IB Geography Revision

Notes
Paper 1 (2015 Revision)
 Populations in transition - syllabus
Population change Explain population trends and patterns in births (Crude Birth Rate), natural increase and
mortality (Crude Death Rate, infant and child mortality rates), fertility and life expectancy in
contrasting regions of the world. Analyse population pyramids. Explain population momentum
and its impact on population projections.

Explain dependency and ageing ratios. Examine the impacts of youthful and ageing
Responses to high and low fertility. populations. Evaluate examples of a pro-natalist policy and an anti-natalist policy.

Discuss the causes of migrations, both forced and voluntary. Evaluate internal (national) and
international migrations in terms of their geographic (socio-economic, political and
Movement environmental) impacts at their origins and destinations.
responsesmigration

Examine gender inequalities in culture, status, education, birth ratios, health, employment,
Gender and change empowerment, life expectancy, family size, migration, legal rights and land tenure.
the general course or prevailing tendency changes over time
Trend
a combination of qualities, acts, tendencies, etc., forming a consistent or characteristic arrangement, e.g. differences by country, age, gender
Pattern
The number of births per 1,000 of population within a country.
Crude Birth
Rate
Crude Death The number of death per 1,000 of population within a country. FACTORS CAUSING LOW DEATH RATES
Improved medical care
Rate Immunisation programmes e.g. Small pox
Clean and reliable water supply
Improved diet (higher calorific intake and healthier diet)
Improved sanitation and hygiene
Improved exercise
Natural The difference between the number of live births and the number of deaths occurring in a year, divided by the mid-year population of that year, multiplied by a
factor (usually 1,000). It is equal to the difference between the crude birth rate and the crude death rate.
increase
The number of deaths of infants under 1 year old per 1000 live births per year.
Infant
mortality
The number of deaths of children under 5 years old per 1000 live births
Child
Mortality
The number of babies a woman is expected to have in her lifetime. The total fertility rate normally falls as a country develops.
Fertility Rate
Explanation of Some Factors Affecting Death Rates and Life Expectancy:
Life
expectancy: Age: The very young and the very old are most vulnerable to disease, malnourishment and natural disasters and therefore more likely to have a higher incidence of dying.
The average age
someone is expected to Sex: In nearly every country women live longer than men (usually 5-10 years longer). This is not fully understood, but it is believed to be a combination of biological and
live when they are born. lifestyle reasons. Women tend to suffer cardiovascular disease later in life and men tend to cause more damage to themselves through drinking and smoking.
Japan has the highest life
expectancy in the world. Residence: The location/country that you are born play a massive role in your life expectancy. If you are born into a developed, literate and peaceful country e.g. Japan your
life expectancy is going to be high. However, if you are born into a poor, drought and famine ridden country that is at war e.g. Somalia then your life expectancy is going to be
low.

Occupation: Some jobs are more physically or mentally demanding than others and can therefore affect peoples health. A job that keeps people active may prolong health,
but if it is active and dangerous like mining, it might shorten life. Some jobs like teaching are said to be stressful and may reduce life expectancy.

Nourishment: If you have a shortage of food (under nourished) you are more vulnerable to disease. If whole countries suffer from famine a country's death rate may
dramatically increase - again it will normally be the old and young affected first. Under nourishment is not the only problem, malnourishment can also increase death rates.
This is when people are eating a bad diet that may contain too much salt and/or fat.

Accommodation: The quality of your house can play a big factor in your life expectancy. If you live in an informal settlement you are more vulnerable to disease, natural
disasters and sometimes crime. However, if you live in a modern structure you will probably enjoy running water, mains electricity and protection from the weather, therefore
helping you remain healthy.

Literacy: Your ability to read and write can have a massive influence on your health and life expectancy. Not only does it give you better job prospects, but also allows you to
know how to care for yourself i.e. what to eat and what to do if you are ill.
The demographic transition model, usually just called the DTM shows
Demographic changes in birth rates, death rates and population growth as a country
Transition develops. When the model was first made it only had four stages, but
more recently a fifth stage has needed to be added.
Model
STAGE 1: The poorest societies that are usually nomadic hunter gatherer
tribes. They have little or no modern medical care and are often in conflict
with other tribes. They have no family planning. High birth and death rates
means there is no real population growth.
STAGE 2: Probably more sedentary living where there is improvements in
the provision of food and water, basic medical care may also develop.
Birth rates remain high, but because of the lowering death rates the
population starts to grow.
STAGE 3: As education improves and mechanisation takes place then
birth rates begin to fall. However, because birth rates are higher than
death rates then the population still grows.
STAGE 4: Birth rates and death rates are now both low. Because they are
both low, population remains stable.
STAGE 5: Recently added to the DTM, here birth rates fall below death
rates so the population begins to decline.

This can happen because of the emancipation of females, cost of child

care, delayed marriage etc. Countries like Japan are in stage 5.
Population
pyramid:
Population pyramids
show the structure of a
population in terms of
sex and age. By
analysing population
pyramids you can see
trends in birth rates,
death rates and life
expectancy.

Japan 2010: Japan is in stage 5 of the demographic transition model (DTM). The population pyramid shows this with a high life expectancy and low and declining birth rates.
You can tell that Japan has a high life expectancy because of the size of the 80+ age group. You can also tell that Japan has declining birth rates because the size of the
population groups from 35-39 all the way down to 0-4 are actually getting smaller in size. This means that each year less babies are being born. Interestingly, even though
Japan has very high life expectancy it actually has quite high death rates (higher than you would expect). This is because there are so many old people in Japan (all old
people die eventually, even if they live to 95).

El Salvador 2010: The El Salvador pyramid is very different to the Japan pyramid and looks more like a stage 3 country. The most noticeable thing from El Salvador's
pyramid are its high birth rates. You can tell that El Salvador's birth rates are high and increasing because as you move down the pyramid (through the age groups) the size of
them get bigger. Because of the large amount of young people in El Salvador, it will probably suffer from population momentum for many years to come even if the total
fertility rate falls.

The continued growth of a population after fertility rate is equal or actually below the replacement rate. This is happens if there is a large concentration of people in the
Population reproductive age range.
momentum
A prediction of future population changes based on current trends of The UN make population projections for a number of reasons, including:
Population mortality, fertility and migration. The UN uses a number of assumptions To be able to better allocate and distribute resources
projection when making these predictions (see the summary on the document To be able to target family planning and medical care more effectively
below). To be to predict population crises e.g. famine, refugee problems
To advise government and NGOs (Non-governmental organisations (Charities))
This is the ration between dependents (old and young) and economically A country's dependency ratio may increase for a number of reasons including:
Dependency active. The dependency ratio is calculated using the following formula.
ratio
Increasing life expectancy
Falling death rates

Rising birth rates

Immigration of dependents

Emigration of economically active

Ageing A rise in the median age of the population usually associated with an Solutions to an Ageing Population
increase in the proportion of old dependents Pro-Natalist policies (Singapore)
population Increased immigration of economically active
Increased retirement age
Causes of an Ageing Population Private pensions
High life expectancy caused by: Private healthcare
Good medical care Increased taxes of economically active
Good diet and improved water supply
Good sanitation and hygiene Advantages of Ageing Population
 Low birth rates caused by: Elderly people have a lot of experience and can be valuable in the workplace
Emancipation of women Less money spent on schooling and natal medical care
Cost of children Lower crime rates and less money needed to be spent on policing
Emigration of economically active
Problems of an Ageing Population
Shortage of economically active
Reduced taxation income for the government
Cost of providing healthcare and care homes (elderly tend to get
sick more frequently)
Reduced spending on education, policing, transport network, etc.
Cost of paying for pensions
Service decline (schools, sports centres, etc. not used by older
residents)
Ageing population The aging of the population was brought about by a combination of low fertility and high life expectancies (i.e., low mortality). In 1993 the birth rate was
case study estimated at 10.3 per 1,000 population, and the average number of children born to a woman over her lifetime has been fewer than two since the late 1970s.

Family planning is nearly universal, with condoms and legal abortions the main forms of birth control. A number of factors contributed to the trend toward small
families: high education, devotion to raising healthy children, later marriage, increased participation of women in the labour force, small living spaces, education
about the problems of overpopulation, and the high costs of child education.

Life expectancies at birth, 76.4 years for males and 82.2 years for women in 1993, are the highest in the world.

The mortality rate in 1993 was estimated at 7.2 per 1,000 population.

Japan has an ageing population because the birth rates have fallen and it has one of the world's highest life expectancy. In fact the islands of Okinawa off
Japan's south coast have the highest life expectancy and the greatest percentage of centenarians in the world.

Japan has the highest proportion of old dependents (about 23%) and the lowest proportion of young dependents (about 13%) in the world. It has a total fertility
rate of only 1.25. This is well below the replacement rate of 2.1.

Even though the Japanese are working longer, it may have to look outside its borders to prevent future population decline and economic decline. Japan is
traditionally a very insular country so allowing large scale immigration would involve huge social and cultural changes.

Centenarian: Someone over the age of 100.

Youthful Causes of a Young Population Solutions to a Young Population

High birth rates caused by: Anti-natalist policy (China)
population lack of family planning Increased immigration of economically active
No education about contraception Privatised education (remove cost from government)
High infant mortality Privatised healthcare (remove cost from government)
Primary based economy Removal of child benefits
No care for old dependents from government Reduced birth rates (family planning, contraception, etc.)
Immigration of young dependents Reduced infant mortality rates (people then normally have less babies)
Tradition and status of large families Greater care of old dependents (less children needed to care for elderly)
Problems of a Young Population Immigration restrictions (quotas)
Cost of childcare and education Advantages of Young Population
Increased dependency ratio Lower death rates so less money spent on care homes/hospitals
Increased cost of child benefits paid by the government Educated and IT literate population (many elderly people are unfamiliar with new
Shortage of workers (in the short-term) technology)
Cost of healthcare (midwives, health visitors, etc.) Abundance of future workers
Spending diverted from defence, transport, etc Strong military in the future
Large future market (young people are often interested in consumer goods)
Youthful The Gambia is the smallest African country and 95% of Gambias population are Muslim. There has been a taboo on contraceptives and the birth rate is high,
on average each woman in her lifetime will have 7 children. The birth rate is 40 per 1000 population and for every 1000 children born 11 mothers will die in
population childbirth.
case study People do not live much beyond 40 50, the life expectancy for women is 57 and for men 53.
It is thought that the population will double every 28 years.
The Gambia is a very poor country, there is not enough money to build infrastructure and develop towns. Healthcare is very limited and the infant mortality rate
is 73 per 1000

Solutions to The Gambia Youthful Population problem

Contraception There are now awareness campaigns and radio adverts explaining about contraceptives. An NGO called Futures is helping to address the
problem by delivering very cheap contraception which is subsidised by the World Health Organisation. Due to this programme the population growth rate has
dropped from 4.2% to 3%.
Health To reduce the infant mortality rate funding from Canada is used to provide free vaccination for children. Improved maternity care helps the mothers to
survive. Parents are encouraged to space out the births so that mother has enough time to recover.
Managing Resources The German government are funding a forest management scheme. The plan is to plant new forests and educate the population on how
to look after and use the forests, increasing the carrying capacity of the country.
Education More and more children are attending school as toilet facilities and infrastructure are improved.
Pro-natalist Case Study - Singapore

policy: Countries may introduce a pro-natalist policy because: In some countries like Singapore the problem is that people are concentrating on their
A policy that tries to They have an ageing population (increased dependency ratio) education and careers and getting married later and therefore have less time to have
increase birth rates They have a shortage of economically active (low births rates and children. To overcome this problem the Singapore government is hosting speed dating
and total fertility rate. total fertility rates) nights, singles holidays, etc. to try and match make and encourage earlier marriage.
You can not force
people to have You can not force people to have children, so pro-natalist policies However, even with financial incentives, having a child is not something to make
children, so you have normally work by offering incentives. Incentives may include: money from. In the UK is has been estimated that the cost of rearing of one child is
to offer incentives e.g. 200,000 pounds. Therefore the aim of pro-natalist policies is to encourage couples
free education. who want children, but might possibly be delaying having them because they can't
Money quite afford it.
Extended maternity and paternity leave and pay (maternity leave is
holiday (time off work) given to the mother after she has given birth,
paternity leave is holiday given to the husband after the mother has Singapore is a developed country in SE Asia with a population of about 5
given birth - in most countries paternity leave is very short (maybe 2 million people. For many years the Singaporean government has
weeks and often unpaid)) believed that Singapore is underpopulated and has tried to increase its
Free or subsidised childcare population. Singapore has one of the lowest total fertility rates in the
 Free of subsidised education and healthcare world, standing at 1.1, which is well below the replacement rate of 2.1.
Already 36% of the Singapore population is made up of foreign nationals
and in some sectors like industry, 80% of the workers are foreign.

To overcome worker shortages, the Singapore government has

encouraged immigration, but it is also trying to increase the population
through raising birth rates. The government is doing this in a number of
ways. It has increased maternity leave by 50% to 12 weeks and it will
cover the cost of maternity leave (the cost to the parents employers) for
the first four babies. The Singapore government is also increasing child
benefits paid to families. The government will pay money into a special
bank account of up to nearly $1000 for six years. The Singapore
government has also sponsored dating organisations to encourage
people to get married earlier and start having children.

If Singapore's policies are not successful it will become increasingly

dependent on foreign workers, gradually see an increase in the
dependency ratio and ultimately economic decline.
Anti- natalist China's One Child Policy (anti-natalist policy)

policy: China currently has the largest population in the world, standing at about 1.3 billion. China is the third largest country in the world, but only about 10% of its
area is good for arable farming. Much of the west is covered in mountains and much of the north is desert.

A policy that tries to China probably has the most famous population policy in the world. However, not everyone knows is that China actually had a pro-natalist policy after the end
reduce birth rates. This of World War II. During the war China was occupied by the Japanese. The Communist government never wanted this to happen again, so encouraged
can be done through population growth to create a large army. This policy saw rapid population growth, but unfortunately the availability of resources was not growing at the same
better education on rate and in the early 1960's an estimated 20 million people died from famine. Because of the famine, in 1964 the government tried to promote birth control, but
family planning and the birth rate still stood at 45 between 1966 and 1971. Because of the high birth rates the government promoted a new campaign 'Late, Sparse, Few'. However,
better provision of the government didn't believe that this was having a significant enough effect and in 1979 introduced the one child policy.
contraception or a
more rigid forced policy Demographers estimated that China's optimum population was 700 million and the aim was to meet this figure by 2080. The policy was strictly enforced and
like China's. there were punishments for people who did not follow the policy including fines, loss of jobs, removal of education and health rights for children and for women
caught to be pregnant with a second child forced abortion and sterilisation.
A country may
introduce an anti- At the same time as punishing offenders the government was also promoting the use of contraception and encouraging people to get married later. There are
natalist policy if it is: also some exceptions to the rule, families in rural areas were often allowed two children where people were needed to work on the land and ethnic groups were
also allowed two children.
Overpopulated (the Successes:
population is higher
than the resources
available) The total fertility rate has from nearly 6 to about 1.7
Has a young Population growth rate has fallen from a peak of 2.61% in the late 1960's to about 0.65% today
population (high birth Birth rates have fallen from highs of 45 to about 13 today.
rates and total fertility The availability of contraception has increased
rate) Up to 250 million births have been prevented since 1979
China's population should peak in the first half of the 2030's (however, it might be as much as 1.45 billion)

Failures:

There have been criticisms about human rights, not only over freedom of choice, but forced abortions and sterilisations.
Female infanticde has taken place, where the boys fave been favoured.
There is now a sex imbalance in China (117:100).
Many children have been abandoned for adoption.
There is an ageing population and an increased dependency ratio
There has been shortage of workers in some areas.
The so called 'little emperors' syndrome where only children are spoilt
The policy has been open to corruption. Many people have paid bribes to have extra children.
The population is still 1.3 billion and growing

MIGRATION Migration is the movement of people

It is classified by such indices as
Distance travelled
Reason for travel
Period of time of travel
Volume of migrants
Consequences of migration include
Increased understanding between people of different cultures
Increased animosity between people of different cultures
Changes in numbers of people at the destination and origin, and the demographic and
ethnic makeup.

RAVENSTEINS Ravenstein came up with his "laws" of migration in the 1880s based on studies carried out in the UK.
LAWS OF The laws are as follows
1. The greatest body of migrants travel short distances.
MIGRATION 2. This produces currents directed towards great commercial centres.
3. Each current has a compensating counter-current in the opposite direction.
4. Both currents display similar characteristics
5. Long distance movements are directed towards great commercial centres.
6. People in urban areas migrate less than people in urban areas.
7. Males migrate more over long distances and females migrate more over short distances.
Additions to These Laws
1. Most migrants are between 20-34 years of age.
2. People mainly move for economic reasons.
3. Urban housing development is inadequate for the influx of migrants so ghettos/shanties are
formed.

Some of the laws still hold true today, whilst some have become outdated, and eroded by globalisation
MIGRATION Lee's migration model: This a simple model which shows people migrate because of a combination of push and pull factors. The model also suggests that
there are factors that encourage people to stay in their location and possibly factors in their desired destination which discourage them from moving there.
Models
Factors discouraging people from leaving host country: friends and family, security of native culture, a job, a house

LEES
Factors discouraging people moving to host country: language problems, illegal status, no job, worries over housing
migration Pull Factors: Something that attracts you to a new location.
model
Prospect of a better job
Lower crime rates and peace
Prospect of better education for them or their children
Availability of food and water
Greater political freedoms
Greater gender equality

Intervening obstacles: Problems or difficulties that you might experience before you migrate or while you are migrating.
Obstacles that people might face while migrating include:

No passport or visa
Shortage of money
Fear of being a victim of crime while migrating e.g. Central Americans travelling through Mexico.
Arrest for illegal entry into countries

Some migrants may also return home very quickly because of factors including:

Unable to find a job, missing friends and families, deportation, unable to save money, unable to adapt to local culture.

Gravity Model The essential feature of the gravity model is its suggestion that migrants tend to move over short distances, with the number of migrants decreasing as the
distance over which the migration takes place increases. This idea is known as the distance decay effect. The number of people moving between place A and
place B is equal to the population of A multiplied by the population of B divided by the square of the distance between them. Friction of distance acts as a break.

Stepwise This is a behavioural model developed from E.G. Ravensteins laws (1885) that population movements occur in stages. According to this idea, major
settlements, such as capital cities, tend to attract migrants from smaller cities, which in turn attract migrants from smaller towns and villages. Migration occurs
Migration therefore in steps.
Model
ZELINSKY The Zelinsky Model of Mobility Transition claims that the type of migration that occurs within a country depends on how developed it is or what type of
society it is. A connection is drawn from migration to the stages of within the Demographic Transition Model (DTM).
MODEL Zelinsky Phases
Phase one (Premodern traditional society): This is before the onset of the urbanisation, and there is very little migration. Natural increase rates are about zero.
Phase two (Early transitional society): There is massive movement from countryside to cities... as a community experiences the process of modernisation.
There is rapid rate of natural increase.
Phase three (Late transitional society): This phase corresponds to the critical rung...of the mobility transition where urban-to-urban migration surpasses the
ruralto- urban migration, where rural-to-urban migration continues but at waning absolute or relative rates, and a complex migrational and circulatory
movements within the urban network, from city to city or within a single metropolitan region increased, non-economic migration and circulation began to
emerge.
Phase four (Advanced society): The movement from countryside to city continues but is further reduced in absolute and relative terms, vigorous movement of
migrants from city to city and within individual urban agglomerations...especially within a highly elaborated lattice of major and minor metropolises is observed.
There is slight to moderate rate of natural increase or none at all

Forced When people have to migrate, normally because their life's in danger e.g. war or natural disaster.
Refugees: Someone who has been forced to leave their home and their country. People can be forced to become refugees for many reasons including:
migration War
Natural disasters (floods, earthquakes, volcanoes)
Famine and drought
Political unrest e.g. Syria, Egypt and Libya
Persecution (ethnic, religious)
Crime and extortion
Asylum Seeker: A person who, from fear of persecution for reasons of race, religion, social group, or political opinion, has crossed an international frontier into
a country in which he or she hopes to be granted refugee status

Case study (forced migration_ Transmigration in Indonesia

Case study
(forced
Most of Indonesias 200 million people live on Java, Bali, Lombok andMadura which make up the densely-populated core area. Java has 60% of the countrys population in
migration 7% of its area and it is here that the capital,
Transmigration Jakarta, is found. The four main islands all have fertile, volcanic soils which are ideal for intensive, subsistence, rice cultivation.
Transmigration i.e. the forced movement of people by the government from the densely populated core to the outlying islands, was first started one hundred years ago, in
in Indonesia) colonial times, by the Dutch authorities and has continued throughout the century. Its main aims have been:
to encourage a more balanced distribution of population within the country .
to reduce population pressure in the core by moving people to the peripheral islands.
to improve living standards for the migrants
Between 1900 and the countrys independence in 1949 over half a million people were moved. Despite various governments since then setting quite high targets only a further
two million people have been moved.
The scheme offers:
free transport to the new area.
free land allocation of two hectares.
free housing in the new area.
free equipment, fertilisers etc. and enough food to keep the family going until the first harvest.
There have been several issues associated with transmigration in recent
years:
It is very costly and over 200 million has been loaned by the World
Bank so far to help with the scheme. Many people feel that its limited success does not justify this spending. Its impact on Indonesias population problems has been minimal.
In the 1980s, Javas population increased by 18% in spite of out-movements. In 1995 the countrys population was growing by 3.2 million per year! This is more than the entire
number of people who had moved out from the core in the whole of the transmigration movement. Also, up to 20% of the migrants have since returned home because of
problems in the new areas.
Many people are alarmed at the effects on the environment. Over 120 million hectares of Tropical Rainforest have been felled to create land for the new settlers. Soil erosion
and soil exhaustion also occurred once the delicate balance of the Tropical Rainforest ecosystem has been disturbed.
There have been conflicts between the immigrants and the local residents
because:
(i) Traditional farmers are worried that the incomers will take over their area and destroy their way of life. They also complain that the new settlers are given more financial
help than they receive.
(ii) Local shifting cultivators have had to move as their land is being used by the newcomers.
However, transmigration has brought some advantages.
Improved infrastructure on the peripheral islands, e.g. better roads, more schools and health facilities, although in many areas they are still not adequate for the numbers of
people who actually live there.
People from the core who had no land or jobs now have a future in their new homes.
Some spontaneous migration to the outer islands has been stimulated. In the future, transmigration policy will probably focus on providing rural infrastructure to attract
people and encourage migration and less on large scale organised schemes. It may be better for the country to try to solve the problems linked with its rapid population
growth by more family planning programmes, intensifying agricultural production, developing the countrys plentiful oil and gas reserves and industries, rather than by
organised transmigration.

INTERNATIONAL Central America (including Mexico) to US Migration

MIGRATION The US and Mexico share a land border of roughly 2000km. Because of a series of push and pull factors, migrants from Mexico and Central America (El
Salvador, Honduras and Guatemala) try and make the journey across the border. It is estimated that over 1 million migrants each year attempt to cross. Many
Case study make it, but others are also caught, in 1995 about 850,000 were caught and deported.

Mexico to USA

PUSH FACTORS FROM MEXICO PULL FACTORS TO US

Poor medical facilities - 1800 per doctor
Low paid jobs - (GNP = $3,750)
Adult literacy rates 55% - poor education prospects
Life expectancy 72 yrs
40% Unemployed
42,000 violent drugs deaths since 2006
Excellent medical facilities - 400 per doctor
Well paid jobs - GNP = $24,750)
Adult literacy rates 99% - good education prospects
Life expectancy 76 yrs
Low crime rates
Many jobs available for low paid workers such as
Mexicans

Impacts on US (positive and negative)

Illegal migration costs the USA millions of dollars for border patrols and prisons
Mexicans are seen as a drain on the USA economy
Migrant workers keep wages low which affects Americans
They cause problems in cities due cultural and racial issues
Mexican migrants benefit the US economy by working for low wages
Mexican culture has enriched the US border states with food, language and music
The incidents of TB has been increasing greatly due to the increased migration

Impacts on Mexico (positive and negative)

The Mexican countryside has a shortage of economically active people
Many men emigrate leaving a majority of women who have trouble finding marriage partners
Young people tend to migrate leaving the old and the very young
Legal and illegal immigrants together send some $6 billion a year back to Mexico
Certain villages such as Santa Ines have lost 2/3 of its inhabitants

Remittances Money sent home from family members or friends living and earning money in a different location, normally a foreign country.

INTERNATIONAL Case study: Asia

In some parts of Asia (e.g. Southeast): traditionally males who migrate (returning males earn a badge of honor)
GENDER Last 30 years: international labor migration (initially to the Gulf countries in the 1970s to the dragon economies in Asia from the 1980s) -> men are not the only
MIGRATION ones engaged
Slowing down of infrastructure projects + second oil crisis in 1979 + changing labor needs of the Gulf countries -> lower demand for male workers and an
emerging need for female workers to fill demand for medical personnel, maintenance workers and domestic workers
Expanding economies (Japan, Hong Kong, Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan, Malaysia and Thailand)
~1 million migrant workers at the start of 1980s to at least 6.5 million at this time (including legal and unauthorized migrant workers)
Gendered migration process unfolded in Asian region: male migration in response to requirements of industrialisation (e.g. plantation work in Malaysia) and
female migration in response to shortage of domestic and childcare workers (Hong Kong, Singapore, Malaysia, Taiwan)
Past 30 years: most female migrants come from Philippines, Indonesia and Sri Lanka (comprised 60-80% of migrants legally deployed every year)
Legal migration from Indonesia and Sri Lanka is dominated by women who take up domestic work in Middle Eastern countries, with Malaysia, Singapore, Hong
Kong and Taiwan as secondary destinations
Philippines: female migrant began to outnumber male migrant after 1992 (there are also women taking up professional, clerical, sales and production work)
(female migrants are found all over the world)
Thailand and Burma female migrants: mostly unauthorised
Bangladesh, India and Pakistan: do not allow/have very restrictive regulations concerning female emigration (fraught with danger)
Occur through irregular channels (including trafficking) -> even greater dangers and risks
Participation of women in migration raised both prospects and pains
Advantages
Women are migrating on their own rather than as part of family migration -> greater freedom and choice
The protection issues raised have been the same issues that migrants and migrant advocates fight for today (minimum wages, adherence to basic protection
standards, protection from brokers and agents in source countries who often charge them excessive fees)

Disadvantages
Their concentration in vulnerable sectors has generated much debate on how migration can have positive impact on womens lives
Both domestic work and entertainment are not covered by labour laws in many countries -> their working and living conditions are very much dependent on the
charity of their employers
Entertainers: dangers include being pushed into prostitution, violence and run-ins with criminal elements
For most part, women migrants cope with their situation by tapping their own strengths, relying on the support of their networks and accessing NGOs
assistance where available (help is not widely available to them)

Responses to women migrants

Female migration has proven not only to be stable but also resilient in the face of economic changes
Volume of remittances and the employment generated by labour migration weaken the resolve of countries of origin to demand better wage scales and labour
rights -> lessens their workers competitiveness
Revenues of some source countries (Philippines 2002 $6B, Indonesia and Sri Lanka ~$1B) have also encouraged a degree of national economic dependency
that discourages concern about the social costs of massive outflows of citizens
Initial hopes harboured by most source countries that labour migration could be temporary has faded
All countries of destination in Asia have insisted on keeping labour migration temporary (but highly skilled and professional workers are welcomed)
Japan and South Korea: maintain official policy not to admit less skilled workers
Singapore, Malaysia: establish levies on hiring foreign workers to discourage dependence on cheap migrant labour
1997 economic crisis in the region: countries of destination may decide to repatriate migrant workers to make way for local labour
Women-dominated domestic and family work sector has proven more resistance to such measures (families and households are dependent) -> government
policies have not made a dent
Prospects of declining and aging populations in advanced economies foreshadow continuing demand for migrants including taking care of the elderly
Womens migration reflects how globalisation has affected and reordered family life (local women can take up paid work outside of home)
To ensure migration is temporary: women migrants cannot easily change employers/move to different job outside domestic work
 In some countries: perception that migrant women childcare workers could have a negative cultural impact on their wards
Other costs shouldered by families in the countries of origin
Women migrants in turn transfer their caregiving responsibilities to other female family members or other less privileged women in the countries of origin
While migrant women contribute to making family life more comfortable and easier for their employers, they are separated from their own families who have to
fend for themselves
Advantages and Advantages
Brain gain - Receiving educated and skilled workers.
disadvantages As well as trained migrants there will be as source of cheap migrants
to host (low paid) to fill manual jobs.
There will be increased cultural diversity as migrants arrive with their
own culture of food, dance, language, etc.
Growth of local market with increase of population
If migrants are legal, then an increase in tax revenues for the
government
Case Study: Rural-Urban Migration in China
Internal
migration
The urban population is China is swelling by 15 to 20 million people
each year the biggest peacetime migration of people in the world.
Migrants move to exchange a life of subsistence agriculture for
better paid jobs in the cities such as construction or factory work.
For decades China has restricted migration through the household
registration system known as hukou. This system ties Chinese to
their place of birth to receive education, medical care and other
services. Many migrants end up trapped in a halfway existence
where it is administratively difficult for them to settle down in a city
but economically impossible to remain in their village. Chinas
floating population (rural people working outside their home village)
totals around 132 million people. The governments position has
been that maintaining a huge temporary migrant population is better
than overwhelming cities with a permanent influx of people.
Many cities have relaxed their hukou rules making it easier for rural
people to move in and settle down.
Disadvantages
There may be an increase in racial tensions between newly arrived migrants and local
population
The increased population will cause greater pollution and overcrowding
There may be a rise in unemployment when migrants accept lower paid positions,
making more of the local population unemployed.
There will be an increase pressure on services. This may include schools and
hospitals, but also electricity and water supply.
Growth of black market and informal economy if migrants are illegally present
Advantages CITIES (e.g. Beijing)
New workers that can fill low paid jobs like factory and construction work
The government has better control over the population if they live in urban
areas. They may join the formal economy and pay taxes
It is easier for the government to provide services like schools and hospitals
Migrants may become better educated and reduce birth rates and population
growth.
Disadvantages for cities
Increased congestion
Causes urban sprawl as informal housing is built
Increased pollution, especially water and air because of traffic and waste
Pressure on schools and hospitals
Higher unemployment
Pressure on electricity and water supply
Possible crime and certainly growth in informal economy as people don't have
jobs
Advantages RURAL AREAS (e.g. Hainan Province)
Reduces unemployment rate
Reduces overcrowding in schools and hospitals
Remittances maybe sent back to families
Reduced pressure on limited electricity and water supply
Disadvantages for rural areas
increases dependency ratio, because young and old are often left
behind.
There maybe a shortage of workers, especially during the harvest
season.
Families may become separated as young adults migrate
 Disparities in Wealth and Development

Syllabus
Measurements of regional and global disparities Define indices of infant mortality, education, nutrition, income, marginalization and Human Development
Index (HDI). Explain the value of the indices in measuring disparities across the globe.

Explain disparities and inequities that occur within countries resulting from ethnicity, residence, parental
Origin of disparities education, income, employment (formal and informal) and land ownership.

Identify and explain the changing patterns and trends of regional and global disparities of life expectancy,
education and income.
Examine the progress made in meeting the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) in poverty reduction,
education and health.
Disparities and change

Discuss the different ways in which disparities can be reduced with an emphasis on trade and market
access, debt relief, aid and remittances.
Evaluate the effectiveness of strategies designed to reduce disparities.

Reducing disparities
An improvement in the quality of life. Although wealth comes into this, many other things are also important like health, education and security
Development
An arrangement of material or figures in a numerical order. We can use indices to compare countries. Indices can be useful because organisations
Indices and governments can use them to decided where investment and improvements are most needed. For example if a country has very higher birth
rates, then the government may need to invest in family planning. Indices can be either SINGLE or COMPOSITE - single are simple both to
calculate and interpret, whereas composite are more complex in both areas.
Simple Birth rates: The number of births per 1000 of population per year.
Demographic Death rates: the number of deaths per 1000 of population per year.
Infant mortality: The number of deaths before the age of one per 1000 live births per year.
indicators of Child mortality: The number of deaths before the age of five per 1000 live births per year.
Life expectancy: The average that someone is expected to live from birth with a country or region.
health
Gross national income (GNI): The total value of good and services produced within a country together with the balance of income and payments
GNI from or to other countries. GNI is increasingly become the preferred monetary indicator
A measure of Education can be measured in countless ways including; adult literacy, student teacher ratio, school enrolment, number of school years completed
education and number of university graduates. Access to primary education is another Millennium Development Goal (number two). Access to education is a
considered an important goal because it helps individuals and countries to move out of poverty, by getting a better job, reducing birth rates, etc.
When looking at education it is important to look at the education received by boys and girls.

A measure of
Malnutrition prevalence, height for age (% of children under 5): Prevalence of child malnutrition is the percentage of children under age 5
nutrition whose height for age (stunting) is more than two standard deviations below the median for the international reference population ages 0-59 months.

A measure of GDP/GNP/GNI per capita: The amount of money made by a country divided by its population. See above for specific explanations.
income
Marginalisation: When a group of people become separated from society. The Index of Marginalization considers the percentage of illiterate
A measure of population older than 15 years old, the percentage of population older than 15 years without elementary school, percentage of population living in
marginalisatio dwellings without toilet, without electricity, without access to water, with some level of overcrowding, with floor of earth, in localities with less than
5,000 inhabitants, and with income lower than 2 minimum wages.
n
Human development index (HDI): HDI was developed in 1990 and is used by the United Nations to measure levels of development, HDI looks at
Human three variables:
Development
Index GNI per capita
Life expectancy
Comparing expected years of schooling for current school children and mean years of schooling for adults age 25 (the old system just looked at
adult literacy)

The HDI calculations score all countries between 0 and 1. The map below shows that according to HDI the most developed countries are in
Western Europe North America and Australia while the least developed countries are in Central Africa.

HDI is what is known as a composite measure. This simply mean that more than one variable is taken into account, for HDI three variables are
looked at. It can be harder to collect all the data for composite measures, but they do give a more complete and accurate picture of a country's are
area's development.
Value of
indices in Problems with Monetary Measures
measuring
disparities Most countries use different currencies, because the value of currencies change against each other (exchange rates) it is hard to make accurate
across the comparisons.
All countries have a formal and an informal economy. The formal economy is regulated by the government and its value is known. However, the
globe informal economy (things like shoe shining, car windscreen cleaning) aren't so the government nor economists know the true value of economies
and therefore GNI.
Some goods and services are unpaid e.g. volunteering in a charity shop or parenting. However, they contribute to the economy so shouldn't they be
included?
Looking at a country's overall GNI disguises intra-country variations. For example the East of China is becoming very rich, but much of the west is
still very poor.
Just looking at money also neglects many other important aspects of development e.g. education and healthcare.

Per capita: Because countries have different size populations, it is not fair comparing their total GNI (countries with bigger populations will normally
have larger GNI). Therefore, economists and geographers normally look at GNI (or GDP/GNP) per capita. To calculate GNI per capita you take the
total GNI of a country and divide it by the total population.

Problems and Limitations of Development Indicators

Although development indicators can be useful for governments, NGO's etc. to know where to target investment or where for industries to
locate a new factory, or even for where an individual to move to, they do have their limitation. These limitations include:

Countrywide statistics disguise intra-country variations. For example if you look at the map below, the east of China is a lot richer than the
west, but if you looked at China's overall GDP you would not know this.
In many countries data is inaccurate or incomplete. Some countries also refuse to release certain pieces of information or data.
Most development indicators (with the exception of HDI) focus on only one aspect of development.
Most indicators use averages and tend to neglect or highlight the sectors of the population that are marginalised.
Indicators are always out of date. Once information has been collected, analysed, presented and published a lot of things can have changed
either for the better or worse.
Development indicators can be manipulated, used or ignored to suit people's needs. One indicator may suggest an area is developed while
another may suggest an area is undeveloped.

Some ethnic or religious groups can become marginalised and
Explain struggle to escape from poverty. This might be because the
disparities political leaders are from a certain ethnic group or tribe and they
favour people from that group. Alternatively it might be immigrant
and inequities groups are discriminated against and only be able to work in the
that occur informal economy or be exploited.
Case Study New York City - In Manhattan 54% of people are wide. In the
Bronx the majority of people are Black. Evidence shows that Black people
have a shorter lifespan than White people within NYC (life expectancy 3 year
lower in the Bronx than Manhattan).

within
countries
resulting from
ethnicity
Residence: Where you live can be very important in determining Case Study New York City In the Bronx 40% of people live below the
Explain your wealth. This might mean your residence of birth e.g. Japan poverty line. In Manhattan the figure is 10%. The murder rate is 4 times
disparities or Afghanistan. If your are born in Japan you are much more higher in the Bronx than Manhattan.
likely to be free from conflict, receive an education, enjoy a good
and inequities diet, have a roof over your house, get a job and live comfortably.
that occur However, it might also mean your personal residence (your
house). If you live in a solid house that protects you from the
within weather and if you have a water and electricity supply then you
are more likely to remain fit and healthy, be able to work and be
countries relatively well-off. However, if you live in an informal settlement
resulting from e.g. a favela in Rio, then you are unlikely to have a reliable
electricity supply, or running water, or an inside toilet with sewers,
residence or rubbish collections, or a secure structure or even legal
ownership of the land or house. Therefore, you are more likely to
suffer from ill health, be affected by natural disasters and risk
eviction at anytime. If this is the case you are more unlikely to be
able to work, be able to secure loans and increase your wealth.
Parental education - If your parents are educated it is more Case Study New York City In Harlem (The Bronx) only 20% of eligible
Explain likely to mean that they have a good job and can afford all of life's children are enrolled in charter schools (and the majority of these children
disparities needs (housing, food, etc.). If your parents are employed it is also are White)
more likely that they can afford to send you to school giving you a
and inequities head start in life.
that occur
within Personal education - Again if you have been educated you are
more likely to get a job, stay healthy and become wealthier. In
countries summary people who are educated are likely to see their income
resulting from and wealth rise, while people who are illiterate won't be able to
find a job or only find a poorly paid job.
parental
education
If a country or individual already has a good income or wealth it Case Study New York City The top 300,000 Americans have as much
Explain is easier to generate more wealth. Individuals can not only ensure income as the bottom 150 million people in America.
that they have a good residence and a healthy diet, they can also
 borrow money more easily to invest. Some organisations like the
disparities Grammen Bank in Bangladesh are trying to improve micro-credit
and inequities for poor people so that they can start investing in their businesses Manhattan is the wealthiest of ther 5 Boroughs, with Upper East Side having
and growing their wealth - although not everyone agrees it is the 231% of the citywide median income. In the Bronx the income accounts for
that occur best solution. 46% of the citys median income (Morrisania / Belmont region of the Bronx is
within 29%).

countries
resulting from
income
Formal Economy: The sector of the economy that is taxed, Case Study New York City Unemployment is much higher in the Bronx
Explain monitored and regulated by the government. The formal economy (15%) compared with Manhattan (8%). Black and Hispanic people are often
disparities is included in a country's GDP, GNP and GNI. discriminated against in the work place or lack the education and skills
necessary for higher paid jobs. Many recent migrants also struggle with
and inequities Informal Economy: The sector of the economy that is not taxed, English which hinders their chances of getting a job.
that occur monitored or regulated by the government, it is sometimes
referred to as the black market. The informal economy includes
within illegal activities like the drugs and sex industry, but also begging,
show shining on the street or selling counterfeit DVDs.
countries
resulting from
Unemployment: When people don't have job.
employment
Underemployment: When people are employed in a job below
(formal and the skill/education level they are qualified for. For example a
informal) trained doctor working as a security guard.
Private ownership of land is an important factor in allowing Case Study New York City many people in the Bronx have to rent
Explain people to grow food and generate income. If you have land you houses (often owned by people living in Manhattan). People in Manhattan
disparities can at a minimum live a subsistence lifestyle, but more likely be often have the equity to buy a home and not have to pay out a significant
able to sell surpluses or secure a loan against the value of land. proportion of their monthly expenses on accommodation that they will never
and inequities Sometimes females may struggle to avoid poverty because they own.
that occur are unable to inherit or own land.

within
countries
resulting from
land
ownership
Gini Coefficient Gini Coefficient
Measuring This is a measurement of inequalities within a country. Countries with a high Gini coefficient tend to be in Latin America (e.g Mexico
disparities A score of 0 means that there is perfect equality. 51.7) or Africa (e.g. Botswana 63). Low countries tend to be MEDCs. Nordic
A score of 100 means that all the wealth if owned by one person. countries particularly low (e.g. Norway 25). Some exceptions, e.g. USA is
within a quite high for an MEDc showing wide disparities within the country (45)
country Lorenz Curves
A method of measuring disparities in a country Lorenz Curve
The further away the Lorenz Curve is from the "line of perfect
equality", the more income is unevenly distributed.
If a country's Lorenz Curve is distant from the line of perfect
equality, it means a small % of the population controls most of the
wealth and that the country's income distribution is uneven.

Cumulative Causation
Model that
suggests
Gunnar Myrdal 1950s
disparities Multiplier effect generated by new industry
within a Growth poles created with an influx of migrants, entrepreneurs
and capital, stimulating economic growth.
country will Core areas would get richer and disparities would widen in the
country between rich and poor
widen over Periphery areas would suffer from negative multiplier effect
time (not (opposite of what is on diagram)

directly on
syllabus but
should be
built into
essays /
extended
answers to
show greater
understandin
g)
 Core Periphery Model
Model that
suggests
Hirschman (1958)
disparities Also suggested that the core and periphery areas would develop,
within a similar to Myrdal.
Core benefitted from virtuous cycles of development.
country will Periphery impeded by vicious cycles
However, the difference between Hirschman and Myrdal is that
lessen over the core periphery model describes a later trickle down effect
time (not from the core to the periphery.
Counterbalancing forces would overcome polarisation
directly on (backwash), eventually leading to economic equilibrium being
established.
syllabus but Who was correct?
should be Subsequent literature has favoured Hirschman over Myrdal.

built into
essays /
extended
answers to
show greater
understandin
g)
Life Expectancy is the average age people are expected to live to at birth. The world's current average life expectancy is about 70 years, but there
Explain the is a huge gap between the highest (Monaco at about 89 years) and the lowest (Angola at about 38 years). The life expectancy has been growing
changing fastest in East and South East Asia and South America. Life expectancy in Sub-Saharan Africa has been falling since 1985 due to HIV.

patterns and The world's average life expectancy has increased by about 25 years in just over 50 years. The reasons for the increase in life expectancy include:
trends of
regional and
global Improved diet and increased food production
disparities in Better provision of clean water
Immunisation programmes to eliminate diseases like small pox and reduce others like TB. Deaths from malaria have declined massively in recent
life years.
expectancy Better medical care (e.g. treatment for cancer has improved mortality rates, improved screening for heart disease has led to more patients taking
preventative steps). Anti-retro-viral drugs are keeping people with HIV alive for longer.
Improved post-natal care (reduced infant and child mortality)
Better education about diet, hygiene, etc.

Despite the impressive rise in the worlds life expectancy there are some countries or regions that have only seen very small rises or even falls.
Reasons may include:

Prolonged civil war e.g. Sierra Leone

Disease e.g. HIV in Botswana where life expectancy has decreased from 60 in 1985 to 39 in 2011.
Famine and drought e.g. Ethiopia

There can be differences in life expectancy within countries. These might be caused by:

Smoking and drinking

Government health spending
Income
Dangerous jobs (fishermen, mining, oil drilling)
Pollution, especially in northern industrial cities like Sunderland and Sheffield
Distance from medical care.
Diet (fruit and veg / fast food)

Education is vital if countries want to reduce disparities, alleviate

Explain the poverty and see an improvement in the standard of living.
changing Education can be measured in numerous ways including:

patterns and
trends of Adult literacy
Percentage of university graduates
regional and Education spending
global Pupil teacher ratios
Male female education equality
disparities in Years of Schooling
education
The UN see education as being important, not only is it a key
measurement in their HDI, but it is also their Millennium
Development Goal number 2 (Achieve universal primary
education).

The bar graph to the right does demonstrate that all regions are
seeing an increase in the average years of schooling. However,
even with the increase many children Middle Eastern and North
African countries are only receiving halve as many years of
education as the richest countries and children in sub-Saharan
countries are only receiving as third many years of education.

Education is vitally important for many reasons, including:

 If people can read and write they are less likely to be exploited
because they know what they are being asked to do and/or what
to sign
They understand the importance of family planning and can
reduce fertility rates and birth rates
They understand the importance of health, diet and medicine.
They will know how to prevent diseases e.g. HIV and malaria,
how to remain fit and healthy by eating a good diet and how to
cure diseases when sick.
They have a better chance of getting a higher paid job.
They have a better chance of being independent and not relying
on a husband/wife, their family, community or country.

Even the graph does show a reduction in global disparities,

difference still exist because:

Some groups in some countries oppose female education

Some countries are at war and youngsters and teachers are
forced to fight.
Some countries cannot afford to provide free education for all.
In many primary based countries children are needed to work on
the land.
There has been a huge increase in school enrolment around the world,
In poorer countries children might have to contribute to family
including Sub-Saharan Africa. Many countries, e.g. Rwanda, Tanzania have
income, care for parents or look after the family home.
provided free schooling for all for the first time which has resulted in a
massive increase in the number of students attending school and its
consequent effect on literacy rates.

Having a good income is important because it allows people to

Explain the get an education for themselves and for their children, maintain a
changing healthy diet and therefore stay fit and pay for a good house and
services. In short it allows you to enjoy a positive cycle of wealth
patterns and (completely opposite to the cycle of poverty in the last section).
trends of However, it must be remembered that we cant simply look at
peoples income and determine if they are wealthy or not. If we
regional and looking at the UK, the highest average income are going to be
found in the SE. However, this is also the area where cost of
global living is most. Therefore it might be better looking at peoples
disparities in disposable income rather than their gross income.

income The diagram right clearly shows that there is a massive gap
between the rich and the poor, with the richest 5th controlling
74.1% of the worlds wealth and the bottom 5th controlling only
1.5%. However, even though the world is still very polarized in
terms of income, many countries are seeing there national
incomes increase and move towards converging with some of the
bigger more developed countries. Countries like South Korea and
more recently China, India, Vietnam and Indonesia are seeing
rapid and prolonged growth in income.

There has been a large increase in average incomes around the

world in the last 30 years (although this has been slowed by the
current economic downturn). East and South Asia have been the
largest increases in average income. The BRIC countries (Brazil,
Russia, India and China) have seen the fastest recent increases
and they are likely to be followed by other rapidly developing
economies like Vietnam and Indonesia. Sub-Saharan Africa has
seen a disproportionately small increase in income which has led
to widening disparities between this region and the rest of the
world.
The Millennium Development Goals are eight international goals that all members of the United Nations agreed to try and meet by 2015. The aim of
MDGs the MDGs are to encourage economic and social development in all countries (especially LEDCs). The eight Millennium Goals are:
introduction
Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger
Achieve universal primary education
Promote gender equality and empower women
Reduce child mortality
Improve maternal health
Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases
Ensure environmental sustainability
Global partnership for development

You need to understand the attempts and successes of the Millennium Development Goals in meeting three main targets:

Poverty Reduction
Education
Health

THE 1. Eradicate extreme hunger and poverty

- Number in extreme poverty fell from 1.8 billion in 1990 to 1.46 billion in 2005
CURRENT - Small progress on child nutrition; insufficient to meet the target.
BALANCE 2. Achieve universal primary education
SHEET - More than 10% out of education, in developing world, 88% in education in 2007
- Sub-Saharan Africa improved by 15% from 2000 to 2007
- In 2007, almost 137 million children stepped into classrooms for the first time; 7 million more than in 1999
3. Promote gender equality and empower women
- 95 girls:100 boys in primary education
- Gender gap in school enrolment more evident in secondary education but more women enrolled at tertiary level
 4. Reduce child mortality (by two thirds)
- Deaths in children under 5 has steadily declined
- Many Asian and sub-Saharan countries have made little or no progress
- Increase in deaths from 4.2 million in 1990 to 4.6 million in 2007, due to population growth
- Sub- Saharan Africa now accounts for 1/2 of all deaths among children under 5
5. Improve maternal health
- 14 countries have maternal death rates of 1000 per 100,000 live births
- Half of all maternal deaths occur in sub-Saharan Africa
- Very little progress has been made in sub-Saharan Africa, where women face the greatest lifetime risk of dying as a result of
pregnancy and childbirth
6. Combat disease
- 67% of AIDS victims live in sub-Saharan Africa
- 1 million people die of malaria in 2006; 95% from sub-Saharan Africa and mostly children under 5.
7. Ensure environmental sustainability
- Ahead of schedule in meeting the 2015 drinking targets
- 36% of urban population live in developing world.
- 884 million people worldwide still rely on unimproved water sources. Of this, 84% live in rural areas
8. Global partnerships
- Aid remains below UN targets and in 2008, only Scandinavian countries reached this target
- Increased internet connection is helping countries reach MDGS
The eradication of extreme poverty and hunger is Millennium
Examine the Development Goal number one. Goal number one is basically
progress two interlinked targets (Target 1. Halve, between 1990 and 2015,
the proportion of people whose income is less than $1 a day and
made in Target 2. Halve, between 1990 and 2015, the proportion of
meeting the people who suffer from hunger). Their success will be measured
by:
Millennium
Indicators (Part 1 - Poverty)
Development 1. Proportion of population below $1 (1993 PPP) per day (World
Goals in Bank)
2. Poverty gap ratio [incidence x depth of poverty] (World Bank)
poverty 3. Share of poorest quintile in national consumption (World Bank)
reduction. Indicators (Part 2 - Hunger)
4. Prevalence of underweight children under five years of age
(UNICEF-WHO)
5. Proportion of population below minimum level of dietary energy
consumption (FAO)

In terms of poverty the graph to the right indicates that all regions
have seen a fall in absolute poverty accept West Africa. However,
apart from SE Asia and E Asia no regions have yet met the
Millennium Development Goal. Asia has seen a massive fall in
poverty because of the massive success of countries like China,
India, Singapore, South Korea, Vietnam and Indonesia.

However, even though many regions are seeing a fall in absolute

poverty, rising food prices actually mean that many people are
worse off, despite being above the UN threshold. So even though
China and India will probably mean the goal is meant, the
growing imbalance between food and resources will probably will
ensure that millions still go hungry.

In terms of hunger, there remains a huge imbalance in the

distribution of food. In many developed countries people are
malnourished because they are over eating or eating unhealthily,
while in many developing countries people will remain
undernourished, especially in countries like Somalia where
human and physical factors damage food production.
Universal primary education is Millennium Development Goal
Examine the number two (Target 3. Ensure that, by 2015, children
progress everywhere, boys and girls alike, will be able to complete a full
course of primary schooling). Success will be measured by:
made in
meeting the Indicators
6. Net enrollment ratio in primary education (UNESCO)
Millennium 7. Proportion of pupils starting grade 1 who reach grade 5
(UNESCO)
Development 8. Literacy rate of 15-24 year-olds (UNESCO)
Goals in The graph below shows that almost every region (except
education CEE/CIS - East Europe and former USSR states) has seen an
increase in primary enrollment. However, even with the increase
in some regions like Sub-Saharan Africa nearly 30% of children
are not been educated. Maybe more encouraging is the graph to
the right that shows the equality between female and male
education is improving. Apart from Oceania and East Asia every
region has seen a convergence to equality between males and
females. Again though it can still be argued that even though gap
is dropping, it is still too high because 55% of people who receive
no education are females.

Recent UN research all suggests that youth literacy is improving

globally. This is important because it shows that they received an
education and should allow them to get a better job and higher
income and therefore be able to support their children and send
them to school.

Tanzania:
school fees abolished in 2000
Primary school enrolment rose from 59% in 2000 to 95.4% in 2010
Lacking resources - teacher student ratio has risen from 1:41 to 1:51 from 2000 to 2010 (even though enrolment has risen, quality of
education has fallen)
Only half of those who complete primary school qualify for secondary school
 regional disparities - in more rural areas, enrollment is at about 75%
Completion rates are much lower, especially for girls
Gambia:
Small country on the west of Africa, facing the north Atlantic
Net enrolment ratio in primary education: 63.3% (1990-1997: annual growth rate of 8%)
% of pupils starting grade 1 and reach grade 5: 73.9% in 1998
Goal 4 (Target and Indicators) - Reduce Child Mortality
Examine the
progress Target 5. Reduce by two-thirds, between 1990 and 2015, the under-five mortality rate.

made in Indicators
meeting the 13. Under-five mortality rate (UNICEF-WHO)
14. Infant mortality rate (UNICEF-WHO)
Millennium 15. Proportion of 1 year-old children immunized against measles (UNICEF-WHO)
Development There has been significant success in meeting this goal. All regions of the world have seen a fall in child mortality rates. However, it must be
Goals in remembered that because some regions have got such high birth rates and fertility rates the absolute number of child deaths has not decreased
e.g. Sub-Saharan Africa. It must also be remembered that roughly 21,000 children die everyday because of preventable diseases. The decrease
health has been achieved by:

Improving immunisation programmes

Improving parental education and providing pre and post natal care
More females giving birth in hospitals or with trained medical staff
Breast feeding and vitamin supplements
Insect repellent bed nets.

Goal 6 (Target and Indicators) - Combat HIV/AIDS, Malaria and other diseases

Target 7. Have halted by 2015 and begun to reverse the spread of HIV/AIDS
Indicators
HIV prevalence among pregnant women aged 15-24 years (UNAIDS-WHO-UNICEF)
Condom use rate of the contraceptive prevalence rate (UN Population Division)
Condom use at last high-risk sex (UNICEF-WHO)
Percentage of population aged 15-24 years with comprehensive correct knowledge of HIV/AIDS (UNICEF-WHO)
Contraceptive prevalence rate (UN Population Division)
Ratio of school attendance of orphans to school attendance of non-orphans aged 10-14 years (UNICEF-UNAIDS-WHO)

MALAWI - Malawi ignored the HIV pandemic during the years 1985-1994, this caused large scale social and economic infrastructure damage. In
2002 Malawi experienced a massive food crisis. At this time 70% of hospital deaths were attributed to HIV/AIDS. In 2004 the Government launched
its first national AIDS policy. Its focus was prevention, treatment, care and support services. HIV prevalence has stabilised in most areas,
particularly Urban areas where it is easier to target resources more effectively. Most infections in Malawi were from heterosexual sex, and
disproportionately affected women aged 13-24. To tackle this the government introduced mandatory testing of pregnant women. NGOs have
promoted the use of Condoms which has resulted in an increase in use from 7% to 28%. The Un also distributed female condoms via beauty
salons. ARV use has risen from 13,000 people in 2004 to 146,657 people in 2008. Although progress has been made gender subordination
remains a barrier as women are taught to never refuse sex from their husbands and traditionally men have more than one partner. The doctor:
patient ratio of 1:50000 is also a significant barrier to achieving this MDG.

Target 8. Have halted by 2015 and begun to reverse the incidence of malaria and other major diseases

Indicators
Prevalence and death rates associated with malaria (WHO)
Proportion of population in malaria-risk areas using effective malaria prevention and treatment measures (UNICEF-WHO)
Prevalence and death rates associated with tuberculosis (WHO)
Proportion of tuberculosis cases detected and cured under DOTS (internationally recommended TB control strategy) (WHO)

Even though the overall number of people living with HIV is increasing, the actual number of new cases is decreasing, along with the number of
AIDS deaths. The reason that the this is occurring is that people with HIV are now surviving longer due to increased access to antiretroviral drugs
(ARVs) However, the news is not all good, because in some regions like Eastern Europe and Central America the number of HIV infections is
increasing.
The key to reducing HIV infection rates is to:
Improve availability and accessibility of contraceptives.
Improve knowledge of how HIV is transmitted,
Make tests for HIV mandatory
Ensure all blood donors are healthy and unafflicted
Reduce transmission between mother and baby (Stop breastfeeding)

Key to improve education is targeting education. Many countries with high HIV infection rates also have poor levels of literacy. It is therefore very
important to target education at an accessible level e.g posters,theatre groups, community meetings, etc. The spread of HIV appears to have
stabilized in most regions, and more people are surviving longer. Sub-Saharan Africa remains the most heavily affected region, accounting for 72
per cent of all new HIV infections in 2008. Many young people still lack the knowledge to protect themselves against HIV. In sub-Saharan Africa,
knowledge of HIV increases with wealth and among those living in urban areas. The rate of new HIV infections continues to outstrip the expansion
of treatment. The 3 by 5 initiativea global effort to provide 3 million people in low- and middle-income countries with antiretroviral therapy by 2005
was launched in 2003. At the time, an estimated 400,000 people were receiving this life-prolonging treatment. Five years later, by December
2008, that !figure had increased 10-foldto approximately 4 million people an increase of over 1 million people from the previous year alone.

There have also been significant successes in reducing malaria deaths. Probably the biggest reason is increasing the number of children sleeping
under mosquito nets. However, to eliminate malaria deaths, malaria testing will have to increase along with affordability and availability of malaria
drugs. Living conditions and the removal of stagnant standing water will also have to be improved. Half the worlds population is at risk of malaria,
and an estimated 243 million cases led to nearly 863,000 deaths in 2008. Production of insecticide-treated mosquito nets soars, e.g. in Kenya 3%
of children slept under a mosquito net in 2000. In 2008 it was 46%.
CASE STUDY Landlocked country south of the Democratic Republic of Congo
Population - 11.5 million
ZAMBIA HDI - 0.394
Life Expectancy - 40 years
GDP per capita - $900
MDGs were created to support countries such as Zambia, but progress has been very slow
Ultimately it can be seen that it is unrealistic for a country such as Zambia to achieve the millennium development goals without the
help of very generous donors, and more of the aid needs to be dedicated to the MDGs (it's currently 25%)
Zambian economy needs to grow by over 8% every year
Government expenditure have to rise to 12% of GDP every year
$1.5 billion yearly from 2005 to 2015 would be needed to achieve the MDG targets.
Targets should be realistically integrated into Zambian government planning, eg. National Development Plan
Unpredictability and volatility of donor funding must end and donors must link aid levels with their commitments to the MDGs
Budget support - direct funding from donor aid programs to the Zambian
government (controversial)
Greater transparency, participation and accountability throughout the entire development agenda
What comes
after the
MDGs?
The
sustainable
development
goals

Many people argue that the best way to alleviate poverty and
Discuss and reduce disparities is to promote global trade. This argument has
BENEFITS OF FREE TRADE
evaluate the grown even stronger after the forces of Capitalism effectively
defeated the ideas of Communism. However, despite
ways in which improvements in transport and communication, global growth and
disparities are a more cultural interconnected planet, many countries still
struggle to trade freely. One of the biggest barriers to free and Gives local companies a chance to become global companies (TNC)
can be open trade is protectionist policies carried out by developed Countries who participate in free trade grow faster
nations.
reduced with Protectionism makes products more expensive and may stop normal citizens
an emphasis Trade: The exchange of goods and/or services. The exchange from buying them e.g. cars in El Salvador are very expensive because of
maybe for other goods and/or services but is normally for money. import duties
on trade and
Trading bloc: A group of countries who have joined together to Local companies can create pollution just as much as TNCs and may not
access to promote trade. This might be through relaxing protectionist have the money to clean up accidents e.g. BP created a huge spill but had
markets barriers or even having a common currency. Examples of trading the finances to clean up
blocs include the EU, NAFTA and ASEAN.
Mexico has increased its exports since joining NAFTA
Exports: Goods and/or services produced within a country and
then sold overseas. Trading can improve relationships between countries

Countries with trading relationships are less likely to go to war

Imports: Goods and/or services purchased overseas and
brought into a country. Jobs are created for local workers

Sanctions: Sanctions are restrictions placed on a country's
trading. For example after Kuwait was invaded by Iraq, Iraq was
not allowed to buy any military goods or weapons. This sanction
was enforced by the UN.
Protectionism: Attempts to protect domestic markets by making
foreign goods less competitive. This is most commonly done
through tariffs and and quotas placed on foreign goods and
subsidies given to domestic goods.
Tariffs: Tax/duties placed on imported products to make them
Workers may improve skill and education level
Infrastructure like roads and ports are improved for the whole country
Laws can be put in place to protect worker rights
More money can be made by selling to external markets rather than just
domestic market
Residents have access to greater variety of products
Companies will become more competitive and should actually lower prices
 more expensive and reduce demand for them.
Quotas: A limit placed on foreign goods to reduce the supply of
them, therefore forcing the price up reducing the demand for
them.
Subsidies: Financial help given to companies to make their
production costs less. This might be through grants, or the
reduction of taxes, relaxed planning control or below marked
price electricity and water. The aim of subsidies is to make
products cheaper and to protect them from overseas competition.
Free trade: When trade is totally free and fair - there are no
protectionist policies in place. It is the aim of the WTO to promote
free trade around the world.
WTO: The World Trade Organisation is an organisation aimed at
protecting free global trade. It replaced GATT in 1995 and has
153 members. To join the WTO you have to demonstrate how
your country promotes and practices free trade.
Fairtrade: Fairtrade does not produce goods itself, but instead
lends its labels to companies that treat suppliers, host
communities and the environment fairly and sustainably.
Balance of trade surplus: When the value of your exports is
greater than the value of your imports.
Balance of trade deficit: When the value of your imports is
grater than the value of your exports.
FDI: Foreign direct investment is money invested in a foreign
country by TNCs or other countries.
TNC: A transnational corporation is a company that operates in
multiple countries.
Microcredit: Small loans that are given to people that normally
struggle to get credit from normal banks. The pioneers of
microcredit was Grameen Bank in Bangladesh.
Free trade zones (Export processing zones or Enterprise
zones): A zone or area where tariffs and quotas maybe waivered,
taxes lowered, planning relaxed and bureaucracy eased to try
and encourage investment and FDI.
Many countries who have developed in recent years (e.g. China,
South Korea have developed through a focus on trade. This has
enabled the countries as a whole to have a higher income and it
has had resulting positive implications on the development of the
countries as a whole.
Many poorer countries in the world are prevented from
developing by protectionist measures by MEDCs, particularly
aimed at secondary manufactured products. This results in many
LEDCs being unable to develop a manufacturing base as trade
barriers are so restrictive for secondary products that they cannot
export them. Increasing free trade would enable many of these
countries to develop a manufacturing industry and improve the
development of the country as a whole.
Discuss and
Debt Relief
evaluate the
ways in which Even though the current news stories are all about EU and US
debt, in reality many of these countries are able to pay their debt
disparities and borrow more money as long as they make public sector
can be savings. Even though these countries owe much greater amounts
of money than many poor countries, it is the poorest countries
reduced with who are having to spend a greater percentage of their GDP on
debt repayments (debt service). Many poor countries incurred
an emphasis large debt burdens after decolonisation. They received loans for
on debt relief governments and banks flush with money from the Middle East
oil boom. The borrowing of money did not lead to the expected
and aid growth and soon many countries had mountains of debt.
Enforced IMF structural adjustment programmes often forced
countries to sell of government assets cheaply, opened the
economy to outside competition (often exploitation) and slashed
spending on vital infrastructure projects and services (schools
and hospitals). As interest rate payments rose many countries
were unable to pay and defaulted.
Jubilee 2000
The Jubilee 2000 campaign was a coalition of 40 countries calling
for the end of third world debt. The aim of the campaign was to
wipe out $90 billion in debt owed by the world's poorest countries
to some of the world's richest countries and international banks.
Although the Jubilee 2000 coalition was started at the turn of the
millennium they still campaign for the cancellation of debt. Most
recently they have campaigned to have Haiti's debt cancelled
after the devastating earthquake of 2010. Haiti was already one
It is hard for countries to be self-sufficient because they may lack fertile soils
or fossil fuels - they need to trade to survive and grow
TRADE - ADVANTAGES
Increased trade can create domestic jobs which increases tax revenue and
reduces welfare costs.
A free trade economy may attract foreign direct investment (FDI) which can
create new jobs, improve infrastructure, etc.
Trade ensures that countries don't become dependent on other countries or
tied to other countries policies.
Trade is a long-term solution that creates jobs, income, investment and
training for the foreseeable future where aid tends to be short term fixes.
Trade allows countries to compete on an equal footing with other countries
around the world. Instead of being dependent on others, they are actually
contributing to the global market. This increases countries and individuals
self-esteem.
It allows countries to buy and access products that they don't have
themselves or are unable to produce themselves.
Trade can improve relations between foreign powers
TRADE - DISADVANTAGES
Many countries have protectionist policies which make it hard to compete.
Many LEDCs trade in low value primary products which may cause them to
build up a large trade deficit.
Some countries lack raw materials so find it hard to trade without importing
large quantities of raw materials.
Emerging markets may be flooded with cheap foreign imports, destroying
local businesses.
TNCs can move into new emerging markets and exploit resources and
workers.
TNCs can destroy local culture by flooding the market with foreign products
e.g. Starbucks and McDonald's
During periods of economic downturn TNCs will leave foreign countries first
often creating unemployment and leaving shortages of products.
If the balance of trade (imports and exports) is uneven then a large deficit
may develop. Also countries may be effectively blackmailed when the
exchange is uneven e.g. Russia can blackmail the Ukraine over the supply of
gas.
Trade can cause environmental damage e.g. deforestation and carbon
emissions from transportation can cause pollution
During the 1990's Nicaragua in Central America had the largest per capita
debt in the world. In the late 1990's Nicaragua had a debt of $6.1 billion,
which equated to about $1,300 per capita. The government had to spend half
its revenue on service debt (paying interest on debt). So even though
Nicaragua's total debt was a fraction of the US's it was financially in a much
worse position. Read below to find out how Nicaragua has benefited from
HIPC status and debt relief.
HIPC
The Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) are poor countries with high
levels of debt and poverty. As can be seen from the map the majority of these
countries are located in Africa, with a few in SE Asia and Latin America. The
HIPC programme was initiated by the IMF and World Bank in 1996 after
extensive campaigning from NGOs. Countries were only admitted to the
programme if they could prove that there debt was unsustainable. The
majority of the debt relief is coming from the IMF and World Bank.
To remain eligible for debt relief countries had to enforce anti-corruption
efforts, promote democracy and account for expenditure.
As you have read above, Nicaragua had unsustainable debt and therefore
became eligible to HIPC status. In 2000 Nicaragua received debt relief of
nearly $4.5 billion reducing its debt burden as a percentage of export
earnings to below 150% and its annual debt service to below 9% of
government expenditure.
AID ADVANTAGES
of the poorest nations in the western hemisphere after the
earthquake it lost most of the means to service its debt.
Aid
Emergency aid: Help that is given to a country that is suffering
from a natural disaster or conflict. Emergency aid may include
food, water, tents, and clothing or even rescue teams to look for
victims of natural disasters.
Development aid: Aid that is given to benefit the country. This
might be money given to build a new road or port to improve
infrastructure or money given to build a new hospital or school to
benefit the people of a country.
Tied aid: Aid that is given to a country with proviso that they
spend it in a particularly way or follow a particular policy.
Untied aid: Aid that is given to a country with no policy or
spending requirements attached.
Multilateral aid: Aid that is given by multiple donors to a specific
country. Multilateral aid may be collected by an NGO or a UN
organisation e.g. UNHCR.
Bilateral aid: Aid that is given by one country directly to another
country.
NGOs: Non-governmental organisations have no connections
with national governments. They are usually charitable
organisations who aim to benefit local communities and support
the development of countries.
World Bank: charged with helping developing nations.
IMF: the International Monetary Fund aims to stabilise currencies
and support weak economies.
SAPs: Structural Adjustment Programmes were implemented by
the IMF. Aid or loans was usually dependent on countries
following SAPs. SAPs aimed to cut social expenditure, liberalise
trade, privatise assets and reduce corruption. Unfortunately many
of the policies were criticised because they ended up favouring
MEDCs and TNCs who were able to obtain favourable trading
terms and purchase undervalued government assets.
After a natural disaster, food and medical aid can be vital in saving lives and
cannot always be provided by the affected government.
Aid can help build expensive infrastructure products that wouldn't normally
be built e.g. new roads, ports, irrigation projects or HEP stations.
Can help build schools and hospitals that improve the health and education
of local populations.
Many aid agencies employ local workers to carry out projects. This not only
creates employment but teaches local new skills. This is especially true of
bottom-up aid where locals are fully involved and make all key decisions.
Many charities provide education about hygiene, diet and health. These
schemes are not creating dependency, because they are not necessarily
giving money, but do improve the well-being of societies.
AID DISADVANTAGES
Countries can become dependent on money given by foreign donors instead
of developing their own economy to become independent.
Aid money does not always reach the neediest and instead is taken by
corrupt officials. Some aid like medicine can also get help up by bureaucracy
and actually be out of date by the time it reaches the intended recipients.
Kleptocratic (corrupt) governments may also take money for themselves and
not give it to the people that need it.
Tied aid can force countries to carry out policies that are not necessarily
beneficial to the country. Also many of the contracts might go to companies
from donor countries, so the receiving country is not receiving the full benefit
in terms of jobs, training and income. The IMF had structural adjustment
programmes which forced countries to make harmful economic changes in
order to get loans.
Food aid or worse food dumping, can force local food production to collapse.
Often food is dumped when it is not needed. This undercuts the local food
market and takes local farmers out of business. (
Aid may stop because of political changes in donor country or receiving
country or because of economic downturns. However, the UK has protected
its development budget in the current economic downturn
Aid might fund inappropriate and/or harmful technologies that cannot be
sustained after aid has been removed e.g. Nuclear power. Other projects like
roads and dams can cause large scale environmental problems.
Aid sometimes takes the forms of loans which can lead to high levels of debt.
Many African countries borrowed large amounts of money off the IMF and
World Bank and now have huge debt problems.

Difference between Top-down development and Bottom-up

development
Top-down Development (inappropriate): Development that is
led by international organisations who dictate and implement
policies and schemes with little local input.
Increasingly bottom-up approaches are being favoured because they reduce
the chances of corruption, involve, train and educate local people and are
sustainable because they have been built with the support and input of local
people. However, top-down aid is still very important to respond to natural
disasters and conflicts where local organisations and communities don't have

Usually large scale policies or schemes the technology, equipment or money to help .
Usually carried out by governments or international organisations
Work is often carried out by outside contractors
Schemes usually have plenty of funding.
Often quick to respond after natural disasters
Local people are often not consulted in decision making
Schemes are not always appropriate and not always sustainable
long term because of lack of local knowledge.

Bottom-up Development (appropriate technology):

Development that is run by local communities for the benefit of
the community

Usually small scale initiatives

Involves more local communities and local workers. The schemes
are usually led by the local people themselves
Projects are often labour intensive and for the benefit of the local
community e.g building a well or repairing irrigation ditches.
Funds are very limited
Teach local people new skills
Schemes are appropriate and sustainable long-term.
 Remittances: Money that is sent back to family and friends from
Discuss and economic migrants, usually living abroad.
evaluate the
Economic migrants: People that migrate to a different location
ways in which (sometimes a different country) for the purpose of finding
disparities improved job prospects.

can be Remittances
reduced with
an emphasis As can be seen from the graph to the right remittances can make
a significant contribution to many countries overall income. El
on Salvador received the equivalent of 20% of its GDP from
remittances Salvadorians living abroad, mainly in the US. El Salvador is a
Central American Country with a population of just over 6 million
people and a population density of about 290 per km2 (the
highest in Central America). It has a GDP per capita of about
$7000 but close to 40% people live below the poverty line. Official
unemployment is just over 7%, but the true figure is probably
much higher. Because of the high levels of poverty an estimated
two million Salvadorians have migrated abroad, mostly to the US.
The exact figure is unknown because many migrants travel
illegally. With its two million migrants living abroad, it is estimated Disadvantages of Remittances and Migration
that El Salvador receives about $4billion in remittances every
year, but yet again this figure could be higher because of money
returning through unofficial channels.
Remittances fall during economic downturn. This is probably the time
When assessing the advantages and disadvantages of remittances are most needed
remittances, I think it is also important to assess the impacts of It can create dependency i.e. a family relying on one or two members living
net migration loss, because it is migrants who are sending abroad
remittances.
Creates family division and family pressure/conflict (the need to provide!)
Advantages of Remittances and Migration Increased dependency ratio in losing country, placing pressure on
government
Brain drain. Usually the youngest, most educated and skilled choose to
Reduces unemployment leave.
Reduces pressure on schools and hospitals (if migrants take Reduces incentive of government to invest in education and job provision
children)
Reduces pressure on infrastructure (houses, water , electricity,
transport) Migrants are open to extortion (family members maybe threatened for money
Remittances go directly to friends and family so enter economy at or migrants might lose money on exchange rates/transfer fees)
local level
Migrants can return with new skills (language, ICT)

Improved relations with countries (Barack Obama recently visited

El Salvador)
 Patterns in Environmental Quality and Sustainability

IB syllabus
Atmosphere and change Describe the functioning of the atmospheric system in terms of the energy balance between solar and
longwave radiation. Explain the changes in this balance due to external forcing (changes in solar radiation,
changes in the albedo of the atmosphere and changes in the longwave radiation returned to space). Discuss
the causes and environmental consequences of global climate change.

Explain the causes of soil degradation. Discuss the environmental and socio-economic consequences of this
process, together with management strategies.

Soil and change

Identify the ways in which water is utilized at the regional scale. Examine the environmental and human
factors affecting patterns and trends in physical water scarcity and economic water scarcity. Examine the
factors affecting access to safe drinking water.

Explain the concept and importance of biodiversity in tropical rainforests. Examine the causes and
Water and change consequences of reduced biodiversity in this biome.

Define the concept of environmental sustainability. Evaluate a management strategy at a local or national
scale designed to achieve environmental sustainability.

Biodiversity and change

Sustainability and the environment

A severe reduction in the quality of soils. The term includes soil erosion, salinization and soil exhaustion (loss of fertility).
Soil
degradation
Where the demand for water is greater than the supply of water. Physical water scarcity does not have to be an arid environment, because there
Physical water demand for water in arid environments (deserts) is not normally low meaning that there is no shortage.
scarcity
Where there is water available, but for some economic reason it is not possible to fully utilise the source of water. This might because extraction or
Economic transportation costs are too high, or because the water is polluted and it is not possible to treat it.
water scarcity
The balance between incoming solar (short wave) radiation and outgoing (long-wave) radiation.
Energy
balance
Incoming solar radiation (insolation) arriving from the sun
Solar radiation
Long wave radiation is emitted from cooler bodies, e.g. the earth. It is mainly infra-red heat
Longwave
radiation

The changes in global patterns of rainfall and temperature, sea level, habitats and the incidences of droughts, floods and storms, resulting from
Global climate changes in the Earths atmosphere, believed to be mainly caused by the enhanced greenhouse effect.
change
Albedo means how reflective a surface is. If a surface has a high albedo then more of the sun's energy is reflected. Fresh snow has one of the
Albedo world's highest albedos, reflecting up to 95% of the sun's energy. Darker surfaces like tarmac roads have a much lower albedo, only reflecting
about 5% of the earth's energy.

Because snow and ice have relatively higher albedos it is important that we try and protect them. If snow or ice melts and is replaced by rock or
dark vegetation then more of the earth's energy will be absorbed rather than reflected. These changes in the energy balance will cause even more
warming and probably more melting creating a spiral of melting and warming. Not only is the melting of ice is bad, but also the polluting or dirtying
of it is too. If snow gets dirty then it is darker and more likely to absorb rather than reflect.

Deforestation can also lead to changes in the albedo. Even though dark vegetation has a low albedo, it is still higher than rock or soil. Therefore if
we deforest more of the sun's energy will be absorbed. The energy that is reflected also has a higher change of being trapped by the atmosphere
because less photosynthesis will be taking place and there will be more carbon dioxide in the atmosphere enhancing the greenhouse effect.
 Biodiversity simply means the variety of flora and fauna (plants and animals). Tropical rainforests are considered to be biodiversity hotspots
Biodiversity because they have a large amount and variety of plants and animals - most of them unique to rainforests. They contain over 50% of the world
species in only 7% of the land area. They are home to 90% of insect species and 80% of primate species.

Improvements in the standard of living that do not cause long-term damage to the environment that impact future generations.
Environmental
sustainability

Global energy
Global Energy Budget
Budget
The energy balance is the balance between incoming energy
from the sun and outgoing energy from the atmosphere.
Energy released from the sun is in the form of shortwave
light and ultraviolet energy. The earth releases long wave
infrared energy.

When the sun's energy reaches the earth some is reflected

back by clouds, some is absorbed or scattered by the
atmosphere, some is reflected by the earth, but the majority
is still absorbed by the earth.

The amount of energy reflected by the earth is affected by

surfaces' albedo. We will look at the albedo of different
surfaces below.

The earth-atmosphere energy balance is achieved as the

energy received from the sun balances the energy lost from
the earth back into space. By maintaining a balance we
enjoy a stable climate.

However, by altering the balance of energy we can cause

climate changes. At the moment the world is experiencing
global warming which is believed to be caused by the
increase amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere
causing more reflected and released energy to be trapped in
the earth's atmosphere.

Changes in the
External forcings might affect the earths energy balance. There are 3 types of external forcing:
energy budget
due to external Changes in solar radiation (e.g. sun spots, solar flares)

forcings
Changes in the albedo of the atmosphere (e.g. the amount of cloud cover or the amount of pollution in the atmosphere. This could also be
affected by changes in the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere)

Changes in the longwave radiation returned to space (this would be caused by changes in the albedo of the earths surface (e.g. through melting
ice, deforestation or urbanisation)

The greenhouse effect is a natural process and one that is

Causes of vital to the existence of humans. Without the greenhouse
global climate effect the earth will be significantly colder and unable to
support large scale life. The greenhouse effect acts as a kind
change of blanket. As energy is reflected or released by the earth it
moves into the atmosphere where it is trapped and reflected
back by a layer of greenhouses gases. The reflected energy
returns to earth and is absorbed warming global
temperatures. The problem of global warming is caused by
humans enhancing the greenhouse effect. We are releasing
more greenhouse gases into the atmosphere which is
trapping an ever increasing amount of reflected or released
energy which returns to earth and warms us further.
Greenhouse gasses (GHG): Any gas that absorbs and
emits radiation in the thermal infrared range. The gases
include: Carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, methane, sulphur
dioxide, Nitrous Oxide, water vapour and ozone.
Sources of greenhouse gases include:
Transport (cars and planes)
Animals (cow release large amounts of methane)
Is Global Warming a Natural Event?
Some scientists believe that humans are not causing the current period of global
warming and that the earth naturally goes through periods of warmer and cooler
conditions. Three theories put forward to support this are below:
Earth's Orbit (Milankovitch Cycle)
Milankovitch Theory describes the collective effects of changes in the Earth's
movements upon its climate, named after Serbian civil engineer and
mathematician Milutin Milankovi. Milankovi mathematically theorised that
variations in eccentricity, axial tilt, and precession of the Earth's orbit determined
climatic patterns on Earth.
The Earth's axis completes one full cycle of precession approximately every
26,000 years. At the same time the elliptical orbit rotates more slowly. The
combined effect of the two precessions leads to a 21,000-year period between
the seasons and the orbit. In addition, the angle between Earth's rotational axis
and the normal to the plane of its orbit, obliquity, moves from 22.1 degrees to
24.5 degrees and back again on a 41,000-year cycle; currently, this angle is
23.44 degrees and is decreasing.

Burning fossils fuels (especially oil and coal) Solar Output

Melting Permafrost (methane is released when permafrost
Solar variation refers to changes in the amount of total solar radiation. There are
melts)
periodic components to these variations, the principal one being the 11-year
Industry solar cycle (or sunspot cycle). Solar activity has been measured by satellites
during recent decades and estimated using 'proxy' variables in prior times.
Domestic use (wood fires)
Scientists studying climate change are interested in understanding the effects of
variations in the total and spectral solar irradiance on the Earth and its climate.

Meteors and Volcanoes

 Volcanic eruptions can alter the climate of the Earth for both short and long
periods of time. For example, average global temperatures dropped about a
degree Fahrenheit for about two years after the eruption of Mount Pinatubo in
1991, and very cold temperatures caused crop failures and famine in North
America and Europe for two years following the eruption of Tambora in 1815.
Volcanologists believe that the balance of the Earth's mild climate over periods
of millions of years is maintained by ongoing volcanism. Volcanoes affect the
climate through the gases and dust particles thrown into the atmosphere during
eruptions. The effect of the volcanic gases and dust may warm or cool the
earth's surface, depending on how sunlight interacts with the volcanic material.

Meteors can have very similar effects to volcanoes. Large meteor strikes can
throw large amounts of ash into the atmosphere altering the amount of incoming
radiation. A meteor strike in the Yucatan Peninsula is blamed for the extinction of
the dinosaurs.

Consequences
Problems Caused By Global Warming
of global
climate change Rising Sea Levels: This is probably the best known impact of global warming, Rising sea levels itself will cause many impacts like loss of land,
climate refugees and changes in ecosystems. Most of the related problems are looked at individually below.

Coastal Flooding (cost of defences): Protecting coastlines is an expensive business and one that needs continually to re-assess. The sea is a
powerful force and can destroy or breach even the strongest defences. In addition as sea levels rise, some defences become too small, it is
believed that the Thames Flood Barrier designed to protect London will have to be enlarged in the future at enormous cost.

Climate Refugees: As sea levels rise more and more people who live on the coast will lose their homes and have to be relocated. Some richer
countries might be able to protect their populations, but low lying countries like the Maldives and poor countries like Bangladesh will see a rapid
increase in climate refugees.

Loss of Biodiversity: As temperatures warm and sea levels rise, the habitats of many plants and animals will alter. Although some animals may
be able to migrate to new areas, other plants and animals will lose their habitats forever and become extinct. The most talked about is probably
the polar bear, but coral reefs will see some of the biggest changes and losses of biodiversity.

Changes in the movement of ocean currents

Desertification: Rising temperatures and reduced rainfall will mean that some areas of the world will see increased rates of desertification.
Although much of the world's desertification is caused by human factors reduced rainfall and warmer temperatures will mean that some vegetation
will find it harder to survive.

Loss of Industry: Coastal industries like tourism and fishing will be effected as sea level rise and destroy holiday resorts (or even whole islands)
and engulf fishing ports and communities.

Flash Floods: Rising temperatures will not mean that everywhere gets drier and warmer. It might mean some places get cooler and it will
certainly mean some place get wetter. Melting ice sheets, permafrost and glaciers will mean more water is released from its storage. Rising
temperatures will in turn mean more water is evaporated into the atmosphere. The atmosphere can only hold so much water before it becomes
saturated and rains. Because of the amount of evaporation rainfall (especially convectional) will become more intense and cause more flash
floods.

Increased Tropical Storms: Some scientists believe that warming temperatures are increasing the magnitude and frequency of tropical storms.
Tropical storms receive their energy from the sea. For a tropical storm to develop and strengthen it needs warm seas so with global warming
causing sea temperatures to rise it might be increasing the number of tropical storms.

Heatwaves and Forest Fires: Increasing temperatures will cause heatwaves in an increasing number of countries, including countries that are
not prepared for the heat e.g. France where an estimated 14,800 died in the 2003 heat wave. Also Hot temperatures can dry out vegetation and
increase the risk of forest fires (both natural and man-made).

Melting Permafrost: Permafrost is ground that contains permanently frozen water. As global temperatures rise permafrost can begin to melt. The
melting permafrost not only releases large amounts of methane in the atmosphere increasing the greenhouse effect, but also releases freshwater
into the seas which may affect some of its ocean currents.

Droughts and Famines (crop failure): As global temperatures rise some areas of the planet will become more arid (drier). As areas become
more arid there will be increasing water shortages and crop failures leading to drought and famine. Areas that will be badly affected include the
Sahel (the area south of the Sahara Desert), where growing populations are putting ever increasing pressure on existing resources

Are there any Positive Impacts of Global Warming?

Improved Arctic Navigation: Global warming will mean that the amount of Arctic ice steadily decreases. As the ice melts navigation across the
North Pole will become safer and quicker. Trade between Scandinavia, Russia, Canada and US will all be a lot easier.

Increased Agricultural Land: As permafrost melts and temperatures start to rise it will be possible to grow more crops on more land. With a
rising global population this might be vital in the fight to reduce global famine.

Reduction in Cold Deaths: Old, young and sick people are very vulnerable to the cold. If global temperatures start to rise then latitudes further
north and south will become more hospitable and less people will die from the cold.

Release of Freshwater: Currently a lot the world's freshwater is held in glaciers or as permafrost. As global temperatures rise, we might be able
to capture and use some of this freshwater to reduce the effects of drought.

Accessibility of Resources: It is believed that places like Greenland, Alaska, Siberia and Antarctica contain a lot of resources (oil, gas, etc.). As
global warming causes large areas of ice to melt they will become more accessible for human exploitation.
 Reduced Heating: If global temperatures rise people will have to heat their properties less. Not only will this save money but it will also reduce
the demand for gas and electricity and therefore reduce the amount of greenhouse gases being released.

Causes of soil
HUMAN CAUSES OF SOIL DEGRADATION
degradation

Overgrazing: Allowing too much livestock to graze on a

piece of land which means all the vegetation is eaten making
the ground susceptible to wind and water erosion.
Over cultivation: If you farm land too intensively and don't
have fallow (periods of not growing anything) periods then all
the nutrients in the soil get used.
Deforestation: Cutting down trees which not only means the
land will be receiving less nutrients, but it also means it is
more vulnerable to erosion because there is no interception
and less stability because the root systems have been
removed.
Overpopulation: As the world population continues to grow
(now nearly 7 billion) the demand for agricultural products
(crops and meat) is increasing causing more land to be
deforested, over cultivated and overgrazed. The Importance of Soil (Humus and the Nitrogen Cycle)
Fertiliser and Pesticide Use: By using fertilisers and
pesticides you can artificially increase yields of crops. Soil is a natural body consisting of layers (sometimes called horizons) of
However, the process is unnatural and prolonged periods of minerals that vary in thickness. The layers are different to their source (bedrock)
use can all naturally produced nutrients to be used and local in their shape, size, chemical composition and mineral content. Soil is created
water sources to become polluted reducing the ability of land through processes of erosion and weathering in situ (in one place) and also by
to cultivate crops and therefore making it vulnerable to material being transported and deposited from other locations. Most soils also
chemical degradation as well as wind and water erosion.
contain humus made from biological matter.
HYV and GM Crops: Like with fertilisers and pesticides, it is
argued that HYV and GM crops have encouraged over The fertility of soil can depend on the depth of the soil, the mineral content in the
cultivation, diminishing natural nutrients in the soil. soil, the amount of humus in the soil, its drainage, structure and pH (the ideal
Industrial Pollution: Chemicals, metals and other pollutants range is normally between 6.0 and 6.8). Fertile soil is vitally important not only to
leaked from industrial processes can chemical degrade soil support the world's ecosystems; rainforest, savanna, etc. but also to allow the
making it useless or dangerous for farming. Acid rain caused production of agricultural crops and the rearing of domesticated animals to meet
by pollution can also cause soil degradation. human needs.
Unsustainable Water Use (aquifer depletion,
Humus: The fertile layer of soil normally found near the surface. It is made from
unsustainable irrigation): If aquifers or rivers are used
unsustainably then areas can become increasingly arid as biological matter (dead plants and animals) which have been broken down and
water resources are used up. A classic example of reached a stable state. If you deforest areas and convert to farming, the size and
unsustainable irrigation happened in the Aral Sea quality of the humus layer can be reduced quickly.

Toyotarisation: This is basically the increased use of 4x4s

to travel across grasslands, deserts, etc. damaging topsoil
and increasing wind and water erosion.
Conflict: During times of war biological and chemical
weapons can be used which degrade the quality of the soil.
During the Vietnam War large quantities of Agent Orange
were used to defoliate forests. Much of the land in Vietnam
is still degraded because of this 40 years on.
PHYSICAL CAUSES OF SOIL DEGRADATION
Nitrogen Cycle: The recycling of nitrogen through the ground and atmosphere.
Although 78% of our atmosphere is nitrogen, in its gaseous state it is not really
useful to plant life so its conversion is extremely important. Plants absorb
nitrogen through their roots so it is important that nitrogen is present in soil.
Nitrogen in the atmosphere is converted to ammonia in the soil through the
process of nitrogen fixation. Bacteria in the soil can then convert the ammonia
through the process of nitrification into nitrates which can be absorbed by plants.
Nitrogen that already exists in plants and animals is recycled by decomposers
(mainly fungi and bacteria). If deforestation takes place then the recycling of
nitrogen in the ground stops and the soil will become less fertile.

Rising Temperatures: As global temperatures increase it is

becoming increasingly hard for vegetation to grow thus
reducing vegetation cover and increasing the risk of wind
and water erosion.
Falling Rainfall: As the amount of rainfall reduces in some
areas like the Sahel, then it is increasingly hard for
vegetation to grow again making the ground more vulnerable
to wind and water erosion.
Flash floods: Intense periods of rainfall can also cause
erosion of topsoil which leads to land degradation.
Wind: If a region is particularly windy then the amount of
wind erosion is likely to increase.
Topography: If land is relatively flat then it is much less
vulnerable to water erosion, but maybe vulnerable to wind
erosion. Alternatively hilly land is vulnerable to water erosion,
but maybe protected more from wind erosion.

Environmental
Problems Caused by Soil Degradation
and socio-
economic Desertification: The process of fertile land turning into desert. As the soil becomes more degraded and has less nutrients it cannot support
vegetation and effectively turns to desert.
consequences
Dust Storms: As soil become less stable because of the lack of vegetation it become much more vulnerable to wind erosion which can create
of soil large scale dust storms. Northern China is suffering from an increased frequency of dust storms as desertification takes place south of the Gobi
degradation Desert.

Topsoil Erosion: The top layer of the soil often referred to as the humus layers is very nutrient rich. If the nutrients in this layer begin to reduce
then it can support less vegetation and this layer become vulnerable to erosion starting a downward decline in the quality of the soil and reducing
its ability to regenerate.
 Reduced Crop Yields: As the soil becomes less fertile the amount of crops that it can support will reduce. The falling crop yields can lead to
famine and starvation.
Conflict: With increasing soil degradation and reduction in agricultural output and available agricultural land conflict can arise over diminishing
resources.
Famine: If the soil become degraded and cops begin to fail or the yields reduce in quantity then famine can happen. Famine is normally caused
by a combination of factors, soil degradation, and drought and possibly a natural disaster or conflict, so if soil degrades it increases the potential of
famine.
Increased Use of Chemicals: Fertiliser use may increase to compensate for the lack of natural nutrients. This increased can worsen the problem
as over cultivation continues and pollute water courses.
Soil
Possible Solutions to Soil Degradation
degradation
management Crop Rotation and Fallow Periods: Growing different
crops each year, so different nutrients are used and to allow
strategies periods of rest (fallow periods) so that soil can regain its
fertility.
Terracing and Contour Ploughing: By ploughing with the
contours (shape) of the land rather than against it you not
only reduce water erosion, but you also reduce the need to
irrigate as much. Terraces work on the same principal, they
hold water in place rather than encouraging water erosion.
Shelter Belts: Shelter belts (sometimes called wind breaks)
are areas of forest or hedge that is left untouched to protect
farmland from the effects of water and wind erosion. Shelter
belts will often appear around the outside of fields.
Reforestation and Afforestation: By reforesting or
afforesting areas you can help return land to its natural state,
making it more fertile and stable, thus reducing wind and
water erosion and ultimately land degradation.
Fertilisers: Although as we have already learnt fertilizers
can cause over cultivation and eventual land degradation,
they can also help to add nutrients back into the soil and
allow continued cultivation.
Irrigation: It is possible to water areas of land that have
become arid to try and the productivity of the soil. However,
if water is not used sustainably then irrigation can cause
water shortages and land degradation elsewhere.
Grazing Quotas: Placing limits on the number and types of
animals that can graze on land, reducing the destruction of
vegetation and eventual desertification.
Population Control: The main reason we are putting more
pressure on the earth's resources (including soil) is because
the world's population has reached 7 billion and is still
growing rapidly. If we can control population growth then we
can limit the amount of agricultural land we need and the
intensity of our farming.
Urban Planning: Controlling growth of cities and using more
brownfield sites will reduce the need to deforest areas of
land. By keeping forest cover in place, the risk of land
degradation should be reduced.
GM Crops: GM stands for genetically modified. GM crops
can be engineered to withstand poor soil and water
shortages. By growing some types of vegetation you maybe
able to add nutrients back to the soil. However, it might it
encourage people to farm on unsuitable land causing even
further land degradation.
Organic Farming: Organic farming is farming without the
use of chemicals. If you farm organically you are less likely
to over cultivate and reduce the soil nutrient levels, but you
also not going to degrade the soil chemically.
Water and
Distribution of Water Resources
Change
important Only about 2.5% of the world's water is fresh and the majority of that is frozen or under the ground making it very hard to access. The reaming
freshwater that is easy to access is not distributed evenly across the world. The map to the right shows that the area with the smallest water
background supplies are in North Africa, Southern Africa, The Middle East, South Asia and East Europe. However, it must be remembered that just because
there is a shortage of water it does not necessarily mean that there is economic and physical water scarcity. This is because many areas with
Case Study Loess Plateau, China
Background
Soil is the basis of all plant growth, it filters water, decomposes waste, stores
Heat and exchanges gases. It is made up of air, water, mineral particles, organic
matter and organisms. The Loess Plateau is the cradle of Chinese civilization.
South of the Mongolian Steppe and the Gobi desert and east of the high Tibetan
plateau. Home to more than 50 million mostly very poor farmers. Complete
vegetation cover caused precipitation to take hundreds of days to infiltrate and
reach the Yellow River.
Causes of problem and consequences
Increased population created more pressure on the land resulting in over-
cultivation and cultivation occurring on unsuitable steep slopes. The need for
resources has stripped the plateau of its protective vegetation and causes
ecosystem collapse.
The degrading of the biological potential of land from a combination of adverse
climate and excessive human exploitation, leading ultimately to desert-like
conditions. Soil stability, natural fertility, the ability to absorb water, and the ability
to sequester carbon had all been lost. Runoff increased dramatically due to a
lack of vegetation cover with 95% of water reaching the Yellow River and
eroding fertile top soil. With no protection from the wind, soil particles are
transported thousands of miles, impacting on human health and exacerbating
global warming. Dust storms affect the whole of north east Asia originate on the
Loess Plateau. The microclimate has been altered and periods of intensive rain
and drought are becoming more frequent
Management Strategies
In 1994 the World Bank funded one of the most successful conservation projects
in the world, which improved the local environment, but also boosted the
livelihoods of more than 1 million farmers. Planted 270,000 hectares of trees,
shrubs and grasses on degraded agricultural lands. Constructed several
thousand sediment control dams, which has improved soil conservation and
created valuable farmland. Built 72,346 hectares of terraces, resulting in
immediate and substantial benefits for project farmers. Support of the Chinese
government, the World Bank and other donor agencies, rural communities have
been asked to transform the region by giving up thousands of years of traditional
- but unsustainable - agricultural practice. Small dams were built to harvest the
rainwater and tree planting was initiated on a large scale to stabilize the soil. The
introduction of more efficient and sustainable uses of land and water resources.
The project promoted a shift in emphasis for livestock keeping by promoting pen
feeding of sheep and goats with cut-and-carry fodder. Encouraged development
of high-value orchards, vineyards and greenhouses.
Carried out training, technology transfer, monitoring and evaluation, and a
research program to tackle soil and water conservation.
Consequences of management strategies
Higher and more stable grain production on terraces allows farmers to take
steep slope-land out of grain production and put it into more sustainable use
such as tree plantations. Creates high-yielding, level farmland for production of
field crops and orchards and thereby replacing areas devoted to crops on
erodible slope lands. The hydrological balance has been restored, the soil
rehabilitated and the flood risk for millions of people along the Yellow River has
decreased. This promoted soil and water conservation and produced much-
needed fuel, timber and fodder. Reducing erosion and sediment flow into the
Yellow River. These measures increase per hectare productivity on the improved
farmland, raise overall output and incomes, and have positive ecological impact.
In an average year, grain yields on terraces are double those on the slope land.
Within ten years, local people have seen their incomes quadruple as food
security and incomes have increased.
Some people were initially against the plan, e.g. the following view "They want
us to plant trees but people can't eat trees."
 water shortages are very sparsely populated.
info
The second map highlights the areas with physical and economic water shortages. Most of the northern hemisphere including North America,
Europe and Russia have no water shortages. Areas with physical water scarcity include North Africa (Sahara Desert), the Middles East (Arabian
Desert), Iran, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Northern India and Northern China (Gobi Desert).

The areas with economic scarcity include Central and Southern America, Central Africa, SE Asia and Australia. It is interesting to note that
according to the first map, most of these areas have an abundant supply of water, but for some reason are not able to access it properly.

Water
utilization at
the regional
scale

Poorer regions of the world use a higher proportion of their available water for agriculture, e.g. Sub-Saharan Africa (83%). MEDCs use a higher
proportion of available water for industry, e.g. Europe. There is little variation between the continents in the percentage of available water used for
domestic purposes. However, owing to their greater ability to access water MEDCs use a much higher amount per person for domestic purposes.
NICs are starting to use more water per person for domestic purposes. There has been an increase in demand for water from all 3 sectors around
the world, particularly agriculture.

Environmental
Causes of Water Shortages
and human
factors affecting Water shortages can be divided into a number of categories. As mentioned above, physical water shortages is when there is not enough surface
or ground water to meet the demand for it. Economic water shortages is when water exists, but for some reason it cannot be fully utilised, maybe
patterns and because extraction and piping is too expensive or treatment of polluted water is too expensive and the technology does not exist.

trends in Population Growth: As with many of the world's resources, they are coming under increasing pressure as the world's population grows. The
physical water world's population now stands at about 7 billion, all of whom are placing increasing on water resources as they develop and get richer.

scarcity and Pollution: As the world's population grows so does the demand for agricultural and industrial products. Our thirst for agricultural products is
increasing the use of fertilisers and pesticides which often run off into rivers and lakes or leach down to groundwater stores. Likewise our
economic water increasing demand for industrial and at times relaxed environmental regulations mean more chemicals and metals are being released into our
scarcity (and water sources. Sewage treatment also often lags behind population growth so increasingly our rivers and lakes are being polluted by sewage.

access to safe Domestic Demand: The demand from households is not only increasing because there are more households in the world, but also because the
water). amount of water they want is increasing with development. For example as peoples income increases and they move into permanent residences,
they demand flush toilets, bath/showers, washing machines, dishwashers and green gardens, all of which use large amounts of water.

Agricultural Demand: As can be seen in the graph below, agricultural places by far the biggest demand on water. With a growing population,
global warming and the movement in to less favourable agricultural regions, the demand from agriculture is only likely to increase in the future.

Industrial Demand: As the world's population grows and becomes richer our demand for industrial products grows. Many industrial products,
particular things like processing metal use huge quantities of water and place increasing demand on resources. Also mining for the raw materials
used in manufacturing use large quantities of water.

Sewage: With rapid urbanisation taking place in many cities around the world, infrastructure often does not keep up with new arrivals. The growth
of informal settlements without proper sewage treatment can mean that human waste is often pumped directly into water sources. However, this is
not only a problem in LEDCs, in London the sewer system cannot cope and an estimated 39 million tonnes of sewage are dumped in the River
Thames annually.

Climate Change: Climate change is impacting the availability of water in many ways. Global warming maybe releasing freshwater from glaciers
and ice shelves, but unfortunately much of it is running directly into the oceans. The subsequent rising sea levels are threatening many coastal
freshwater wetlands as well as increasing the risk of saltwater intrusion into aquifers. Warmer temperatures are increasing the amount of
evaporation from rivers and surfaces stores.

Political: In many countries or regions, water sources are shared e.g. the River Nile flows through eleven countries. At times some countries
control large percentages of the shared resource, leading to shortages for other countries. Follow the link and read how Egypt and the Sudan
control the majority of the Nile's water.

Mismanagement: If water is not used sustainably or inappropriately then water shortages can occur. One of the most famous examples is the
Aral Sea. The Aral Sea is located on the border of Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan. Water was taken from the two rivers that fed the Aral Sea to
irrigate the desert and grow cotton. Unfortunately so much water was needed to grow cotton in the desert that no water reached the Aral Sea and
it began to dry up, causing huge water shortages. For more details about the case study, following the link
 Groundwater Depletion: If water is used unsustainably i.e. more is taken out than is being recharged then aquifers can suffer from salinization
and saltwater intrusion. If you increase the concentration of water it can become too salty for human use. Also if you drain aquifers near coastal
areas, then they can become full of saltwater, again making them useless (

Energy Production: Although HEP is the most obvious form of energy that uses water, this water is released into rivers once it has passed
through the dam. Other types of energy that uses large amount of water for cooling e.g. coal and nuclear power, may pollute water or see it
evaporated removing it from local use.

Problems Caused by Water Shortages and Water Pollution

Drought: If there are economic or physical water scarcity and water stress exists then drought can occur. Drought is below average supply of
water over a prolonged period. Because drought is below average supply of water, even relatively wet country's like the UK can suffer from
drought.

Crop Failure: If there is a shortage of water and farmers cannot irrigate their crops then they begin to die.

Livestock Deaths: If livestock don't have enough water to drink they will begin to die.

Famine: If cops are failing and livestock are dying then people will become undernourished and suffer from famine.

Groundwater Depletion (subsidence and saltwater intrusion): If aquifers begin to dry up or are used unsustainably, then the ground above
can subside (collapse) or the aquifer can suffer from salinization or saltwater intrusion. Subsidence is a problem common in parts of Mexico City.

Conflict: If there is a limited supply of water and water resources are shared conflict can arise. Many of the ongoing border disputes between
Israel and Palestine are blamed on water shortages

Refugees: If there is drought and famine then people are forced to relocate or face death. Unfortunately many of the countries that suffer from
drought and famine have poor neighbours so refugees will be arriving in countries that are least able to cope.

Disease: Dirty water can attract mosquitoes which can increase diseases like dengue and malaria. Dirty water can also cause the spread of
diseases like hepatitis A and typhoid as well things like diarrhoea.

Eutrophication: Run-off from farms containing fertiliser can lead to eutrophication. Eutrophication is the excess growth of algae causing water to
not oxygenate properly or receive enough light. This can cause plants and animals to suffocate and die.

Biodiversity Loss: Dirty water and eutrophication can cause loss of biodiversity in wetland environments, but also just like humans can die of
thirst and starvation, so can plants and animals. Big animals like elephants which require large amounts of water often die in African droughts.

One of the four largest lakes - 68,000 sq km

lies in Kazakhstan (number one exporter of potassium) and Uzbekistan (inferior potassium).
the whole Aral sea basin covers 1.8 million sq km
The Aral Sea the two largest rivers flowing in are Syr Darya and Amu Darya
was part of the soviet union
Case Study- in 1930 canals were built to take water for the purpose of cotton irrigation and rice farming
during 1960s more canals were built and up to 70% of water evaporated or leaked out of the rivers
Environmental less water flowed in and it began to shrink
from 1960 to 1980, the falling of the sea level grew from 20cm to 90cm
and human 1960 to 1998 volume of water fell by 80%
factors affecting in 1987 the continued shrinkage cause the sea to split into north and south
in 2004 the size was only a quarter of what it was
patterns and in 2009 part of the seas had very high rates of salinity thus less fish could live
Results of shrinking
trends in Unemployment: Aral Sea used to support a prosperous fishing industry, employing 40,000 people. As the sea shrinked, the sea
physical water became more saline and polluted, resulting in a massive decline of the number of fish caught in the sea. The boats were soon
scrapped and had to be laid up. This led to unemployment of the fish farmers.
scarcity and Shut down of local services: As more and more people moved away due to limited availability of jobs in the area (few jobs available in
economic water new irrigated cotton and rice farms), local shops and services were unable to fill up its threshold population, became harder to survive.
Shut down of fishing ports: Fishing ports in the Aral Sea started to close as they found themselves further and further from the
scarcity (and shoreline, as the sea shrinked. Aralsk used to be the main fishing port, but by 2007, it was found 100km from the water edge.
access to safe Climate change: Shrinkage of the lake led to colder winter and hotter summer. The chemical and sewage residues from fertilisers and
pesticides on the dried out sea bed were whipped into huge toxic dust storms (400 km by 40 km)
water). Making Changes
in 2003 money from the sale of oil and the world bank meant kazkh govt could build the Kokaral dam
This separated the north and south Aral sea
this has allowed the 10m sea level rise in the north
Salinity levels declined and fish returned to the sea
improvements to irrigated farming by lining canals with concrete and drip irrigation
Recovery in north Aral sea
now there are over 80 fishing boats
2400 tons of fish were caught in 2009
estimated 10000 tons of fish to be caught yearly
10 million dollars spent on fish processing plant nearby
more people are moving back to the area thus services such as schools and shops are increasing
income from fishing and industry can be used diversify agriculture, modernise farms and reintroduce sheep farming
however in the Aral sea less water is flowing in and is continuing to decline, large area of salt river beds and more and more animals
are leaving
however Uzbekistan might start searching for oil and the money can be used for improvements
government wants central Asian state to reduce water usage
and the people living there are expected to increase from 48 million to 75 million in 2025
The western south Aral sea will continue to diminish become more saline and fish and wildlife will leave
climate will become more extreme
but the North Aral sea has a much brighter future, the 126 million dollar dam, will help water levels rise till it reaches port of aralsk
40km away
Case Study - Minamata is located on the Western coast of Kyushu, Japan's southernmost island
Before 1932, Minamata was a fishing village. Harvesting fish and shellfish from their waters
Minamata But in 1932, the Chisso foundation began production of chemicals for manufacturing plastics within minamata. And with this, heavy
metals such as mercury began to spill into the bay.
The heavy metals accumulated within the organic food chains in the bay
Environmental The people at this time received protein exclusively from fish and shellfish from the bay
No one really knew about this, but people welcomed the industry for it provided new jobs and contributed to the local economy.
and human In the 1950s, after WW2, Chissos production of chemicals increased greatly, as did its pollution into the waters.
Fish began to float dead in the waters
factors affecting Chisso paid indemnity to local fishermen for whatever harm they might have been causing to their stocks
Cats began exhibiting strange erratic behaviour that sometimes caused them to fall into the waters and drown. People called these
patterns and cat suicides
trends in People began showing symptoms of this at around the same time
In 1956, an epidemic broke out, with people losing their senses of motor control and deteriorating psychologically. People coined the
physical water term Dancing cat disease, in relation to their convulsions being close to what the cats of the area were displaying
By the end of the year epidemiological and medical researchers found that the cause was heavy metal poisoning from eating the local
scarcity and
shellfish and fish.
economic water In 1959 private tests were conducted by Chisso, and they chose not to release the information that they were the cause. They
installed equipment to control emissions (they knew it was completely ineffective) and consolidated families of the patients with cash
scarcity (and By now 100 victims have been diagnosed, with over 20 DEAD.
access to safe More patients began to emerge in the coming years, with children even being born with the affliction. And in 1963 the government
realized that Chisso was the cause of the poisoning.
water). In 1970 Chisso was made to give 3.2 million USD to the original group of patients.
In the 70s Chisso began using Yakuza goons to silence and threaten victims and patients. They also beat up an American
photographer that was documenting it
By 2004 they have paid over 86 million in compensation
Safe drinking What will the Arab World do when the water runs out?
water case Poverty, repression, decades of injustice and mass unemployment have all been cited as causes of the political convulsions in the Middle East
and north Africa these last weeks. But a less recognised reason for the turmoil in Egypt, Tunisia, Algeria, Yemen, Jordan and now Iran has been
study Middle rising food prices, directly linked to a growing regional water crisis. The diverse states that make up the Arab world, stretching from the Atlantic
coast to Iraq, have some of the world's greatest oil reserves, but this disguises the fact that they mostly occupy hyper-arid places. Rivers are few,
East water demand is increasing as populations grow, underground reserves are shrinking and nearly all depend on imported staple foods that are now
trading at record prices. For a region that expects populations to double to more than 600 million within 40 years, and climate change to raise
temperatures, these structural problems are political dynamite and already destabilising countries, say the World Bank, the UN and many
independent studies.

In recent reports they separately warn that the riots and demonstrations after the three major food-price rises of the last five years in north Africa
and the Middle East might be just a taste of greater troubles to come unless countries start to share their natural resources, and reduce their
Note this case profligate energy and water use. "In the future the main geopolitical resource in the Middle East will be water rather than oil. The situation is
alarming," said Swiss foreign minister Micheline Calmy-Rey last week, as she launched a Swiss and Swedish government-funded report for the
study can be EU.

used as an The Blue Peace report examined long-term prospects for seven countries, including Turkey, Iraq, Jordan, the Palestinian territories and Israel.
Five already suffer major structural shortages, it said, and the amount of water being taken from dwindling sources across the region cannot
example both continue much longer. "Unless there is a technological breakthrough or a miraculous discovery, the Middle East will not escape a serious [water]
shortage," said Sundeep Waslekar, a researcher from the Strategic Foresight Group who wrote the report.
for where a
Autocratic, oil-rich rulers have been able to control their people by controlling nature and have kept the lid on political turmoil at home by heavily
region has had subsidising "virtual" or "embedded" water in the form of staple grains imported from the US and elsewhere. But, says Jon Alterman, director of the
Middle East programme at the Washington-based Centre for Strategic Studies, existing political relationships are liable to break down when, as
their drinking now, the price of food hits record levels and the demand for water and energy soars. "Water is a fundamental part of the social contract in Middle
Eastern countries. Along with subsidised food and fuel, governments provide cheap or even free water to ensure the consent of the governed. But
water reduced when subsidised commodities have been cut, instability has often followed.
and where it "Water's own role in prompting unrest has so far been relatively limited, but that is unlikely to hold. Future water scarcity will be much more
permanent than past shortages, and the techniques governments have used in responding to past disturbances may not be enough," he says.
has increased "The problem will only get worse. Arab countries depend on other countries for their food security they're as sensitive to floods in Australia and
(desalinisation big freezes in Canada as on the yield in Algeria or Egypt itself," says political analyst and Middle East author Vicken Cheterian.

"In 2008/9, Arab countries' food imports cost $30bn. Then, rising prices caused waves of rioting and left the unemployed and impoverished
plants, millions in Arab countries even more exposed. The paradox of Arab economies is that they depend on oil prices, while increased energy prices
groundwater make their food more expensive," says Cheterian. The region's most food- and water-insecure country is Yemen, the poorest in the Arab world,
which gets less than 200 cubic metres of water per person a year well below the international water poverty line of 1,000m 3 and must import
storage, 80-90% o f its food. According to Mahmoud Shidiwah, chair of the Yemeni water and environment protection agency, 19 of the country's 21 main
aquifers are no longer being replenished and the government has considered moving Sana'a, the capital city, with around two million people,
reducing water which is expected to run dry within six years.

wastage) "Water shortages have increased political tensions between groups. We have a very big problem," he says. Two internal conflicts are already
raging in Yemen and the capital has been rocked by riots this month. "There is an obvious link between high food prices and unrest [in the region].
Drought, population and water scarcity are aggravating factors. The pressure on natural resources is increasing, and the pressure on the land is
great," said Giancarlo Cirri, the UN World Food Programme representative in Yemen. "If you look at the recent Small Arms Survey [in Yemen],
they try to document the increase in what they call social violence due to this pressure on water and land. This social violence is increasing, and
related deaths and casualties are pretty high. The death tolls in the northern conflict and the southern conflict are a result of these pressures," said
Cirri. Other Arab countries are not faring much better. Jordan, which expects water demand to double in the next 20 years, faces massive
shortages because of population growth and a longstanding water dispute with Israel. Its per capita water supply will fall from the current 200m 3
per person to 91m3 within 30 years, says the World Bank. Palestine and Israel fiercely dispute fragile water resources.

Algeria and Tunisia, along with the seven emirates in the UAE, Morocco, Iraq and Iran are all in "water deficit" using far more than they receive
in rain or snowfall. Only Turkey has a major surplus, but it is unwilling to share. Abu Dhabi, the world's most profligate water user, says it will run
out of its ancient fossil water reserves in 40 years; Libya has spent $20bn pumping unreplenishable water from deep wells in the desert but has no
idea how long the resource will last; Saudi Arabian water demand has increased by 500% in 25 years and is expected to double again in 20 years
as power demand surges as much as 10% a year. The Blue Peace report highlights the rapid decline in many of the region's major water
sources. The water level in the Dead Sea has dropped by nearly 150ft since the 1960s. The marshlands in Iraq have shrunk by 90% and the Sea
of Galilee (Lake Kinneret) is at risk of becoming irreversibly salinised by salt water springs below it. Meanwhile, says the UN, farm land is
becoming unusable as irrigation schemes and intensive farming lead to waterlogging and desalination.

Some oil-rich Arab countries are belatedly beginning to address the problem. Having drained underground aquifers to grow inappropriate crops for
many years, they have turned en masse to desalination. More than 1,500 massive plants now line the Gulf and the Mediterranean and provide
much of north Africa and the Middle East's drinking water and two-thirds of the world's desalinated water. The plants take salty or brackish water,
and either warm it, vaporise it and separate off the salts and impurities, or pass it through filters. According to the WWF, it's an "expensive, energy
intensive and greenhouse gas-emitting way to get fresh water", but costs are falling and the industry is booming. Solar-powered plants are being
built for small communities but no way has been found to avoid the concentrated salt stream that the plants produce. The impurities extracted
from the water mostly end up back in the sea or in aquifers and kill marine life.

Only now are countries starting to see the downsides of desalination. Salt levels in the Arabian Gulf are eight times higher in some places than
they should be, as power-hungry water plants return salt to an already saline sea. The higher salinity of the seawater intake reduces the plant's
efficiency and, in some areas, marine life is suffering badly, affecting coral and fishing catches. Desalination has allowed dictators and elites to
continue to waste water on a massive scale. Nearly 20% of all Saudi oil money in the 1970s and 80s was used to provide clean water to grow
wheat and other crops in regions that would not naturally be able to do so. Parks, golf courses, roadside verges and household gardens are all still
watered with expensively produced clean drinking water. The energy and therefore water needed to keep barely insulated buildings super-cold
in Gulf states is astonishing.

Countries now recognise how vulnerable they are to conflict. The UAE, which includes Abu Dhabi and Dubai, has started to build the world's
largest underground reservoir, with 26,000,000m 3 of desalinated water. It will store enough water for 90 days when completed. The reasoning is
 that the UAE is now wholly dependent on desalination to survive. Water awareness is definitely growing, says Kala Krishnan, member of an eco
club at the large Indian school in Abu Dhabi. "People were amazed when we showed them how much they use in a day. We stacked up 550 one-
litre bottles and they refused to believe it. Now schools are competing with each other to reduce water wastage. "More than 2,000 mosques in Abu
Dhabi have been fitted with water-saving devices, which is saving millions of gallons of water a year when people wash before prayer. Other UAE
states are expected to follow.

The more drastic response to the crisis is to shift farming elsewhere and to build reserves. Saudi Arabia said in 2008 it would cut domestic wheat
output by 12.5% a year to save its water supplies. It is now subsidising traders to buy land in Africa. Since the troubles in Egypt and north Africa, it
has said it aims to double its wheat reserves to 1.4m tonnes, enough to satisfy demand for a year.

Note the 4 National Taps of Singapore could also be used for a case study of how water supply has improved.

The 1st National Tap Local catchment

As a small island that doesn't have natural aquifers and lakes and with little land to collect rainwater, Singapore needs to maximise whatever it can
harvest. Currently, Singapore uses two separate systems to collect rainwater and used water. Rainwater is collected through a comprehensive
network of drains, canals, rivers and storm water collection ponds before it is channelled to Singapore's 17 reservoirs for storage. This makes
Singapore one of the few countries in the world to harvest urban storm water on a large scale for its water supply. The newest reservoirs are
Punggol and Serangoon Reservoirs which are our 16th and 17th reservoirs. By 2011, the water catchment area has increased from half to two-
thirds of Singapores land surface with the completion of the Marina, Punggol and Serangoon reservoirs. With all the major estuaries already
dammed to create reservoirs, PUB aims to harness water from the remaining streams and rivulets near the shoreline using technology that can
treat water of varying salinity. This will boost Singapores water catchment area to 90% by 2060.

The 2nd National Tap imported water

Singapore has been importing water from Johor, Malaysia, under two bilateral agreements. The first agreement expired in August 2011 and
second agreement will expire in 2061.

The 3rd National Tap - Use Each Drop of Water More Than Once

A Singapore success story and the pillar of Singapores water sustainability, NEWater is high-grade reclaimed water. It is produced from treated
used water that is further purified using advanced membrane technologies and ultra-violet disinfection, making it ultra-clean and safe to drink.
Developed by PUB after three decades, NEWater has passed more than 65,000 scientific tests and surpasses World Health Organisation
requirements, a testimony of its high quality and reliability. NEWater is proof that using today's water treatment technologies, water of any quality
can be treated into drinking water. The first NEWater plants were opened in Bedok and Kranji in 2003. The latest and largest NEWater plant at
Changi with a capacity of 50mgd was opened in May 2010. Currently, NEWater meets 30% of the nations water needs. By 2060, we plan to triple
the current NEWater capacity so that NEWater can meet 50% of our future water demand.

The 4th National Tap - Desalination

In September 2005, Singapore turned on its fourth National Tap, with the opening of the SingSpring Desalination Plant in Tuas. The SingSpring
desalination plant was PUBs first public-private partnership (PPP) project. This plant can produce 30 million gallons of water a day (136, 000
cubic meters) and is one of the regions largest seawater reverse-osmosis plants. Like its predecessor NEWater, desalinated water is the result of
PUB's continued investments in water technologies and research. Recent advancements in technology and cheaper membrane prices have made
desalinated water another viable source of water supply for Singapore. At the SingSpring plant, sea water goes through a pre-treatment process
where suspended particles are removed. In the second stage, the water undergoes reverse osmosis (RO). This is the same technology used in
the production of NEWater. The water produced is very pure and is remineralised in the third stage. After treatment, desalinated water is blended
with treated water before it is supplied to homes and industries in the western part of Singapore. The second desalination plant with a capacity of
70 million gallons of water a day has just been completed.

Concept and
Tropical rainforests are mainly located between the tropics. The Amazon rainforest in South America is the largest rainforest in the world, but there
importance of are also large areas of rainforest in the Congo Basin, SE Asia, Central America, Southern India and Northern Australia. Tropical rainforests cover
bio-diversity in about 7% of the earth's surface. There typical climate are daily temperatures between 20c and 45c and annual rainfall of 125cm to 650cm.
Rainforests tend to be very humid and experience thunderstorms in late afternoon. Rates of deforestation vary widely and even with the use of
tropical satellite images are hard to accurate clearly. Estimates claim about 1 and half acres are cleared every second which accounts for the area twice
the size of Florida every year. Scientists believe that in 40 years all major rainforests may have disappeared. It is estimated that 100 species
rainforests become extinct every day. 50% of all plant and animal life in the world is in the rainforest.

Why is Biodiversity Important?

Plant biodiversity ensures a varied and interesting diet (more fruits, nuts, vegetables, etc make our diet more interesting and healthier). It is
believed that 80% of the MEDC diet comes from plants that originated in the rainforest.
Some of the genes from rainforest plants might be able to be crossed with other plants to create crops that could increase world food supply.
Greater biodiversity ensures sustainability for all aspects of food webs
Biodiversity provides medical remedies for humans, many of which we may not have discovered yet, e.g. species of Madagascar Periwinkle has
reduced the mortality rate of childhood leukaemia from 80% to20%. Quinine (important insect repellent that protects people from malaria) also
comes from the rainforest. Diogenin (medical asthma reliever) also originates from the rainforest as do 25% of all cancer fighting drugs.
It ensures the healthy circulation of nutrients in the nitrogen cycle
It creates a more diverse and interesting world to live in and promotes ecotourism (natural beauty)
Varied ecosystems with high biodiversity are better able to recover from natural and manmade disasters.
Creates a diverse gene pool, ensuring continued survival of flora and fauna. We use many of the rainforest products, e.g. Mahogany, teak. We
would no longer be able to use these if they became extinct
They can clean water in the hydrological cycle
Regulate climate (temperatures and rainfall)
Loss of some species through extinction might have social and ethical implications (e.g. Sumatran Rhino)

Causes of Cattle Ranching: As the world's population gets bigger and richer, the demand for meat is increasing. To rear the cattle increasing tracts of the
rainforest are being cleared to make pastures for grazing.
reduced Subsistence Farming: Because of the large amounts of poor people that still live in tropical areas, subsistence farming is still widespread.
biodiversity in Because rainforest soil loses its fertility quickly after deforestation, the most common form of subsistence farming is slash and burn. With growing
populations this method of farming can cause widespread deforestation.
tropical HEP: Many of the world's great rivers flow through rainforests e.g. the Amazon. These great rivers often have the most HEP potential.
Unfortunately when a dam and reservoir are built it causes damage during construction, but also floods large areas.
rainforests Mining: With an ever increasing demand for the world's natural resources, countries and companies are looking at increasingly isolated locations,
places like rainforests and Antarctica. The rainforests are believed to have many resources including metals and fossil fuels beneath their soils.
Gold mining can be particular damaging as mercury is used in its extraction and often runs off into rivers.
 Road building: Building new roads like Trans Amazon highway from Brazil to Bolivia not only causes deforestation itself, but its also opens up
new areas to urbanisation, mining and farming causing further deforestation.
Urban growth: With the world population increasing as well as rates of urbanisation increasing many cities like Manuas in Brazil are growing
rapidly causing deforestation.
Population growth: As populations grow, particularly in countries like Brazil, Peru, India and Vietnam that contain rainforests the demand for land
increases, both to grow food and to live.
Plantations: Primary products are often seen as an income source for LEDCs, many of who have large areas of rainforest. At the same time with
fossil fuels running out, alternative fuels sources are been searched for including biofuels e.g. Palm oil. This has lead to widespread deforestation
in countries like Malaysia and Indonesia to plant cops like palm oil.
Timber (hardwoods): Hardwoods like mahogany and teak that take hundreds of years to grow are still in high demand to make things like
furniture. The extraction of these trees can kills trees around them. Also many countries like China are also demanding large amounts of normal
timber that are not always taken from sustainable sources.
Hunting: Hunting takes two forms, one form is for bush meat to feed families and enough the sale of animals either alive e.g. parrots or dead for
their skins e.g. jaguars.

Why are Biodiversity: Although rainforests cover only 7% of the world's land mass, it is estimated that they could contain up to 50% of the world's
biodiversity. This is potentially up to 15 million species.
rainforests Photosynthesis: Tropical rainforests are often referred to as the 'lungs of the earth' and convert large amounts of the greenhouse gas carbon
important dioxide back into oxygen. It is estimated that the Amazon rainforest alone produces about 20% of the earth's oxygen.
Flood control (interception, transpiration): Rainforests are an excellent natural measure to reducing flooding. There is leaf cover in rainforests
(note the all year so interception continually happens, extending rivers lag time. All vegetation uptakes water and transpires it.
Control of soil erosion: The root systems of trees and shrubs hold the very thin soil of rainforest in place. If trees are removed then both erosion
difference of topsoil and landslides are more likely
Source of nutrients to humus layer in soil: The topsoil in rainforests is very thin and relies on the nutrients provided by rotting plants and
between this animals. Because of the rainforests climate, there is a constant supply of leaf litter.
Medical remedies: Rainforests have been the source of many of today's drugs, including the basic ingredients for the hormone contraceptive pill,
and the quinine (an anti-malaria drug) and curare (a paralysing drug).
Cash crops and agricultural products: Yam, coffee, rubber, mango, banana, sugarcane, cocoa and avocado were all first discovered in
consequences rainforests.
Ecotourism: With people becoming ever more environmentally conscious and looking for increasing adventures, ecotourism to rainforests is
of reduced increasing. This not only helps protect rainforests, but creates income for locals. Ecotourism is an important income to countries like Costa Rica
and Belize.
biodiversity Home to indigenous groups: Although the number of indigenous groups and people have declined rapidly since colonisation in South America, it
see syllabus) is estimated that there are still over 200,000 people that consider the Amazon their home - some groups are still uncontacted.

Sustainable Development: Meeting the needs of today's Environmental sustainability is actually Millennium Development Goal number
Environmental population without compromising the needs of future seven. The goal has four targets The targets are:
sustainability generations. Today sustainable development is usually
considered to include environmental, social and economic Target 7a: Integrate the principles of sustainable development into country
sustainability (see definitions below). If development policies and programmes; reverse loss of environmental resources
includes social, economic and environmental aspects then it
is considered to be sustainable development. Target 7b: Reduce biodiversity loss, achieving, by 2010, a significant
reduction in the rate of loss
Stewardship: The act of overseeing the protection of
something e.g. rainforests. Target 7c: Reduce by half the proportion of people without sustainable
access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation
Conservation: The act of preserving and protecting
something. Target 7d: Achieve significant improvement in lives of at least 100 million
slum dwellers, by 2020
Environment: The things that surround you. In Geography
when we talk about the environment we normally mean the
natural things that surround you e.g. trees, rivers, mountains
and lakes.

Case Study Marina Barrage, Singapore

Management
strategy at a Note this meets the requirements of environmental sustainability because it is about the long term maintenance of wellbeing. Singapore is not
national scale currently self-sufficient in water. It has a population of 7,500 people per km square and is planning a population increase. It has no natural aquifers
and little land to build reservoirs on. Singapore uses water for domestic and industrial purposes. Unlike other countries it uses little water for
designed to agriculture. It currently is reliant on water purchases from Malaysia, which has the potential to cause political tension. Yet it aims to be self-
sustainable in water supply by 2061. One of the ways in which it aims to achieve this is through the building of the Marina Barrage. Built across
achieve the mouth of the Marina Channel, the Marina Barrage creates Singapores 15th reservoir, and the first in the heart of the city. With a catchment
environmental area of 10,000 hectares, or one-sixth the size of Singapore, the Marina catchment is the islands largest and most urbanised catchment. Together
with two other new reservoirs, the Marina Reservoir has increased Singapores water catchment from half to two-thirds of the countrys land area.
sustainability The Marina Barrage is the result of former Minister Mentor Lee Kuan Yews vision nearly two decades ago when he envisaged damming the
mouth of the Marina Channel to create a freshwater reservoir. The Marina Barrage is a dam built across the 350-metre wide Marina Channel to
keep out seawater, forming Singapore's first reservoir in the city and 15th reservoir. Marina Reservoir, together with Punggol and Serangoon
reservoirs, increased Singapores water catchment area from half to two-thirds of Singapores land area in 2011.

On 20 November 2010, the Marina Reservoir was commissioned by former Minister Mentor Lee Kuan Yew as a freshwater reservoir, augmenting
Singapores water supply for generations to come. Desalting had begun in April 2009 through natural replacement by rainwater. Local catchment
water is one of the Four National Taps, with the other three being imported water, NEWater and desalinated water. As one of the pillars of local
water supply, Marina Reservoir can meet about 10% of Singapore's current water demand.

You will be expected to evaluate the scheme. The positives are the increase in freshwater supply, which removes the reliance on imports from
Malaysia. Minimal ecological impacts means that it supports Singapores long term economic well-being. People cannot survive without
freshwater. It also provides a leisure facility and it claims that it prevents flooding. The Marina Barrage is part of a comprehensive flood control
scheme to alleviate flooding in the low-lying areas in the city such as Chinatown, Boat Quay, Jalan Besar and Geylang. During heavy rain, the
series of nine crest gates at the dam will be activated to release excess storm water into the sea when the tide is low. In the case of high tide,
giant pumps which are capable of pumping an Olympics-size swimming pool per minute will drain excess storm water into the sea. The Barrage
could also be argued to be aesthetically pleasing in the crucial financial hub of Singapore and has therefore helped increase investment into the
city.

Negatives - There is some ecological impact on the estuarine wildlife that survives in the inter-tidal area at the mouth of the river. This will have
knock on effects throughout the ecosystem. It has possibly also increased the risk of flooding further upstream on the Singapore River, as can be
seen by the 2011 floods on Orchard Road.
 Patterns in Resource Consumption
Syllabus
Patterns of resource
consumption
Changing patterns of energy
consumption
Conservation strategies
Agreed Syllabus
Definition: Ecological
footprint
Other Definitions:
Biocapacity
Carbon footprint
Resource
Fossil fuels
Neo-Malthusian
Anti-Malthusian
Carrying capacity
Evaluate the ecological footprint as a measure of the relationship between population size and resource
consumption. Identify international variations in its size.
Discuss the two opposing views (neo-Malthusian and anti-Malthusian) of the relationship between population size
and resource consumption.
Examine the global patterns and trends in the production and consumption of oil.
Examine the geopolitical and environmental impacts of these changes in patterns and trends. Examine the changing
importance of other energy sources.
Discuss the reduction of resource consumption by conservation, waste reduction, recycling and substitution.
Evaluate a strategy at a local or national scale aimed at reducing the consumption of one resource.
A measure of human demand on the earth's ecosystems. It represents the amount of biologically productive land and sea needed
to regenerate the resources human population and to absorb and render harmless the corresponding waste.
The ability of an area to provide resources and absorb waste.
The total amount of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions caused by an organization, event, product or person.
Anything that can be used by humans.
Natural resource: Resources that are naturally made by our planet e.g. water, wind, coal, gold and diamonds.
Human resource: Resources that have been created and developed by humans e.g. computers and schools.
Renewable resources: A resource that can be used over and over again. Resources that don't run out are often described as
being infinite e.g. wind.
Non-renewable resources: A resource that runs out once it has been used. Non-renewable resources are described as being
finite i.e. they will eventually run out e.g. fossil fuels.
Fuels that have been created over millions of years from decaying biological matter. The three main fossil fuels are; oil, gas and
coal
This is an idea of thought that follows Malthus's ideas. Paul Ehrlich and the ''Club of Rome" both have Neo-Malthusiasn ideas.
Anti-Malthusian is simply the school of thought that disagrees with Malthus's pessimism and is more aligned to Boserup's
optimism i.e. that humans will always find solutions to shortages.
Carrying capacity: The maximum number of people that may live in or visit a destination at the same time, without causing
destruction of the physical, economic, socio-cultural environment and an unacceptable decrease in the quality of the living
environment. The IB splits carrying capacity into environmental carrying capacity and perceptual carrying capacity. Environmental
carrying capacity is the maximum number of residents an area can support, before environmental harm is done. Perceptual
carrying capacity is the maximum number of people in an area before residents consider an impact like noise to be excessive.
The idea of carrying capacity does come in for criticism. The main argument is that population and technology constantly change
so the carrying capacity may change. A country's carrying capacity may change because:
New resources are discovered or resources run out
New technology like solar panels or desalination are introduced
New transport links are built
New sources of water are found or new crops engineered
Natural disasters damage infrastructure and resources
Carrying capacity is often divided into different sections:
 Ecological/Environmental/Biological/Biophysical: This deals with the extent to which the natural environment can tolerate a
population. This is made more complicated by the fact that because it deals with ecology which is able to regenerate to some
extent so in this case the carrying capacity is when the damage exceeds the habitats ability to regenerate.

Economic: This relates to the amount of people an economy can support in terms of jobs, levels of debt. If an area has high
levels of unemployment and debt then it probably exceeds its carrying capacity.

Perceptual or Social: This relates to the negative socio-cultural affects related to populations size. Perceptual and social
carrying capacity may have been reached when the local tolerance for an area decreases and they decide to move.

Physical: This is the maximum number of people that an area is actually able to support/hold. For example Singapore is a finite
size, so there is only so many houses that can be physically built there for people to live in.

There are a number of factors that can affect a country's carrying capacity including:

Terrain (relief): It is harder to build industry, homes and infrastructure in mountainous environments, so mountainous countries
like Nepal and Bhutan are likely to have smaller carrying capacities.
Climate: Very hot or very cold climates are harder to grow crops in, probably have less available water and probably need more
energy to make conditions comfortable to live in. Therefore cold areas like Greenland and very hot areas like the Sahara are
going to have lower carrying capacities.
Political Stability: Countries that are stable and have lower level of corruption and wastage are more likely to have higher
carrying capacities, than less stable and corrupt countries like Afghanistan.
Technology and Development: Rich countries and countries with access to technology like the US and Japan tend to have
much higher carrying capacities because they can minimise environmental damage (renewable energy) and create jobs.
Arable Land (soil): Countries with fertile soil and good levels of farming e.g. irrigation/fertilisers/GM then they are likely to have
higher carrying capacities e.g. the UK

Problems if a destination exceeds its carrying capacity include:

Inflation
Tensions between different groups e.g. environmentalists and industrialists
Deforestation
Congestion
Water pollution from increased waste
Water shortages from increased demand
Air pollution from increased cars and flights
Unemployment or underemployment
Drought and famine
Power black-outs (electricity shortages)
Visual and noise pollution
Disturbance of wildlife
Reduction in visitor numbers (tourists)
Increase in crime
Increased death rates and reduced life expectancy
Shortage of school and hospital places
Housing shortages (homelessness and increase in informal settlements)
Conservation Looking after the resources that we currently have to maintain their supply in a sustainable manner.

The Waste Pyramid

Energy from Waste Waste-to-energy (WtE) or energy-from-waste (EfW) is the process of generating energy in the form of electricity and/or heat from
the primary treatment of waste. WtE is a form of energy recovery. Most WtE processes produce electricity and/or heat directly
through combustion, or produce a combustible fuel commodity, such as methane, methanol, ethanol or synthetic fuels
Waste reduction This refers to using less of a product e.g. less packaging, less energy

Recycling The re-processing of industrial and household waste so that materials can be reused. Currently materials like paper, card,
 plastics, glass and some metals are recycled.

Substitution Swapping one product for another. This could be using HEP rather than oil.

ecological footprint as a
measure
of the relationship between
population size and
resource
consumption
Global Hecate: The measurement of
biocapacity and ecological footprint. There were
13.4billion hectares of biologically productive
land and water on this planet in 2005. Dividing
by the number of people alive in that year, 6.5
billion, gives 2.1 global hectares per person.
Ecological Creditor: Countries whose
ecological footprint is lower than their
biocapacity.
By the mid-1980s humankinds ecological footprint has reached the earths
biocapacity. Since then humanity has been in ecological overshoot with an
annual demand on resources each year exceeding the Earths regenerative
capacity. The global footprint now exceeds the planets regenerative capacity
by about 30%.
Biocapacity is influenced by both natural events and human activity. For
example, some agricultural practices can reduce biocapacity by increasing
soil erosion or salinity.

Ecological Debtor: Country's whole ecological

footprint is higher than their biocapacity.

Ecological footprints can be looked at on an

individual level, a household level, a city level, a
country level or a global level. Calculations are
complicated but basically look at carbon footprint
and then people's impact on resources and the
environment in terms of agriculture, fisheries,
energy, forestries and settlements.

The UAE and USA have the highest ecological

footprint in the world. These countries have
figures above 8 global hectares per person. The
lowest per capita figures are Afghanistan and
Malawi with 0.5 global hectares per person.

The expansion of world trade has been an

important factor in the growth of humanitys
ecological footprint.

PROS & CONS of the Ecological footprint: the theoretical measurement of the amount of land and water a population requires to produce the resources
Ecological footprint it consumes and to absorb its waste under prevailing technology

Pros:
Provides accurate figures
Standardised indicator and create solutions around it
Tells us if we are living within the biological capacity of the planet
Encourages us to understand that the environment has limits
Potential of communicating the idea of global sustainability
Can be used to model different scenarios -> strategies and planning
Can help to identify unsustainable trends -> create opportunities for more sustainable management of resources

Chinas changing Resource China's large population (about 1.3 billion people) as well as its rapid economic development and urbanisation has meant that it is
demands
Cons:
Ignores technological changes
Not feasible to calculate ecological damage on a larger scale (leads to wrong analysis)
Does not include imports and exports
Only addresses ecological sustainability and doesnt tell us about quality of life
Quantitative measure - does not measure quality of environment
Should consider economic and social indicators to give the whole picture of sustainable development
increasingly demanding more and more of the world's resources. Because China itself only has a finite amount of resources it is
looking to other countries and regions to supply it, most noticeably Latin America and Africa. Demand for resources is increasing
because:

The population is growing and getting richer it is demanding more food (especially meat). This requires ever big areas of land and
water to grow the food
China's population is rapidly urbanising so there is growing demand for construction materials like copper and steel
China's developing population are demanding more luxury products like televisions, washing machines and mobile phones that all
require resources to manufacture.
China has a large manufacturing economy - it is the world's biggest exporter. To maintain its position it needs a reliable supply of
resources
China's economic growth means the demand for fossil fuels is growing.

neo-Malthusian view of the
relationship between
population
size and resource
consumption
Thomas Malthus: In 1798 Thomas Malthus produced his essay on the ''Principle of Population". He believed that population was
growing at a faster rate (exponentially) than resources (arithmetically). As population exceeds resources he believed there would
be either preventive checks (reduced birth rates) or positive checks (famine and war).
Preventative checks: These are measures taken by humans to reduce shortages. This might be reducing population through
better family planning and possibly anti-Natalist policies. Or it could be reducing waste e.g. through better recycling.

Positive checks: Despite their name, they are actually more negative solutions to resource shortages. These might be fighting
and war or massive famines which actually reduce the overall population and therefore demand.

Neo-Malthusian: This is an idea of thought that follows Malthus's ideas. Paul Ehrlich and the ''Club of Rome" both have Neo-

Anti-Malthusian view of the
relationship between
population
size and resource
consumption
Global patterns and trends
in the
production and consumption
of oil
Malthusian ideas.
Paul Ehrlich: In 1968 Paul Ehrlich published his book ''The Population Bomb". He believed that population growth had now
outstripped the availability of resources and that starting in the 1970's there would be mass famines killing millions. So far Paul
Ehrlich views have not come true, but they might do in the future if humans aren't able to control population growth or increase
resource production.
Club of Rome: The Club of Rome were formed in 1972. They were headed by Dennis Meadows and developed the Limits to
Growth Model. They are also believed that the growth in population would lead to worldwide misery.
Limits to Growth Model: Developed by the Club of Rome it looked at population, natural resources, agricultural output, industrial
production and pollution. They predicted that the limits to growth would be reached in 2070. The model basically suggests that
ability of resources, food, the environment, etc. to meet human needs will be reached by 2070. Beyond this point if population is
not controlled naturally, it will start to decline because of increased death rates. The model has come in for some criticism
because it does not look at individual regions that may be well resourced and underpopulated. It also doesn't take into account
certain developments in technology like renewables, GM crops and desalination.
Anti-Malthusian: Anti-Malthusian is simply the school of thought that disagrees with Malthus's pessimism and is more aligned to
Boserup's optimism i.e. that humans will always find solutions to shortages.
Population increases -> Increases demand for food -> Improvement in technology -> Population growth continues.
Evidence that supports anti-Malthusian view:
The period of rapid population growth has seen the greatest increase in life spans and living standards. (China lifted 200 million
individuals out of poverty while having its population rapidly increasing.
Areas such as Tokyo, Manhattan, and Singapore are most densely populated, yet has the greatest concentration of wealth.
Percentage of undernourished people decreased from 50% in 1950 to 16% in 2012.
How have we managed to solve solutions to resource shortages?
Green revolution
A series of research and development and technology transfer initiatives, occurring between the 1930s and the late 1960s.
Sought to eradicate famine in many nations and massively increase food production by effectively replacing subsistence
agriculture with commercial agriculture. Introduction of high yielding varieties of various crops to many parts of South America,
North Africa and Asia such as Indonesia, Pakistan and India led to a huge success.
Case study in India
Continued expansion of farming areas:The area of land under cultivation was being increased right from 1947. But
this was not enough in meeting with rising demand. Other methods were required. Yet, the expansion of cultivable
land also had to continue. So, the Green Revolution continued with this quantitative expansion of farmlands.
Double-cropping existing farmland
Double-cropping was a primary feature of the Green Revolution. Instead of one crop season per year, the decision
was made to have two crop seasons per year. The one-season-per-year practice was based on the fact that there is
only natural monsoon per year. This was correct. So, there had to be two "monsoons" per year. One would be the
natural monsoon and the other an artificial 'monsoon.' The artificial monsoon came in the form of huge irrigation
facilities. Dams were built to arrest large volumes of natural monsoon water which were earlier being wasted.
Simple irrigation techniques were also adopted.
Using seeds with superior genetics
This was the scientific aspect of the Green Revolution. The Indian Council for Agricultural research was re-
organized in 1965 and then again in 1973. It developed new strains of high yield value (HYV) seeds, mainly wheat
and rice but also millet and corn. The most noteworthy HYV seed was the K68 variety for wheat.
2. Renewable resources
- A resource that can be used over and over again. Resources that don't run out are often described as being infinite
e.g. wind.
- Potential case study -> Chinas Three Gorges Dam, Sizewell A and B in Suffolk, Uk, Ratcliffe- on- Soar, UK
Ester Boserup: Born in 1910, Ester Boserup had a very optimistic outlook. She believed that humans could adapt, develop new
ideas and find new resources that would support the growing population. Her famous saying was ''necessity is the mother of
invention''.
Julian Simon - His work covers anti-Malthusian views on lasting economic benefits from natural resources and continuous
population growth, even despite limited or finite physical resources, empowered by human ingenuity, substitutes, and
technological progress. He is also known for the famous SimonEhrlich wager, a bet he made with ecologist Paul R. Ehrlich.
Ehrlich bet that the prices for five metals would increase over a decade, while Simon took the opposite stance. Simon won the
bet, as the prices for the metals sharply declined during that decade. Simons book The Ultimate Resource argues that the
ingenuity of the human race will see us adapting to population increase.
There is a very good chance that you will be asked to describe a map in your final examinations. It is not possible to remember
every country in the world, so using your compass points and continents can be a simple way to describe distribution patterns.
When describing look for concentrations, trends, anomalies and voids (areas of nothing). Also remember to use figures and the
correct units in your descriptions.
Good Describing Words
Even distribution: When something is distributed in a regular and orderly pattern. It is very unlikely that you will find this in reality.
Uneven distribution: Where there is no pattern, you may get areas of concentration and areas of nothing (voids).
Concentration: When there is a large amount of the thing that you are talking about in one specific location.
Clustering: When there are groups of the things that you are talking about.
Random: When there is absolutely no pattern, things are all over the
Sparsely: When there is not much of the thing you are describing in a certain area (often per km2), normally used to talk about
population.
Densely: When there is a lot of the object you are describing in a certain location (often per km2). Again normally used to describe
people.

If your map includes any type of data, you should include it in your description - remember the correct unit.
Key Oil Terms:
Peak oil: The point when maximum extraction of oil is reached and after which point the extraction of oil will reduce. Although
peak oil production has been reached in some countries like the UK and the US, it is unclear whether global peak oil has been
reached yet.

OPEC: OPEC stands for the organisation for petroleum exporting countries. It has 12 members and controls over 40% of the
world's oil supply and over 20% of the gas supply. Its headquarters are in Vienna, Austria.

Monopoly: Any organisation, individual or company who controls enough market share to be able to influence the market place
e.g. be able to reduce supply in order to increase prices.

Cartel: A formal (explicit) agreement among competing firms. It is a formal organisation of producers and manufacturers that
agree to fix prices, marketing, and production. In the past OPEC has been accused of being a cartel.

Factors affecting the demand and production of oil

Political
Political instability: Many oil rich countries in the Middle East are politically unstable. Political instability can cause supply
problems and increase the cost of oil. Case study: Iran

International relations: Countries that import oil from other countries have to be on good diplomatic terms. Case study of a
negative example: Venezuela threatening to halt oil sales to the USA over allegations that Venezuela provides a haven for
Colombian rebels.

Carbon tax: If a carbon tax is introduced in countries, the total price of oil products will be much higher. This makes alternative
forms of energy more cost effective and attractive for companies.

Emission quotas: International agreements like the 1997 Kyoto Protocol have set greenhouse gas emission quotas. Countries
that are trying to meet these quotas are more likely to reduce their use of fossil fuels and instead use cleaner alternative sources
of energy.

NGO pressure: NGO like Greenpeace have in recent times become more outspoken in their fight against fossil fuels and to
promote the use of more environmentally friendly energy resources. As the public profile and credibility of these NGOs increase,
more of the general public may listen to them which in turn may result in governments and energy companies trying to find
alternative cleaner and more sustainable forms of energy.

Economical
Demand for oil: With increasing world population and affluence of countries, there will be greater demand for oil globally. In
particular in emerging economies such as China and India.

Price of oil: Dependent on the changes in demand and supply of oil. Disruptions to the production of oil such as the uprising in
Egypt has led to the price of oil increases significantly to over USD$100 a barrel. When the prices of oil becomes very high, using
alternative forms of energy such as rooftop solar panels or wind turbines becomes more attractive. Case study: Egypt controls the
Suez Canal, a shipping route used to transport oil from the Middle East to other countries. The instability in Egypt has spark fears
that it may be unsafe to ship oil through the Suez Canal. The only other shipping route will be around Africa, an additional 6,000
miles which increased the cost per barrel of oil significantly.

Transportation costs: Transporting oil is extremely expensive, since major infrastructure have to build to transport and purify oil.

Domestic supplies: Many countries such as the UK and USA have used up most of their domestic oil resources. Hence from
being an exporter, these countries have become a net importer of oil. To reduce their dependence on other countries, especially
politically unstable Middle Eastern countries, these countries have looked to diversifying their energy resources and using
alternative energy resources.

Increase in extraction costs: As world supply of oil runs out, energy companies are now extracting oil from more inhospitable
areas and unconventional sources. The increased cost of oil extraction will increase the cost of oil, making it a less attractive
energy resource. Case study: Tar sands in Alberta, Canada as an unconventional oil resource. Production of oil from tar sands is
an extremely energy intensive process, requiring one barrel of oil to produce two barrels of oil. However with dwindling oil
resources, it has now become economically viable to exploit these more expensive energy resources. However the higher price
of oil from these sources may reduce the attractiveness of oil, and spur countries to look towards utilising a higher percentage of
alternative renewable energy resources.
 Environmental
Enhanced greenhouse effect and global warming: Using fossil fuels have contributed greatly to an increased amount of
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. To manage the effect of global warming, some countries are trying to reduce their
dependency on oil.

Oil spills: Large quantities of oil are transported by pipelines and ships. There is always a risk of accidents. Case study: Exxon
Valdez 1989 is an example of the serious short term and long term effects that an oil spill from a large ship carry oil can have on
the environment.

Damage caused by oil extraction: Oil extraction can cause serious environmental degradation to the land. To make way for large
oil extraction vehicles, forests are cut down resulting in the loss of biodiversity. The weight of these vehicles on the ground also
causes soil compaction. Furthermore, the oil extraction process often involves toxic chemicals which may then leach into the
groundwater, causing water pollution and endangering aquatic and human life.

Social
Human cost of protecting oil resources: One of the main reasons why USA invaded Iraq was to search and claim stake on a new
supply of oil. However while protecting the oil supply lines in Iraq, USA lost many soldiers. Thousands of Iraqis also lost their lives
in the occupation.

Public health: Oil used to fuel automobiles, airplanes and industry often contribute to air pollution. This may aggravate asthma.

Exploitation of workers and less developed countries: In many countries, low skilled jobs are carried out by the least educated
people. These jobs are often dangerous and exploitative of these people. Many LDCs are also exploited for their oil reserves, and
the temptation of wealth from oil is very attractive to corrupt governments. The country may remain poor because revenue from oil
is kept by the people in the government for their personal use rather than public spending to improve the life of its citizens. Case
study: The Niger delta has massive oil reserves but it remains poor because of government corruption and economic leakage
Geopolitical impacts of Case studies
changes in Transportation costs: Because the cost of oil is
patterns and trends in the so high, transporting oil is also extremely
production and consumption Russia
expensive. Recently there have been increased - Russia is a producer of oil and gas, accounts for 20% of its GDP. High
of oil transportation worries, with pirates operating off energy prices have benefitted the economy.
the Horn of Africa (near Somalia) and threats - Russia is also surrounded by economies which are looking to expand and
over the closure of the Suez Canal in Egypt. thus require energy.
- Gazprom, a state company with a monopoly on russian gas, accounts for
Price of oil: The price of oil is very vulnerable to 23% of Europes gas.
changes in demand and oil. With current - Countries like Ukraine are very dependent on russia for gas
disruptions to supply and growing demand the - This gas is often used for political leverage, for example in the recent
price of oil is currently over $100 a barrel. As the conflicts involving Ukrainian rebels. Russia can increase the price.
price of oil increases the cost of alternatives - In 2006, Gazprom increased gas prices for Belarus from 47$ to 100$ per
become much more attractive. 1000 cubic metres of gas. Belarus then shut off the pipe line, which affected
Western Europe (especially Germany).
Demand for oil: As the world's population - Because of this, the EU wants to diversify its energy, for example through
exceeds 7 billion people and as countries the Nabucco pipeline which connects Europe with gas fields in the Middle
become richer, the demand for oil (and the price) east.
will steadily increase. Increased demand will be
particularly pronounced from emerging markets
like China. Ownership disputes Falkland Islands

Finite supply: Oil is finite, estimates vary but

Dispute between UK and Argentina (who have no chance of getting their
many people believe that we have nearly
hands on our oil). This led to a war in the 1980s when Argentina invaded the
reached maximum production (peak oil) and
islands and British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher sent the Navy to
over the coming decades we will see a decrease
successfully reclaim the islands. This dispute has recently intensified
in supply. As supply decreases countries will be
following the discovery of large amounts of oil and gas under the sea close
forced to look for alternatives.
to the islands.

Domestic supplies: Many countries like the UK

are seeing their own supplies of oil run out. This
has turned the UK from a net exporter to a net
importer. Because of this the UK is looking for
alternative sources of energy.
Increases in extraction costs: As world oil
supplies run out, companies are having to
extract oil from deeper underground and in more
inhospitable places. These increased extraction
costs will ultimately the cost of oil is more
expensive, making it less attractive.
Spratly Islands islands in the South China Sea. Only 4 square km of land
but ownership hotly disputed between China, Vietnam, Philippines,
Malaysia, Taiwan and Brunei.
Internal Pressures Ghana, West Africa
Recently discovered oil and began pumping in 2010. Ghana is one of
Africas most stable countries but government and people concerned that oil
find will led to internal conflicts as have been seen in other countries.
Political Cooperation and Interdependency China, Russia

Investment in alternatives: As the supply of oil

runs out, energy companies and countries are
investing in alternatives. This is becoming
increasingly profitable with the price of oil, but
with the knowledge that oil will run out, many
want to become market leaders.
New pipeline (2010) that will take oil from Siberia to China. 300,000 barrels
of oil a day will make their way from Russia to China. In return Russia has
accepted a $25bn loan from China. Countries with oil, like Russia, will hold
more political bargaining power.

Environmental impacts of
changes
in patterns and trends in the
production and consumption
of oil
Environmental impacts of
changes
in patterns and trends in the
production and consumption
of oil
Resource Nationalism Venezuela
Human cost of protecting supplies: Many
argue that the only reason the US invaded Iraq Venezuela have taken over state control of all of their oil supplies and
was in search of new supply of oil. Whatever, banned foreign firms from dealing with their oil. This has also happened
the reason the US has lost many of its soldiers more recently in Brazil.
protecting supply lines, not to mention
thousands of Iraqi's who have lost their lives in
The fossil fuels dominate the global energy situation. Their relative
the ongoing occupation.
contributions are:
Public Image: Because of rising prices at the
pump (garages), the link to global warming and Oil (34.8%)
oil spills are all giving the oil industry a bad
image. Because of this countries and energy Coal (29.3%)
companies are looking for alternatives.
Natural gas (24.1%)
Public health: Oil used in vehicles, planes and
industry all contribute to air pollution, which can
Oil is the main source of energy in nearly every region of the Earth. The
have a negative effect on the health of people -
exceptions are the Asia-Pacific region which mainly uses coal and Europe
especially asthma.
which uses more natural gas. The Asia-Pacific region has seen a large
increase in energy demand and now accounts for 30% of consumption. The
Exploitation of workers and countries: In
region now uses more oil than North America which accounts for 27% of the
many countries dangerous jobs are carried out
world total (consumption per capita is still higher in North America). Africa
by poor unskilled workers. As well as
only consumed 3.4% of global oil. The USA alone accounts for a quarter of
exploitation of workers, many countries are
all world oil consumption. However, it is believed that China will take over as
exploited for their wealth and the temptation of
the worlds largest user of oil by 2025.
oil wealth can lead to the creation of kleptocratic
governments. The Niger Delta in Nigeria has
massive reserves, but the area still remains poor The pattern of regional production is markedly different from that of
because of local corruption and economic consumption. IN 2008 the Middle East accounted for 31.9% of global
leakage, production, followed by Europe (22%), North America (15.8%) and Africa
(12%). Saudi Arabia alone accounts for 13% of world oil production. In the
future countries with the biggest reserves may become more important
players on the world stage. These include the Middle East, Iran, Russia and
Venezuela. The Middle East accounts for almost 60% of global reserves.
The price of oil has increased sharply over the last decade. It rose from $10
a barrel in 1998 to $130 a barrel in 2008 before falling back during the
current recession. Previous sharp increases have been the result of supply
shocks, e.g. that organized by OPEC (Organisation of Petroleum Exporting
Countries) in 1973 they operated as a cartel.
Some world events have had an effect on world oil supply, e.g. Hurricane
Katrina, the war in Iraq.
Peak Oil
There has been growing concern about when this will happen (or if it has
already happened). In the USA Peak Oil was in the 1970s
The most obvious environmental impacts of oil are:
Greenhouse effect and global warming: Fossil fuels are all major contributors to the greenhouse effect. To try and reduce the
effects of global warming, many countries are trying to reduce their dependency on oil.
Oil spills: When large quantities of oil are transported by sea or pipeline, there is always the risk of accidents. The Exxon Valdez
spill in 1989 is one of the most tragic examples of the short and long-term damage an oil spill can cause. The more recent BP oil
spill in the Gulf of Mexico is a more recent example.
Case study Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill (20th April 2010)
BP oil spill into the Gulf of Mexico, due to the BP oil rig explosion killing 13 people. 5 million barrels of oil were spilled into the Gulf
of Mexico. Largest accidental marine oil spill in the history of the petroleum industry which flowed unabated for 3 months in April
July 2010. 4.9 million barrels of crude oil leaked during the disaster. The well was declared effectively dead 19th September.
The environmental impacts of the oil spill persist to this day despite the capping of the well. 3 months after the effectively dead
declaration 11000 km2 of the Gulf were closed again due to tar balls in fishers nets.
Over 510 km of Louisiana shoreline was affected by oil.
Environmental impacts
8 US National Parks threatened.
Wetlands marsh grass fouled and died.
More than 400 species living at risk, e.g. Leatherback and Green Turtle. 34,000 birds at risk, e.g. rare brown pelican. 2 months
later, nearly 7,000 dead animals had been collected.
Ecosystems particularly at risk: beaches and barrier islands, the continental shelf, shallow water and the open ocean.

Environmental impacts of
changes
in patterns and trends in the
production and consumption
of oil
Beaches and barrier islands:
Habitats for breeding have been destroyed as dry sand, rocks and grassland provide an important habitat for breeding and
nesting.
Many species (such as shorebirds; plovers, egrets) need the isolated breeding areas of the island.
A whole generation of brown pelicans were put at risk, as they mate in April.
Beach-nesting terns and gulls roost on the sand and plunge in the water to feed.
migrating birds use the beaches as a resting spot, putting them too at risk of oil contamination
5 of 7 of the worlds sea turtle species live, migrate and breed in the gulf. During nesting their eggs might suffer chemical
exposure as well as the turtles being oiled.
Continental shelf and shallow waters: the region includes coral reefs, sea-grass beds and sandy bottoms home to invertebrates
These waters are normally very productive due to sunlight penetration and nutrient availability, but due to the spill ecosystem
functions are disrupted.
Oil can have a disastrous effect on the submarine ecosystem.
Turtles foraging in this area for crabs, crustaceans, sea-grass and algae were found dead with heavy oil in its mouth and guts.
Moreover, their eggs and young are particularly at risk at this time.
Species particularly at risk: sand tiger shark and black-tip shark.
Nine species of dolphin live in the gulf area.
The open ocean:
Marine life is increasingly vulnerable to the oil drifting in the sea.
The crude oil that escaped from the well contained approximately 40% methane by weight, compared with 5% found in typical oil
spills. Methane can create dead zones where oxygen is depleted.
Economic impacts: fisheries.
29th April, 2010. Louisiana declares state of emergency as oil slick reaches the Louisiana coast.
By May, ouster beds south of Louisiana were closed due to pollution.
According to the ESA (European space agency) 20% of juvenile bluefin tuna were killed. This loss was significant as there was an
82% decline of the tunas spawning stock for 30 years prior to the oil spill.
Petroleum byproducts were found in Gulf seafood.
Anthracene was found twice the acceptable amount.
Tar balls were mixed with shrimp and fish hauls, resulting in a loss of thousands of dollars worth of the fish lost.
Use of dispersants broke up the oil into droplets small enough to get into the food chain, e.g. found under the shells of tiny Blue
Crab larvae. Dispersants sometimes more toxic than oil itself, some are carcinogenic. Estimated that the economic impact of the
oil spill on tourism on the Gulf Coast over a 3 year period could exceed $23bn in a region that supports over 400,000 travel
industry jobs. People on the Gulf Coast were getting sick with symptoms of dizziness, vomiting, headaches and chest pains.
Extent of the Deepwater horizon oil spill
What determines the severity of the impact of oil spills?
amount of oil leaked
type of oil (crude oil vs already processed oil which evaporates faster)
the climate into which it escapes (increased bacterial activity in warmer climates help)
the nature of wave activity (high wave energy helps break up oil slicks)
The environmental damage of the spill was severe - but it could have been worse. Factors such as warmer water (increased
bacterial activity) and the fact that the oil leaked deep underwater lessened the damages. A combination of high temperatures and
high wave energy during the tropical cyclone season helped break up the oil spill.
TAR SANDS Canada
Area the size of England.
Second largest oil reserves after Saudi Lake Athabasca, Alberta Canada.
Produces the equivalent of 1.3 million barrels of oil a day.
Opencast oil mine exploited because it is economically viable since the price of oil has risen above $30 per barrel.
Single largest industrial emitter of CO2.

Environmental impacts of
changes
in patterns and trends in the
production and consumption
of oil
Fracking is primarily used
to extract natural gas, but
can also be used for oil
General info
Extraction requires huge amount of energy. It takes a whole barrel of oil to produce two more barrels of oil.
Workers from Canada, Philippines, Europe (international migration)
Fort Mcmurray has 70,000 migrant workers (mostly men).
Teaches people how to operate different equipment, you can move up through the hierarchy Occupational
Opportunities
Big trucks, which can carry up to 400 tonnes, are used for transport:
They haul dirt 24h a day 365 days a year.
200 years till exhaustion
Athabasca river - was a good spot for people to spend their summer picking berries, fish & hunt moose (before the industry
started) - important place for the indigenous (memories etc.)
The government claimed their lands - sold over 90 leases to oil companies
Simply planting trees doesnt deal with the much large environmental impacts
People recognize the negative environmental effects, but consider the economic benefits outweigh the negatives externalities.
Addiction to oil is the real problem
Cost of oil doesnt take into account the damage to landscape and to the people who were living there before (if it did, are we
willing to pay the price?)
Fort chip - 250 kilometres north of the tar sands industry
People lived a traditional life, hunting and fishing - These are the traditional Arctic inuit peoples
Information is hard to get, there is uncertainty depending on their connections and political views -- they have to clearly make
distinctions and characterise what diseased fish look like. There is an advisory panel, but it may come too late for the people
Timeline
1963 - no chance of stopping government from developing the area
1980 - Anti fur campaign, put tribes into poverty, shut down traditional economy -> only opportunity the people had was from the
welfare from the government of Alberta and Canada (not a good prospect). People had nothing left after this was established.
Their livelihoods are destroyed. The only thing they had after the factory was welfare, which is an unsustainable means of living
for the future generation.
The idea of exploiting tar sands mainly developed 30 years ago -> way of life changed dramatically.
Economic Pros:-
Provides jobs for indigenous people, and foreign workers (e.g. from the Philippines)
- Turnover of $500 million a year
- 100 million worth of assets owned by the fort mckay group. Making a large amount of money
- In Alberta and Canada: demand for labour, business opportunity
- Oil industry major contributor to Canadas economy.
- 70,000 migrant workers (Remittances)
- Production is going to double
- In-migration from other regions.
- Wages thrice / twice higher than other Canadian towns (Boom Town)
- Everyone gets $10,000 dividend annually.
Economic Cons:
-Tar Sands took a long time to reap in Profits, which was only in the last decade. Can be said to have taken more resources that it
has returned in profits so far.
Social Pros:
Gives people a common purpose in the area
Social Cons:-
The indigenous people are not informed about the negative implications of the industry.
- Rare forms of abnormal cancer; many believe that the tar sands are responsible though this hasnt been proven.
- The Athabasca river was a cultural area for people to spend time in and engage in leisure activities. People in the community
didnt have the means or resources to challenge a decision of this magnitude.
-People loved the land, but it has been taken away from them. The legacy of their ancestors is now destroyed. It was an important
gathering place of their people.
-Has contributed to the eradication of the Local Indian peoples ways of life.
I would prefer the old way of life, but the fact of the matter is that the old way of life is gone, and we will never be able to bring it
back. - some boss guy
Environmental Pros:-
Oil companies claim to restore the land after using it (e.g. planting trees)
Environmental Cons:
- Impacts of deforestation (Land has been raped - A woman)
- largest emitter of CO2
Political Pros:
The Canadian government gains greater power with their increased control over the worlds oil. Also they have more energy
security
What is Fracking?
Short for hydraulic fracturing.
The process of drilling down into the earth before a high-pressure water mixture is directed at the rock to release the gas and oil
inside. Water, sand and chemicals are injected into the rock at high pressure which allows the gas/oil to flow out to the head of the
well.
The process is carried out vertically or, more commonly, by drilling horizontally to the rock layer. The process can create new
pathways to release gas or can be used to extend existing channels.
Where is Fracking Happening?
UK, USA, S. Africa, Canada, China, Bulgaria, Australia, Poland, France, Germany, NZ, Tunisia, Netherlands - places that wish to
reduce their Geopolitical dependence on the Middle East for oil, and improve their energy security.
 Marcellus Shale - can provide all US gas needs for 14 years
shale gas is far from easily accessible

Benefits of fracking
Provides jobs
Independence from OPEC (shockproof against the volatility of OPEC and Russia supplies)
Domestic control of energy supplies
Energy security
UK: major concern that the lights will go out unless long term planning provides viable options to the decommissioning of ageing
nuclear and dirty coal-fired power stations
Gas has always been seen as a relatively clean and flexible means of bridging the energy supply and demand gas.

Problems with fracking

Drills into water source of the area -> contaminated domestic water supply
Oil layer on top of water (you can smell it)
Increased levels of methane gas
Many farmers struggle to remain profitable
People feel violated because their land and water are contaminated with chemicals from nearby fracking sites. Small family farms
are destroyed.
40,000 gallons of toxic chemicals
Small towns have become clogged with gas industry trucks
Big trucks are noisy (inconvenience for local people)
Industries and landowners have responsibility to dispose of the waste but its too large of a quantity
One truck full of fracking chemicals into a river will cause the entire ecosystem to crash
Temperate conditions of Pensylvania mean that there arent many places for waste disposal
Killed pond and fish and everything in the pond (high concentrations of lead)
150 wells drilled a day - cumulative impact is not felt yet
Red nasty water oozing out the sides of the hill - a former worker
Radium 226 - 267 times of safe amount in Marcellus shale itll kill ya
Carcinogenic
They pay off people to give them a good name.
Spokesperson claims that there are no environmental harms
Something about panacea
Methane and co2 from unconventional gas sources are as dirty as coal
Natural gas and petroleum are not interchangeable, petroleum is used for transportation and gas is used for household use. Thus,
this doesnt provide a solution for the national energy budget. They don't have the appropriate infrastructure and technology to
convert to gas use.
Hydrofracking set to expand across Europe - governments have to do something. But they possibly wont due to the attraction of
infrastructure being created in locations of low wealth
Companies dont have to tell you about whats in whatever
Frack waste chemicals cause many types of cancer
Nobody knows how radioactive the waste is (companies are not required to test/tell people)
Potential for air pollution from the toxic chemicals (evidence remains limited)
Key concern for environmentalists: the long term impact that a dash of shale gas could have on global climate change and carbon
targets
Changing importance of SOLAR - Using the power of the sun to either heat water or generate electricity. Spain, Germany, Japan and the USA currently
other lead the world for solar power. Some experts say that solar power has a huge potential for technological improvements which
energy sources: could make it a major source of global electricity in years to come. The International Energy Agency projected that solar power
could provide "a third of the global final energy demand after 2060. Currently 0.05% of global energy but increasing fast.
SOLAR ADVANTAGES
It is a clean form of energy
It is an infinite resource
Panels can be used locally e.g. on top of someones house
It can be used to heat water and generate electricity.
DISADVANTAGES
It is expensive to make solar panels
The sun does not shine all the time
They can't be used at night
It is hard store surplus energy
Supply does not always equal demand

THE SOLAR MAMAs

http://www.whypoverty.net/video/solar-mamas-poverty-2/

The Barefoot College in India is focused on providing education for rural women, as a mode of empowerment for females in rural
Indian communities. At the same time, the aims of the programme are to enhance the production and availability of energy in
these rural communities.

The college provides training for women to become engineers in their respective communities. Since 1989, Barefoot College has
been harnessing the suns energy to help rural communities thrive by applying solutions in four critical areas of village life:
1) Solar electrification of 1000+ villages, 2) hot water, 3) solar cookers, and 4) fresh drinking water through solar powered
desalination, in order to develop the resources of the rural villages so that they are able to provide for the energy needs of the
villagers.
As of March 2015, the efforts of the Barefoot College have translated into 450,000 villagers having access to energy generated by
solar power, and 740 trained women engineers from the college.
In essence, the Barefoot college is an example of an initiative that serves two important, pertinent functions, addressing the
concerns of rural energy provision and the large gender gap in education in India. By combining aims to tackle these two issues,
the Barefoot College initiative has proven effective not just in enhancing energy production in the rural areas of India, but also
empowering women as engineers. However, the question of sustainability of the Barefoot College is still yet to be answered.
 THE USA GRAND SOLAR PLAN
The USA : Solar Grand Plan (SGP)

In 2005 the Solar Grand Plan for the USA was implemented. The overall objective is to end US dependence on foreign oil (The
U.S. is at war in the Middle East at least in part to protect its foreign oil interests), and slash greenhouse gas emissions by 2050.
They argue that solar energy could be provided at prices equivalent to todays rates for conventional energy.

Solar power could provide:

-69% of US electricity
-35% of its total energy (including transportation) by 2050

This plan works on the development of photovoltaic farms covering est. 80,000km^2. The National Renewable Energy Laboratory
in Golden, Colorado has shown that sufficient land is available in the SW region without requiring the use of environmentally
sensitive areas, populated areas or difficult terrain.

Disadvantages include no generation of power at night / dark / cloudy times. Hence, excess electricity has to be produced during
sunny hours and stored for use. The plan utilises the technology of compressed-air energy storage.

Estimated CO2 emissions from the Us should reduce to 62% (below 2005 levels) by 2050. This is due to:
-Lower emissions from power plants
-Displacement of gasoline vehicles by plug-in hybrids fuelled by a new solar power grid.

To fund the SGP, the US gov. would need to invest in $400b over the next 40 years. Huge savings include the elimination of
imported oil and a substantial cut in the US trade deficit.

Changing importance of GEOTHERMAL: Geothermal uses thermal energy from the earth to heat water. The water can be used as a source of hot water
other or the steam released can be used to drive turbines. Major users are those countries with the ability to generate geothermal
energy sources: power (e.g. Iceland, New Zealand, and The Philippines). Has not expanded as fast as other types of renewable energy as it is
only available in certain places.
GEOTHERMAL ADVANTAGES
It is a clean renewable form of energy.
It is a finite resource.
Can be used to heat water and generate electricity.
Geothermal energy can be created constantly and is not dependent on the weather.
DISADVANTAGES
Limited number of suitable locations
An areas tectonic activity can change, suddenly making it redundant or less efficient.
Changing importance of BIOMASS: The use of biological matter to create energy. It is a renewable form of energy, but because the matter is often burnt it
other still releases greenhouse gases
energy sources: ADVANTAGES
It is a renewable form of energy as long as people replant crops.
BIOMASS It is cheap and the resources can be grown locally
DISADVANTAGES
It can still release greenhouse gases.
Areas can be deforested to grow crops for energy generation.
If crops are used for energy production it can lead to an increase in food prices.

Borneo
Geography
Third largest island in the world
Largest island in the world
Land is divided between Indonesia, Malaysia & Brunei
Palm Oil
Can be used for energy, food and cosmetics
Largest contributor towards deforestation in Borneo
Malaysia and Indonesia contribute to over 90% of the worlds palm oil production area
Environmental Impacts
Deforestation will affect the water catchment area role, following which the unique biodiversity
The Orang-Utan is Asias only great ape. It is endemic to Borneo
The Eastern Sumatran Rhino is endemic to the area as well. It is critically endangered with less than 30 individuals in the world
Agricultural industries also use slash and burn techniques, causing large amounts of harmful gases to be released into the
atmosphere. Causing detrimental health effects in a widespread area dependants on the wind
Economic Impacts
Although the environmental impacts are great. The worlds growing demand for palm oil gives a source of income for people of
Borneo, and are a chief export of Borneo
Changing importance of HEP (Hydroelectric power): Using the power of falling water in rivers to drive generators. At the moment dams have to be built
other to create HEP power. Currently accounts for 6.4% of global energy. 22% rise in the last 10 years. Biggest users are China,
energy sources: Canada and Brazil.

HYDROELECTRIC

ADVANTAGES
It is a clean form of energy
It is finite as long as rivers are managed properly.
The built dam can also prevent flooding.
 The reservoir behind the dam can be a store of water.
DISADVANTAGES
Only a limited number of suitable rivers
Can hamper navigation up and down river
Reservoirs may force resettlement
Hydroelectric power case study: Three Gorges Dam

Worlds largest HEP and is located on the Yangtse river, central china
Over 2km wide, 100 meters high

pros:
China can reduce its dependency on oil reducing air pollution
National pride (for having the largest dam)
Produces over 18,000MW of clean renewable energy
Will protect over 10 million residents downstream from the risk of flooding
Improved navigation (was previously dangerous and large boats could not go up to Chongqing)
Construction, running and maintenance has created thousands of jobs and increased skill levels
Has become a tourist destination and can create leisure opportunities
Can store water in the event of a drought

Cons:
Causes sedimentation behind, stops alluvium reaching the floodplain downstream
Extinction of the Yangtze River dolphin, and Yangtze alligator and giant sturgeon are threatened. Because of increased river traffic
and they cannot reach their breeding grounds
Reduced discharge and velocity downstream (causes greater deposition at its mouth, creating a delta and hampering navigation)
The flooding of the reservoir forced over 1.3 million people to be relocated
Cost $70 mil. To build
Archaeological treasures were drowned
Relocation of 1.3 million people caused deforestation

Changing importance of Wind - Using the wind to move a wind turbine to drive a generator and create electricity. Germany, US and Denmark important
other global users. Wind energy has reached take-off stage as a source of energy. Growing at a rate of 30% annually but
energy sources: only 0.3% of world energy.
ADVANTAGES
WIND It is a clean form of energy
It is an infinite resource
It can be used on a local scale e.g. in your back garden
Technology is proven
DISADVANTAGES
Visual pollution (NIMBY Not In My Back Yard)
Noise pollution
Wind is unreliable
It is hard to store surplus energy
Kills birds
Flickering light can trigger epilepsy

Changing importance of TIDAL: Using the motion of incoming and outgoing tide to create energy
other ADVANTAGES
energy sources: It is a clean form of energy
It is an infinite resource, tides happen twice a day.
TIDAL Ideal for island countries.
DISADVANTAGES
It can block important shipping routes
May interfere with some animals e.g. sea otters and seals
Limited number of sites
Useless for landlocked countries
High start-up costs
may be damaged by tropical storms
Changing importance of WAVE: Using the motion of the waves to generate electricity.
other ADVANTAGES
energy sources: It is a clean form of energy
It is an infinite resource
WAVE Ideal for island countries.
DISADVANTAGES
Again it can block shipping routes and interfere with animals
Again not suitable for landlocked countries
The strength of waves can vary
May be damaged by tropical storms
Changing importance of NUCLEAR
other Nuclear power is not a renewable energy source because it uses uranium which is finite. However, the estimated supply of
energy sources: uranium is much greater than fossil fuels and when used to produce energy, creates a lot less greenhouse gases. At the moment
France and Lithuania are the biggest users of energy, accounting for nearly 80% of their energy mix. Currently accounts for
NUCLEAR 5.5% of global energy. 13% rise between 1998-2008 but have fallen back following the Fukushima disaster when a
number of countries (e.g. Germany) have decided to no longer use nuclear power. Major consumers are USA, France
and Japan.
ADVANTAGES
The technology to make nuclear power already exists.
There is a plentiful supply of uranium, enough to last hundreds of years.
Nuclear energy releases very low amounts of greenhouse gases.
It reduces the dependency on oil, coal and gas producing countries
DISADVANTAGES
 There is always the risk of nuclear accidents like the Chernobyl accident in the Ukraine and Fukushima in Japan.
There is a risk that nuclear power stations will become terrorist targets or that nuclear material will fall into the hands of terrorists.
Transporting nuclear material and nuclear waste is risky and expensive.
Nuclear power stations only have a limited life period and the cost of decommissioning them is expensive.
There is a belief that living next to nuclear power stations can increase the risk of cancers (leukaemia).
People don't want nuclear power stations built near where they live i.e. NIMBY
Mining for uranium is dangerous and can be polluting.
Nuclear waste remains radioactive for thousands of years.

Variable energy patterns over time

The use of energy in all countries has changed over time for a number of reasons:
Technological developments, e.g. nuclear power has only been available since 1954, oil and gas can now be
extracted from deeper water and gas can now be extracted from within rock (fracking).
Increasing national wealth
Changes in demand
Changes in price e.g. alternative energy is becoming cheaper as it is more widely used.
Environmental factors / public opinion
reduction of resource Dwindling resources has led to conservation
consumption by becoming more important.
conservation Conservation - Fishing Quotas (EU)

This often involves government intervention as Fish quotas were introduced in the EU because many of the fish stocks in
businesses make more profit in the short term if EU waters were falling below unsustainable levels. Fishing quotas are
they do not need to clean up, restore or replant. simply a limit placed on the amount of fish that different countries are
allowed to catch.

Resources of all sorts are being conserved all
around the world, e.g. oil, metals, firewood,
water.
Case Study Fish Quotas (EU)
The quotas are calculated each December by the EU Council of Fisheries
sets the total allowable catches (quotas). The TACs are based on historical
fishing catches, so that each country sees a proportional decline in their
fishing quotas. Each country within the EU then has the responsibility to
monitor the catches an ensure that the quotas are being met

Other Problems causing declines in global ADVANTAGES OF QUOTAS

fish stock

Pollution: Any form of pollution, whether it be oil
spills, plastic bags, sewage or industrial waste
can kill and harm sea life.
Dynamite and Cyanide fishing: Both practices
kill un-targeted fish as well as the sea bed and
coral reefs.
Drift nets: Drift nets can damage the sea beds,
but also catch un-targeted animals e.g. turtles
and dolphins.
Deforestation: Deforestation increases the
surface run-ff of soil. Soil entering the sea can
cause sedimentation but also reduce visibility
killing coral reefs.
Tourism: Tourist developments create pollution
and disturb nesting turtles. Tourists also buy
products from the sea like shells and coral.
Divers can also damage reefs and disturb
animals.
Global warming: Rising sea levels are killing
coral reefs and changing ecosystems.
Local delicacies: Delicacies like turtle eggs,
shark gin soup, blue fin tuna and whale meat are
driving many animals close to extinction. Read
shark fin soup articles below.
Aquaculture: Aquaculture is farming sea
animals. Unfortunately many farmed animals are
actually fed on wild fish. Some fish are also
genetically modified and could possibly escape
and breed with wild fish. Finally large
concentrations of farm animals create a lot of
waste which can kill the sea floor.
They help protect critically endangered species like North Sea cod. This
ensures the continued biodiversity of our oceans.
Ensures that food webs and chains remain intact so that other species don't
become endangered.
Quotas ensure the long term protection of the fishing industry. It should
mean that the tradition of fishing and the related jobs can continue
indefinitely.
The EU paid compensation to fishermen who lost their boats and their jobs.
Compensation was paid to fishermen who were seeing declining catches
and incomes.
Species caught as a result of overfishing should also be reduced as fishing
becomes more targeted and regulated.
DISADVANTAGES OF QUOTAS
Because of fishing quotas many boats are decommissioned. This not only
mean fishermen lose their jobs, but also people that repair the boats, sell the
fuel and buy and trade the catch.
Because boats have to meet quotas, many fish (dead and alive) are thrown
overboard.
Many coastal settlements lose their principal function, if they lose their
function the resulting unemployment will often lead to outward migration,
resulting in depopulation and a spiral of decline.
The government has to pay to monitor the quotas and they also lose out on
revenue, from previously higher catches.
Fishing quotas can create an illegal trade (black market) in fish. It can also
mean that unregulated oceans become overfished.
Fish inflation. Because the amount of fish, especially wild fish being caught
is reducing, it means that the price of many fish is increasing.

As well as fishing quotas there are other ways to protect fish stocks:

Create marine parks

Harvest taxes (increasing the price of fish)
Fishing periods. Only allowing fishing at certain times of year e.g. not during
spawning
Community management schemes.
Banning of drift nets
Better regulation of illegal fishing (poaching dynamite and cyanide fishing).
Increasing fishing net mesh size to stop small fish being caught.

reduction of resource Case study Camden, London, UK

consumption by waste
reduction
In 2000 the UK government published national recycling targets in Waste Strategy 2000 aiming for 33% of household waste to
be recycled or composted by 2015.Englands household waste recycling crept up to 40.3% for the 12 months ending in
reduction of resource
September 2010. The EU Waste Framework Directive requires the UK to recycle, compost or reuse 50 per cent of waste from
consumption by recycling
households by 2020.The 23.4 million tonnes of household waste generated in the year ending September 2010 was 1% less than
that generated for the 2009/10 financial year, and the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs noted that the average
 annual change in total household waste over the five years to 2009/10 was a 1.6% decrease.

Waste that it is not recycled is out into landfill sites. These take up space and generate methane gas. Methane is 20 times more
powerful as a greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide. Taking rubbish to landfill sites (which are often located far away from towns
also uses energy. Recycling aluminium requires 5% of the energy needed to produce new aluminium. Recycling means that we
dont need machines to extract the material from the ground. Every tonne of paper recycled saves 17 trees. Recycling plastic
bottles means that we dont have to process crude oil to make new plastic. Recycling just one plastic bottle saves enough energy
to power a light bulb for 6 hours. Each person in the UK uses 290 carrier bags a year. These take hundreds of years to recycle.
Disposable nappies are another source of waste that cannot easily be recycled. 8 million nappies go to landfill every day in the
UK. Junk mail is another large source of unnecessary rubbish.

Camden has a wide range of services to help people reduce and recycle. They encourage farmers markets to increase the
amount of food acquired locally. They provide a Smart Shopper Bag to dissuade people from using plastic bags. They run a Real
Nappy Real Happy Campaign to encourage people to use washable nappies rather than disposable. This scheme gives subsidies
people washable nappies to help them get started. Camden Council have produced a Say No to Junk Mail Action Pack. This
explains ways in which people can stop receiving junk mail. Camden Council publicise charity shops that reuse unwanted items
and they run Give and Take Days where people take unwanted items to find a happy new owner. The Council pick up recyclable
rubbish. People just put everything in one box and it is sorted by the Council to help make it easy for people to recycle. They also
have over 90 recycling plants within the Borough where people can bring waste for recycling. These include facilities for nearly all
products, e.g. batteries, washing machines They run composting workshops to encourage people to compost unwanted food
products rather than throw them away. They also provide subsidised compost bins. They run recycling workshops in an Education
Centre for children to learn about recycling.

reduction of resource Case study switching plastic for bioplastic

consumption by substitution
Plastic is made from oil. Substituting plastic for bioplastic would therefore reduce the amount of oil needed. Eco-friendly bio-
plastics are made from plants. The market for bioplastics, which are made from maize, sugarcane, wheat and other crops, is
growing by 20-30% a year. The industry says bioplastics make carbon savings of 30-80% compared with conventional oil-based
plastics and can extend the shelf-life of food. However, they can cause other problems for the environment, such as the release of
methane as they break down in land fill sites, contributing to climate change. Many of the bioplastics are also contributing to the
global food crisis by taking over large areas of land previously used to grow crops for human consumption. Concern centres on
corn-based packaging made with polylactic acid (Pla). Pla is used by some of the biggest supermarkets and food companies,
including Wal-Mart, McDonald's and Del Monte. It is used by Marks & Spencer to package organic foods, salads, snacks,
desserts, and fruit and vegetables. There have also been user problems such as complaints that crisp packets made from Pla are
too noisy

Strategies for reducing the Better fuel efficiency

use of oil
Smaller cars

Change in car body shape

Emission controls

Biogas

Hybrid cars

Electric cars

Better public transport

Reduced speed limits

Congestion charging

a strategy at a local or Water For The Future, Australia

national
scale aimed at reducing the
consumption of one This project focused on the Murray-Darling River Basin in South East Australia
resource Water for the Future is built on four key priorities:

Taking action on climate change

Using water wisely
Securing water supplies
Supporting healthy rivers

Using Water Wisely

Improving irrigation efficiency

Providing investment to:

Improve the efficiency of on-farm irrigation water use and management

 Upgrade irrigation infrastructure and assess options to adapt to a future with less water

Reduce domestic usage

Install rainwater tanks and greywater systems

Educating the population about water usage
Installing water meters
Soon to introduce environmental rating system for buildings that scores buildings on environmental efficiency (including water
usage)

Reducing business usage

Eco-efficiency Agreements voluntary agreements between government and business

Targets set for reduced water consumption
Must result in improvements in business efficiency
Investment in water saving initiatives

Water Efficiency Labelling and Standards (WELS) Scheme

By 2021 it is estimated that using water efficient products will help to:
reduce domestic water use by more than 100,000 mega litres each year;
save more than 800,000 mega litres (more water than Sydney Harbour); and
reduce total greenhouse gas output by 400,000 tonnes each year - equivalent to taking 90,000 cars off the road each year

Securing water supplies

Desalinisation
Storm water harvesting
Water recycling

Supporting healthy rivers

The water saved from this initiative has enabled water to be returned to rivers and wetlands around this part of Australia. An
example is the Lindsay Island River Red Gum forest. The environment had been destroyed by a reduction in water in the river
and wetland caused by over-abstraction of water. However, water has been returned to the wetland improving the environment
which has seen the restoration of the health of the River Red Gum Forest and its wildlife.

a strategy at a local or Australias National Strategy on energy efficiency ( 2009-2020)

national straya is a high energy consumption society. Total energy used rose 15% from 2003 to 2009.In 2006 KG of oil equivalent use per
scale aimed at reducing the capita per year was 5917Kgs.
consumption of one In 2007, 44% of its energy came from Natural Gas; Black Coal, Uranium concentrates, and refined products made up 19% of its
resource energy source; wind and solar made less than 1%.
THERE HAS been large decreases in energy intensity in some industries - 50% decrease in transport and 74% in construction.
HOWEVER, energy has increased in others.
Energy has DOUBLED in mining over the last 30 years.

Straya has recently launched a national strategy on energy efficiency for the period of 2009 to 2020.
It is agreed among strayas government that:
It will improve productivity in the economy
Allow households and businesses to achieve savings on their energy bills
deliver significant greenhouse gas abatement

THE MAIN MECHANISM OF THIS STRATEGY CARBON POLLUTION REDUCTION SCHEME

This will place a cap, and therefore a price (carbon price), on greenhouse gas emissions.

Key elements of this Strategy:

Assisting households and businesses in transition to a low carbon future
Financial assistance with the installation of roof insulation and solar hot water systems
Auditing of the energy efficiency of public housing stock and consideration of implementing of cost efficiency upgrades.
Encouraging businesses to identify and implement cost effective energy efficient measures
incentives to improve energy efficiency of buildings and equipment
2. Reducing impediments to the uptake of energy efficiency
The improving of the extent and accessibility of information, and advice to households and businesses.
Broadening the range of appliances covered by minimum energy performance standards.
Identifying and developing measures to address market barriers to the rapid deployment of energy efficient technologies and
practices. (with particular focus on land transport)
Incentives in the private rental market will be split between landlords and tenants.
3. Making Buildings more energy efficient
Overall Objective: Substantially increase the number of energy-efficient houses and commercial buildings, and to raise the energy
efficiency of the existing building stock.

4. Government working in a partnership and leading the way

 Each level of government - national, state, territory and local - have an important role to play in improving energy efficiency. Inter-
governmental collaboration required to achieve high level of success for each of the objectives.
2015 - Strategy will be evaluated and reviewed for level of improvement in all major aspects.

The Strategy has been generally well received nationally and internationally because:
It is a collaborative effort by all levels of government
It is very comprehensive in its approach
Progress will be reviewed about halfway through its progress
It will adopt a carrot and stick approach - certain things will be legally binding, but attractive incentives will also be on offer.

MAJOR CRITICISMS
CLEAR TARGETS in terms of reductions in energy usage per capita HAVE NOT BEEN SET (these may be introduced at a later
date however)
Strategies for Reducing the Better fuel efficiency
use of Oil Smaller cars
Change in car body shape
Emission controls
Biogas
Hybrid cars
Electric cars
Better public transport
Reduced speed limits
Congestion charging