LOWER SIX PUSAT TUISYEN KASTURI PREPARED BY

BIOLOGY LESSON 7 T.K. LEONG

TOPIC: Structure of cells and organelles (1)

THE CELL CONCEPT

One of the most important concepts in biology is that the basic unit of structure and function in
living organisms is the cell. Another essential part of the cell theory is the idea proposed in 1855,
the new cells only come from pre-existing cells.

There are two fundamentally different types of cell, the prokaryote cell and eukaryote cell.

The differences between prokaryote and eukaryote cells are summarised in table below;

Feature Prokaryotes Eukaryotes

Organisms Bacteria, mainly unicellular Protoctists, fungi, plants and animals,
mainly multicellular
Cell size 0.5-10µm 10-100µm
Evolutionary origin 3.5k million years ago 1.2k million years ago. Evolved from
prokaryotes
Cell division Mostly binary fission, no spindle fibres. Mitotic or meiotic cell division, spindle
fibres formed
Genetic material DNA is circular and lies free in DNA is linear and enclosed in a nucleus,
cytoplasm, naked DNA DNA is associated with proteins to form
chromosomes.
Protein synthesis 70S ribosomes, No endoplasmic 80S ribosomes, may attached to
reticulum endoplasmic reticulum
Organelles Few organelles, none are surrounded by Many organelles, envelope bound
envelope (double membrane) organelles present, great diversity of
organelles bound by single membranes.
Cell walls Rigid and contain polysaccharides with Cell walls of plants and fungi rigid and
amino acids (peptidoglycan), murein is contain polysaccharides; cellulose is the
main strengthening compound. main strengthening compound of plant
walls, chitin of fungal walls.
Flagella Simple, lacking microtubules, Complex, with ‘9+2’ arrangement of
extracellular (not enclosed by cell microtubules, intracellular, 200nm
surface membrane), 20nm diameter diameter
Respiration Mesosomes in bacteria, and Mitochondria for aerobic respiration
cytoplasmic membranes in blue-green
bacteria.
Photosynthesis No chloroplasts, take place on Chloroplasts containing membranes
membranes which show no stacking. which are usually stacked into lamellae
or grana.
Nitrogen fixation Some have the ability None have the ability

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 CELLULAR COMPONENTS

Structure, Function and Distribution of Cell Wall

1. The presence of a rigid external cell wall is a characteristic of plant cells.

2. It is a secretory product of the cell.

3. The main structural components of cell walls are bundles of cellulose molecules known
as fibrils. Each fibril bundle consists of approximately 2000 extremely long cellulose
molecules. The individual cellulose molecules are composed of about 3000 glucose
residues condensed together.

4. The cellulose fibrils are cemented and held together by a matrix of pectin and
hemicellulose. The spaces between the fibrils are not entirely filled with matrix,
however, and they generally allow water, air and dissolved materials to pass freely
through the cell wall.

5. The mature plant cell wall is made up of many layers. The first portion of the cell wall
created by a young growing cell is the primary wall. This is the only layer of cell wall
formed as long as the cell continues to grow. The fibrils that form the primary wall
run in all directions and are randomly arranged to form a rather loose network. This
arrangement of fibrils makes the primary wall elastic and allows for considerable
stretching during cell growth.

6. Where the walls of two cells meet, a middle layer known as the middle lamella is
formed to bind them together. The middle lamella is a sticky, gel-like layer of
pectin, generally present in the form of calcium pectate and magnesium pectate.
7. When a fruit ripens, pectin dissolves and the cells become less tightly bound to one
another. It is these loosely arranged cells that make a ripening fruit become softer.

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 8. Cells of soft tissues of plants have only the primary walls and intercellular middle
lamellae.

9. After growth stops, the cells eventually form the harder, more woody portion of the
plant. Further layers of cellulose fibrils are added to the cell wall forming the
secondary wall.

10. Since the secondary wall, like the primary wall, is deposited by the protoplasm, it is
located outside the plasma membrane but on the inside of the earlier formed primary
wall.

11. In addition to cellulose, secondary walls usually contain other materials, such as lignin,
which make them even stiffer. Once deposition of the secondary wall is completed,
many cells die, leaving the hard tube formed by their walls to function as mechanical
support, and for internal transport in the plant.

12. Plant cell walls generally do not form completely uninterrupted boundaries around the
cells. There are often tiny holes in the wall through which cytoplasmic connections
between adjacent cells may run. These connections are called plasmodesmata
(singular, plasmodesma).

Plasmodesmata are formed when portions of the endoplasmic reticulum are trapped across
the middle lamella as new cell wall is laid down between two newly divided plant cells, and
these eventually become the cytoplasmic connections between cells. Here the wall is not
thickened further, and depressions or thin areas known as pits are formed in the walls. Pits
normally pair up between adjacent cells.

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CELL MEMBRANES
1. Cell membrane is a lipoprotein later that surrounds the cell and organelles such
as the nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplast, vacuole and lysosome.

2. The structure of the membrane based on Singer and Nicolson’s fluid mosaic
model as shown below.

3. The structure of membrane is further proven by Singer based on Freeze

etching studies.

In freeze-etching, a biological specimen is fast frozen in liquid freon to a temperature of -150°C. The
frozen specimen is then fractured in a high vacuum chamber by passing a microtome knife through
it. The plasma membrane of cells in the specimen that will be fractured. The line of fracture of the
plasma membrane is usually along its plane of weakness, that is, along the middle of the
phospholipid bilayer. In this way, the plasma membrane is divided into two portions and its inside is
exposed. Examination by electron microscope reveals that both inner surfaces of the plasma membrane
are pitted and lumpy but complementary to each other. The lumps and pits are actually due to the
membrane proteins which are globular. The globular proteins are either embedded inside the
phospholipid matrix of the plasma membrane or floating on top of it.

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 4. The basic structure of membrane consists of a phospholipids bilayer with
globular protein units floating in it forming a mosaic pattern.

5. The heads of the phospholipid are hydrophilic pointing outwards into the
aqueous medium on both sides of the membrane.

6. The tails of phospholipid are hydrophobic facing each other and forming a
non-polar interior in the middle of the membrane.

7. The structure is dynamic (lateral diffusion), each lipid molecule can move
within its own monolayer and so is each of the protein unit. Some protein units
are immobilised by microfilament with the interior of the cell.

8. The fluidity of the membrane depends on the length of the fatty acid chains,
their saturation and the amount of cholesterol among them. Fluidity affects
permeability, membrane enzyme activities, reception to molecules and ease
with which membranes fuse.

9. Cholesterol with its hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tail fits neatly within the
phospholipid layer. It functions to control mechanical stability, flexibility and
permeability of membrane, particularly reduces leakage of small polar
molecules.

10. The proteins are embedded in the phospholipid layer like mosaic, only in one
monolayer or span the whole membrane. These are integral or intrinsic
proteins, fitted neatly because of their charged properties on their surfaces.
The peripheral or extrinsic ones are attached on the outer polar layers of
phospholipid.

11. The proteins function as carriers or channels for molecules to cross the
membrane, as structural components, enzymes, receptors and electron carriers
for respiratory or photosynthetic phosphorylations.

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 12. The carbohydrates exist as branched short chain of sugars attached to
proteins (glycoproteins) or lipids (glycolipids) on the outer surface of
membrane. They function as receptors for chemicals like hormones and
adhesion to neighbouring cells and for immune responses.

13. It serves as a boundary between the cell and its environment; substances
outside do not affect reactions taking place within the cell.

14. It regulates or controls the passage of substances in and out of the cells.
This happens especially through the protein channels, which allow only specific
polar molecules to go in or out.
15. It acts as receptor sites for recognising external stimuli such as hormone and
antigen molecules. This also enables cells to recognise other cells and to behave
in an organised manner during formation of tissues in the embryo.

16. Certain membranes can perform special functions such as light reaction in the
membrane of chloroplast and oxidative phosphorylation in the inner
membrane of mitochondria.

17. It helps in cell mobility such as in white blood cells and communication between
cells.

STPM 2003

(a) Draw and label the structure of a cell membrane based on Singer’s model. (2m)
(b) Explain the role of the structures of the cell membrane in the transportation of
substances into the cell. (13m)

SUMMARY OF CELL MEMBRANES

1. Different types of membranes differ in thickness but most fall within range of 5-10nm.
2. Membrane are lipoprotein structures, with carbohydrate portions attached to the surfaces of
some lipid and protein molecules.
3. The lipid spontaneously form a bilayer owing to their polar heads and non-polar tails.
4. The proteins are variable in function.
5. The sugars are involved in recognition mechanisms.
6. The two sides of membrane may differ in composition and properties.
7. Both lipids and proteins show rapid lateral diffusion in the plane of the membrane unless
anchored or restricted in some way.

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