THE NATURE OF SCIENCE

Over the course of human history, people have developed many interconnected and validated
ideas about the physical, biological, psychological, and social worlds. Those ideas have
enabled successive generations to achieve an increasingly comprehensive and reliable
understanding of the human species and its environment. The means used to develop these
ideas are particular ways of observing, thinking, experimenting, and validating. These ways
represent a fundamental aspect of the nature of science and reflect how science tends to differ
from other modes of knowing.

It is the union of science, mathematics, and technology that forms the scientific endeavor and
that makes it so successful. Although each of these human enterprises has a character and
history of its own, each is dependent on and reinforces the others. Following are some of the
principles that outline how science works and how science in general is different from
mathematics and technology:

i. The World is understandable: Science presumes that the things and events in the
universe occur in consistent pattern that are comprehensible through careful, systematic
study.
ii. Scientific Ideas Are Subject To Change: Science is a process for producing knowledge.
The process depends both on making careful observations of phenomena and on
inventing theories for making sense out of those observations. Change in knowledge is
inevitable because new observations may challenge prevailing theories.
iii. Science Cannot Provide Complete Answers to All Questions: There are many matters
that cannot usefully be examined in a scientific way. There are, for instance, beliefs that
by their very naturecannot be proved or disproved such as the existence of
supernatural powers and beings, or the true purposes of life.
iv. Science Explains and Predicts: Scientists strive to make sense of observations of
phenomena by constructing explanations for them that use, or are consistent with,
currently accepted scientific principles.
v. Science is not Authoritarian: Scientific knowledge is tentative. Although scientific
knowledge is supported by a wealth of data from repeated trials, it is not considered the
final word. Scientists continually test and challenge previous assumptions and findings.
BRIEF HISTORY OF SCIENCES WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO CONTRIBUTION OF
MUSLIMS IN THE EVOLUTION AND DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE

In prehistoric times, advice and knowledge was passed from generation to generation in an
oral tradition. The development of writing enabled knowledge to be stored and communicated
across generations with much greater fidelity. Combined with development of agriculture,
which allowed surplus of food, it became possible for early civilizations to develop and more
time to be devoted to tasks other than survival, such as search of knowledge.

European science in the Middle Ages comprised the study of nature, mathematics and
philosophy in medieval Europe. Following the fall of Western Roman Empire and decline in
knowledge of Greek, Europe was cut off from an important source of ancient learning.
However, in the Middle East, Greek philosophy was able to find support under the newly
created Arab Empire. This period of Islam is called as The Islamic Golden Age during which
science, economic development and cultural works flourished. This period began during the
reign of Harun Al-Rashid with inauguration of the Bayat-ul-Hikma (House of Wisdom) in
Baghdad, where scholars from various parts of the world with different cultural backgrounds
were mandated to gather and translate all of the worlds classical knowledge into Arabic
language.

Muslim scientists placed far greater emphasis on experiment than had the Greeks. This led to
an early scientific method being developed in the Muslim world, where significant progress in
methodology was made, beginning with the experiments of Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) on
optics. Ibn al-Haytham is also regarded as the father of optics. Some have also described Ibn
al-Haytham as the "first scientist" for his development of the modern scientific method.

In mathematics, the mathematician Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi gave his name to the
concept of the algorithm, while the term algebra is derived from al-jabr, the beginning of the
title of one of his publications.

Mathematician Al-Battani (850-929) contributed to astronomy and mathematics, while scholar

Al-Razi contributed to chemistry and medicine.

Muslim chemists and alchemists played an important role in the foundation of modern
chemistry. In particular, Jabir ibn Hayyan is considered as the father of chemistry.

Ibn Sina (Avicenna) is regarded as the most influential philosopher of Islam. He pioneered the
science of experimental medicine and was the first physician to conduct clinical trials. His two
most notable works in medicine are the Book of Healing and The Canon of Medicine, both of
which were used as standard medicinal texts in both the Muslim world and in Europe well into
the 17th century.
Some of the other famous scientists from the Islamic world include al-Farabi (polymath), Abu
al-Qasim al-Zahrawi (pioneer of surgery), Abu Rayhan al-Biruni (pioneer of Indology, geodesy
and anthropology), Nasir al-Din al-Tusi (polymath), and Ibn Khaldun (forerunner of social
sciences such as demography, cultural history, historiography, philosophy of history and
sociology), among many others.

Islamic science began its decline in the 13 th century, before the Renaissance in Europe, and
due in part to the 11th-13th century Mongol conquests, during which libraries, observatories,
hospitals and universities were destroyed. The end of the Islamic Golden Age is marked by the
destruction of the intellectual center of Baghdad, the capital of the Abbasid caliphate in 1258.
MUSLIM SCIENTISTS
IBN SINA
Full Name: Abu Ali al-Husayn ibn Abduallah ibn
Al-Hasan ibn Ali ibn Sina
Birthplace: Bukhara
Birth Year: 980 AD
Death Year: 1037 AD
Other (1) Sharaf al-Mulk
Names: (2) Hujjat al-Haq
(3) Sheikh al-Rayees
(4) Ibn-Sino
(5) Avicenna
Main (1) Medicine
Interests: (2) Aromatherapy
(3) Philosophy & Logic
(4) Kalam (Islamic theology)
(6) Science
(7) Poetry
Notable (1) The Book of Healing (2) The Canon of Medicine
Works:

Contributions:
(1) His most famous works are The Book of Healing and The Canon of Medicine,
a medical encyclopedia which became a standard medical text at many medieval
universities and remained in use as late as 1650.
(2) He criticized Aristotle's view of the stars receiving their light from the Sun,
stating that the stars are self-luminous.
(3) Ibn Sina used distillation to produce essential oils such as rose essence,
forming the foundation of what later became aromatherapy.
Brief History:
Avicenna was born in Bukhara in 980 AD. According to his autobiography he
memorized Holy Quran by the age of ten. As a teenage he was greatly troubled by
the Metaphysics of Aristotle which he could not understand until he read Al-
Farabis commentary on the work. He turned to medicine at the age of sixteen,
and not only learned medical theory, but also by gratuitous attendance of the sick
had, according to his own account, discovered new methods of treatment. He
achieved full status as a qualified physician at the age of eighteen and his fame
spread quickly because he treated many patients without asking for payment.
Ibn Sina first appointment was that of physician of the emir, Noh-II, who owed him
his recovery from a dangerous illness. As a chief reward for his services emir
gave him access to the royal library of Samanids.
AL-KINDI
Full Name: Abu Yusuf Yaqoob ibn Ishaq as-
Sabbah al-Kindi
Birthplace: Kufa
Birth Year: 801 AD
Death Year: 873 AD
Other (1) Al-Kindus
Names: (2) Philosopher of the Arabs
Main (1) Philosopher
Interests: (2) Polymath
(3) Mathematician
(4) Physician
(6) Musician
Notable (1) On the use of Indian Numerals (2) On the Changing of the
Works: Weather (3) On Decrypting Encrypted Correspondence

Contributions:
(1) He was a pioneer in cryptanalysis and devised several new ways of breaking
ciphers.
(2) Using his mathematical and medical expertise he was able to develop a scale
that would allow doctors to quantify the potency of their medication.
(3) He debunked the myth that simple base metals could be transformed into
precious metals such as gold and silver.
(4) Al-Kindi was the first great theoretician of music in Arab-Islamic world, he is
known to have written fifteen treaties on music theory.

Brief History:
Al-Kindi was born in Kufa to a notable family of Kinda tribe. His father was
governor of Kufa and he received his preliminary education in Kufa. He went to
Baghdad for higher studies where al-Mamun appointed him to Bayat-ul-Hikma
(House of Wisdom) due to his learning and aptitude for study. He was also well
known for his beautiful calligraphy and at one point was employed as calligrapher
by al-Mutawakil.

The central theme underpinning al-Kindis philosophical writings is the

compatibility between philosophy and Islamic Sciences particularly theology.
AL-RAZI
Full Name: Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn
Zakariyya al-Razi
Birthplace: Rey
Birth Year: 854 AD
Death Year: 925 AD
Other (1) Rhazes
Names: (2) Rasis
Main (1) Polymath
Interests: (2) Physician
(3) Alchemist
(4) Philosopher
Notable (1) Al-Mansuri (On Surgery) (2) A General Book on Therapy (3) A
Works: Medical Adviser for the General Public

Contributions:
(1) The first to produce acids such as sulfuric acid.
(2) Writing up limited or extensive notes on diseases such as smallpox and
chickenpox.
(3) A pioneer in ophthalmology
(4) Author of the first book on pediatrics, making leading contributions in inorganic
and organic chemistry.

Brief History:
Al-Razi was born in the city of Rey situated on the Great Silk Road that for
centuries facilitated trade and cultural exchanges between East and West. His
name Razi in Persian means "from the city of Rey".

In his youth, Razi moved to Baghdad where he studied and practiced at the local
hospital. Later, he was invited back to Rey by Mansur ibn Ishaq, then the governor
of Rey. He spent the last years of his life in his native Rey suffering from
glaucoma. His eye affliction started with cataracts and ended in total blindness.
After his death, his fame spread beyond the Middle East to Medieval Europe, and
lived on.
AL-BIRUNI
Full Name: Abu Rayhan Muhammad ibn
Ahmad Al-Biruni
Birthplace: Khwarezm
Birth Year: 973 AD
Death Year: 1048 AD
Other al-Ustadh
Names:
Main (1) Geology (2) Physics (3)
Interests: Anthropology (4) Astronomy (5)
Astrology (6) History (7) Geography
(8) Mathematics (9) Medicine (10)
Psychology (11) Philosophy
Notable (1) The Remaining Signs of Past Centuries (2) Gems (3) The
Works: Masudi Canon (4) Understanding Astrology (5) Tarikh Al-Hind
Contributions:
(1) Founder of Indology, geodesy.
(2) Biruni also devised his own method of determining the radius of the earth.
(3) Al-Biruni was a pioneer in the study of comparative religion. He studied
Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Hinduism, Christianity, Buddhism, Islam, and other
religions.
Brief History:
He was born in the outer district of Kath, the capital of the Afrighid dynasty of
Khwarezm. The word Biruni means "from the outer-district" in Persian. Al-Biruni's
relatives also took interest in the studies of science as well. In order to conduct his
research, Al-Biruni used different types of methods to tackle the different fields he
studied. People consider Al-Biruni to be one of the greatest scientists in history
and especially of Islam because of his discoveries and methodology.

In 1017, Mahmud of Ghazni took Rey. Most scholars, including al-Biruni, were
taken to Ghazni, the capital of the Ghaznavid dynasty. Biruni was made court
astrologer and accompanied Mahmud on his invasions into India, living there for a
few years. During this time, he wrote the Kitab taarikh al-Hind.

He was conversant in Khwarezmian, Persian, Arabic, Sanskrit, and also knew

Greek, Hebrew and Syriac. He was an impartial writer on customs and creeds of
various nations, and was given the title al-Ustadh ("The Master") for his
remarkable description of early 11th-century India.

He also made contributions to Earth sciences, and is regarded as the "father of

geodesy" for his important contributions to that field, along with his significant
contributions to geography.
OMAR KHAYYAM
Full Name: Ghiyath ad-Din Abul-Fath Umar ibn
Ibrahim al-Khayyam Nishapuri
Birthplace: Nishapur
Birth Year: 1048 AD
Death Year: 1131 AD
Other
Names:
Main (1) Mathematics
Interests: (2) Astronomy
(3) Philosophy
(4) Poetry
Notable (1) Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam (2) Treatise on Demonstration of
Works: Problems of Algebra (3) Explanations of the Difficulties in the
Postulates of Euclid
Contributions:
(1) He contributed to a calendar reform. The modern Iranian calendar is based on
his calculations.
(2) In his book, Treatise on Demonstration of Problems of Algebra, he laid down
the principles of algebra later adopted in Europe.
Brief History:
Omer Khayyam was born in Nishapur in 1048 A.D. He was born into a family of
tent-makers (Khayyam), and on this name later in life:

Khayyam, who stitched the tents of science,

Has fallen in grief's furnace and been suddenly burned,
The shears of Fate have cut the tent ropes of his life,
And the broker of Hope has sold him for nothing!
Omar Khayyan

He spent part of his childhood in the town of Balkh. Throughout his life, Omar
Khayyam taught algebra and geometry during the day, and in the evening
attended the Seljuq court as an adviser of Malik-Shah-I. At night he studied
astronomy and worked on the Jalali calendar. Khayyam's years in Isfahan were
productive, but after the death of the Seljuq Sultan Malik-Shah-I, the Sultan's
widow turned against him as an adviser, and as a result, he soon set out on his
Hajj or pilgrimage to Mecca and Medina. He was then allowed to work as a court
astrologer, and to return to Nishapur.
Outside Iran and Persian-speaking countries, Khayyam has influenced literature
and societies through the translation of his works and popularization by other
scholars. Edward FitzGerald made Khayyam famous in the West through his
translation and adaptations of Khayyam's quatrains in the Rubaiyat of Omar
Khayyam.
AL-KHWARIZMI
Full Name: Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi
Birthplace: Khwarezm
Birth Year: 780 AD
Death Year: 850 AD
Other Algoritmi
Names:
Main (1) Mathematics
Interests: (2) Astronomy
(3) Geography
Notable (1) The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and
Works: Balancing (2) On the Calculation with Hindu Numerals (3) The
Image of the Earth
Contributions:
(1) Responsible for spreading the HinduArabic numeral system throughout the
Middle East and Europe.
(2) His systematic approach to solving linear and quadratic equations led to
creation of algebra.
Brief History:
Al-Khwarizmi was born in a Persian family. Al-Khwarizmis contributions to
mathematics, geography, astronomy, and cartography established the basis for
innovation in algebra and trigonometry.

His systematic approach to solving linear and quadratic equations led to algebra,
a word derived from the title of his 830 book on the subject, "The Compendious
Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing".

Al-Khwarizmi systematized and corrected Ptolemys data for Africa and the Middle
East. Another major book was Kitab surat al-Ard (The Image of the Earth),
presenting the coordinates of places based on those in the Geography of Ptolemy
but with improved values for the Mediterranean Sea, Asia, and Africa.

A crater on the moon has been named "Al-Khwarizmi" to give tribute to

Al-Khwarizmis contribution in mathematics and astronomy.
JABIR IBN HAYYAN
Full Name: Abu Musa Jabir Ibn Hayyan
Birthplace: Tus
Birth Year: 721 AD
Death Year: 815 AD
Other Geber
Names:
Main (1) Chemistry
Interests: (2) Alchemy
(3) Astronomy
(4) Astrology
(5) Philosophy
(6) Mathematics
Notable (1) Kitab al-Kimya (2) Kitab al-Sab'een (3) Book of the Kingdom
Works: (4) Book of the Balances (5) Book of Eastern Mercury
Contributions:
(1) The Jabirian corpus is renowned for its contributions to alchemy. He is credited
with the use of over twenty types of now-basic chemical laboratory equipment,
such as the alembic and retort.
(2) Jabir's treatises on alchemy were translated into Latin and became standard
texts for European alchemists. These include the Kitab al-Kimya (titled Book of the
Composition of Alchemy in Europe).
Brief History:
Jabir ibn Hayyan was born and educated in Tus, he later traveled to Kufa. He is
sometimes referred to as the father of early chemistry.

His works seem to have been deliberately written in highly esoteric code (see
steganography), so that only those who had been initiated into his alchemical
school could understand them. It is therefore difficult at best for the modern reader
to discern which aspects of Jabir's work are to be read as ambiguous symbols,
and what is to be taken literally. Because his works rarely made overt sense, the
term gibberish is believed to have originally referred to his writings
IBN BAITAR
Full Name: Ibn al-Baytar al-Malaqi
Birthplace: Malaga, Andalus
Birth Year: 1197 AD
Death Year: 1248 AD
Other
Names:
Main (1) Botany
Interests: (2) Science
(3) Pharmacy
Notable (1) Kitab al-mughni fi al-adwiya al-mufradaa (2) Kitab al-jami li-
Works: mufradat al-adwiya wa al-aghdhiya
Contributions:
(1) His main contribution was to systematically record the additions made by
Islamic physicians in the Middle Ages, which added between 300 and 400 types of
medicine to the one thousand previously known since antiquity.
Brief History:
Born in the city of Malaga in Al-Andalus (Muslim-controlled Spain) at the end of
the 12th century, Ibn al-Baitar learned botany from the Mlagan botanist Abu al-
Abbas al-Nabati with whom he started collecting plants in and around Spain.

After 1224, he entered the service of al-Kamil, an Ayyubid Sultan, and was
appointed chief herbalist. In 1227 al-Kamil extended his domination to Damascus,
and Ibn al-Baitar accompanied him there which provided him an opportunity to
collect plants in Syria. His researches on plants extended over a vast area
including Arabia and Palestine. He died in Damascus in 1248.
Time: is a Measurement System, a Process for Learning and a very important Tool that helps
us Plan and Predict.

Time Dilation: is a difference of elapsed time between two events as measured by observers
either moving relative to each other or differently situated from a gravitational mass or masses.

Time Scale: is a duration or quantity of time.

Timeline: is a way of displaying a list of events in chronological order, sometimes described as

a project artifact.

Calendar: is a system of organizing days for social, religious, commercial or administrative

purposes. This is done by giving names to periods of time, typically days, weeks, months, and
years.

The calendar in most widespread use today is the Gregorian calendar, introduced in the 16 th
century by Pope Gregory-XIII as a modification of the Julian calendar, which was itself a
modification of the ancient Roman calendar.

The term calendar itself is taken from calendae, the term for the first day of the month in the
Roman calendar, related to the verb calare "to call out", referring to the "calling" of the new
moon when it was first seen.

BCE: as an abbreviation for "before the Common (or Current) Era". (Before Christ)

CE: Common Era is a calendar era that is often used as an alternative naming of the Anno
Domini era ("in the year of the Lord"), abbreviated AD. A.D., is used to refer to the years after
the birth of Jesus. A.D. used to be "After Death."

Radiocarbon Dating: is a method for determining the age of an object containing organic
material by using the properties of radiocarbon (14C), a radioactive isotope of carbon. Carbon-
14 dating is based on the fact that radiocarbon is constantly being created in the atmosphere
by the interaction of cosmic rays with atmospheric nitrogen. The resulting radiocarbon
combines with atmospheric oxygen to form radioactive carbon dioxide, which is incorporated
into plants by photosynthesis; animals then acquire 14 C by eating the plants. When the
animal or plant dies, it stops exchanging carbon with its environment, and from that point
onwards the amount of 14 C it contains begins to decrease as the 14 C undergoes radioactive
decay. Measuring the amount of 14 C in a sample from a dead plant or animal such as a piece
of wood or a fragment of bone provides information that can be used to calculate when the
animal or plant died. Using Carbon Dating the oldest dates that can be reliably measured by
radiocarbon dating are around 50,000 years ago.

UNIVERSE
The Universe is all of time and space and its contents. It includes planets, moons, minor
planets, stars, galaxies, the contents of intergalactic space, and all matter and energy. The size
of the entire Universe is unknown.

The earliest scientific models of the Universe were developed by ancient Greek and Indian
philosophers and were geocentric, placing the Earth at the center of the Universe. Over the
centuries, more precise astronomical observations led Nicolaus Copernicus (14731543) to
develop the heliocentric model with the Sun at the center of the Solar System. In developing
the law of universal gravitation, Sir Isaac Newton (NS: 16431727) built upon Copernicus's
work as well as observations by Johannes Keplers (15711630) laws of planetary motion.

Further observational improvements led to the realization that our Solar System is located in
the Milky Way galaxy, which is one of many galaxies in the Universe. It is assumed that
galaxies are distributed uniformly and the same in all directions, meaning that the Universe has
neither an edge nor a center. Discoveries in the early 20 th century have suggested that the
Universe had a beginning and that it is expanding at an increasing rate. The majority of mass
in the Universe appears to exist in an unknown form called dark matter. Following are some of
the facts related to universe:

The universe began with Big Bang, and is estimated to be approximately

13.7 billion years old.
In 1920s, astronomer Edwin Hubble made the discovery that the universe is not static,
but rather expanding.
It is believed that universe will eventually stop expanding and start collapsing in on
itself, in an event known as the Big Crunch.
The data collected by scientists indicate that as the universe is expanding it is also
getting cooler, so it is probable that our universe could end in a Big Freeze also known as
Heat Death.
Stars, planets and galaxies makeup only 4% of the universe rest of 96 percent is made
up of substance that cannot be seen or easily comprehendible is called dark energy and
dark matter.
There may be more universes, the idea is that we live in a multiverse, in which our
universe is one of many, comes from a theory called eternal inflation. This theory suggests
that shortly after Big Bang, space-time expanded at different rates in different places and
this gave rise to bubble universes that could function with their own separate laws of
physics.
A current estimate for the universes diameter is 150 billion light years. Light travels at a
constant, finite speed of 186,000 miles per second. A traveler, moving at the speed of light,
would circumnavigate the equator approximately 7.5 times in a second.
GALAXIES
Galaxy is a huge number of stars grouped together. The term galaxy can also be described as
a collection of dust, gas and stars measuring thousands of parsecs across. Galaxies have
three common shapes: elliptical, spiral, and irregular.

i. Elliptical galaxies have an ovoid or globular shape and generally contain older stars.
ii. Spiral galaxies are disk-shaped with arms that curve around their edges, making these
galaxies look like whirlpools. Spiral galaxies contain both old and young stars as well as
numerous clouds of dust and gas from which new stars are born.
iii. Irregular galaxies have no regular structure. Astronomers believe that their structures
were distorted by collisions with other galaxies.

The name of our galaxy is Milky Way and here are some facts about Milky Way galaxy:
Our galaxy is a spiral galaxy about 30,000 parsecs across.
There are more than 200 billion stars in the galaxy. Its disc appears as a faint
white band that is responsible for dividing the white sky at the night into two.
The galaxy has three spiral arms called the Orion, Perseus, and Sagittarius arms
and the whole system is rotating in space.
The sun revolves around the nucleus of the galaxy once in 225 million years.
This duration is also called the cosmic year or one galactic rotation.

SOLAR SYSTEM
Solar System is the gravitationally bound system comprising the Sun and the objects that orbit
it, either directly or indirectly. Of those objects that orbit the Sun directly, the largest eight are
the planets, with the remainder being significantly smaller objects, such as dwarf planets and
small Solar System bodies. All the theories about the formation of the solar system agree on
two facts:

i. The age of solar system is 4.5 billion years

ii. Planets were formed from the gas and dust within the vicinity of the sun. The gas and
dust condensed into tiny bodies which eventually built up the present day planetary
system.

THE SUN
Sun is the most significant star for the existence and life of living beings on earth.
The whole life on earth depends on this brightest object in the sky.
The living things get their energy from sun and the appropriate distance of earth
from sun maintains an appropriate temperature which is ideal for the survival of all the
life present on earth.
The sun is the principle source of energy for all the planets of the solar systems.
Through a constant stream of particles that flow outward from the sun, heat,
radiation, light and Ultraviolet (UV) rays are emitted.
The UV rays that reach the earth from sun are considered to be the most harmful
ones.
Most of the UV and other high energy radiation are absorbed by the Ozone layer
and the atmosphere of the earth. This stream of particles is called solar wind.

EARTH
Earth is the third farthest planet from the sun and is home to all the living creatures. The Earth
is made up of four distinct layers:
 1. Crust: The outer layer of the earth. It is a thin layer between 0-60 km thick. The
crust is the solid rock layer upon which we live. There are two different types of crust:
(1) continental crust, which carries land, and (2) oceanic crust, which carries water.
2. Mantle: Widest section of the Earth. It has a thickness of approximately 2,900 km.
The mantle is made up of semi-molten rock called magma. In the upper parts of the
mantle the rock is hard, but lower down the rock is soft and beginning to melt.
3. Outer Core: The layer surrounding the inner core. It is a liquid layer, also made up
of iron and nickel. It is still extremely hot, with temperatures similar to the inner core.
4. Inner Core: The centre and is the hottest part of the Earth. It is solid and made up of
iron and nickel with temperatures of up to 5,500C. With its immense heat energy, the
inner core is like the engine room of the Earth.

Here are some of the facts about earth:

Earth is the third planet from the sun and the fifth largest in the solar system.
Earth was formed somewhere around 4.54 billion years ago and is currently the only
known planet to support life.
The Earth was once believed to be the centre of the universe.
For 2000 years ancient astronomers believed that the Earth was static and had other
celestial bodies traveling in circular orbits around it. They believed this because of the
apparent movement on the Sun and planets in relation to their viewpoint. In 1543,
Copernicus published his Sun-centered model of the Solar System which put the Sun at the
centre of our solar system.
Earth is the only planet not named for a mythological god or goddess. The other seven
planets in the solar system were named after Roman gods or goddesses. For the five
visible to the naked eye, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn they we named during
ancient times. This Roman method was also used after the discovery of Uranus and
Neptune. The word Earth comes from the Old English word ertha meaning ground or
land.
The gravity between the Earth and the Moon causes the tides on Earth. This effect on
the Moon means it is tidally locked to Earth its rotation period is the same as its orbit time
so it always presents the same face to Earth.
Earths atmosphere is composed of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and trace amounts of
other gases including argon and carbon dioxide.
The large amount of oxygen on Earth comes from our plant lifes consumption of carbon
dioxide during photosynthesis.
Earth has a very powerful magnetic field. This field protects the planet from the effects
of solar winds and is believed to be a result of the nickel-iron core of the planet combined
with its rapid rotation.
The Earth has an Ozone Layer which protects it from harmful solar radiation. This shell
is a special type of oxygen that absorbs most of the Suns powerful UV rays.
The highest point found on Earth is Mount Everest which reaches a height
of 8.8 km.
The lowest point on Earth is called Challenger Deep and at 10.9 km below sea level, it
is further than the peak of Mount Everest.
Earth has one of the most circular orbits of all the eight planets. Its axis of rotation is
tilted 23.4 away from the perpendicular of its orbital plane, which produces the seasons we
experience.
A year on Earth lasts just over 365 days. It is actually 1/4 of a day over 365 days which
is why we have a leap year every four years.
Earths interior is believed to consist of three components: a core, a mantle, and a crust.
Earth is 92,955,820 miles (149,597,891 kilometers) away from the sun.
 The length of a year on Earth is 365 days, 6 hours, and 16 minutes.

MINERALS
A mineral is a naturally occurring chemical compound, usually of crystalline form and abiogenic
(inorganic; without carbon) in origin. A mineral has one specific chemical composition, whereas
a rock can be an aggregate of different minerals. The study of minerals is called mineralogy.

There are over 5,300 known mineral species. The silicate minerals compose over 90% of the
Earth's crust. The diversity and abundance of mineral species is controlled by the Earth's
chemistry. Silicon and oxygen constitute approximately 75% of the Earth's crust, which
translates directly into the predominance of silicate minerals.

Minerals are distinguished by various chemical and physical properties. Differences in

chemical composition and crystal structure distinguish the various species, which were
determined by the mineral's geological environment when formed. Changes in the
temperature, pressure, or bulk composition of a rock mass cause changes in its minerals.

Minerals are not equivalent to rocks. A rock is either an aggregate of one or more minerals, or
not composed of minerals at all. Rocks like limestone or quartzite are composed primarily of
one mineral. Commercially valuable minerals and rocks are referred to as industrial minerals.
For example, muscovite, a white mica, can be used for windows (sometimes referred to as
isinglass), as a filler, or as an insulator.

Ores are minerals that have a high concentration of a certain element, typically a metal.
Examples are cinnabar (HgS), an ore of mercury, sphalerite (ZnS), an ore of zinc, or cassiterite
(SnO2), an ore of tin.

Gems are minerals with an ornamental value, and are distinguished from non-gems by their
beauty, durability, and usually, rarity. There are about 20 mineral species that qualify as gem
minerals, which constitute about 35 of the most common gemstones. Gem minerals are often
present in several varieties, and so one mineral can account for several different gemstones;
for example, ruby and sapphire are both corundum, Al2O3.

SOURCES OF ENERGY
There are different sources of energy that are used in the world to generate power. While there
are other sources being discovered all the time, none of them has reached the stage where
they can be used to provide the power to help modern life go. All of these different sources of
energy are used primarily to produce electricity. The world runs on a series of electrical
reactions whether you are talking about the car you are driving or the light you are turning
on. All of these different sources of energy add to the store of electrical power that is then sent
out to different locations via high powered lines. Here is an overview of each of the different
sources of energy that are in use, and whats the potential issue for each of them.

Solar Energy
Solar power harvests the energy of the sun through using collector panels to create
conditions that can then be turned into a kind of power. Large solar panel fields are often
used in desert to gather enough power to charge small substations, and many homes use
solar systems to provide for hot water, cooling and supplement their electricity. The issue
with solar is that while there is plentiful amounts of sun available, only certain geographical
ranges of the world get enough of the direct power of the sun for long enough to generate
usable power from this source.
Wind Energy
Wind power is becoming more and more common. The new innovations that are allowing
wind farms to appear are making them a more common sight. By using large turbines to
take available wind as the power to turn, the turbine can then turn a generator to produce
electricity. While this seemed like an ideal solution to many, the reality of the wind farms is
starting to reveal an unforeseen ecological impact that may not make it an ideal choice.

Geothermal Energy
Geothermal energy is the energy that is produced from beneath the earth. It is clean,
sustainable and environment friendly. High temperatures are produced continuously inside
the earths crust by the slow delay of radioactive particles. Hot rocks present below the
earth heats up the water that produces steam. The steam is then captured that helps to
move turbines. The rotating turbines then power the generators.

Geothermal energy can be used by a residential unit or on a large scale by an industrial

application. It was used during ancient times for bathing and space heating. The biggest
disadvantage with geothermal energy is that it can only be produced at selected sites
throughout the world. The largest group of geothermal power plants in the world is located
at The Geysers, a geothermal field in California, United States.

Hydrogen Energy
Hydrogen is available with water (H 2O) and is most common element available on earth.
Water contains two-thirds of hydrogen and can be found in combination with other
elements. Once it is separated, it can be used as a fuel for generating electricity. Hydrogen
is a tremendous source of energy and can be used as a source of fuel to power ships,
vehicles, homes, industries and rockets. It is completely renewable, can be produced on
demand and does not leave any toxic emissions in the atmosphere.

Tidal Energy
Tidal energy uses rise and fall of tides to convert kinetic energy of incoming and outgoing
tides into electrical energy. The generation of energy through tidal power is mostly
prevalent in coastal areas. Huge investment and limited availability of sites are few of the
drawbacks of tidal energy. When there is increased height of water levels in the ocean,
tides are produced which rush back and forth in the ocean. Tidal energy is one of the
renewable sources of energy and produce large energy even when the tides are at low
speed.

Hydroelectric Energy
What many people are not aware of is that most of the cities and towns in the world rely on
hydropower, and have for the past century. Every time you see a major damn, it is providing
hydropower to an electrical station somewhere. The power of the water is used to turn
generators to produce the electricity that is then used.

Biomass Energy
Biomass energy is produced from organic material and is commonly used throughout the
world. Chlorophyll present in plants captures the suns energy by converting carbon dioxide
from the air and water from the ground into carbohydrates through the process of
photosynthesis. When the plants are burned, the water and carbon dioxide is again
released back into the atmosphere. Biomass generally includes crops, plants, trees, yard
clippings, wood chips and animal wastes. Biomass energy is used for heating and cooking
 in homes and as a fuel in industrial production. This type of energy produces large amount
of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.

Nuclear Power
While nuclear power remains a great subject of debate as to how safe it is to use, and
whether or not it is really energy efficient when you take into account the waste it produces
the fact is it remains one of the major renewable sources of energy available to the world.
The energy is created through a specific nuclear reaction, which is then collected and used
to power generators. While almost every country has nuclear generators, there are
moratoriums on their use or construction as scientists try to resolve safety and disposal
issues for waste.

Fossil Fuels (Coal, Oil and Natural Gas)

When most people talk about the different sources of energy they list natural gas, coal and
oil as the options these are all considered to be just one source of energy from fossil
fuels. Fossil fuels provide the power for most of the world, primarily using coal and oil. Oil is
converted into many products, the most used of which is gasoline. Natural gas is starting to
become more common, but is used mostly for heating applications although there are more
and more natural gas powered vehicles appearing on the streets. The issue with fossil fuels
is twofold. To get to the fossil fuel and convert it to use there has to be a heavy destruction
and pollution of the environment. The fossil fuel reserves are also limited, expecting to last
only another 100 years given are basic rate of consumption.

Energy Conservation
Energy conservation refers to the reducing of energy consumption through using less of an
energy service. Energy conservation differs from efficient energy use, which refers to using
less energy for a constant service. Energy conservation is a part of the concept of sufficiency.

Even though energy conservation reduces energy services, it can result in increased
environmental quality, national security, personal financial security and higher savings. It is at
the top of the sustainable energy hierarchy. It also lowers energy costs by preventing future
resource depletion.

Energy conservation is not about making limited resources last as long as they can, that would
mean that you are doing nothing more than prolong a crisis until you finally run out of energy
resources all together. Conservation is the process of reducing demand on a limited supply
and enabling that supply to begin to rebuild itself. Many times the best way of doing this is to
replace the energy used with an alternate.

In the case of fossil fuels, the conservation also can include finding new ways to tap into the
Earths supply so that the commonly used oil fields are not drained completely.

Why Energy Conservation is Important?

We depend on energy for almost everything in our lives. We wish to make our lives
comfortable, productive and enjoyable. Hence even if the outside temperature rises a little, we
immediately switch on the air conditioner to keep our house cool. This is again using up of
energy. Without energy conservation, the world will deplete its natural resources. While some
people dont see that as an issue because it will take many decades to happen and they
foresee that by the time the natural resource is gone there will be an alternative; the depletion
also comes at the cost of creating an enormous destructive waste product that then impacts
the rest of life. The goal with energy conservation techniques is reduce demand, protect and
replenish supplies, develop and use alternative energy sources, and to clean up the damage
from the prior energy processes.

If we do not conserve energy, the energy will exhaust and we will have nothing to use. Also,
energy conservation is also important when it comes to climate change. Currently, erratic
climates and climatic changes are the greatest threats that we are facing today. Hence it is
important to conserve energy.

There are many ways to conserve energy. It depends on the kind of choices we make to help
us save our environment and also help our future generations. Below are some energy
conservation techniques that can help to reduce overall carbon footprint:

Install CFL lights

Use maximum daylight
Get energy audit done
Use energy efficient appliances
Drive less, walk more
Switch off appliances when not in use

Following techniques can also be used to conserve energy:

Education: Education is probably the most powerful of the energy conservation

techniques that can be used. Education is about more than teaching people the
importance of conservation, it is about showing the alternative choices that can be used
in construction, manufacturing and other processes.
Alternative Power: There are more processes that are starting to use alternative power
and fuel sources in many different areas of life. The use of alternative power is one of
the most key energy conservation techniques.
Cap and Trade Agreements: Cap and trade agreements are used as part of the process
of regulating and conserving consumption and pollution for manufacturing industries.
The companies are allowed a certain emission rate which they can bid buy to extend.
The extension bid is then used for compensating projects. While this may not seem like
it is directly related to energy conservation it is very much at its core.
Research & Development: Continued funding of research and development projects in
the energy conservation field is how we discover the changes that can be made to
reduce consumption and discover renewable methods to provide us with the energy that
modern life requires. It should be one of the energy conservation techniques that are
most valued as it is what holds the promise for leading to a solution to the worlds
energy crisis.

BIOLOGY
What is Biology
Biology is the study of living things and the various aspects of life. Biological scientists address
many different questions: how do living organisms function; how are they related to one
another; how do they depend on one another; how do they survive?

Theories on the Origin of Life

Earth is estimated to be about 4.5 billion years old, and for much of that history it has been
home to life in one weird form or another. Indeed, some scientists think life appeared the
moment our planet's environment was stable enough to support it. But despite knowing
approximately when life first appeared on Earth, scientists are still far from answering how it
appeared.

Many theories of the origin of life have been proposed, but since it's hard to prove or disprove
them, no fully accepted theory exists. Following are some of the theories on the origin of life:

1. Electric Spark
Lightning may have provided the spark needed for life to begin.
Electric sparks can generate amino acids and sugars from an atmosphere loaded
with water, methane, ammonia and hydrogen, as was shown in the famous Miller-
Urey experiment reported in 1953, suggesting that lightning might have helped
create the key building blocks of life on Earth in its early days.
Over millions of years, larger and more complex molecules could form. Although
research since then has revealed the early atmosphere of Earth was actually
hydrogen-poor, scientists have suggested that volcanic clouds in the early
atmosphere might have held methane, ammonia and hydrogen and been filled with
lightning as well.

2. Community Clay
The first molecules of life might have met on clay, according to an idea
elaborated by organic chemist Alexander Graham Cairns-Smith at the University of
Glasgow in Scotland.
These surfaces might not only have concentrated these organic compounds
together, but also helped organize them into patterns much like our genes do now.
The main role of DNA is to store information on how other molecules should be
arranged. Genetic sequences in DNA are essentially instructions on how amino
acids should be arranged in proteins. Cairns-Smith suggests that mineral crystals in
clay could have arranged organic molecules into organized patterns. After a while,
organic molecules took over this job and organized themselves.

3. Deep-Sea Vents
The deep-sea vent theory suggests that life may have begun at submarine
hydrothermal vents, spewing key hydrogen-rich molecules. Their rocky nooks could
then have concentrated these molecules together and provided mineral catalysts for
critical reactions.

4. Chilly Start
Ice might have covered the oceans 3 billion years ago, as the sun was about a
third less luminous than it is now. This layer of ice, possibly hundreds of feet thick,
might have protected fragile organic compounds in the water below from ultraviolet
light and destruction from cosmic impacts. The cold might have also helped these
molecules to survive longer, allowing key reactions to happen.

5. RNA World
Nowadays DNA needs proteins in order to form, and proteins require DNA to
form, so how could these have formed without each other? The answer may be
RNA, which can store information like DNA, serve as an enzyme like proteins, and
help create both DNA and proteins.
Later DNA and proteins succeeded this "RNA world," because they are more
efficient. RNA still exists and performs several functions in organisms, including
 acting as an on-off switch for some genes. The question still remains how RNA got
here in the first place. And while some scientists think the molecule could have
spontaneously arisen on Earth, others say that was very unlikely to have happened.
Other nucleic acids other than RNA have been suggested as well, such as the
more esoteric PNA or TNA

6. Simple Beginnings
Instead of developing from complex molecules such as RNA, life might have
begun with smaller molecules interacting with each other in cycles of reactions.
These might have been contained in simple capsules akin to cell membranes, and
over time more complex molecules that performed these reactions better than the
smaller ones could have evolved, scenarios dubbed "metabolism-first" models, as
opposed to the "gene-first" model of the "RNA world" hypothesis.

7. Panspermia
Perhaps life did not begin on Earth at all, but was brought here from elsewhere in
space, a notion known as panspermia. For instance, rocks regularly get blasted off
Mars by cosmic impacts, and a number of Martian meteorites have been found on
Earth that some researchers have controversially suggested brought microbes over
here, potentially making us all Martians originally.

Classification of Living Things

Swedish botanist Carolus Linnaeus developed the first taxonomy, a scientific classification of
nature into related categories, in the eighteenth century. He divided the world into three
domains: animal, vegetable, and mineral.

These classifications remained more or less intact until the middle of the twentieth century. On
a large scale, it is usually pretty easy to tell whether something is a plant or an animal. A plant
stays in one place and makes its own food; an animal moves around and eats something else.

On the microscopic scale, though, things dont fit so cleanly. There are the algae, which make
their own food, but on the cellular level differ more from plants and animals. Then there are
single celled organisms that make food by photosynthesis but also move around and eat other
organisms.

Bacteria are organisms that have a single cell. With a good microscope, you can find them
anywhere from the deepest ocean to the driest desert, and right in your body. In fact, bacteria
are so involved with the function of your body that you need them in order to survive. Although
they vary in size, you would need to line up about 40,000 of them to make a 1-inch column.
Every plant or animal cell has a nucleus, where it manufactures genetic material, DNA.
Bacteria, on the other hand, do not have a nucleus; therefore, bacteria are neither plants nor
animals. Their DNA floats around inside the cell.

As scientists learned more about microscopic organisms, it became clear that things could not
be neatly placed into the plant and animal boxes. A new classification system was adopted in
the mid-twentieth century. In that system, all living things were divided into five kingdoms
based on the structures of their cells:
Animalia - animals
Plantae - plants
 Monera - bacteria and blue-green algae
Protista -protozoans and some algae
Fungi fungi

Animals are characterized being multicellular and eukaryotic (A eukaryote is any organism
whose cells contain a nucleus and other organelles enclosed within membranes).
Classification of Animalia Kingdom
Classification of animals is about organizing organisms into groups. Members of a group have
shared characteristic, that is common to all members of that group and it is this character that
defines the group. These characteristics are arrangement of cells, body symmetry, patterns of
digestive system, patterns of circulatory system, patterns of reproductive systems etc.
The classification scheme provides a mechanism for bringing together various species into
progressively larger groups. The system most scientist use put each living thing into seven
groups or taxons. They are organized from most general to most specific category. These
categories in the hierarchical system are from higher and most inclusive to lower to more
specific are:
1. Kingdom is the highest primary division in which all objects are placed. All animals are
part of the Animal Kingdom.
2. Phylum Each kingdom is divided into smaller units called phyla. Example, chordates
are a phylum with members possessing the nerve cord.
3. Class The chordates are further divided into classes such as Mammalia, Birds, Reptilia,
Amphibians. Members of each class have a characteristic that they share with the
members of the same class but are not found in members of other classes.
4. Order each class is further divided into different orders.
5. Family Order is further divided into families. Families contain more than one genus.
6. Genus Families are subdivided into genera. Animals that share the same genus are
very similar and probably evolved from the same common ancestor.
7. Species Species is the most fundamental and contains single type of animal.
A Sample Classification
The lion belongs to the following groups:
1. Kingdom Animalia (includes all animals)
2. Phylum Chordata (includes all vertebrate animals)
3. Class Mammalia (includes all mammals)
4. Order Carnivora (includes carnivorous mammals, from bears to raccoons to harbor
seals)
5. Family Felidae (includes all cats)
6. Genus Panthera (includes the great roaring cats: lions, tigers & leopards)
7. Species leo (lions)

At phylum level of classification, animals are grouped together based on similarities in basic
body plan or organization. For instance, species in the phylum Arthropoda have external
skeletons as well as jointed bodies and limbs. Insects, spiders, centipedes, lobsters, and crabs
are all arthropods.

In contrast, members of the phylum Mollusca have soft, unsegmented bodies that are usually,
but not always, enclosed in hard shells. They also usually have at least one strong foot that
helps them move. Octopi, squids, cuttlefish, snails, slugs, clams, and other shellfish are
mollusks.

There are at least 33 phyla (plural of phylum) of animals. Humans are members of the phylum
Chordata. All of the chordates have elongated bilaterally symmetrical bodies. That is to say, the
left and right sides are essentially mirror images of each other. If there are two functionally
similar body parts, they are usually found roughly equidistant from the center line, parallel to
each other.

Members of the phylum Chordata also often have a head, a tail, and a digestive system with
an opening at both ends of the body. In other words, the body organization is essentially that of
a tube in which food enters one end and waste matter passes out of the other. The chordates
include mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, fish etc.

The chordates are divided into three subphyla. Humans are members of the subphylum
Vertebrata. Among the vertebrates, the simple hollow dorsal nerve tube is replaced by a more
complex tubular bundle of nerves called a spinal cord. A segmented vertebral (or spinal)
column of cartilage and/or bone develops around the spinal cord of vertebrates to protect it
from injury. At one end of the spinal cord is a head with a brain and paired sense organs that
function together to coordinate movement and sensation.

Vertebrata is the most advanced and numerous subphylum of chordates. It includes all of the
fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals. Collectively, there are about 43,000 living
vertebrate species in comparison to just over 1500 species in the other two invertebrate
subphyla of chordates.

Taxonomy of Humans
1. Kingdom Animalia
multicellular, eukaryotic organisms
2. Phylum Chordata
notochord, post-anal tail, nerve cord, Pharyngeal slits
3. Class Mammalia
Latin mamma "breast" breast feeding
4. Order Primates
large brains relative to other mammals (chimpanzees, gorillas)
5. Family Hominidae
Great Apes (Pongo, Bonobo)
6. Genus Homo
Related to modern day humans & include extinct species like Homo erectus &
Homo habilis.
7. Species Sapiens
Latin "wise man". Only surviving species of the genus Homo - Modern Humans
Classification of Planate (Metaphyta) Kingdom
Virtually all other living creatures depend on plants to survive. Through photosynthesis, plants
convert energy from sunlight into food stored as carbohydrates. Because animals cannot get
energy directly from the sun, they must eat plants (or other animals that have had a vegetarian
meal) to survive. Plants also provide the oxygen humans and animals breathe, because plants
use carbon dioxide for photosynthesis and release oxygen into the atmosphere.

Plants are found on land, in oceans, and in fresh water. They have been on Earth for millions
of years. Plants were on Earth before animals and currently number about 260,000 species.
Three features distinguish plants from animals:

i. Plants have chlorophyll, a green pigment necessary for photosynthesis;

ii. Their cell walls are made sturdy by a material called cellulose; and
iii. They are fixed in one place (they dont move).

Plant Classification
The Kingdom Plantae includes all types of eukaryotic, multi-cellular, photosynthetic plants
found in this biosphere. Most of the organism in this kingdom is autotrophs, which synthesis
their own food with the help of solar energy. There are very few species, which are both
autotrophs and heterotrophs.

The Kingdom Plantae contains about billion types of plants species and it was very difficult to
identify different types of species. Many biologists contributed in classifying different plants
species in to their separate kingdom. Based on their classification, plants are divided into the
four main groups. These classifications were based on:

i. Vascular plants have a system for circulating fluids.

ii. Non-vascular plants cannot circulate rainwater through their stems and leaves but must
absorb it from the environment that surrounds them.
iii. Plants that reproduces from seeds
iv. Plants that reproduces from spores

Plantae kingdom is sub-divided into following Phylum

i. Phylum Bryophyta
ii. Phylum Pteridophytae
iii. Phylum Angiosperms
iv. Phylum Gymnosperms

Phylum Bryophyta
They are non-vascular land plants, which do not contain any conducting tissues
and are often referred to as bryophytes.
These plants are small, grow close to the ground and include mosses and
liverworts.
They are very small in structure and are considered as important members of our
ecosystem.
The reproduction process is carried in their spores. They are non flowering plant
and are found mainly growing on the ground, on other plants and on rocks.
They play a vital role in preventing soil erosion.

Phylum Pteridophytae
 They are seedless vascular plants, which contain vascular tissues but do not
produce seeds.
They are involved in transportation of fluids.
The reproduction process is carried by spores.

Phylum Angiosperms
Angiosperms are flowering plants, which develops the seeds within a protective
structure.
The reproduction process is carried by Angiosperm.
They develop their seeds within an ovary, which itself is embedded in a flower.
After the stage of fertilization, the flower falls and the ovary bulges to become a
fruit.
Angiosperms in the class Dicotyledoneae grows into two seed-leaves
(cotyledons).
An angiosperms leaf consists of a single, branched, main vein, which originates
from the base of the leaf blade. In few plats, it may also consist of four or more main
veins diverging from the same base.

Phylum Gymnosperms
Gymnosperms are non-flowering plants with undeveloped seeds, which are
present in an enclosed structure.
Monocot begins with a single seed-leaf. The main veins of their leaves are
usually parallel and un-branched.
Monocot plays an important role in providing us with our primary sources of
nutrition, which includes grains, fruits, etc.
GLOBAL WARMING
Global warming is the term for the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of
the Earth's climate system. Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is
warming. Although the increase of near-surface atmospheric temperature is the measure of
global warming often reported in the popular press, most of the additional energy stored in the
climate system since 1970 has gone into the oceans. The rest has melted ice and warmed the
continents and atmosphere. Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are
unprecedented over tens to thousands of years.

The global average (land and ocean) surface temperature shows a warming of 0.85 [0.65 to
1.06] C in the period 1880 to 2012, based on multiple independently produced datasets.

Global Warming Causes

Carbon Dioxide Emissions

Our ever increasing addiction to electricity from coal burning power plants releases
enormous amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Global warming occurs when
carbon dioxide (CO2) and other air pollutants and greenhouse gasses collect in the
atmosphere and absorb sunlight and solar radiation that have bounced off the earths
surface.

Normally, this radiation would escape into spacebut these pollutants, which can last for
years to centuries in the atmosphere, trap the heat and cause the planet to get hotter.
That's what's known as the greenhouse effect.

Methane Emissions
Methane is another extremely potent greenhouse gas, ranking right behind CO2. When
organic matter is broken down by bacteria under oxygen-starved conditions (anaerobic
decomposition) as in rice paddies, methane is produced.

The process also takes place in the intestines of herbivorous animals, and with the
increase in the amount of concentrated livestock production, the levels of methane
released into the atmosphere is increasing.

Deforestation
The use of forests for fuel (both wood and for charcoal) is one cause of deforestation.
Forests remove and store carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, and this deforestation
releases large amounts of carbon, as well as reducing the amount of carbon capture on the
planet.

Increase in usage of chemical fertilizers on croplands

In the last half of the 20th century, the use of chemical fertilizers (as opposed to the
historical use of animal manure) has risen dramatically. The high rate of application of
nitrogen-rich fertilizers has effects on the heat storage of cropland (nitrogen oxides have
300 times more heat-trapping capacity per unit of volume than carbon dioxide) and the run-
off of excess fertilizers creates dead-zones in our oceans.

CLIMATE CHANGE
Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change
lasts for an extended period of time (i.e., decades to millions of years). Climate change may
refer to a change in average weather conditions, or in the time variation of weather around
longer-term average conditions (i.e., more or fewer extreme weather events).

According to NASA, the Earth average temperature has increased about one degree
Fahrenheit during the 20th century. That might sound like it isnt a great change, but its effects
on our environment have proven otherwise. The impacts of this small change in the
temperature are many, from longer drought seasons and heat waves to more aggressive
hurricanes. Furthermore, the increase in the earths average temperature created a variety of
problems that left a lasting scar on our environment.

Causes of Climate Change

Greenhouse Effect
Greenhouse gases are thought to be the main contributor to climate change. They are very
efficient in trapping heat into the atmosphere; therefore, it results in the greenhouse effect.

The solar energy is absorbed by the earths surface and then reflected back to the
atmosphere as heat. Then as the heat goes out to space, greenhouse gases absorb a part
of the heat. After that, they radiate the heat back to the earths surface, to another
greenhouse gas molecule, or to space.

Nature Contributions
Nature also contributes to climate change by emitting CO2 from volcanoes. Volcanoes do
contribute to climate change by emitting CO2. However, the amount of CO2 they emit is
relatively small if we compare it to the amount of CO2 that is being released by human
activities.

Human Contributions
Scientists believe human activities contribute to climate change because we depend on
fossil fuels for our energy needs. A large amount of climate change happens widely
because we are burning fossil fuels and that increases gases such as CO2, methane, and
some other gases in the atmosphere.

Effects of Climate Change

Climate change has affected many aspects of our planet. One aspect that has been greatly
affected by climate change is the weather. By increasing the concentration of the
greenhouse gases, we are increasing the amount of heat that is in our atmosphere.
Following are some of the effects of climate change:
Hurricanes have also become more aggressive largely because of warmer
temperatures that mainly resulted from the emission of greenhouse gases.
Warmer temperature means the atmosphere holds more water vapor and that
makes rainfalls more extreme and intense.
Climate change also resulted in playing a major role in shrinking of ice sheets. The
melting of ice results in the rise of sea levels and that endangers many islands to
disappear completely.
Melting of ice and glaciers could result in six feet sea level rise in this century.
Droughts in the Southwest and heat waves (periods of abnormally hot weather
lasting days to weeks) everywhere are projected to become more intense, and cold
waves less intense everywhere.
 The Arctic Ocean is expected to become essentially ice free in summer before mid-
century.

Solutions for Climate Change

There have been many debates and discussions on how to combat climate change among
nations. However, many factors influence on whether the solutions are efficient economically
or it cost too much to maintain. The following solutions are considered among the efficient
solutions to reduce the progress of climate change:

Wind power is the fastest-growing energy resources in the world since 1990. Since wind
turbines use the wind, a renewable source of energy, to generate electricity it has little
to no impact on the environment.
Existing buildings emit CO2 because of their dependence on fossil fuels for energy from
air-conditioning to electricity. Using light bulbs that use less energy and more efficient
heating and cooling systems helps in reducing the amount of CO2 that is being emitted
from the buildings resulting in a reduction of greenhouse gases emission.
Methane is a greenhouse gas that contributes to the progress of climate change.
Natural gas and petroleum systems are also considered, among the main sources of
methane emission. Upgrading the equipment used in transferring, storing, and
producing oil and gas can limit methane leaks.
 Everyday Science
Science: The Systematic study of physical and natural world through observation and experiments
is known as Science
Nam
S. Introduction
e
Date of Birth: 973 AD
Place of Birth: Khawrisan
now known as Khiva
Date of Death: 1048 AD
Place of Death: Ghazna
His Students used to
Al-Beruni
address him Al-Ustad,
1 professor beyond par.
Al-Beruni was associated
with Sultan Masood S/o
Sultan Mehmood Ghaznavi
His field of interest was
GMMA (Geography,
Mathematics, Music and
Astronomy)
Date of Birth: 721 AD
Place of Birth: Toos, Iran
Date of Death: 815 AD
Jabir Bin Hayyan
Place of Death: Kufa, Iraq
In the west Geber
2 Known as Father of
Chemistry
His field of interest was
GAPPAPP (Geography,
Astronomy, Philosophy,
Pharmacist, Astrology,
Physician and Physicist)
Contribution Books
He gave an idea that earth
is not stationary, but rotates
around its own axis.
Rotation (around
axix)
Al- Rotation is to day
Beruni 01 Rotation of earth Qanoon Al Masodi
is
(about celestial
23H 56M 04S
Revolution (in orbit) (space) bodies or
Revolution is to year heavenly bodies)
Coperni
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01 Revolution of Kitab Al Hind (about
earth is
civilization, culture,
365.6 Days
religions, languages
He gave a theory that light
of India)
travels faster than sound.
Kitab Al Jawahir
He gave a concept of
(about jewels)
Longitude and latitude.
Pakistan 30N 70E
Revolution (in orbit)
Revolution is to year
Coperni
01 Revolution of
cs
earth is
365.6 Days
Important chemical
preparation
Sulphuric Acid H2SO4
Nitric Acid HNO3
Hydrochloric
HCl
Acid
Pb(CO3)2.Pb(O
White Lead
H)2
He prepared Aqua Regia
(HNO3+3 HCl=AR) by
mixing HNO3 and HCl with
the ration 1:3 for dissolving
strong (Nobel) metals like Composition of Al-
Gold, Platinium also known Chemy (Al-Chemia)
as Royal Water, King Water, Book of Balances
Aab-e-Sultani Kitab Al Tajmi
Important Chemical Kitab Al Rehma
Techniques
Evaporation
Reduction
Oxidation
Distillation
Sublimation (conversion of
solids into gas directly)
Metallurgy
Mercuric Sulfide (HgS)
is the only ore of Mercury
(Hg).

Date of Birth: 980 AD
Place of Birth: Afsinah,
Abu Ali Ibn-E-Sina
Great percia near Bokhara
Date of Death: 1037 AD
Place of Death: _______
3 In the west Aviencenna
Known as Father of
Geology
His field of interest was
GMAP (Geography,
Mathematics, Astronomy,
and Philosophy)
Nam
S. Introduction
e
Date of Birth: 1197 AD
Place of Birth: Malaga
Ibn-Al-Baitar
(Malaha), Spain
Date of Death: 1248 AD
4 Place of Death: Damascus,
Syria
His field of interest was
BPP (Botanist, Pharmacist,
Physician)
Date of Birth: 780 AD
Place of Birth: Khawarizm
now known as Khiva,
Uzbekistan
Date of Death: 847 AD
Al-Khawarizami
Place of Death: _______
He was librarian in the
5 court of Khalifa Al-
Mamoon.
His field of interest was
GHAMM (Geology, History,
Astronomy, Music and
Mathematics)
He was known as father of
Al-Gebera and
Mathematics
6 Date of Birth: 865 AD
Al-Razi (Zakria Al Razi)
Place of Birth: Ray near
Tehran, Iran
Date of Death: 925 AD
Place of Death: _______
He was greatest physician
of Muslim World
His field of interest was
CPPM (Chemistry,
Physician, Physiology and
Mathematics)
He was known as father of
Al-Gebera and
Mathematics
He studied mountains,
earths interior and gave
scientific reasons for
earthquakes
Cracks in Plates Fault
Al Qanoon (about
Overlapping of
Fold
Plates human physiology)
Al-Shift (Healing)
He in the first time of history
Al-Nijat
used catheter, made from
Al-Isharat
the skin of animals
He used silver syringe for
the first time for injection
purpose.
Contribution Books
Kitab Al Jami Fil
Adwiya Al Mufrara
He is Known for scientific
(Encyclopedia of
classification of Oncology
Botany, in which he
He lead foundation of Herbal
described 1400
Medicine
drugs)
He gathered new plants
Kitab Al Mughani Fil
from Spain to Syria and
Adwiya Al Mufrara
extracted medicines from
(Consists of 20
them
Chapters, he
He classified and gave
discussed the
names to plant kingdom.
diseases of eye, ear,
head and fever)
Kitab Surat Al Ard
He was the first person used (about shape of
ZERO 0 earth)
He for the first time worked Kitab Al Tarikh
on Arithmetic Hisab Al Jabar Wal
He made his own Muqabals (about
astronomical table known as analytic solutions
ZIJ and quadratic
equation)
He for the first time used Al Hawi
Opium as anesthetic (encyclopedia of
purpose. medicine present in
He was the first person who 20 volumes) also
recognized the reaction known as a
pupil (part of eye) to light monumental work.
He used for the first time Disease in Children
(Monograph i.e.
animal gut as a ligature for
surgical operations. Single Topic) (On the
basis of this book he
was known as father
of Pediatrics)
Kitab Al Israr (about
chemical
preparation and
application)
 Al Judari Wal Hasba
(about small pox,
measles)

He discovered magnifying
lens.
He introduced/ used pinhole
Kitab Al Manazir
camera for the formation of
(Book of optics,
images
Date of Birth: 956 AD about nature of light
He was the first scientist
Ibn Al Haitham

Place of Birth: Basra, Iraq and the phenomina

Date of Death: 1040 AD
7 Place of Death: _______
He was renowned
Physicist and
Mathematician
Date of Birth: 1048 AD
Place of Birth: Nishapur,
Omer Khyam
who elaborated two laws of
of vision)
reflection of light.
Risala Fil Makan
He was the first scientist
(Treatise on place,
who said, that light is form
about the motion of
of energy.
the body)
He gave an idea that retina
Mizan Al Hikma
is the major part of eye
(about balance of
responsible for vision
wisdom)
He identified gravity as a
force, and later this theory
was developed by Newton
Worked on Al-Gebera Demonistration of
Introduced Jalali calander Problems of Al-

Iran being followed in Gebra (lead down
Date of Death: 1131 AD Afghanistan and Iran) the principles of al-
8
Place of Death: _______ He developed an accurate Gebra)
His field of MAPP method for specific gravity Maqalat Fil jabar Wal
(Mathematics, Astronomy, He recognized 13 different Muqabila (master
Philosophy and Poet) forms of cubic equations. piece on Al-Gebra)
Universe: It is the total sum of matter sun and energy that exists in space and time
Universe has 1011 1012 million galaxies
Galaxy: It is a massive aggregate of millions of stars. All gravitationally interacting and orbiting
about a common center.
Every galaxy has 1011 1012 million stars
Our Galaxy is Milkyway
Example: Milkyway, Andromeda
Type: Spiral Galaxy (Milkyway is spiral)
Elliptical Galaxy
Irregular Galaxy
Milky way:
Milky way is a spiral galaxy.
It has one lac light years diameter
One light year is a distance covered by light in one year
It was formed 14 billion years ago
Our solar system is 30,000 light years away from the centre of milky way
Nearest galaxy to milky way is Andromeda
Our Milky way is a part of cluster of 3 dozens of galaxies, known as local group.
Sun

Sun is a star
Member of milkyway galaxy
4.5 billion years old.
Temperature of core: 15 MillionoC


Star of our solar system is Sun and in the 6th ring of Milkyway

Radius
Meteoroids 100 Kms
Asteroid Belt: Asteroids 100-200 Kms
Meteoroids
Dwarf Planet: It has an object that orbits the sun, has enough mass to give it a round
shape, but has not cleared the neighbourhood of its own orbit. Example: Pluto, Eris
Moon: It is a natural satellite of a planet and orbits around a planet.
Characteristics:
Out Moon is also known as Luna.
Diameter 3475 Km
Mass 7x1022 Kg
Average distance from moon to earth is 4x10 5 Km
Moon orbits around earth in 27 days and 7 hours
Fore of gravity on moon surface is 1/6 of earths gravity
Moon light takes 1.3 seconds to reach earth.
 Planetary Fact Sheet - Metric
MERCUR VENU JUPITE SATUR URANU NEPTUN
EARTH MARS
Y S R N S E
Distance from Sun (Million Km) 58 110 150 228 780 1430 2870 4500
Diameter (km) 4900 12,100 12,756 6780 142,800 120,800 51,800 49,400
Relvolution Orbital Period 88 D 225 D 365.25 D 1.88 Y 11.86 Y 29.46 Y 84 Y 164 Y
Rotation Period 59 D 243 D 24 Hours 24 H 40 M 9 H 55 M 10 H 15 M 17 H 16 H
Average Temp -170 450 480 15 -30 -150 -180 -210 -220
Average Density (g/cm3) 5.4 5.5 5.5 3.9 1.3 0.71 1.24 1.67
Carbon Di Nitrogen, Carbon Di Hydrgen, Hydrgen, Hydrgen, Hydrgen,
Atmospheric Composition No Air
Oxide Oxygen Oxide Helium Helium Helium Helium
Number of Moons 0 0 1 2 67 62 27 13
Hottest, Biggest, Max Coldest,
Smallest,
Brightest, Heaviest, Moons, Ring Planet, Slowest
Prominent Features Fastest Red Planet Green Planet
Morning Life Fastest Least Dense Revolving
Revolving
Star Rotation Planet
Distance from Sun (106 km) 57.9 108.2 149.6 227.9 778.6 1433.5 2872.5 4495.1
Diameter (km) 4879 12,104 12,756 6792 142,984 120,536 51,118 49,528
Orbital Period (days) 88 224.7 365.2 687 4331 10,747 30,589 59,800
Rotation Period (hours) 1407.6 -5832.5 23.9 24.6 9.9 10.7 -17.2 16.1
Density (kg/m3) 5427 5243 5514 3933 1326 687 1271 1638
Number of Moons 0 0 1 2 67 62 27 14
Mass (1024kg) 0.33 4.87 5.97 0.642 1898 568 86.8 102
Density (kg/m3) 5427 5243 5514 3933 1326 687 1271 1638
Gravity (m/s2) 3.7 8.9 9.8 3.7 23.1 9 8.7 11
Escape Velocity (km/s) 4.3 10.4 11.2 5 59.5 35.5 21.3 23.5
Rotation Period (hours) 1407.6 -5832.5 23.9 24.6 9.9 10.7 -17.2 16.1
Length of Day (hours) 4222.6 2802 24 24.7 9.9 10.7 17.2 16.1
Distance from Sun (106 km) 57.9 108.2 149.6 227.9 778.6 1433.5 2872.5 4495.1
Perihelion (106 km) 46 107.5 147.1 206.6 740.5 1352.6 2741.3 4444.5
Aphelion (106 km) 69.8 108.9 152.1 249.2 816.6 1514.5 3003.6 4545.7
Orbital Period (days) 88 224.7 365.2 687 4331 10,747 30,589 59,800
Orbital Velocity (km/s) 47.4 35 29.8 24.1 13.1 9.7 6.8 5.4
Orbital Inclination (degrees) 7 3.4 0 1.9 1.3 2.5 0.8 1.8
Orbital Eccentricity 0.205 0.007 0.017 0.094 0.049 0.057 0.046 0.011
Obliquity to Orbit (degrees) 0.01 177.4 23.4 25.2 3.1 26.7 97.8 28.3
Mean Temperature (C) 167 464 15 -65 -110 -140 -195 -200
Surface Pressure (bars) 0 92 1 0.01 Unknown* Unknown* Unknown* Unknown*
Ring System? No No No No Yes Yes Yes Yes
Global Magnetic Field? Yes No Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes