Handout No.

Useful Equations
Practical Applications
of Math Related to Ventilation

Excerpt for
AIHA Web Course - September 2, 2010
-- SI and US Units --

ISBN 1-883992-30-3

by D. Jeff Burton, PE, CIH

More Info: www.eburton.com
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Disclaimer

Although the information contained in this course and its publications have been compiled
from sources believed to be reliable, D. Jeff Burton and the publisher make no guarantee
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such information.

2010-2002 by D. Jeff Burton

All rights reserved.
Printed in the United States of America

ISBN 1-883992-30-3

www.eburton.com
 UEq Excerpt - Table of Contents
7 Local exhaust ventilation
7-1 Areas of various shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
7-2 Volume Flow Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
7-3 Pressures in a Duct . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
7-4 Air Density Correction Factor for Industrial Ventilation . . . . . . . . . . 6
7-5 Bernoullis Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
7-6 Estimating Average VP in Ductwork . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
7-7 Air Changes per Hour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

8 Dilution Ventilation
8-1 Emission Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
8-2 Dilution air volume flowrate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
8-4 Purge or buildup of airborne concentrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

9 Ductwork
9-1 Static Pressure Loss in Ducts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

10 Hoods
10-1 Determining Coefficient of Entry at Hoods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
10-2 Volume Flow Rate from SPh and Ce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
10-3 Entry losses at a compound (slotted) hood at STP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
10-4 ACGIH Vent Manual Hood Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
10-6 Determining Q at a Capture Hood (using Area Method) . . . . . . . . . 27
11 Fans
11-1 Pressure Losses (Demands) at a Fan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
11-2 Power requirements at a fan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
11-3 Fan Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
 Introduction to Useful Equations
The Useful Equations (UEq) Excerpt Handout provides additional
explanatory information on the ventilation equations provided by ABIH
and other equations important to exam takers.

Format Each equation set is formatted as follows:

Title -----------------------

Common Equation --------

Terms and units ---------

More information --------

(Calc Prog refers to TI-83+.
Spreadsheet programs cover
each page of the book.)

Source or origin and

Usage -----------------------

Practical and sample

applications
(multiple pages) ---------

1
7-1 Areas of various shapes Ventilation

C = D Around = D2/4 = r2
Asq = a b Asphere = 4r2
Acylinder = DL
Terms and Names US Units SI units
C - Circumference... ft cm, meter
D - Diameter...
r - radius... ... of circles
3.1416 3.1416
A - Cross-sectional area square feet square meters
a - width... feet cm, meters
b - height... ... of square shapes
L - Length feet cm, meter
More Info: IVW-3, Chart 5

Source Defined by geometry.

Usage X is sometimes used as the distance to an emission source at a hood. In

that case:

A = 0.25X2 where X = diameter of circle

A = 4X2 where X = radius of sphere
A = X2 where X = radius of circle
A = XL where L = length of cylinder
and where X = diameter of cylinder
A=XY where x and y are sides of a square or rectangle

Practical Applications

1. What is the X-sectional area of a round duct where D = 24?

A = D2 /4 = 22 /4 = 4/4 = 3.142 square feet [where 24 = 2 ft]

2. What is the X-sectional area of a round duct where C ID 37.5? [ID = inside diameter]

A D2 /4 [C/]2 /4 (37.5/)2 /4 (11.9366)2 /4

111.9 sq inches = 0.7771 square feet [where 144 square inches = 1 square foot]

3. What is the surface area of a half-sphere where X = 2 feet?

A = 4X2 /2 = 4 [2]2 /2 = 25.1 sq. feet

2
7-2 Volume Flow Rate Ventilation

Q = VA
Terms and Names US Units SI units
Q cubic feet per minute, cubic meters per second,
cfm, scfm, acfm cms, scfm, acfm
Volume Flowrate where s = standard, where s = standard,
a = actual a = actual
V feet per minute, meters per second,
fpm, sfpm, afpm mps, smps, amps
Velocity where s = standard, where s = standard,
a = actual a = actual
A square feet square meters
Area ft2 m2
Workbook: IVW-3, Chart 5

Source Conservation of Mass Theorem; assumes incompressible flow.

Usage This equation normally estimates air volume flowrate when the average
velocity and cross-sectional area are known, e.g., in ductwork, hood face,
doorways; solves for any unknown given the other two parameters:

V = Q/A and A = Q/V

V and A are easily measured; Q is not.

Practical Applications

1. [US] The cross-sectional area of a duct is A = 1.069 sq. ft. The average air velocity in the duct is V = 3,400 fpm
at standard conditions, STP. What is the flow rate, Q?

Q = V A = 3,400 sfpm 1.069 sq. ft. = 3,634.6 scfm [Round to 3,600 scfm]

2. [SI] The diameter of a round duct is D = 25 cm. The average velocity of air flowing in the duct is V = 21 mps
at standard conditions (STP). What is the flow rate, Q?

A = D2/4 = (25 cm)2/4 = (0.25 meters)2/4 = 0.0491 sq meter

Q = V A = 21 mps 0.0491 sq. meter = 1.03 scms

3. [US] The volume flow rate in a furnace is rated at Q = 10,000 acfm. What is the actual average velocity in
the connecting ductwork if the duct size is W = 4 feet and H = 2 feet?

A = L W = 4 2 = 8 sq feet

V = Q / A = 10,000 acfm / 8 sq. ft. = 1,250 afpm

3
7-3 Pressures in a Duct Ventilation

TP = SP + VP
Terms and Names US Units SI units
TP inches w.g. mm w.g. or pascal

Total Pressure (w.g. = water gauge)

VP inches w.g. mm w.g. or pascal

Velocity Pressure, average (w.g. = water gauge)

SP inches w.g. mm w.g. or pascal

Static Pressure (w.g. = water gauge)

More Info: IVW-3

Source Defined.

Usage Static Pressure (SP) is created by gravity and can be modified, e.g., by a fan in a
ventilation duct system. SP is felt in all directions within the duct. Negative static
pressure tends to want to collapse the duct. Positive static pressure wants to
blow it up like a balloon. SP can be measured using a manometer. (See the
figure.)

If the end of the manometer probe is inserted facing directly into the air stream,
the manometer will not only measure static pressure, but will also measure the
influence of the air impacting on the end of the probe. This combination of
pressures is known as the Total
Pressure (TP). The pressure component
solely attributed to the impacting
molecules is called the Velocity Pressure
(VP). The Velocity Pressure can be
estimated by subtracting the static
pressure from the total pressure.

When measuring VP and TP, we must

find the average because they vary
across the duct face. The next figure
shows the case of air in a long straight
duct.

4
 In order to make calculations using the pressure formula, the sign of each term must be
known and used. Use consistent units (e.g., inches w.g. or mm w.g.). When the static
pressure within the duct is less than the atmospheric pressure, it is negative. If the
pressure is greater than atmospheric pressure, the sign is positive. The next figure
shows the sign normally found on the upstream and downstream side of the fan.

Pressure Upstream Downstream

TP +
SP +
VP + +

Practical Applications

1. Fill in blanks.

Air Pressure, (inches or mm w.g.)

Problem Location
TP SP VP
1 1 6.10 8.10 [ ]

2 2 7.40 [ ] +2.00

3 3 [ ] +5.20 +2.00

4 4 +6.90 +4.90 [ ]

See Solution below.

5. A pitot tube is used to measure the average pressures in an air stream as follows:
TP = 0.66 w.g., SP = 0.44 w.g. What is the average velocity pressure, VP?

Using TP = SP + VP, solve for VP:

VP = TP SP = 0.66 0.44 = 0.22 w.g.

Solution: Problem 1, VP = 2.00 w.g.; Problem 1, SP = 9.40 w.g.;

Problem 3, TP = +7.20 w.g.;Problem 4, VP = 2.00 w.g.

5
7-4 Air Density Correction Factor for Ventilation Ventilation

T STP BP actual
d= x
T actual BP STP

[See Section 5-10 for more general information.]

Terms and Names US Units SI units

d Unitless Unitless
[DC on the calculator]
Density Correction Factor
T Rankin Kelvin

TSTP = 530 R TSTP = 294 K

Absolute Temperature Notes: R = F + 460 Notes: K = C + 273
BP inch Hg, psi, bars mm Hg, pascal, bars
BPSTP = 29.92 Hg BPSTP = 760 mm Hg

Barometric Pressure Notes: Use consistent units Notes: Use consistent units
More Info: IVW-3

Source Ideal Gas Law

STP Standard Temperature and Pressure. STP, according to the ACGIH Ventilation
Manual and as it used most often by industrial hygienists, utilizes a temperature
of 70F or 21C; it is used in most ventilation problems and is similar to
ASHRAEs definition of STP which assumes an air density of

= 0.075 lbs/ft3 or 1.20 kg/m3 .

d d, the density correction factor. It corrects air density using the equation:

actual = STP x d

where STP = 0.075 lbs/ft3 or 1.2 kg/m3

It is also used in other ventilation formulas to correct of air density, e.g.,

Bernoullis Equation, fan motor selection, and so forth.

d is also known as df or df in other texts. It is DC on the calculator.

Chart The chart on the next page provides the ventilation density correction factor
based on STP.

6
Practical Applications

1. [US] Estimate d for air at T = 100 F at 2,000 feet above sea level (BP = 27.8 inches Hg.)
From the equation or the Chart below, d = 0.88
2. [US] What is the density of air at T = 150 F and 5,000 ft elevation?
From the equation or the Chart below, d = 0.72

Using air density equation:

actual = STP x d = 0.075 lbs/cu ft 0.72 = 0.054 lbs/cu ft

3. [SI] What is the density correction factor for T = 66 C and elevation = 1,525 meters above
sea level?

From the equation or the Chart below, d = 0.72

4. [SI] What is the actual density of air at T = 35C and 1,000 m altitude?

From the equation or the Chart below, d = 0.85

actual = stp d = 1.20 kgs/cu meter 0.85 = 1.02 kgs/cu meter

Air Density Correction Factor, d*

=======================================================================
feet 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000
Elevation meters 0 305 610 915 1220 1525 1830 2135
----- or -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Barometric mm Hg 760 733 707 681 656 632 608 587
Pressure inch Hg 29.92 28.86 27.82 26.82 25.84 24.89 23.97 23.09
===================================================================================
Air Temperature C F
========
-40 -40 1.26 1.22 1.18 1.14 1.09 1.05 1.01 0.966

-18 0 1.15 1.11 1.07 1.03 0.998 0.959 0.921 0.882

0 32 1.08 1.04 1.01 0.969 0.933 0.897 0.861 0.825

21 70 1.00 0.966 0.933 0.900 0.866 0.833 0.799 0.766

38 100 0.946 0.915 0.883 0.851 0.820 0.788 0.756 0.725

66 150 0.869 0.840 0.811 0.782 0.753 0.723 0.694 0.665

93 200 0.803 0.776 0.749 0.722 0.696 0.669 0.642 0.625

=======================================================================

7
7-5 Bernoullis Equation Ventilation

VP
V =c
d
Terms and Names US Units SI units
V feet per minute, meters per second,
fpm, sfpm, afpm mps, smps, amps
Velocity where s = standard, a = actual where s = standard, a = actual
VP inches w.g. mm w.g. or pascal
Velocity Pressure, average (w.g. = water gauge)
c 4,005 4.043
Constant
d Unitless Unitless
Density Correction Factor At standard conditions, d = 1 At standard conditions, d = 1
More Info: IVW-3

Source Bernoullis Equation

Usage Bernoullis equation describes the relationship between velocity pressure

and velocity. The figures 4005 and 4.043 incorporate the conversion
factors, air density, and so forth. Alternate versions of the equation
include:

V = 1096(VP/ )0.5 [US] and V = 1.106(VP/ )0.5 [SI] where

is actual air density, lbs/cu foot.

The pitot tube is often used to estimate VP.

Practical Applications

1. [US] The instantaneous velocity pressure of an airstream in a duct is VP = 1.00 inch w.g.
What is the instantaneous velocity? (Assume STP, d = 1.0)

V = 4005 (VP/d)0.5 = 4,005 (1.00/1.00)0.5 = 4005 fpm

2. [SI] The centerline velocity pressure of an airstream in a duct is VP = 12 mm w.g. What is

the centerline velocity? (Assume STP, d = 1.0)

V = 4.043 ( VP/d)0.5 = 4.043 (12/1.00)0.5 = 14 mps

8
7-6 Estimating Average VP in Ductwork Ventilation

2
VP 1 + VP 2 + .... + VP n
VP ave =
n
V ave 2
VP ave = d US units only
4005
Terms and Names US Units SI units
VP inch w.g. mm w.g
pascal
Measured Velocity Pressure
n Unitless Unitless

Number of measurements
d Unitless Unitless

Density Correction Factor

More Info: IVW-18

Source Fundamental Averaging Rules for Squared Functions

Usage When performing a pitot traverse of a duct (measuring velocity pressures, VP) it
is common practice to convert measured velocity pressures to velocity before
averaging.

Similarly, averaging the square root of the velocity pressures and squaring the
result provides the same answer as averaging the velocities. (The equation
above.) See Section 17 for the AutoCalc approach.

Traverse See Section 7-9 for determining traverse locations in ductwork.

Practical Applications

1. Ten measurements of velocity pressure (VP) were obtained during a pitot traverse of a 12
duct located in a plating shop. (See data, next page.)

Area of duct = 0.7854 sq feet. What is the average velocity pressure? The average velocity?

Note the approximate parabolic shape of the VP measurements. (Imagine each

measurement as a vector.)
Note the range: 0.37 to 0.55.
Note where the maximum pressure is measured.

9
 Velocities in column 2 were determined from VP using the equation:

V = 4005 VP (which assumes STP, d = 1)

Column 1 shows the raw measurements. Column 2 shows the associated velocity. Velocities
were determined from VP using the equation: V = 4005 VP (which assumes STP, d = 1).
Column 3 shows the square roots of the raw measurements.

VP m inch w.g. Velocity, fpm VP

------------------- ------------------- --------
0.37 2436 0.6083
0.43 2626 0.6557
0.50 2832 0.7071
0.52 2888 0.7211
0.52 2888 0.7211
0.55 2970 0.7416
0.54 2943 0.7348
0.50 2832 0.7071
0.44 2657 0.6633
0.36 2403 0.6000
----- ------ --------
Sums: 4.73 27,475 6.8601

Averaging using the raw VP data (Column 1): VPave = 4.73/10 = 0.473 w.g.

V = 4005 VP = 4005(0.473)0.5 = 2754.4 fpm

Averaging using the converted VP data (Column 2): Vaverage = 27,475/10 = 2,747.5 fpm

Averaging using the square root of VP data (Column 3):

2 2
VP 1 + VP 2 + .... + VP 2 6.8601
VP ave = = = 0.4706 inch w.g and
n 10

V = 4005 VP = 2747.5 fpm

From these three examples, it can be seen that averaging the square roots of the velocity
pressures produces the same result as averaging the velocities. The error from averaging the
raw VP measurements introduces little error, however, in typical traverses. (Particularly when
the rules for significant figures are taken into account.)

It is also possible to back-calculate VPave from Vaverage. Use of this approach avoids errors.
2 2
V 2747.5
VP = = = 0.4706 inch w.g
4005 4005

Finally, Q = VA = 2747.5 0.7854 = 2157.9 scfm (or after rounding, Q = 2,200 scfm.)

10
7-7 Air Changes per Hour Ventilation

Qc
N=
Vol
Terms and Names US Units SI units
N Changes per hour Changes per hour

Air changes per hour;

also, ACH
Q cubic feet per minute, cubic meters per second,
cfm, scfm, acfm cms, scms, acms
Air volume flowrate for where s = standard, where s = standard,
dilution a = actual a = actual
Vol Cubic feet Cubic meters

Volume of space
c 60 3,600

Conversion factor (minutes to hours) (seconds to hours)

More Info: IVW-4

Source Physical parameters

Usage The terms N (or ACH) stand for air changes per hour, as in,
The insurance company requires six ACH in rooms containing
flammable materials. Ideally, air change means replacing the
entire volume of air in the space. In actuality, replacement
depends on the location of supply and exhaust air.

The use of air changes per hour is an older and less useful
measure of ventilation. It still appears, however, in some codes
and standards.

Practical Applications

1 and 2. Calculate N for the following parameters: Room volume = Vol = 10 x 8 x 40 = 3,200
cubic feet [ = 90.5 cubic meters]; Q = 6,300 scfm [ = 2.97 scms].

Q xc 6,300 x 60
N = = = 120 ac/hr (rounded, SI similar)
Vol 3200

11
8-1 Emission Rate Dilution Ventilation

V M W evap
q=
MW t d
Terms and Names US Units SI units
q cubic feet per minute, cubic meters per second,
cfm, scfm, acfm cms, scms, acms
Evaporation or emission rate where s = standard, where s = standard,
from liquid; offgassing rate a = actual a = actual
VM 387 cubic feet per lb-mole 0.0241 cubic meters per
gram-mole

where T = 70F, where T = 21C,

Mole volume of evaporation BP = 29.92 Hg BP = 760 mm Hg
Wevap pound gram

Weight of liquid evaporated,

emitted, or offgassed
MW unitless unitless

Molecular weight
t minute second

elapsed time of evaporation

d unitless unitless

Air Density Correction Factor (See Section 7)

More Info: IVW-4

Source Basic Relationships

(UEQ uses ventilation definition of STP, T = 70F, BP = 29.92 Hg.)

Usage Equation assumes steady state conditions during time t.

Other familiar versions of the US-units equation include:

403 pints evap SG 3225 gals evap SG

q = -------------------------------------- q = ---------------------------------
MW t d MW t d

where SG = specific gravity of the material re:water.

12
Practical Applications

1. What is q, the volume flow rate of vapor formed, if 0.5 gallons of toluene are evaporated
uniformly over an 8-hr shift? (Assume STP: d = 1.0; SG = 0.866, MW = 92.1)

387 x lbs evaporated

q =
MW x minutes x d Note: lbs evaporated = gal x 8.31 x SG

387 x 0.5 gal x 8.31 lbs/gal x 0.866

q = = 0.0315 scfm
92.1 x 480 minutes x 1.0

2. What is q, the volume flow rate of vapor formed, if 500 grams of xylene are evaporated
uniformly over an 4-hr shift? (Assume d = 1.0 MW = 106.2 )

0.0241 500
q = = 7.88 x 10-6 scms
106.2 4x60x60 1.0

13
8-2 Dilution Air Volume Flowrate Dilution Ventilation

q
Q dil = -6
K mix
C x 10
Terms and Names US Units SI units
Qdil cubic feet per minute, cubic meters per second,
cfm, scfm, acfm cms, scms, acms
Dilution air volume flowrate s = standard, a = actual s = standard, a = actual
q cubic feet per minute, cubic meters per second,
cfm, scfm, acfm cms, scms, acms
Evaporation, emission rate s = standard a = actual s = standard a = actual
C ppm, by volume ppm, by volume

Concentration in air (at steady state conditions) (at steady state conditions)
Kmix unitless unitless

Mixing factor, (always 1 in Range: 1-4; see Page 8-5 Range: 1-4; see Page 8-5
this workbook)
More Info: IVW-4

Source Physical properties

Usage The volume of air required to dilute a steady state emission of gas or vapor can
be estimated using this equation. Other terms used for q include E and G
in various textbooks. C is the equilibrium concentration of the gas or vapor,
and K is a mixing factor to account for poor mixing in the space.

Practical Applications

1. What volume flowrate Qdil is required for dilution of a vapor to C = 10 ppm if q = 0.0315 scfm and Kmix = 2?

q x Kmix x 106 0.0315 x 106 x 2

Qdil = = = 6,300 scfm
C (ppm) 10

2. Five hundred grams of xylene are evaporated uniformly over an 4-hr shift in a factory, resulting in an
average emission rate of q = 7.88 x 10-6 acms at STP. What volume flowrate Qdil is required for dilution to 25
ppm, if K mix = 1.5? MW = 106.2

q x Kmix x 106 7.88 x 10-6 x 106 x 1.5

Qdil = = = 0.47 scms
C (ppm) 25

14
8-4 Purge or buildup of airborne concentrations Dilution Ventilation

Vr
q106
C2 V C -Q
dil
t
Q t=- r ln 2

t= ln dil
Q C Vr
Q dil q106
Q
C1 dil 1 C = C e
dil
2 1

Terms and Names US Units SI units

t minutes seconds
time interval, t = (t2 - t1 ) = t
Vr cubic feet cubic meters
Volume of the room or space
C1 ppm ppm
Initial concentration
C2 ppm ppm
Final concentration
Qdil cubic feet per minute cubic meters per second, cms
Air dilution volume flow rate cfm
q cubic feet per minute cubic meters per second, cms
Emission or evaporation rate cfm
More Info: IVW-4 Calculator Program: C Note: ln is the natural log

Source Exponential decay relationship.

Usage Equations predict contaminant concentrations after a time, or the time

necessary to purge a space of a contaminant.

Notes Equations use average concentrations and assume perfect mixing. See more
on mixing factors in Practical Applications, below.

If the term in brackets is negative, then purge or buildup will not occur
completely under the conditions specified.

This equation can be modified in several ways to make it easier to use. The
exponent e is sometimes used in place of V C
the natural log. t = - r ln 2

Q C
dil 1

When q = 0, use this version for time:

When q = 0 and finding a new

-Q
dil
t
concentration, use this equation: Vr
C = C e
2 1

15
Practical Applications

1. What is the estimated time required for the buildup of an average acetone concentration
to 750 ppm, given the following conditions? STP, d = 1; C1 = 0; C2 = 750 ppm.

US Units SI units
Vr 100,000 cubic feet 2,832 cubic meters
q 2.25 scfm 0.00106 scms
Qdil 2,000 scfm 0.9440 scms

In US units:

q10 6 C 2. 2510 6 750

V Qdil 2
t= r ln = 100000 ln 2000
Q q10 6 C 2000 2. 2510 6 0
dil
1
Qdil 2000

= 50 ln (375/1125) = -50 ln 0.333 = 55 minutes

In SI units:

q10 6 C 0. 0010610 6 750

V Qdil 2
t= r ln = 2832 ln 0. 944
Q q10 6 C 0. 944 0. 0010610 6 0
dil
1
Qdil 0. 944

= 3000 ln (373/1123) = -3,000 ln 0.332 = 6,600 seconds = 55 minutes

It there was poor air/contaminant mixing in the room (say Kmix =2), then some parts of the
room may reach 750 ppm in only half the time.

2. An automobile garage was contaminated with carbon monoxide. How long will it take to
purge the garage, given the these conditions: C1 = 10,000 ppm; C2 = 25 ppm; q = 0.

US Units SI units
Vr 11,500 cubic feet 325.7 cub met
Qdil 3,000 scfm 1.416 scms

In US units: (using the simplified equation)

t = 11500/3000 ln (-25/-10,000) = -3.83 x ln 0.0025 = 23 minutes

If the air mixing factor in the garage is assumed to be Kmix = 1.5, then the safe time to enter
would be 23 x 1.5 = 34 minutes.

16
In SI units:

t = 230 x ln (-25/-10,000) = -230 x ln 0.0025

= 1378 seconds = 23 minutes

3. An automobile garage was contaminated with carbon monoxide. If dilution air is provided
for 30 minutes, what will the final CO concentration be? Assume STP, q = 0; C1 = 500 ppm.
(Assume a mixing factor in the space of Kmix = 2.0. How would that effect things?)

US Units SI units
Vr 10,000 cubic feet 283.2 cubic meters
Qdil 200 scfm 0.0944 scms
t 30 min 1800 seconds

US units (using alternate exponential version where

e[x] = ex):
200
C 2 = 500 e [ x 30 minutes]
10000

C 2 = 500 e [ -0.60 ] = 500 x 0.55 = 274 ppm

If the space has poor mixing, then concentrations in some locations in the garage will be
higher, some lower. For example, if the garage is rated at Kmix = 2, then some parts of the
garage could have concentrations at 387 ppm, or even more.

17
9-1 Static Pressure Loss in Ducts Ductwork

SP1 + VP1 = SP 2 + VP2 +SPloss

SPloss = Kloss VP d

Terms and Names US Units SI units

SPn inches w.g. mm w.g. or pascal

Static Pressure at point n

VP, VPn inches w.g. mm w.g. or pascal

Velocity Pressure at point n

SPloss inches w.g. mm w.g. or pascal

SP loss between points (1)

and (2)
Kloss unitless unitless

Loss factor
d unitless unitless

Density Correction Factor

More Info: IVW-5

Source Conservation of Energy relationships and empirical studies

Usage Energy conservation dictates that the total pressure in a system should not
vary from point to point.

Most static pressure losses in duct systems are related to the square of the
velocity of the air stream. Loss = f(V2 )

Static pressure losses generally related to duct velocity pressure. (Fabric filters
are one exception.) Loss = f(VP)

Variations Other forms of the second equation are

SPLoss = K VP or

SPLoss = F VP

(where d is assumed = 1 and where F = K)

18
Note also: SP = TP - VP = TP - (Vaverage /4005)2 and
SP (loss) = Kloss VPaverage = Kloss (Vaverage /4005)2 (At STP)

Types of losses Duct friction losses. (See more information Section 9-2.)
Duct losses in elbows, contractions, expansions, orifices (See next page.)
Entry losses in branch entries, cleaner entries.
Hood entry losses due to turbulence and the vena contracta .
System effect losses at the fan.
Special fitting losses such as blast gates, valves, orifices, air cleaners, exhaust
caps.

Practical Applications

1. Estimate the static pressure drop across the air cleaner. The duct diameters entering and
exiting the cleaner are the same. (Velocities and velocity pressures are similar.)

One inch of static pressure was converted to heat (loss) in the air cleaner, shown on the figure ,
and:

SP1 + VP1 = SP2 + VP2 +hloss

-1.6 + VP1 = -2.6 + VP1 + 1

Since VP1 = VP1 in this case,

hloss = 1 w.g.

2. What is the static pressure loss through an

elbow where the elbow loss factor,
Kelbow = 0.40 and the average velocity pressure in the duct, VP = 0.70 w.g.? (STP)

SPLoss = K VP d where d = 1

SPLoss = 0.40 0.70 1 = 0.28 w.g.

3. What is the static pressure loss through a butterfly valve where the loss factor,
Kgate = 0.10 and the average velocity pressure in the duct, VP = 0.40 w.g.?
(Assume d = 0.85)

SPLoss = K VP d where d = 0.85

SPLoss = 0.10 0.40 0.85 = 0.03 w.g.

19
10-1 Determining Coefficient of Entry at Hoods Hoods

VP average
Ce =
SP h
Term and Name US Units SI units
Ce unitless unitless

Coefficient of Entry
VPaverage inches w.g. mm w.g. or pascal

Velocity Pressure, average (w.g. = water gauge)

SPh inches w.g. mm w.g. or pascal

Hood Static Pressure

More Info: IVW-6

Usage A hood's efficiency is described by the ratio of actual to ideal flow.

This ratio is called the Coefficient of Entry, Ce, defined as:

Q (actual)
Ce = --------------------- also 1
Q (ideal) Ce =
1 + Khood
Ideal flow could be achieved if all the hood static pressure were converted to velocity
pressure, i.e., there was no hood entry loss and Khood = 0. The Coefficient of Entry is a
function of the shape of the hood. Ce does not change unless the hood shape (e.g., the
sheet metal) changes. If Ce is measured at the time a hood is built, it can be used later
with SP h to estimate flowrates. Use the absolute value of hood static pressure in this
equation.

Relation to He Ce is related to hood entry loss, He (or he), by the following formula:
1 - Ce 2
He= VP duct
Ce 2
Practical Applications

1. The hood static pressure is measured at SPh = -2.00 measured to be VP = 8.5 mm w.g. What is the
inch w.g. and the average duct velocity pressure is Coefficient of Entry, Ce?
measured at VP = 0.80 inch w.g. What is the
Coefficient of Entry, Ce? Ce = (VP/SPh ) 0.5 = 0.54 unitless

Ce = (VP/SPh ) 0.5 = 0.63 unitless. The hood provides

63% of the ideal flow rate.

2. The hood static pressure is measured at SPh = -29.0

mm w.g. and the average duct velocity pressure is

20
10-2 Volume Flow Rate from SPh and Ce Hoods

SP h
Q = C units Aduct Ce
d
Terms and Names US Units SI units
SPh inch w.g. mm w.g.

Hood Static Pressure |SPh | =

absolute value
Aduct square feet square meters

Cross-sectional area of duct

Ce unitless unitless

Hood Entry Coefficient

Q cubic feet per minute cubic meters per second
cfm, acfm, scfm cms, acms, scms
Volume flow rate
d unitless unitless

Density Correction Factor (STP)

C units 4,005 4.043

Factor to adjust units

More Info: IVW-6

Source Flow parameters

Usage The above equation can be used to estimate air flowrates at a hood
from a static pressure measurement. Remember to use consistent
units and the absolute (positive) value of the hood static pressure in
these equations.

Other versions of the above equation are shown below.

SP h / d
In US units: Q = 4005 A
1+K
hood

SP h / d
In SI units: Q = 4. 043 A
1 + Khood

21
 where SPh is the Hood Static Pressure and Khood is the hood loss
factor.

The equation can be rearranged to solve for any parameter. For

example, the equation can be used to estimate the required hood
static pressure given a duct size, desired air volume flowrate, and
hood Ce.

Practical Applications

1. [US] What is the estimated air flowrate through a

hood if Ce = 0.82, SP h = -2.0 inch w.g., and the round
duct diameter is D = 12 inches? (Assume d = 1.)

Q = 4005 A Ce(SP h /d)0.5

= 4005 0.7854 0.82 (2.00/1)0.5

= 3,650 scfm

2. [SI] What is the estimated air flowrate through a

hood if C e = 0.72, SPh = -14.4 mm w.g., and the round
duct diameter is D = 30 centimeters? (Assume d = 1.)

Q = 4.043 A Ce(SPh/d) 0.5 = 0.78 scms

= 4.043 0.0707 0.72 (14.4/1)0.5

= 0.78 scms

22
10-3 Entry losses at a compound (slotted) hood at STP Hoods

he = Kslot VPslot + Kduct VPduct

|SPh | = Kslot VPslot + Kduct VPduct + VPslot + VPduct

Terms and Names US Units SI units

SPh inch w.g. mm w.g. or pascal

Hood Static Pressure

|SPh | = absolute value
VP[slot or duct, average] inch w.g. mm w.g. or pascal

Velocity Pressure, average in

duct or slot
he inch w.g. mm w.g. or pascal

Hood Entry Loss

K[loss at slot or duct entry location] unitless unitless

Loss factor
More Info: IVW6

Source Defined.

Usage A slotted hood is a compound hoodit requires air to

enter twicefirst through the slot into a plenum, where
velocity is reduced, and then from the plenum into a duct.

The loss associated with a slot is similar to the loss

associated with a critical orifice where Kslot = 1.78. If the takeoff duct is
directly behind the slot, the entry loss to the duct may be reduced, but this
is rarely the case.

When K slot = 1.78, the second equation may be reduced to:

SPh = 2.78VPslot + (1+Kduct)VPduct

This equation works in most cases. Occasionally, the acceleration achieved

in the slot can be carried on into the duct, but this occurs only rarely, e.g.,
when a carefully designed duct takeoff lies directly behind the slot. Most
of the time, the acceleration of the slot is lost in the plenum. Using the
above equation errs on the side of safety.

23
 Note also that the term Kduct is often called the hood entry loss,
although it is the loss factor for the air moving from the plenum to the
duct. These equations assume STP. At non-STP conditions, use KVPd.

Practical Applications

1. Determine approximate SP h required for a slotted hood

where
Q = 2,000 scfm, D = 10
Slot Velocity = 2,000 fpm,
Slot Velocity Pressure = 0.25w.g.
Kduct = 0.25.

Vduct = Q/A = 2,000/0.5454 = 3667 fpm

and

VP = 0.84w.g. [from VP = (V/4005)2 = (3667/4005)2 = 0.84 w.g.]

Therefore

SPh = 2.78VPslot +(1+Kduct)VPduct

= (2.78)(0.25)+(1.25)(0.84)

= 1.75 w.g.

Note that this problem and the next assume STP, d = 1.

2. Determine the approximate hood static pressure, SPh, required for a slotted hood where
Q = 4,000 scfm, D = 14, Slot Velocity = 2,000 fpm, and Kduct = 0.5.

Vduct = Q/A = 4,000/1.069 = 3742 fpm

and

VP = 0.87w.g. [from VP = (V/4005)2 = (3742/4005)2 = 0.87 w.g.]

SPh = 2.78VPslot + (1+Kduct)VPduct

= (2.78)(0.25) + (1.5)(0.87) = 2.00w.g.

Calculator. The AutoCalc performs these calculations as part of Programs 1 and 2.

24
10-4 ACGIH Vent Manual Hood Equations Hoods

Q = V c (10X2 + Aduct) for unflanged plain hoods

Q = 0.75Vc (10X2 + Aduct) for flanged hoods
Q = 3.7LVcX for unflanged slot hoods
Q = 2.6LVcX for flanged slot hoods
Terms and Names US Units SI units
Q cubic feet per minute, cubic meters per second,
cfm, scfm, acfm cms, scfm, acfm
Volume Flowrate where s = standard, where s = standard,
a = actual a = actual
Vc feet per minute, meters per second,
fpm, sfpm, afpm mps, smps, amps
Capture velocity along the where s = standard, where s = standard,
centerline of the hood face a = actual a = actual
Aduct square feet square meters

Cross-sectional area of duct opening

X feet meter

Distance from hood face

to point of capture
L feet meter

Slot length
More Info: IVW-6

Source DalleValle and Silverman; empirical formulas

Usage The ACGIH IV Manual suggests the above simple empirical approximations for
estimating.

These equations tend to err on the side of safety (as compared to the area
equations) and have been used for years with reasonable success.

See Hemeon and the IVW (References and Bibliography) for a discussion of the
use of these formulas. See also page 10-14 for another approach: the area or
Hemeon approach.

25
Practical Applications

1. [US] A side-draft hood with baffles exhausts a room-air temperature acid solution. We want to maintain a
capture velocity at the edge of the tank of 125 fpm. What volume flow rate would the ACGIH equations
suggest?

Q = 2.6(LV c X)

= 2.6 (6) (125) (1.5)

= 2900 scfm

2. [SI] A flanged duct hood, D = 20 cm, is to be used to control welding fumes and gases. The hood can be moved
within 20 cm of the welding point. We want to maintain a capture velocity at the welding point of 0.75 mps.
What Q would the ACGIH equation suggest? (Some sources suggest using half of the value when sitting on a flat
surface.)

Q = 0.75V c (10X 2 + A) / 2

= 0.75 x 0.75[(10)(0.2)2 + 0.0254] / 2

= 0.24 / 2 = 0.12 scms

26
10-6 Determining Q at a Capture Hood (using Area Method) Hoods

Q = VA
Terms and Names US Units SI units
Q cfm cms

Air flowrate
V fpm mps

Average air velocity

A square feet square meters

Cross-section area through which

air moves
More Info: IVW-5

Origin Basic Relationship, Q = VA; originally described by Hemeon.

Usage The two most important parameters at a hood are flowrate Q (sufficient to
control the contaminant) and static pressure, SPh, necessary to attain the desired
flow rate. This chapter provides methods for estimating both parameters.

The two major methods are the theoretical approach (Area method) and the
experimentally-determined approach (Empirical method, see ACGIH Equations,
page 10-8.)

Area method The area method uses the basic equation, Q = VA, where the designer
provides estimates of both V and A.

Air does not behave ideally, nor is it always possible to visualize an exact three
dimensional shape through which the air enters a hood, but it's always possible,
and advisable, to approximate the three dimensional shape, calculate the surface
area at any distance of interest and estimate the required velocity.

Or conversely, if you know the desired capture velocity at a particular distance,

then calculate the volume flow rate, Q, required to move the air through the
surface at that distance. The figure shows some other two- and three dimensional
shapes for common hood types.

Useful equations related to volume flow rate are shown below.

27
 A
rea approach Equations: (All variations of the basic equation shown above.)

Booth (area = plane) Q = VA = V (b x h)

Plain duct entry (sphere) Q = VA = V (4X2 )

Wide-flanged duct entry (half-sphere) Q = VA = V (2X2 )

Flanged slot (quarter-cylinder) Q = VA = V (0.5XL)

Unflanged, free-standing slot (cylinder) Q = VA = V (2XL)

See figures above for potential applications.

28
Practical Applications

1. Estimating the air flowrate at a hood using the area equations.

A side-draft hood with baffles exhausts a room-air temperature acid solution. We want to maintain a capture
velocity at the edge of the tank of 75 fpm. What volume flow rate would you suggest? Assume STP.

With baffles installed, the air enters the hood area through a shape
approximating a quarter-cylinder.

Q = VA Acylinder =2XL A1/4 cylinder =0.5XL

= Vc 0.5XL = 75 ft/min 0.5 3.142 1.5 ft 6 ft

= 1,060 scfm

Round this to 1,100 scfm to account for two significant figures (at most).

2. A large-flanged duct hood, where Dduct = 6 inches, is to be used to control welding fumes and gases. The hood
can be moved within 8 inches of the welding point. We want to maintain a capture velocity at the welding
point of about 100 fpm. What Q would you suggest? (STP)

The shape approximates a quarter-sphere.

Q = VA Asphere = 4X 2 A1/4sphere = X 2
8 inches
= Vc X 2

where X = 8 inches or 8/12 of a foot, the distance to the source.

Q = (100)(3.142)(8/12)2

= 140 scfm

This assumes a very large flange. (At least 16 inches square.)

29
11-1 Pressure Losses (Demands) at a Fan Fans

FTP = TPoutlet - TP inlet

FTP = SPout - SP in (when VPout =VP in)
FSP = Fan TP - VPout
FSP = SPout - SP in - VPin
Terms and Names US Units SI units
FTP (also, Fan TP) inch w.g. mm w.g.
Pascal
Fan Total Pressure
FSP (also, Fan SP) inch w.g. mm w.g.
Pascal
Fan Static Pressure
TP, SP, VP inch w.g. mm w.g.
Total, Static, Velocity Pressures Pascal
More Info: IVW-8

Origin Defined by AMCA, a fan manufacturers associations which establishes standards

and certification test procedures.

Usage These equations describe the necessary pressures at a fan to select a fan from fan curves
and tables.

Practical Applications

1. The inlet and outlet conditions are shown below. What is FTP? FSP?

US Units SI Units
SP in -5.00 w.g. -127 mm w.g.
SP out +0.40 w.g. +10 mm w.g.
VP in = VPout +1.00 w.g. +25 mm w.g.

[US units] Fan TP = TPout - TPin = 1.40 - (-4.00) = 5.40 w.g. (Note: TP = SP + VP)

[SI units] Fan TP = TPout - TPin = 35 - (-102) = 137 mm w.g.

[US units] Fan SP = SPout - SPin - VPin = 0.40 - (-5.0) - 1.0 = 4.4 w.g.

[SI units] Fan SP = 10 - (-127) - 25 = 112 w.g.

30
11-2 Power Requirements at a Fan Fans

FTPQd
ahp =
c
FTPQd ahp
bhp = =
c ME ME
FTPQdKdl
shp = = bhp Kdl
c ME

Terms and Names US Units SI units

ahp, bhp, shp, rhp hp kW

air, brake, shaft, and rated

horsepower or kilowatts
c 6356 102.2

Constant
ME unitless unitless

Fan Mechanical Efficiency

Q cubic feet per minute, cubic meters per second,
cfm, scfm, acfm cms, scfm, acfm
Volume Flowrate where s = standard, where s = standard,
a = actual a = actual
FTP inch w.g. mm w.g.

Fan Total Pressure

d unitless unitless

Density Correction Factor

More Info: IVW-8

Origin Dimensional relationships

Usage Once a fan has been chosen to provide air flowrate, a motor must
be chosen to drive it. But what size?

To size a motor, one must know the definitions of air

horsepower (ahp),

31
brake horsepower (bhp), shaft horsepower (shp or mp), and rated
horsepower (rhp). (Kilowatts is used in the metric system instead of
horsepower.)

ahp Air horsepower [or, air kilowatts] refers to the minimum amount of
power to move a volume of air against the fan total pressure. It
represents the power to get the air through the duct system.

Nothing gets accomplished without a little loss. And fans are no

exception. Actually, the fan is an inefficient device. When the fan
moves the specified cfm against the specified FTP, it wastes much of
the input power (as much as 75%.)

bhp Brake horsepower [or, brake kilowatts] refers to the actual power
required to operate the fan so that it fulfills its job of moving the
specified cfm against the specified FTP. It takes into account fan
inefficiencies, i.e., losses in the fan. The brake horsepower is air
horsepower divided by a mechanical efficiency factor, ME.

The mechanical efficiency factor, ME, is determined experimentally

by the fan manufacturer, and is usually given on the fan curves or
tables. If ME cannot be determined (say, for an existing fan), a value
of ME = 0.60 will probably work well enough for a rough estimate
for a radial fan.

shp Shaft horsepower [or, shaft Kilowatts] is bhp plus any power
required for drive losses, bearing losses, and pulley losses between
the fan and the shaft of the motor. Normally, shp can be estimated
where Kdl is approximately:

= 1.10 for pulley drives on larger motors

= 1.30 for pulley drives on small motors (< 2 hp)
= 1.05 for direct drive

Check with the supplier for the actual drive loss factor for the drive
system to be used.

rhp Rated horsepower [or, rated kilowatts] is normally the nameplate

horsepower on the motor. A 5 hp motor means that the motor is
designed to draw up to five horsepower's worth of current from the
electrical lines. For small exhaust systems (up to 25 hp motors), build
in an over-rated factor of about one third. For example, if the
required shaft horsepower is 7.0 shp, then choose a rhp >1.33 shp.

rhp > 1.33 shp > 1.33 7 > 9.3 hp

Therefore, choose next whole size, e.g., a ten horse motor.

Motor manufacturers sometimes build in a margin of safety, the

Service Factor (SF). When SF = 1.10, this means the motor has a ten
percent safety factor built in, (e.g., a five-horse motor can deliver up

32
 to 5.5 horsepower without overheating.) For most industrial
ventilation motors, SF = 1.0.

Practical Applications

1. [US/SI] 1. What is the required power for the ventilation system, and what rated power
motor would you choose?

US units SI units
Fan TP = 5.0 inch w.g. FTP = 127 mm w.g.
Q = 12,000 scfm Q = 5.664 scms
ME = fan efficiency = 0.60 same
Kdl = 1.10 same
STP (d = 1) same
c = 6356 c = 102.2

In the US units:

FTP Q Kdl d 5.0 12,000 1.10

shp = ------------------------------- = -------------------------------- = 17.3 horsepower
c ME 6356 0.60

rhp > 1.33 shp > 17.3 1.33 > 23. Therefore choose a 25-hp motor.

2. [US/SI] Estimate the ahp, bhp, shp, and the rated power motor you would choose for the
following system.

US units SI units
Fan TP = 10.0 inch w.g. FTP = 254 mm w.g.
Q = 5,000 scfm Q = 2.36 scms
ME = fan efficiency = 0.65 same
Kdl = 1.15 same
STP (d = 1) same
c = 6356 c = 102.2

In the US units:

FTP Q Kdl d 10.0 5,000 1.15

shp = ------------------------- = ------------------------- = 13.9 horsepower
6356 ME 6356 0.65

rhp > 1.33 shp > 13.9 1.33 > 18.5. Therefore choose a 20-hp motor.

33
11-3 Fan Laws Fans

Q2 /Q 1 = (n2 / n1 )1

SP2 /SP1 = (n2 / n1 )2

PWR2 /PWR1 = (n2 / n1 )3

3
D2 n
Q 2 = Q1 2
D1 n1

D2 2 n2 2 2
SP2 = SP 1
D 1 n1 1

D2 5 n2 3 2
PWR2 = PWR 1
D1 n1 1

SP 2
Q2 = Q 1
SP 1
Terms and Names US Units SI units
Q cubic feet per minute, cubic meters per second,
cfm, scfm, acfm cms, scfm, acfm
Air Volume Flowrate where s = standard, where s = standard,
a = actual a = actual
SP inch w.g. mm w.g.
Pascal
SP represents all pressures
n rpm rpm

Fan rotational speed

PWR horsepower kW

Power (hp, ahp, shp, bhp)

lbs/cubic Kg/cubic meter

air density
D inch centimeter

Fan Wheel Diameter

See IVW: 8

34
Origin Natural laws

Usage Some of the most useful of the ventilation formulas are those known as the fan
laws. They may seem difficult, but the way we use them, they're quite simple.

Using the fan laws, we can estimate changes in a ventilation system when one
operating parameter is changed. For example, suppose the rpm of a fan is
changed. What is the new fan static pressure? The new hood static pressure? The
new power required? The new flow rate, Q? The fan laws can help predict these
outcomes before a change in fan speed.

The numbers 1 and 2 in the equations refer to conditions before and after a
change. The equations may be modified to solve for any parameter, e.g, the last
equation (in the list above) shows the relationship between Q and SP.

Fan laws relate the performance variables of any homologous series of fans.
Homologous means that the fans have sizes is which all dimensional variables
(e.g., diameter to width) are proportional. EH&S professionals rarely get
involved with size variables; rather, rpm change is usually a more important
consideration.

Practical Applications

1. [US] What is the new flow rate, hood static pressure, and brake horsepower expected when
rpm is increased to n = 1,125 rpm?

Initial Conditions Conditions after Increase

n = 1000 rpm n = 1125 rpm
Q = 1,000 scfm Q=?
SPh = 0.85 inch w.g. SPh = ?
bhp = 0.50 hp bhp = ?

(RPM2 / RPM1 ) = 1125/1000 = 1.125

Therefore Q 2 = Q1 1.125 = 1,125 scfm

SPh2 = SPh1 (1.125)2 = 1.08 w.g.

bhp2 = bhp1 (1.125)3 = 0.71 hp

35