CHAPTER Limits and Continuity OVERVIEW The concept of limit of a function is one of the fundamental ideas that distinguishes calculus from algebra and trigonometry. In this chapter we develop the limit, fist incuitively and then formally, We use limits to describe the way a function f varies. Some functions vary continuously; small changes in x produce only small changes in f(x). Other Functions can have values that jamp ot vary erratically. We also use limits to define tangent lines to graphs of functions. This geometric application leads at once to the important concept of derivative of a function. The derivative, which we investigate thoroughly in Chapter 2, quantifies the way a function's values change, Free fall Near the surface of de earth ll bodies fall ‘vith the same constant acceleration. The sistance a body falls after its released from testi 9 constant multiple ofthe square of the tine elapsed. At Teast that is what hppens when the body falls in vacuum, here there no ai 9 slow it down, The square of ime rule also bois fr dense, heavy objects lke rocks, hall bearings, and stool tools during the fst few seconds of their all through ai, before their velocities bull up to where air esstance begins 10 rmauer. When air ressunce is absem or insignificant and te only force acting on a falling bay isthe force of gravity, we call the way the ody falls ee fal. Rates of Change and Limits In this section we introduce two rates of change, 5] 4 and population growth, This leads to the main idea of the section, the idea of limit, Speed [A moving boy's average apecd over any parca tie ier isthe amount of distance covered during the interval divided by the length of the interval. EXAMPLE 1A tock falls fiom the top of a 150+ cliff. What is its average speed (a) during the first 2 sec of fall? (b) during the 1-see interval bewween second | and second 2? Solution Physical experiments show that a solid object dropped from rest to fall, freely near the surface of the earth will fall y= 160 ‘during the first sec. The average speed of the rock during a given time interval is the change in distance, Ay, divided by the length of the time interval, As Ay _ 160) — 1607 8) Forthe first 2 sec: a See Ay _ 1612)" 160)? _ 4g ft b) From second 1 t0 send 25 $2 = OEP TOU _ gg ti 5152. Chapter 4: Limits and Continuity Geometrically, an average rate of change Isa secant slope. Average speeds over short time intervals oy a rh | Avengs uc = la at | tang verge pnd re verge spd ovr te ner tert on tert enh * hae st sing 2 iv “ » | a Bs &6 | | co mis EXAMPLE 2 Find the speed of the rock at = 1 and ¢ = 2 see Solution We can calculate the average speed of the rock over a time interval (oto +, having length Ar =, as Ay _ 16lg +h)? ~ 1606? ar i We cannot use this formula to calculate the “instantaneous” speed at & by sub- stituting hi = 0, because we cannot divide by zero. But we can use it (9 aleulate average speeds over increasingly short time intervals stating at fy = 1 and f = 2 When we do so, we see a patter (Table 1.1). “The average speed on intervals starting at fy = 1 seems to approach a lim: iting value of 32 as the length of the interval decreases. This suggests that the sock is falling at a speed of 32 fUsee at fy = 1 sec. Similarly, the rock's speed at fg = 2 see would appear to be 64 fuse. Average Rates of Change and Secant Lines Given an arbitrary function y = f(x), we calculate the average rate of change of ¥y with respect to x over the interval [xi,%2] by dividing the change in value of y, Ay = fae) — fay), by the length of the interval Axx = xp ~ xy = h over which the change oceurred. Definition ‘The average rate of change of y= f(x) with respect tox ove the interval bands Ay _ fee) fen) fin +h) fo) Brom he [Notice that the average rate of change of f over {xi.3) is the slope of the line through the points P(x, f(x) and Ql, f2)) (ig. 1D). In geomety, a fine joining two points ofa curve is called a secant tothe curve. Thus, the average rate of change off from x; tox is identical withthe slope of secant PO.1.1. Rates of Change and Limits 53 1.1 Assecant to the graph y = £69. Its slope is Ayla, the average rate of change of f over the Interval ix Experimental biologists often want 10 know the rates at which populations grow ‘under controlled laboratory conditions, EXAMPLE 3 The average growth rate of a laboratory population Figure 1.2 shows how « population of frit fies (Drosophita) grew in a SO-tay experiment. The number of fies was counted at regular intervals, the counted values plotted with respect to time, and the points joined by a smooth curve, Find the average growth rate from day 23 t0 day 45. Solution There were 150 flies on day 23 and 340 flies on day 45. Thus the num= ber of flies increased by 340 — 150 = 190 in 45—23=22 days, The average rate of change of the population from day 23 to day 45 was Ap _ 340-150 _ 190 10 8.6 fiewda Be apna = a. VBS Beale Average rate of chang ‘This average is the slope of the secant through the points P and Q on the graph in Fig. 12. a ‘The average rate of change from day 23 to day 45 calculated in Example 3 does not tell us how fast the population was changing on day 23 itself. For that we need to examine time intervals closer to the day in question. coe ap 0 Number of ies 12 Growth ofa fruit fly population in a controlled experiment. Source: Elements of Mathematical Biology by A. I Lotka, 1955, Dover, New York, p. 68) Timo ay)54 Chapter 1: Limits and Continuity @ 43,340) 40,330) 5,310) (60,265) Slope of PQ iiesfday) pine 340 150 5-23 330-150 1.3 The positions and siopes of four ecants through the point Pon the fruit fly graph. amber of fes O40 Time ag) EXAMPLE 4 How fast was the number of fies in the population of Example 3 growing on day 23 itseif? Solution To answer this question, we examine the average rates of change over increasingly shor time intervals staring at day 23. In geomauic terms, we find these rates by calculating the slopes of secants from P to Q. for a sequence of points Q approaching P along the eure (Fig. 1.3) The values in the table show thatthe secant slopes rise from 8.6 to 16.4 as the rcoontinate of @ decreases from 45 1030, and we would expect the slopes to rise slightly higher as r continued on toward 23. Geometrically, the secants rotate bout P and seem to approsch the redline in the figure, alin that goes through Pin the same dieetion thatthe eurve goes theough 2 We will see that this line is called the tangent to the curve at P Since the line appears to passthrough the points (14, 0) and (35, 350, it bas slope 350-0 = 16.7 fiesiday (approximately). a On day 23 the population was increasing at a rate of about 16,7 fiesiday. O “The rates at which the sock in Example 2 was falling at the instants 1 = 1 snd ¢=2 and the rate at which the population in Example 4 was changing on day 1 = 23 are called instantaneous rates of change. As the examples suggest, we find instantaneous rates as limiting values of average rates. In Example 4, we also pictured the tangent line to the population curve on day 23 as a limiting postion ‘of secant lines. Instantaneous rates and tangent lines, intimately connected, appear in many other contexts. To talk: about the two constructively, and to understand the connection further, we need to investigate the process by which we determine Timiting values, or dimits, as we will Soon call them, Limits of Function Values Before we give a definition of limit, let us Jook st another example, EXAMPLE 5 — How does the function f(x) = behave near x = 1?yore] ft 4 io 14 The graph of fis identical with the line y=x-+1 except at not defined, 1.1 Rates of Change and Limits 55 Solution The given formula defines f for all eal numbers x except x = 1 (we ceannot divide by zero). For any x #1 we can simplify the formula by factoring the numerator and canceling common factors: ‘The graph of fis thus the line y =x +1 with one point removed, namely the point (1,2). This removed point is shown as a hole" in Fig, 1.4, Even though f(1) {snot defined, itis clear that we can make the value of f(x) as close as we want to 2 by choosing x close enough to 1 (Table 1.2). We say that f(x) approaches arbitrarily elose ro 2 a8 x approaches I, oF, more: simply, fC) approaches the limi 2 as x approaches 1. We write this as tim 0) Table 1.2 The closer x gets to 1, the closer f(x) to get to 2 Values of x below and above 1 09 19 1 21 099 199 101 201 0.999 1.999 1.001 2.001 1.999905 1.999999 1.000001 2.000001 Definition Informal Definition of Limit Let f(x) be defied on sn open interval about x9, except possibly at x ised IF f (4) gets arbiariy close to £ for ll xsufisiently close 1 x, we say tha approaches the Him L as approaches xp, and we write Jim £0) = ‘This definition is “informal” because phrases like arbitrarily clase and suffciendly close arc imprecise; their meaning depends on the context. To a machinist man- ufgetusing 2 piston, close may mean within a few thousandihs of an inch. To an astronomer studying distant galaxies, cfose may mean within a few thousand light ‘years. The definition is clear enough, however, to enable us to recognize and evaluate limits of specific functions. We will neod the more precise definition of Section 1.3, however, when we set out Lo prove theorems about limits56 Chapter 1: Limits and Continuity 15 fim, £00) = lim ge (ey Mea fuetion (@) Constant faction 1.6 The functions in Example 8 EXAMPLE 6 The existence of a limit a8 x —» xy does not depend on how the function may be defined at xp. The funetion in Fig 1.5 has limit 2 as x —> 1 ‘even though isnot defined at x = 1. The function g has limit 2as x —+ 1 even though 2-4 (1). The function is the only one whose limit as x —» 1 equals is value atx-= 1. Ford we have lim... f(x) = (1). This kind of equality of limit and function value i special, and we will retum to it in Section 1.5 Q Sometimes im... f(¥) can be evaluated by calculating f(x). This hols, for ‘example, whenever /() is an algebraic combination of polynomials and wigono metic functions for which f(x) is defined, (We will say more about this in Secions 1.2 and 1.5) EXAMPLE 7 im r= 3) 7 ©) tim ts 644 2 3 a EXAMPLE 8 a) If fis the identity function f(x) = x, then for any value of xo (Fig. 1.6), fy 00 ig =m by fis cana fncton fs) = (anton wih he constant vale 2 te oa a fo 10) Li 7) =f, b= a Some ways that limits can fail to exist are illustrated in Fig. 1.7 and described in the next example,Exercises 11 57 Co Use eon) ono one 12 The functions in Example EXAMPLES 2 function may fai to havea limit ta point ints comain. Discus the behavior ofthe folowing functions as x +0 0 x<0 wo vm={ 259 Vn x20 0 520 0 x0 w= 9 F9= Vint, x50 Solution 8) Itjumps: The uit step function U(x) has no imit asx —+ O because its values jump at x = 0. For negative values of x acbitrarly close to zero, U(x) = 0. For positive values of x arbitrarily lose to 2er0, U(x) = 1. Thete is no single value L approached by U(x) a8 x — 0 (Fig 1.73). 1) It grows too large: g(x) has no limits as x > 0 because the values of g grow arbitrarily larg in absolute value as x —+ 0 and do not stay close to any real number (Fig. 170) ©) It oscillates too muck: f(x) has no limit as x — 0 because the function's values oscillate between +1 and —I in every open interval containing 0. The values do not stay close 0 any one number as x -» 0 Fig. 16} a Exercises 1.1 Limits from Graphs 1. For the fonction g(x) graphed here, find the folowing limits or explain why they do not exis. im g(x) by tim @(s) 2 Jim gtx1.2. Rules for Finding Limits 61 Rules for Finding Li ‘This section presents theorems for calculating limits, The first three Jet us build ‘on the results of Example & in the preceding section to find limits af polynomials, rational functions, and powers. The fourth prepares for calculations later inthe text. s Limits of Powers and Algebraic Combinations Theorem 1 Properties of Limits ‘The following rules hold if lim, .- f(x) = L and lim, .- g(x) = M (Land M real numbers). 1. Sum Rule: Tim FO) + 200) Me 2 Diference Rule: fim 1/4) ~ e009] =~ at 3. Product Rue Jim FG) +26) = LM 4. Constant Mutiple Rede: Tin Kf (x) = KL (any number &) ) E 5. Quotient Rule: tin, MeO 6 Power Rute: 1 m and mare integers, then Jim (70)1""" = 2" provided 1 is teal number. Jn words, the formulas in Theorem I say: 1. The limit of the sum of two functions is the sum of their limits 2. The limit of the difference of two functions isthe difference of their limits ‘3. The limit of the product of two functions is the product of thei limit. 4. ‘The limit of a constant times a function is that constant times the imit of the function. ‘5. The limit ofthe quotient of two functions is the quotient of theis limits, provided the limit of the denominator is not zero, 6. The limit of any rational power of a function is that power of the limit of the function, provided the latter is real number. We ill prove the Sum Rule in Section 1.3. Rules 2-S are proved in Appendix 2 Rule 6 is proved in more advanced texts, B44 EXAMPLE 1 Find lim “ 74" 3 im res Solution Starting with the limits lim, .¢ 2x = and limy- k =k from Section 1.1, Example 8, and combining them using various parts of Theorem 1, we obtain: