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A Guide to Distinctive Features

Introduction to Theoretical Linguistics


Kyle Johnson

The set of phonological features that are used to define classes of sounds have been
arrived at by investigating the phonologies of many languages. These features are
what the rules of allophony and phonotactic constraints are expressed in. Most of
these features make reference to ways in which sounds are articulated. Some make
reference to acoustic properties of the sounds; that is, they refer to some quality of
the sound that, presumably, is relevant for how our ears distinguish sounds. Many
of those features that make reference to articulations are familiar to you. They are
basically the same as the descriptions I used when we first learned the International
Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). For instance, the features [back], [front], [high] and [low]
refer to where in the mouth the body of the tongue is positioned when the sound
is made. The feature [round] refers to the pursing of the lips that vowels sometimes
involve, and the feature [tense] refers to the tightening of the musculature at the back
of the throat that plays a role in distinguishing certain vowels. Similarly, the features
[voice] and [nasal] refer to vibration of the vocal folds and lowering of the velum —
the articulations that make voiced and nasal sounds, respectively. And the feature
[lateral] refers to the articulation that involves letting air escape around a closure out
the sides of the tongue. The phone [l] is the only sound in English that does this, and
so it is the only English phone that is [+lateral]. Finally, the feature [labial] refers to
articulations that involve the lips. For instance, [p] is [+labial], since the lips are what
form the closure for this stop; and [v] is [+labial], because the lower lip creates this
fricative by coming close to the upper teeth. [t] and [k] are both [-labial], however,
as neither involves the lips.
Some of the features refer to phonetic properties that we’ve discussed, but in
slightly different ways. For instance, the feature [continuant] refers to those sounds
which do not involve a complete closure of the oral tract, that is, they are non-stops.
So stops don’t have this feature; they are [-continuant]. The features [consonantal]
and [vocalic] are used to make the major distinction between consonants and vow-
els. Most consonants are [+consonantal], and vowels are [+vocalic]. No vowel is a
consonant (so they are all [-consonantal]) and no consonant is a vowel (so they are
all [-vocalic]). But there are sounds which are sort of vowel like and sort of conso-
nant like, and these are neither [consonantal] nor [vocalic]. These are some (but not
all) of the sounds that I called “Approximants” when I introduced the IPA.
There are some articulatory features, though, that are not related to the descrip-
tions I gave of sounds when we first learned the IPA. One of these is [anterior], which
A Guide to Distinctive Features

refers to a stop, fricative or affricate that is made in the “front” of the mouth. The
“front” of the mouth starts at the alveolar ridge, so [+anterior] sounds are the sounds
made at the alveolar ridge (for example: [t], [z]) or forward (for example: [T], [p]).
The feature [coronal] refers to an articulation that involves the blade of the tongue
(the “blade” being that part of the tongue that you can stick out of your mouth). So
[l], [t], [s], [Ù], [n] and so on are all [+coronal].
In addition to these articulatory features, there are two acoustic features. One is
[sonorant], which refers to sounds that have a vowel like “ringing” sound to them.
The nasal stops and [l], [r], [j] and [w] are sonorant. And finally, there is [strident],
which refers to sounds that have a high pitched “hissing” sound to them. Only frica-
tives and affricates are [strident], but not all fricatives and affricates are. [s], [Ã],
[z], [Ù], [S], [Z] are all [strident], but [f], [v], [T] and [D] aren’t. (A way to remem-
ber which are stridents and which aren’t is this: every fricative or affricate is strident
except those that involve the teeth in their articulation.)
I’ve listed below the features that are different enough from what we learned
about how sounds are articulated, that they might not be obvious. For each, I’ve given
a brief definition, and a list of the phones in English that have that feature.
(1) [+continuant]: no closure in the oral tract.
All vowels and fricatives and [l], [ô], [j], [w], [û] and [h].
(2) [+vocalic]: vowels
All vowels.
(3) [+consonantal]: Consonants
All stops, fricatives, affricates and [l] and [ô].
(4) [+anterior]: Produced at the alveolar ridge or forward
[p], [b], [m], [f], [v], [t], [d], [n], [s], [z], [T], [D], [l] and [ô]
(5) [+coronal]: Made with the blade of the tongue.
[t], [d], [s], [z], [T], [D], [S], [Z], [Ù], [Ã], [l], [ô]
(6) [+sonorant]: Has a “ringing” quality to it.
All vowels and [m], [n], [N], [l], [ô], [j] and [w].
(7) [+strident]: Has a high-pitched “hissing” quality to it.
[s], [z], [S], [Z], [Ù] and [Ã].

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