadvantagesofautonomy,throughtwocase
studieswhichareBosniaWarandAutonomyofCrimea.Thoughbuildingautonomycould
temporarilyeasethetensionandofferstheopportunitiesforfurthernegotiation,itisnot
easytoforecastthefutureofautonomy.Inotherwords,dangerscouldunderlythefaceof
peace.Theessayproposessomekeyissuesthatneedtobeexaminedwhenestablishingan
autonomyintheend,andconcludesthatautonomyshouldbetreatedasthestartofanew
process,butnotmerelyasolutionofconflicts.
Introduction
FromBosniatoPalestine,fromSudantoIndonesia,secessionisminvariablybringabout
mercilessandbloodyconflicts.Nowadaysmostintrastateconflictsareovertheterritorial
organizationorpartitionofthestate.(DarbyandGinty,2008,p.242)Disputesamongthe
centralgovernmentandindependencerequiringminorities,sometimesinvolvinganother
foreigncountrydonotalwaysentailviolenceandcompletesecession.Asmanypolitical
scientistssuggest,autonomy,theflexiblesolutiontointernalconflicts,couldbeaworkable
andpeacefulcompromise.(Lapidoth,1997)
Theessaywilldiscusstheadvantagesanddisadvantagesofautonomy,byanalyzingtwo
casestudies:internalwarsofBosniaandtherecentdisputesamongCrimea,Ukraineand
Russia.Itarguesthatalthoughsettingupanautonomyisaworkableandeffectivemethod
toceaseviolenceandseekforfurtherdevelopmentintheshortterm;itis,meanwhile,a
dangerousandriskyexistencewhichmightacceleratesecessioninthelongrun.Itshouldbe
implementedcarefully,asthebeginningofanewprocess.Theconclusionsuggestsseveral
issuesthatmayincreasetheprospectsofautonomy.
Thefirstpartwillgivethedefinitionandconceptionsofautonomyinbothphilosophyand
politicalrange,anddemonstratesthemultiplereasonsthatleadtoarequestforautonomy.
Themostsalientreasonistheethnictension,whichincludesminoritiesandindigenous
peoplethathaveaffiliatewithforeigncountries.Otherreasonsofeconomicstructureor
rejectofinternationalizationalsocontributetothedemand.
Thesecondpartdiscussestheadvantagesanddisadvantagesofautonomy,throughthecase
studyofinternalwarsinBosniafrom1992.Thebloodywarinvolvedthreecountries,
experiencedethniccleansingandaltogether97,000peopledied.Itlastedforthreeyearsand
finallyendedupwiththeDaytonPeaceAgreementandarelativelysuccessfulautonomyof
RepublikaSrpska.TheRepublikaSrpskausedtobeamodelofautonomyafterwar,but
recentlyproblemsthatwereunderminedbytheoddpoliticalstructurejustemerge.
ThethirdpartisthecasestudyofthefailedautonomyCrimeainUkraine,andwherebythe
discussionofdisadvantagesofautonomy.CrimeahasbeentheautonomyofUkrainefor
halfacentury,butthepeopletherekeepastrongaffectiontowardRussiaFederation,and
Russiaalsohasitsselfinterest.Theautonomyislikeatimebomb,thatpromotesthe
secessionandbringsaboutthedominoeffectofindependentprotestsinUkraine.
Finally,theconclusionsuggeststhatpoliticiansandscholarsshouldnottakeautonomyas
merelyasolutionofconflicts,butmorethestartofatoughprocessofstatebuilding.
Itproposesseveralkeyissuesthatneedfurtherexaminationinbuildingamoredependable
autonomousentity.Althougheachautonomydiffers,certainfactorsshouldbecountedon
intheestablishment.
Part1TheConceptandRolesofAutonomy
1.1TheConceptofAutonomy
Thewordautonomy,etymologically,derivesfromtwoGreekwords:auto,whichmeans
self,andnomos,meaninglaworrule.Thus,theoriginalmeaningofthewordwastheright
tomakeonesownlawsandrules.(Taylor,2013)Today,theworddevelopsbroader
conceptions,inphilosophyandethicaltheory,aswellaspoliticalscienceandinternational
relations.
Fromphilosophyviews,autonomyisanagentwhichiscapableofchoosingwhattodo,
whetherhewilldoorrefrain.(DownieandTelfer,1971)Kantgavethemosttraditionaland
significantdefinitionthat,autonomywasarationalagentwiththecapacityforrationality
thatiscapableofestablishingreasonsforactingindependently.(LeBar,2005)Lateron
manyphilosophersdebateontheKantianinterpretation.Apartfromjusticeandfreedom,
Rawlsfocusesmoreonthecollectivechoiceandconditionsoftheworstgroupofpeople.
(Rawls,2005)StephenDarwallquestionsontheheteronomouschoicesofautonomy.
(Darwall,1976)
Asforpoliticalscience,althoughthereisindividualautonomy,itistakenasinstitutionalor
organizationalautonomy,forthatautonomyofthestateorthenationisthewombof
individualautonomyinasociety.(Lane,1981)IntherecenteditionofOxfordConcise
DictionaryofPolitics,definestheconceptasselfgovernment.Itdescribestherelationship
betweenindividualautonomyandinstitutionalautonomycomplicatedweneedto
distinguishcollectiveselfgovernmentofagroup,andtheselfdirectionofanindividual
memberofthatgroup.(OxfordConciseDictionaryofPolitics,2009)TheIsraelpolitical
scholarRothLapidothgaveamoreprecisedefinitionthat,autonomymeanstheorganic
independence,ortheconditionofaphenomenonconformingonlytoitsownlawsandnot
beingsubjecttohigherrules.(Lapidoth,1997)
Tosumup,autonomyhastwoaspects:individualandinstitutional.Individualautonomyisa
personwhocanactaccordingtohisowndirectionandfreedom;institutionalautonomyisan
entitythatcouldmakeitsownlaws,regulateitsownaffairs,andithasdifferentdegreesof
selfgovernance.Inthisessay,autonomyisseenasaninstitutionalone.
1.2TheRoleofAutonomyandReasonsofConflicts
Todaythemostinternalconflictsareovertheterritorialorganizationorpartitionofthe
state.Thehistory,legends,selfrule,jurisdiction,nationalsecurityandresourcesgivethe
landpoliticalandemotionalmeanings.(Ghai,2008)
Hence,autonomyhasitsuniquecharacteristicswhenmanagingtheterritorialconflicts.
First,itbringsnationstogetherinregionalassociationsandformsalargerpower,asthe
EuropeanUnion.Second,itmeetstherequirementsofapartythataskingforindependence
whilekeepsthestateintegrated,forexample,theComarcaKunaYalaAutonomyin
Panama.
Noteverymanofafreemindwouldaskforindependence,norgroupsunlessthereare
extremetensions.Manyreasonscontributetothedisputesandconflicts.Themostsalient
oneistheethnictension,whichincludesethnicminorities,indigenouspeopleandpeopleof
selfdetermination.
Accordingtotheexpertofinternationallaw,FrancescoCapotorti,aminorityisagroup
whichisnumericallyinferiortotherestofthepopulationofaStateandinanondominant
position,whosememberspossessethnic,religiousorlinguisticcharacteristicswhichdiffer
fromthoseoftherestofthepopulationandwho,ifonlyimplicitly,maintainasenseof
solidaritydirectedtowardspreservingtheirculture,traditions,religionor
language.(Lapidoth,1997)Althoughtherightsofminoritieswereputmoreemphasisin
manycountriesaftertheWorldWar,notallofthemareprotected,andcertainMinorities
stillsufferfromdiscrimination.
Anothersourceofsupportforautonomyistheriseofawarenesstoprotectindigenous
people.TheWorldHealthOrganizationhasdevelopedamodernunderstandingofthisterm
basedonthefollowing:selfidentificationasindigenouspeoplesattheindividualleveland
acceptedbythecommunityastheirmember;historicalcontinuitywithprecolonialand/or
presettlersocieties;astronglinktoterritoriesandsurroundingnaturalresources;distinct
social,economicorpoliticalsystems;distinctlanguage,cultureandbeliefs;formnon
dominantgroupsofsociety;resolvetomaintainandreproducetheirancestralenvironments
andsystemsasdistinctivepeoplesandcommunities.(TheWHO,2007)Sometimesthese
groupsdonottakethemselvesasminorities,forthattheirancestorsoriginallyinhabitedin
thelandwherethelatterbecomesthemajority.Therefore,theyclaimtherightsoftheir
ancestors landandemphasizetheirrightsforallthetraditionalsystem,resources,andthe
wayoflife.(Lapidoth,1997)
Thethirdimportantbutstillvaguecauseisthegrouppeopleofselfdetermination.Itis
enigmaticbecausethegroupoftenhasdisputeswhenchoosingtheirpreferredpolitical
system,forexample,someindigenouspeoplelivinginQuebecpreventthesecessionfrom
Canada.
Apartfromthethreemostsignificantreasonsofethnictensions,othersituationsalsocallfor
thebuildofautonomy.OneofsignificantexamplesistheautonomyHongKongandMacau
inChina.ThetwocitiesweregivenbackfromtheUnitedKingdomandPortugalrelatively,
inatotallydifferenteconomicsystemfrommainlandChina.GhaitooktheGreenlandand
Faroeastheotherexamples.ThetworegionsrejectedtojoinintotheEUwhileDenmark
wasnegotiating.Intherapidgrowthofinternationalization,noteachregioniswillingto
participateintothetrend.(Ghai,2008)
Toconclude,theincreasingconsciousnessofethnicprotectionandfreedomengendersthe
fightforindependence.Autonomythusactstheroleofmediationthatsatisfiesthose
demandswhilepreservetheintactofthewholestate.
Part2CaseStudy:BosniaandHerzegovinaFederationandtheRepublikaSrpska
2.1TheOverviewofBosniaWar
BosniaandHerzegovinaisapieceofvitallandintheBalkans,whereisfullofdisputesand
strugglesforalongtimeonthehistory.Thedestinyofthecountryistoplaythedifficult
roleofthemiddleareabetweenCatholicandOrthodoxcommunitiesaswellasbetweenthe
MuslimandChristianWorld.(Stipcevic,1998)Multiculturalandmultinationalidentities
arewellperformedinthiscountry.AsafederationinYugoslaviafrom1918to1941,
BosniaandHerzegovinafoughtandannouncedtheindependenceaftertheYugoslavia
brokedown,onFebruary1992.Atthattime,thecomponentsofthisnewmultinationalstate
were:MuslimBosniaks44%,OrthodoxSerbs31%andCatholicCroats17%.However,the
BosnianSerbsrejectedthereferendumandestablishedtheirownrepublic.Supportedbythe
SerbiangovernmentandformerYugoslavia,theBosnianSerbsopenedfireinBosniaand
HerzegovinainMarchthesameyear,inordertosecuretheirSerbianland.Soon,thewar
spreadtothewholecountry,accompaniedwiththeethniccleansingoftheMuslimBosniak
andCroatpeople,andthentheCroatiatookpartintothewar,toprotecttheirpeople.About
100thousandpeoplediedinthewar,whichisregardedasthemostfierceandcrucialwarin
EuropeafterWorldWarII.(Malcolm,1994)
TheSrebrenicaMassacrecausedover8000peoplekilledamongwhichmostwomenwere
rapedandkilled,andICTY(InternationalCriminalTribunalfortheformerYugoslavia)later
judgedthiseventasagenocide.
Aftertwoyears chaosandbloodywar,theUnitedNationsrequestedtheNATO(TheNorth
AtlanticTreatyOrganization)toseekfornegotiation.TheNATOgavewarnbyshotdown
fourSerbaircraftsandthenwastotallyinvolvedintothewar.(Nuhanovic,2007)
2.2TheDaytonAccord
In1995,alongwiththeinitiativetookbyBosniakCroatallianceontheland,theArmyof
RepublikaSrpska(VRS)committedseveralcasesofmassacre:theTuzlamassacreon25
May,theSrebrenicamassacreandthesecondMarkalemassacreon28August.Onthis
account,theNATOwidespreadairstrikesagainstSerbsimmediately,andinthemeantime,
draftedthebasicprinciplesofthepeaceagreement.A60dayceasefirecameintoeffect,
andthepeacetalkamongthewarringpartiestookplaceinDayton,OhioinNovember.The
AgreementwasfinallysignedinDecember1995inParis.
TheDaytonAccordsettlesmanykeyissues,includesmilitaryaspects,regionalstabilization,
interentityboundaryline,elections,constitution,arbitration,humanrights,refugees,
nationalmonuments,civilianimplementation,andinternationalpolicetaskforce,underthe
basicframeworkofthenewlybuilttwoautonomies:theFederationofBosniaand
Herzegovina,andtheRepublikaSrpska.(TheDaytonPeaceAccordsonBosnia,1995)
TheAccordpreservedBosniaasasinglestatemadeupoftwoterritorialparts,theBosniak
Croatfederation51%,andtheBosnianSerbRepublic49%,withSarajevoremainingasthe
undividedcapitalcity.(Clinton,2013)
2.3AdvantagesandDisadvantagesofAutonomy,andTheParadoxofBosnia
Undoubtedly,thepostDaytonBosniahasbeenmuchbetterthaninitspreviouschaos
period.DailylifeinBosniaishighlyimproved,althoughethnicdivisionsremaininnearly
alllevelsofsociety,peoplenolongertofearaboutpersonalsafety.(DaalderandFroman,
1999)Theadvantagesofautonomiesaresignificant.
First,itstoppedthebloodywarandcreatedthepeacefullifereturntonormalatleaston
thesurface.(McMahonandWestern,2009)JointinstitutionscreatedattheDaytonAccord
begantofunctionsandtriedtobridgethedivisionsleftafterthewar.EventheBosnian
presidencywasmoderatingandattemptedtoseekmorecooperation.(DaalderandFroman,
1999)Withthehelpofinternationalcommunities,thepoliticalandeconomicdevelopment
werecarriedthroughinanorderlyway.
Second,thebuildingofautonomiesguaranteestherightsofminorities,asdiscussedinthe
firstpart,fulfillingthedemandofselfprotectionandselfgovernance.Asoneofthecruel
battlesduringthecollapseoftheformerYugoslavia,thegoalofBosniaWarlaunchedby
BosnianSerbswastoavoidbeingminoritiesinthefallingstate,andtriedtoholdontowhat
wasalreadytheirs.(Boyd,1995)
Third,thepeacefulconditionspromotethereturnofrefugeesandinhabitedpeople.The
senseofsecuritykeptincreasing,whichacceleratedinrefugeereturns,with60,000
inhabitedpeoplereturnedtowheretheywerein1999.(DaalderandFroman,1999)
Fourth,theautonomiescreateapossibleplatformforthecountrytorecoveritseconomyin
thepostwarperiod.Basedontherespectofminoritiesandnewlybuiltautonomies,both
sideholdstheirowncurrenciesandmanagingtheirowneconomicissuesandpolicies.
Daytonsfirstandmostimportanttargethasbeensuccessfullygained.However,themore
advancedgoalofcreatingamulticultural,democraticandsustainablepeaceinthecountry
seemstobeimpossible,duetothedisadvantagesofautonomy.In2009,Bosnianswereonce
againtalkingaboutthepotentialforwar.
Firstly,thecreationofRepublikaSrpskaisseenasadecriminalizationoftheatrocitythat
committedbytheSerbians.ItleavesshadowofethniccleansingoneveryBosnianMuslins
andCroatians,andtheundercurrentofrevengeisjustabouttooverflow.
Then,thepoliticalstructureofdecentralizationinthecountryisdysfunctional.Forthateach
levelofthepoliticalinstitutionsrequirealltherepresentativesofthreesides:Muslims,
CroatsandSerbs,thebureaucraticisbloated,withfartoomanyofficialsoverthecountry.It
retardstheprocessofimportantissuesandprojects,andeasilypiledup.
Third,theeconomicdevelopmentinthecountryasawholeisstunted,duetothedisunionof
theeconomicsystemandtheseverecorruptionpenetratedinalllevelsofthesociety.Bosnia
receivesahugeamountofinternationalaidseveryyear.In1999,theinvestigation
discoveredthatmorethan1billionUSdollarshadbeenpouredintothecountry,butnearly
onefifthofthetotaljustdisappeared.(McMahonandWestern,2009)TheBosniansbecome
moreandmorereliableonforeignhelpandmaterialaids,ratherthanthemselves.
ThecurrentBosniaautonomiesjustfailedintoaparadox:Asamultiethniccountry,the
refugeesneedtogobacktotheirhomes;theneconomicreforminthenewcountryisneeded
tocreatemorejobopportunities;corruptionsmustbediminishedandthefatbureaucratic
shouldberegulated;whilebeforeallthedevelopmentabovecouldbepromoted,political
reformintoamulticulturalsocietymustbeadopted.
Inshort,autonomyendsviolence,respectsandguaranteestherightsofminorities,butalso
leaveaseriesofproblems.Buildinganautonomyisnotasolution,butastartofamuch
complicatedprocess.
Part3Casestudy:the2014CrimeaCrisis
3.1TheOverviewoftheAutonomousCrimeaandtheOngoingConflict
The2014Crimeacrisisisanongoinginternationalcrisis,whichderivedfromtheinterstate
conflictofUkraine,CrimeaanditsneighborRussia.Thoughthesituationsisstillelusive
andchangingrapidly,itisdescribedasthemostdangerousconflictaftertheColdWar,for
thatitdragstheWesternforcesintothedisputes.
TheCrimeaPeninsulaisamultiethnicregionwhichwasadministeredbyUkraineasthe
AutonomousRepublicofCrimea,withtheseparatemunicipalityofSevastopol.The
majorityoftheAutonomousCrimeawasethnicRussia,withminoritiesofbothethnic
UkraineandCrimeanTatars,ofwhichthelatterwastheindigenouspeopleofthelandsince
14thcentury.(Schnle,2001)
TheConflictbrokeoutinFebruary2014,aftertheproRussiaformerPresidentViktor
YanukovychwasdismissedintheUkrainianRevolution.DuringtheRevolution,the
UkrainianparliamentelectedanewinterimPresidentandformedanewinterimgovernment
thatobtainedthesupportoftheWhiteHouse.(TheMoscowTimes,2014)Soon,thepro
RussianforceswhichwidelybelievedtobeRussianmilitarywithoutemblem,begantotake
controloftheCrimeaAutonomy,andinthemeantime,theindependentreferendumwas
launchedintheAutonomousCrimea.(NewYorkTimes,2014)Twoquestionswereasked
intheballot:first,doyousupportthereunificationofCrimeawithRussiawithalltherights
oftheRussiafederation?Second,doyousupporttherestorationoftheConstitutionofthe
RepublicofCrimeain1992andthestatusoftheCrimeaaspartofUkraine?Asaresult,
96%ofthepeoplesupportedthereunion.(VoiceofAmericaandBBCNews,2014)
OnMarch17,theCrimeaparliamentannounceditsindependencefromUkraineandasked
tobelegitimateddistrictofRussiathatlaterapprovedbytheRussiaPresidentPutin.
However,theUNGeneralAssemblypassedanonbindingresolutiondeclaringinvalid
Crimea'sMoscowbackedreferendumandrejectedtoadmitthesecessionofCrimea.
(CharbonneauandDonath,2014)
3.2TheTurbulentSituationofCrimeaAutonomy
FormerlypartofRussianEmpire,CrimeawasoccupiedbySovietRussiain1921and
grantedthestatusofanautonomousrepublicsincethen.AftertheWorldWarII,theSoviet
authoritiesdeportedtheCrimeanTatarsanddepriveditsautonomystatusin1945.Andthen,
itwassenttoUkrainein1954asagiftsymbolizingthepeacebetweenUkraineandthe
Soviet.(MinistryofForeignAffairsofUkraine,2012)
Buthowdoestheintrastateconflictexpandtoaninternationalcrisis?Ontheonehand,the
westernpartintendstoabsorbtheUkraineintotheEuropeanUnion,whiletheCrimea
peoplewhoareethnicRussiafeltthethreat.TheoriginalmilitarydistancefromtheUSto
Russiacouldbeshortentolessthan500milesonceUkraineisbelongedtotheEU.Onthe
otherhand,PutinsomehowcouldbeseenasthesecondStalinwhotryingtorestorethe
SovietUnion,andcouldbethebiggestworryoftheUSandtheEC(EuropeanCommunity).
(Schepp,2014)
AlexanderLvashevskywasatourguideinSovietUniontime.Nowaged64,hehasalready
retired,buthegaveaguidetoRussiasvisionofCrimeatotheBBCjournalistPatrick
JacksoninMarch.ThesitesareallboundupinRussianhistory,andAlexanderbelievesthat
althoughsomeyoungpeopleunder22wanttoremaininUkraine,overwhelmingmajority
wantreunificationwithRussia.Forhim,Ukraineisawickedstepmother whopromised
CrimeanRussiansabetterlifeafterindependencein1992,butdeceivedthem.Inallthose
22years,hesays,neverfeltUkrainian.(BBCNews,2014)
Fromthecaseabove,wecouldfeelthestrongaffectionofCrimeapeopletowardstheir
mothercountry,Russia,regardlessofalltheotherpoliticalelements.Itcouldbeoneofthe
fataldisadvantagesofautonomy:thegrantofautonomypreservesandsometimeseven
promotestheaffectionoftheminoritiestowardsaforeigncountry.Thesovereigntyseemed
tobepreservedbythecreationofautonomy,but,infact,itacceleratesthesecessionofthe
minoritypeople.Oncethecentralgovernmentfailedtoprovidethesatisfyingenvironment
andaflashpointisformed,theywouldriseandfight.
Theotherbrutaldisadvantageofautonomyisthedominoeffectitbringsabout.Afterthe
announcementofindependenceofCrimea,therehappenedseveralproRussiaprotests
aroundthecountryinmorethan10citiesintherecentmonth.On6April,theleadersofthe
separatistgroupDonetskRepublicannouncedthatareferendum,onwhetherDonetsk
Oblastshould"jointheRussianFederation",wouldtakeplace"nolaterthan11May2014.
(BBCNews,2014)TheOblastcouncilofLuhanskOblastvotedtodemandgivingRussian
languagethestatusofsecondofficiallanguageonApril8.Althoughthereisdoubtthat
theseprotestsaremanipulatedbytheRussiaauthorities,everymoveoftheautonomyjust
arousesthefollowbyotheronesthathaveselfdesires.
Tosumup,thecreationofAutonomousCrimeafromSoviettimetoUkrainetimeisproved
tobeadeadlymistake.WhiletheCrimeaisfightingtobereunitedtoRussian,theTatar
minorityisseekingforanotherautonomy,fortheirhateofSovietsexpel.(Reuters,2014)
Autonomyhasbeenusedbypoliticiansasamanipulatinglever,withlessconsiderationof
thepeople.
ConclusionContradictionofAutonomyandImportantIssues
Throughthecasestudiesanalyzedabove,theautonomyholdssignificantadvantagesbut
alsoisariskperse.Itcontradictsforthatitseekstosolvetheproblemofterritory,yetmay
aggravateit;itintendstosolvetheproblemofidentity,yetmayaccentuateit.(Darbyand
Ginty,2008)
Althougheachcaseofautonomydiffers,itseemsthatcertainissuescouldbegenerally
countedon.
First,theestablishmentofanautonomyshouldbasedontheconsentofthemajorityofthe
population.Duetosomehistoricalreasons,theminoritiesmaystillholdstrongaffectionto
anotherforeigncountry,whichburiesdangerunderpeace.
Second,theestablishmentoftheautonomyshouldachievetheconsentoftheforeign
countrytowhichtheminorityhaveaffectionwith.(Lapidoth,1997)
Third,thedivisionofpowershouldbedefinedasclearaspossible,whichpreventsthe
divergenceinthefuture.
Next,atleastonecooperationinstitutionshouldbesettled,topromotethesustainablepeace
andfriendshipbetweenthecentralgovernmentandtheautonomy.
Lastbutnotleast,thepoliticalsystemneedtobesettledwithgreatcarefulness,whichisto
someextentdecisiveofthefutureoftheautonomy.(DarbyandGinty,2008)
Toconclude,autonomyshouldbetreatedasnotonlyasolutiontointrastateconflicts,but
ratherahardprocesswhichneedsextraeffortandexaminationfromtimetotime.
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