Coordinate Geometry

Chap 01 SM Page 1 Thursday, October 12, 2000 9:23 AM
Coordinate
Geometry
1
VCE co
covverage
Areas of study
Units 3 & 4 Coordinate
geometry
Algebra
In this cha
chapter
pter
1A Sketch graphs of
y = ax m + bxn + c where
m = 1 or 2 and n = 1 or 2
1B Reciprocal graphs
1C Graphs of ellipses
1D Graphs of hyperbolas
1E Partial fractions
1F Sketch graphs using
partial fractions
2 Specialist Mathematics
Coordinate geometry
In this chapter we shall explore the graphs of several functions that incorporate rational
parts. We shall focus on reciprocal graphs, ellipses and hyperbolas, and see how partial
fractions can help in graphing some functions.
It is assumed that you already know how to sketch linear graphs, parabolic graphs
and hyperbolas.
Summary of basic sketch graph information

y y
y = a(x + b)2 + c
y = mx + c ab2 + c
mc 0 x c c 0 x
b a b + a
(b, c)
y = mx + c y = a(x + b)2 + c
m = gradient Turning point is (b, c).
c = y-intercept y-intercept is (0, ab2 + c).
a y y
y = bx +c + d

a
y =
(bx + c)2
+d
Asymptote
a a
x = bc c +d c+ d
d d
bc 0 x 0 y=d x
Asymptote
y=d x = bc
a a
y = --------------- + d y = ---------------------2- + d
bx + c ( bx + c )
a a
y-intercept is (0, --- + d ) y-intercept is (0, ----2- + d )
c c
c c
Vertical asymptote: x = --- Vertical asymptote: x = ---
b b
Horizontal asymptote: y = d Horizontal asymptote: y = d
Reminders
1. To work out the y-intercept, let x = 0 and solve for y.
2. To work out the x-intercept, let y = 0 and solve for x.
dy dy
3. To work out the turning points for a function, work out ------ and solve ------ = 0.
dx dx
4. Asymptotes can be worked out either by algebraic reasoning (boxes) or by rule.
Chapter 1 Coordinate geometry 3

Sketch graphs of y = axm+ bxn+ c where
m = 1 or 2 and n = 1 or 2
In this section we shall be sketching graphs of functions of the form y = axm + bxn + c
where m = 1 or 2 and n = 1 or 2.
Examples of such functions are:
1. y = 3x + 2x2, x 0, a = 3, b = 1, c = 0, m = 1, n = 2
2. y = 2x2 + x1 + 3, x 0, a = 2, b = 1, c = 3, m = 2, n = 1
3. y = 5x2 3x2 3, x 0, a = 5, b = 3, c = 3, m = 2, n = 2
4. y = 4x 1, x 1, 6, a = 4, c = 1, m = 1
5. y = x2 + 7x1 + 6, x 0, a = 1, b = 7, c = 6, m = 2, n = 1
Vertical asymptote
The vertical asymptote occurs for the x-value that makes the denominator of the
fractional part of the function 0. When the denominator of a fraction is 0, the fraction,
and hence the whole function, will be undefined.
General algebraic reasoning
b
1. For graphs of the form y = ax m + ----n- + c, as x 0, x n 0, and hence
x
b
----n- . Therefore, y and thus the equation of the vertical asymptote is
x
x = 0 the value that makes the denominator 0.
2. For graphs of the type y = ax m + bx-n + c, the vertical asymptote will always be
x = 0 or the y-axis, as the denominator of the fractional part is always x.
Horizontal, oblique (sloping) or curved asymptote

To determine the non-vertical asymptote, cover up only the fractional part with your
hand; the part of the function you can still see is the equation of this asymptote.
When finding horizontal, oblique or curved asymptotes we consider very large
values of x. The reciprocal of very large values is very small, so the fractional part is
close to 0 and contributes very little to the value of y.
The value of y will become very close to the value of the function without the
fractional part hence the method for finding the asymptote.
Note: An oblique line is any line that is neither horizontal nor vertical.
General algebraic reasoning
b
For graphs of the form y = ax m + ----n- + c, as x , x n , and hence
x
b
----n- 0 and so becomes insignificant in size. Thus y ax + c, making
m
x
y = ax m + c an asymptote.
Note: If a = 0 then the asymptote will be horizontal; otherwise, it will be oblique or

curved.
WORKED Example 1
2
Find the asymptotes for the function with the equation y = 3x ----2- .
x
THINK WRITE
2
1 Find the vertical asymptote by considering y = 3x ----2-
values of x that make the denominator 0. x
As x 0, ----2 , and hence y .
-
x2
Vertical asymptote: x = 0
2 Find the horizontal or oblique asymptote by As x , ---- 2 0, and hence y 3x.
-
considering large values of x or covering the x2
fractional part of the equation. Oblique asymptote: y = 3x
Sketching the graphs of rational functions

This process involves several steps.
Step 1. Break the given function into two separate, simpler functions.
Step 2. Sketch the graph of each of the separate functions on the one set of axes. Do
this in pencil and use either colour or some distinguishing feature (for example
dotted and dashed lines) for each graph.
Step 3. Determine the asymptotes of the original function and pencil in how the graph
of the function approaches these asymptotes.
You should remember to consider:
1. large positive values for x
2. large negative values for x
3. values very close to and either side of the vertical asymptote.
Step 4. Work out the x-intercept(s), y-intercept and turning points for the given function
to give greater accuracy.
WORKED Example 2
Sketch the graph of the function y = 4 x 2 + --1x- , x 0 (do not include the turning points).
THINK WRITE
1 1
1 Divide y = 4x2 + --x- into two functions: Let y1 = 4x2 and y2 = --x- .
1
y1 = 4x2 and y2 = --x- .
2 Consider y1 = 4x2.
(a) This is an upright parabola, and we The graph y1 = 4x2 is an upright parabola with
need to state the vertex and find vertex at (0, 0).
several points either side of the Let x = 1, y1 = 4(1)2
vertex to give an idea of the shape. =4
The points (1, 4) and by symmetry (1, 4), are
on the parabola.

THINK WRITE
(b) Sketch y1 = 4x . 2
y
4
y1 = 4x 2
1 0 1 x
1 1
3 Consider y2 = --x- . For y2 = --x- :
(a) This graph is a hyperbola, so we Vertical asymptote is x = 0.
need the asymptotes, and several Horizontal asymptote is y2 = 0.
points on the curve either side of Let x = 1, y2 = 1--1- = 1,
the vertical asymptote. so (1, 1) is on the hyperbola.
Let x = 1, y2 = -----1
1
- = 1,
so (1, 1) is on the hyperbola.

1 y
(b) Sketch y2 = --x- on the same axes as
4
y1 = 4x2. y1 = 4x 2
1 y2 = 1x
1 0 1 x
1
Fig. SM1.4b
1 1
4 Consider the graph of y = 4x2 + --x- . For y = 4x2 + --x- :
(a) Let y = 0 to calculate the x-intercepts. At x-intercept, y = 0.
1
4x2 + --x- = 0
1
(b) Multiply both sides by x. x 4x2 + x --x- = 0 x
(c) Solve for x3. 4x3 + 1 = 0
x3 = 1--4-
(d) Take the cube root of both sides to x= 3 1--4-

obtain x. 1
x = -------
3 4
0.63
(e) Let x = 0 to determine the y-intercept. No y-intercept as the y-axis is a vertical
asymptote.
Continued over page
THINK WRITE
5 Write down the equations of the asymptotes. Asymptotes are x = 0 and y = 4x2.
6 Consider behaviour near asymptotes.
(a) For x > 0, both y1 and y2 are positive x , y1 and y2 0 from positives.
and as x , y1 and y2 0.
(b) Therefore, y y1 from above the So y y1 from above the graph of y1.
graph of y1.
(c) For x < 0, y1 > 0 and y2 < 0 and as x , y1 and y2 0 from negatives.
x , y1 and y2 0.
(d) Therefore, y y1 from below the So y y1 from below the graph of y1 (as y2
graph of y1. is negative).
(e) Consider values of x either side of the x 0 from positives, y1 0 and is positive
vertical asymptote. and y2 .
So y y2 from above the graph.
x 0 from negatives, y1 0 and is positive
and y2 .
1 So y y2 from above the graph of y2.
7 Sketch the graph of y = 4x2 + --x- on the
Approach Approach
same axes as y1 and y2. from above from above
y
Approach 6
from below
4 y = 4x2
y = 4x 2 + 1x , x 0 2 y = 1x
3 2 1
0.63 0 1 2 x
1
y = x 2
Approach
from above
Stationary points (turning points)

When we are working with turning points, we need to remember the following.
dy
1. The derivative of functions of the form y = ax n is ------ = nax n 1
dx
dy
2. To determine a local maximum or a local minimum we solve ------ = 0 for x.
dx
3. Distinguish between the maximum and minimum values by examining the sign of
dy
------ around the x value(s) found in the step above. The table below will help you.
dx
dy
If ------ = 0 when x = a, the following applies.
dx
Local minimum Local maximum
x<a x=a x>a x<a x=a x>a
dy dy dy dy dy dy
------ < 0 ------ = 0 ------ > 0 ------ > 0 ------ = 0 ------ < 0
dx dx dx dx dx dx
slope is slope is zero slope is slope is slope is zero slope is
negative positive positive negative

WORKED Example 3
1
Find the local maximum and minimum values of y, for y = 4 x 2 + --- .
x
THINK WRITE
1
1 To find the derivative express in index y = 4x2 + --x-
form.
y = 4x2 + x1
dy
2 Differentiate. ------ = 8x x 2
dx
dy
3 Let derivative = 0. For ------ = 0 ,
dx
8x x2 = 0
4 To solve, multiply both sides by x2. 8x (x2) x2( x2) = 0(x2)
8x3 1 = 0
5 Rearrange. 8x3 = 1
x3 = 1
---
8
6 Take the cube root of both sides. x= 1

---
2
2 1
7 Find the corresponding y-value by y = 4 1--2- + -------
1---
1 2
substituting x = 1--2- into y = 4x2 + --x- .
= 4 1--4- + 2
8 Evaluate. =1+2
=3
9 State the turning point. ( 1--2- , 3) is the turning point.

x< 1
x= 1
x> 1
10 Determine if ( 1--2- , 3) is a maximum or ---
2
---
2
---
2
minimum. dy dy dy
------ < 0 ------ = 0 ------ > 0
For x < 1--2- : as x = 0 is a vertical dx dx dx
11
asymptote we need to pick a value of x (14) (7)

between 0 and 1
--- ,
2
say x = 1
--- ,
4
and
dy
evaluate ------ .
dx
12 For x > 1--2- : pick a value greater than 1--2- ,

dy
say x = 1, and evaluate ------ .
dx
13 State the nature of the turning point. ( 1--2- , 3) is a local minimum.

WORKED Example 4
2
Sketch the graph of the function y = x ----2- , showing stationary points (maximum and
x
minimum), intercepts and asymptotes.
THINK WRITE
2 2
1 Divide y = x ----2- into two functions: Let y1 = x and y2 = ----2- .
x x
2
y1 = x and y2 = ----2- .
x
2 Consider y1 = x. For y1 = x:
(a) This is straight line passing through The gradient (m) = 1, and the y-intercept (c) = 0.
(0, 0) with gradient = 1. The line passes through origin (0, 0).
(b) Sketch y1 = x. y
y1 = x
2
0 2 x
2 2
3 Consider y2 = ----2- . For y2 = ----2- :
x x
(a) The graph is a hyperbola, so we vertical asymptote is x = 0.
need the asymptotes, and several horizontal asymptote is y2 = 0.
points on the curve either side of 2
the vertical asymptote. Let x = 1, y2 = ---------2-
(1)
= 2
So (1, 2) is on the hyperbola.
2
Let x = 1, y2 = ------------2-
( 1 )
= 2
So (1, 2) is on the hyperbola.
2
(b) Sketch y2 = ----2- on the same axes y
as y1 = x. x
Figure 5b
x
1 0 1
2
y2 =
x2
2
4 Consider the graph of the function

2 2
y = x ----2- . For y = x ----2- :
x x
(a) Calculate the x-intercept. Let y = 0.
2
x ----2- = 0
x
THINK WRITE
(b) Multiply both sides by x2 and x3 2 = 0

simplify. x3 = 2
(c) Solve for x. x= 3 2
The x-intercept is ( 3 2, 0 ) .
(d) There is no y-intercept as x 0. No y-intercept.
2
5 Find the stationary points. y = x ----2-
x
(a) Express in index form. y = x 2x2
dy dy
(b) Differentiate to find ------ . ------ = 1 2 ( 2 )x 3
dx dx
dy
(c) Rewrite. ------ = 1 + 4x 3
dx
dy dy
(d) Set ------ = 0 and solve. Let ------ = 0 .
dx dx
1 + 4x3 = 0
(e) Multiply both sides by x3. 1(x3) + 4x3(x3) = 0(x3)
(f) Solve for x. x3 + 4 = 0
x3 = 4
1
---
x = 4 3
1
---
x = 4 3 1.59
1
--- 2
y = 4 3 -----------------
(g) Find the value of y by substitution. 1
-
--- 2
( )
4 3
2
(h) Simplify. 1.59 --------------------2-
( 1.59 )
1.59 0.79
y 2.38
6 Determine whether we have a
maximum or minimum. x < 3 4 x = 3 4 x > 3 4
dy dy dy
------ > 0 ------ = 0 ------ < 0
dx dx dx
slope is slope is
positive slope is zero negative
(1.59, 2.38) is a local maximum.
Continued over page

THINK WRITE
2
7 State the asymptotes for y = x ----2- . Vertical asymptote x = 0 (y-axis).
x Oblique asymptote y = x.
8 Look at the asymptotic behaviour.
(a) For x > 0, y1 > 0 and y2 < 0; as x , As x , y y1 from below the graph of
y1 and y2 0 from negatives. y1, as y2 is negative.
(b) For x < 0, y1 > 0 and y2 < 0; as As x , y y1 from below the graph of
x , y1 and y2 0 from y1, as y2 is negative.
negatives.
(c) Consider the behaviour near the x 0 from positives, y1 0 and is positive
vertical asymptote (x = 0). and y2 .
So y y2 from above the graph.
x 0 from negatives, y1 0 and is negative
and y2 .
2
9 Sketch the graph of y = x ----2- on the So y y2 from below the graph of y2.
same axes as y1 and y2. x
y
4 Approach
from below
2 y1 = x
y=x 2 , x 0
x
2
2
y = x 2x
2 2 x
0 1.26
(1.59, 2.38)
2 2
y2 = 2x
Approach
4 from above
Approach Approach
from below from below
remember
remember
To sketch graphs of functions of the form y = axm + bxn + c where m = 1 or 2 and
n = 1 or 2:
Step 1. Break the given function into two separate simpler functions.
Step 2. Sketch the graph of each of the separate functions created, on the one set
of axes.
Step 3. Determine the asymptotes of the original function and pencil in how the
graph of the function approaches these asymptotes. Consider:
(a) large positive values for x
(b) large negative values for x
(c) values very close to and either side of the vertical asymptote.
Step 4. Work out the x-intercept(s), y-intercept and turning point for the given
function to give greater accuracy.

Sketch graphs of
1A y = axm + bxn + c where
m = 1 or 2 and n = 1 or 2
WORKED 1 Find the asymptotes for each of the following.
Example
2 4 4
1 a y = --- + 2x b y = --- + x 2 c y = --- + 2x
x x x
2 1 4
d y = 3 x 2 --- e y = ----2- + x 2 f y = x + ----2- 2
x x x
1 8
g y = --- 4x 2 + 3 h y = --- + 2x + 1
x x
2 multiple choice
For each of the following equations, choose the alternative that gives the correct asymptotes.
6
a y = --- + 5x
x
A y = 6 and x = 5 B y = 5x and x = 0 C y = 5 and x = 0
D y = 5x and x = 0 E x=0
4
b y = --- 2x + 1
x
A y = 2x + 1 and x = 0 B y = 4 and x = 2 C y = 2x + 1 and x = 0
D y = 2x 1 and x = 0 E x = 0 and y = 1
6
c y = x 2 4 + ---
x
A y = x2 4x and x = 0 B y = 4 and x = 6 C y = x2 4 and x = 6
D y = 4 and x = 0 E y = x 2, y = x + 2 and x = 0
7
d y = 9 + ----2- 4x
x
A y = 9 and x = 0 B y = 9 4x and x = 7 C y = 9 + 4x and x = 0
D y = 4x and x = 0 E y = 9 4x and x = 0
WORKED
Example 3 Sketch the graph of each function given in question 1. (Do not include the turning Math
cad
2 points.)
Sketch
WORKED 4 For each of the functions given in question 1, find the local maximum and/or minimum graphs
Example
3 values of y.
5 multiple choice Math

cad
For each of the following equations, choose the alternative that gives the correct graph. Addition
6 of
a y = --- 3x functions
x
A y B y C y D y E y
L Spread
5 5 5 5 5 XCE
sheet
E
Single
3 0 3x 3 0 3 x 3 0 3x 3 0 3x 3 0 x
3 graph
5 5 5 5 5 plotter
5
b y = 3 ----2-
x
A y B y C y D y E y
8 8
0 x 3
3
3 3 3 3
0 1 x
1 0 1 x
3 0 3 x 3 0 3x 8
2
c y = x 2 ----2-
x
A y B y C y D y E y
0 x x
1 0 1 x 0 1 x 1 1 0
0 x
5
d y = 3x 1 + ---
x
A y B y C y D y E y
0 x 0 x 0 3 x
1 1 1 0 x
1 x 3
0 1
1
WORKED 6 Sketch the graphs of each of the following, showing stationary points (max. and min.),
Example
4
intercepts and asymptotes.
16 9 1
a y = -----2- + x 2 b y = --- x c y = --- + 4x
x x x
2 1 4
d y = x 3 + --- e y = --- + 8x 2 f y = x ----2- + 3
x x x
1 1
g y = ----2- + x 2 h y = 2 x ---
x x
(Hint: When finding x-intercepts, use the factor theorem to find a factor.)
7 The volume of a solid cylinder is 128 cm3.
256
a Show that the total surface area, A cm2, is A = 2 r 2 + ------------ where r > 0.
r
b Sketch the graph of A against r. State the equation of any asymptotes and the
coordinates of the stationary point.
c Hence, find the exact minimum total surface area.
8 A box with a volume of 400 cm3 has the shape of a
rectangular prism. It has a fixed height of 25 cm, a
length of y cm and a width of x cm.
If A cm2 is the total surface area:
a Express A in terms of x. 25 cm
b Sketch the graph of A against x. y cm
c Find the minimum total surface area of the box
x cm
and the dimensions in this case.

Reciprocal graphs
1
This technique involves sketching the graph of y = ----------- from the graph of y = f (x).
f ( x)
1 1
1. When f (x) 0, y = ------------ , the graph of y = ------------ approaches the vertical
f ( x) f ( x)
asymptote(s).
1
2. Therefore, the graph of y = ------------ will have vertical asymptotes at the
f ( x)
x-intercepts of y = f (x).
1 1
3. When f (x) , ------------ 0, the graph of y = ------------ approaches the horizontal
f ( x) f ( x)
asymptote (the x-axis in this case).
4. These graphs also have common points:
1
(a) When f (x) = 1, ------------ = 1. The graphs are in the same quadrant.
f ( x)
1
(b) When f (x) < 0, ------------ < 0.
f ( x)
1
(c) When f (x) > 0, ------------ > 0.
f ( x)
1
Note: If y = ----------- then:
f ( x)
1. f (x) = 1, y = 1 and f (x) = 1, y = 1
2. and for f (x) < 0, y > 0 and f (x) > 0, y < 0.
WORKED Example 5
1 y
Sketch the graph of the function y = -------------
2
- , x 3 from 6
x 9 y1 = x2 9
the given graph of y1 = x2 9. 4
2
4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4x
2
4
6
THINK WRITE 8
1 Sketch the graph of the function y 10
y1 = x2 9 as given. 6 y1 = x2 9
4
2
4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4x
2
4
6
8
Continued over page
10
THINK WRITE
2 Work out the asymptotes for The x-intercepts of y1 = x2 9 are x = 3.
1 1
y = -------------
-. The vertical asymptotes for y = -------------
2
- are x = 3.
x2 9 x 9
The horizontal asymptote is y = 0.
3 For the y-intercept, the The y-intercept is (0, 1--9- ).
reciprocal of 9 is 1--9- .
4 Indicate the common points on the
graph, where y1 = 1 and y1 = 1.
1
5 As y = ----- , the graphs of y and y1
y1
are drawn in the same quadrants.
1 y
6 Sketch the graph of y = -------------
2
-.
6
x 9
4
2
2 1 0 1 2
5 4 3 3 4 5 x
2 (0, 19 )
4 1
y =
6 x 9
2
y1 = x 2 9
8
x = 3 10 x=3
WORKED Example 6
Sketch the graphs of f (x) and g(x) on the same set of axes where f (x) = x2 2x 3 and
1
g(x) = --------------------------
- , x 3, 1.
x2 2 x 3
THINK WRITE
Work out important features for For f (x) = x2 2x 3:
f (x) = x2 2x 3.
1 This is an upright parabola, as a = 1.
2 Calculate the x-intercept. x-intercepts:
x2 2x 3 = 0
so (x 3)(x + 1) = 0
so x 3 = 0 or x + 1 = 0
and x = 3 or x = 1
3 State the coordinates of the x-intercepts. The x-intercepts are (3, 0) and (1, 0).
4 Calculate the y-intercept. y-intercept:
f (0) = 3
The y-intercept is (0, 3).
THINK WRITE
5 The vertex or turning point Turning point:
x-coordinate is half-way between the 1+3
x = ----------------
x-intercepts. 2
= 1
6 Substitute to find the y-value of the f ( 1 ) = ( 1 )2 2( 1 ) 3
turning point. = 123
= 4
The turning point is (1, 4).
7 Sketch the graph of f (x) = x2 2x 3.
(See below.)
1
8 Use the above to determine important For g ( x ) = ------------------------------
-:
( x 2x 3 )
2
1
features for g(x) = -------------------------
2
-.
x 2x 3
9 Vertical asymptotes occur when f (x) Vertical asymptotes:
has its x-intercepts. x = 3 and x = 1 (from above)
1
| x| , -------------------------
- 0, and so g(x) 0
x 2 2x 3
10 Find the horizontal asymptotes. The horizontal asymptote is g (x) = 0.
The reciprocal of the turning point for The reciprocal of the turning point (1, 4)
11
f (x) is a turning point for g(x). is (1, 1--4- ).
12 Wherever f (x) = 1 or 1, g(x) = 1 or 1. y
3
1
13 As g(x) = ----------- , the graphs of f (x) and 1
g(x) = 2
f ( x) 2x 2x 3
g(x) are in the same quadrants. 0 1 2
14 Sketch the graph of g(x) on the same 5 4 3 2 1 3 4 5 x
(1, 14 )
axes as f (x).
2
f (x) = x2 2x 3
4
(1, 4)
x = 1 x=3
WORKED Example 7
Sketch the graphs of f (x) and g(x) on the same set of axes where:
1
f (x) = (x + 3)2 and g(x) = -------------------2 , x 3
( x + 3)
THINK WRITE
Work out important features for For f (x) = (x + 3)2:
f (x) = (x + 3)2.
1 This is an inverted parabola, as a = 1.
Continued over page
THINK WRITE
2 Calculate the x-intercept(s). x-intercepts:
(x + 3)2 = 0
(x + 3)2 = 0
x+3=0
x = 3
3 State the coordinates of the x-intercepts. The x-intercept is (3, 0).
4 Calculate the y-intercept. The y-intercept:
f (0) = (0 + 3)2
= (9)
= 9
5 As the graph touches the x-axis at The turning point is (3, 0).
(3, 0), it must also turn at this point.
Hence, (3, 0) is the turning point.
6 Sketch the graph of f (x). (See below.)
Use the above to determine important
1 1
features for g(x) = ------------------2- . For g(x) = ------------------2- :
( x + 3) ( x + 3)
7 Vertical asymptotes occur when f(x) Vertical asymptote: x = 3
has its x-intercepts.
1
8 Find the horizontal asymptotes. x , ------------------2- 0 , and so g(x) 0
( x + 3)
9 We cannot take the reciprocal of the turning The horizontal asymptote is g(x) = 0.
point for f (x) as the reciprocal of 0 is not
defined it was worked out in step 7
above that this was the vertical asymptote.
10 The y-intercept of g(x) is the reciprocal The y-intercept is (0, 1--9- ).
of the y-intercept of f (x).
1
11 Since g(x) = ----------- then g(x) = 1 or 1
f ( x)
when f (x) = 1 or 1.
1
12 As g(x) = ----------- , the graphs of f (x) and
f ( x)
g(x) are in the same quadrants.
13 Sketch the graph of g(x) on the same y
axes as f (x). 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2
x
1
g(x) = 2 2 (0, 19 )
(x + 3)
4
6
8
9
10
12
14
f(x) = (x + 3)2
x = 3

WORKED Example 8
Sketch the graphs of f (x) and g(x) on the same set of axes where:
1
f (x) = x2 + 4x + 5 and g(x) = ---------------------------
x + 4x + 5
2
THINK WRITE
Work out important features for f (x) = x2 + 4x + 5. For f (x) = x2 + 4x + 5:
1 This is an upright parabola, as a = 1.
2 Find the x-value of the turning point by f (x) = 2x + 4
dy For f (x) = 0,
solving ------ = 0 or f (x) = 0. 2x + 4 = 0
dx
2x = 4
x = 2
3 Evaluate f (x) when x = 2. f (2) = (2)2 + 4(2) + 5
=48+5
=1
The turning point is (2, 1).
4 As the parabola is upright and turns at There is no x-intercept.
(2, 1) it is completely above the x-axis and
hence there is no x-intercept.
5 Calculate the y-intercept. y-intercept:
f (0) = 5
By symmetry (4, 5) is also on the curve.
6 Sketch the graph of f (x). (See below.)
Use the above to determine important
1 1
features for g(x) = --------------------------
- For g(x) = ---------------------------:
x + 4x + 5
2 x + 4x + 5
2
7 Since there are no x-intercepts for f (x), g(x) There are no vertical asymptotes.
has no vertical asymptotes.
1
x , --------------------------
8 Find the horizontal asymptote. - 0,
x 2 + 4x + 5
and so g(x) 0
The horizontal asymptote is f (x) = 0.
9 The vertex of g(x) is the reciprocal of the The vertex is (2, 1).
vertex of f (x).
10 The y-intercept for g(x) is the reciprocal of The y-intercept is (0, 1--5- ).
the y-intercept of f (x).
1 y
11 Since g(x) = ----------- the graphs of f (x) and
f ( x) 6
g(x) are in the same quadrants.
f(x) = x2 + 4x + 5
12 Sketch the graph of g(x) on the same axes 4
as f (x).
1 2
g(x) =
2 (2, 1)
x + 4x + 5
(0, 15)
5 4 3 2 1 0 1 x
remember
remember
1
1. To sketch the graph of y = ----------- from the graph of y = f (x):
f ( x)
(a) find the vertical asymptote at the x-intercepts of f (x)
(b) the horizontal asymptote is the x-axis
(c) find the common points when f (x) = 1.
1
2. The graphs are in the same quadrant, that is, f (x) < 0, ----------- < 0 and f (x) > 0,
f ( x)
1
----------- > 0.
f ( x)
1
Note: If y = ----------- then f (x) = 1, y = 1 and f (x) = 1, y = 1 and also f (x) < 0,
f ( x)
y > 0 and f (x) > 0, y < 0.
1B Reciprocal graphs
hca
d WORKED 1 Sketch the graph of each of the following functions from the given graph.
Example
Mat
Reciprocal 5 1 1
a y = -------------
- , x 2 b y = ------------ , x 2
functions 2
x 4 x+2
y y
2
6 y = x 4 8
Spreadshe
4
EXCEL
et
6
Single 2
4
graph
3 2 1 0 1 2 3x 2 y=x+2
plotter 2
4
4 3 2 1 0 1 2 x
6 2
1 1
c y = ----------------- , x 0, 2 d y = -------------------------- , x 3, 1
x + 2x
2 x 4x + 3
2
y y
y = x 2 +2x 8
8
6 y = x2 4x + 3
6
4 4
(0, 3)
2 2
1 2
4 3 2 0 1 2x 1 0 1 (2, 1) 3 4 5 x
(1, 1) 2 2
4 4

1 1
e y = -------------------- , x 2
--- f y = ---------------------
- , x 0, 2
2x + 5 5 x + 2x2
y = 2x + 5 y y
30 4
20 2 (1, 1)
10 1
(2 2 , 0)
(0, 5) 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 x
2
15 10 5 0 5 10 x
10 4
y = x2 + 2x
20 6
30 8
1 1
g y = ----------------
- , x 3--2- h y = ---------------------------------
- , x 3--2- , 1
4x 2 9 2x 2 + 5x 3
y y
10 y = 4x2 9 4 y = 2x2 + 5x 3
( 32 , 0) 5 ( 32 , 0) 2 ( 54 , 18 )
3 2 1 0 1 2 3 x 1 0 1 3 2 3 4 x
5 2 2
3
10 (9, 0) 4
15 6
8
2 Sketch the graph of each of the following functions, f (x) and g(x), on the same set of axes.
1
WORKED a f (x) = x 4, g ( x ) = ----------- , x 4
Example x4
6 1
b f (x) = x2 4x, g ( x ) = ----------------- , x 0, 4
x 2 4x
1
c f (x) = 3 x, g ( x ) = ----------- , x 3
3x
1
d f (x) = x2 + 3x + 2, g ( x ) = -------------------------- - , x 1, 2
x 2 + 3x + 2
1
e f (x) = 3x + x2, g ( x ) = -----------------2 , x 3, 0
3x + x
1
f f (x) = 3x2 8x 3, g ( x ) = ----------------------------- , x 1--3- , 3
3x 2 8x 3
1
WORKED g f (x) = (x 4)2, g ( x ) = ------------------2- , x 4
Example ( x 4)
7
1
h f (x) = (x + 3)2, g ( x ) = ------------------2- , x 3
( x + 3)
1
i f (x) = x2 + 4x 4, g ( x ) = ------------------------------ -, x 2
x 2 + 4x 4
1
j f (x) = x2 + x + 1--4- , g ( x ) = ----------------------1- , x 1--2-
x + x + --4-
2
1
WORKED k f (x) = x2 + 2, g ( x ) = -------------
-
Example x +2
2
8
1
l f (x) = x2 + 2x + 4, g ( x ) = --------------------------
-
x + 2x + 4
2
3 multiple choice
1
Consider the function f (x) = --------------------------
-.
x 2 + 4x + 3
a f (x) has asymptotes with equations:
A x = 1, x = 3 and y = 0 B x = 1, x = 3 and y = 0
C x = 1, x = 3 and y = 0 D x = 1, and x = 3 only
E x = 0, and y = 1
---
3
b The y-intercept and turning point are respectively:

A (0, 3) and (2, 1) B (0, 3) and (2, 1)
C (0, 1
--- )
3
and (2, 1) D (0, 1--3- ) and (2, 1)
E (0, 1--3- ) and (2, 1)
c The graph of f (x) is best represented by:
A y B y C y
1 1 1
0 0
1 2 3 x 3 2 1 x 01 2 3 x
1 1 1
D y E y
1 1
3 2 1 0 x 3 2 1 0 x
1 1
4 A box in the shape of a rectangular prism has a base of length x cm and width
(4 x) cm.
a Express the area of the base, A cm2, in terms of x.
b If the volume of the box is fixed at 1 cm3, express the height, h cm, in terms
of x.
c Determine the height of the box when the length of the base is 3.95 cm.
d Sketch the graph of h against x.
e Find the minimum height of the box and the dimensions in this case.

Graphs of ellipses
The basic equation of an ellipse is y
x2 y2 b
----2- + ----2- = 1 .
a b
Its graph is shaped like an elongated circle
see graph at right. a ax
0
This ellipse:
1. is centred at (0, 0)
2. has vertices at (a, 0), (a, 0) (worked out by
b
letting y = 0 and solving), and (0, b) and (0, b)
(worked out by letting x = 0 and solving).
If this curve were shifted h units to the right and k units up, then the centre would
move to (h, k) and its equation would become:
( x h )2 ( y k )2
- + ------------------
------------------ = 1
a2 b2
( x h )2 ( y k )2
Note: If a = b then the equation becomes ------------------ - + ------------------ = 1 and can be
a2 a2
rearranged to (x h)2 + (y k)2 = a2 (by multiplying both sides by a2). This is the
equation of a circle.
( x h )2 ( y k )2
For an ellipse in the form ------------------- - + ------------------- = 1 we can deduce the following,
a2 b2
which will help us to sketch the ellipse:
1. (h, k) are the coordinates of the centre of the ellipse.
2. The vertices are (a + h, k), (a + h, k), (h, b + k), (h, b + k).
Notes:
1. a is half the length of the major axis (axis of symmetry parallel to the x-axis if
a > b), (axis of symmetry parallel to the y-axis if a < b).
2. b is half the length of the minor axis (axis of symmetry parallel to the y-axis if
a > b), (axis of symmetry parallel to the x-axis if a < b).
3. a, b are lengths and so are positive values.
WORKED Example 9
( x 1 )2 ( y 2 )2
Sketch the graph of the function ------------------- + ------------------- = 1 .
25 9
THINK WRITE
( x 1 )2 ( y 2 )2
1 Compare ------------------- + ------------------- = 1 with h = 1, k = 2 and so the centre is (1, 2).
25 9
( x h) ( y k)2 2 a2 = 25 b2 = 9
- + ------------------
------------------ = 1. a=5 b=3
a2 b2
2 Major axis is parallel to the x-axis as a > b.
3 The extreme points (vertices) parallel to the Vertices are:
x-axis for the ellipse are: ( 5 + 1, 2) (5 + 1, 2)
( a + h, k) (a + h, k) = (4, 2) = (6, 2)
Continued over page
THINK WRITE
4 The extreme points (vertices) parallel to the and
y-axis for the ellipse are: (1, 3 + 2) (1, 3 + 2)
(h, b + k) (h, b + k) = (1, 1) = (1, 5)
5 Sketch the graph of the ellipse. y
(x 1)2 2
(y 2)
6 + =1
25 9
(1, 5)
4
(4, 2) 2 (1, 2) (6, 2)
6 4 2 0 2 4 6 x
(1, 1)
2
WORKED Example 10
( x 2 )2 ( y + 4 )2
Sketch the graph of the function ------------------- + ------------------- = 1 .
9 16
THINK WRITE
( x 2 )2 ( y + 4 )2 h = 2, k = 4
1 Compare ------------------- + ------------------- = 1 with
9 16 So the centre is (2, 4).
( x h )2 ( y k )2 a2 = 9 b2 = 16
- + ------------------
------------------ = 1.
a2 b2 a=3 b=4
2 Major axis is parallel to the y-axis as b > a.
( a + h, k) (a + h, k) = (1, 4) = (5, 4)
4 The extreme points (vertices) parallel to the and
y-axis for the ellipse are: (2, 4 4) (2, 4 4)
(h, b + k) (h, b + k) = (2, 8) = (2, 0)
2
0 (2, 0)
1 123456 x
2
(1, 4)
4 (5, 4)
(2, 4)
6
(x 2)2 2
(y + 4)
8 (2, 8) + =1
9 16
10

WORKED Example 11
Sketch the graph of the function 5 x 2 + 9 ( y 2 ) 2 = 45 .
THINK WRITE
1 Rearrange and simplify by dividing both 5x2 + 9(y 2)2 = 45

sides by 45 to make the RHS = 1. 5x 2 9 ( y 2 ) 2 45
-------- + ---------------------- = ------
45 45 45
2 Simplify by cancelling.
x2 ( y 2 )2
----- + ------------------- = 1
9 5
x2 ( y 2 )2
3 Compare ----- + ------------------- = 1 with h = 0, k = 2 and so the centre is (0, 2).
9 5
a2 = 9 b2 = 5 as a, b > 0
( x h )2 ( y k )2
- + ------------------
------------------ = 1. a=3 b= 5
a2 b2
4 Major axis is parallel to the x-axis as a > b.

( a + h, k) (a + h, k) = (3, 2) = (3, 2)
6 The extreme points (vertices) parallel to the and (0, 5 + 2) (0, 5 + 2)

y-axis for the ellipse are:
(h, b + k) (h, b + k) or (0, 2 5 ) (0, 2 + 5 )
(0, 0.24) (0, 4.24)

6
(0, 2 + 5 ) 5x2 + 9(y 2)2 = 45
4
(3, 2) 2 (0, 2) (3, 2)
0
4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4x
(0, 2 5 )
2
remember
remember
( x h )2 ( y k )2
- + ------------------
For an ellipse with equation ------------------ = 1:
a2 b2
1. The centre of the ellipse is (h, k).
2. The vertices are (a + h, k), (a + h, k), (h, b + k), (h, b + k).
1C Graphs of ellipses
reads d 1 multiple choice

L Sp he hca
et
Mat
EXCE
For each of the equations below, choose the correct alternative for the values of a, b, h,
and k. (This question is like worked example 9, but dont draw the graph.)
Ellipses ( x 4 )2 ( y + 9 )2
a ------------------- + ------------------- = 1
81 64
A a = 9, b = 8, h = 4, k = 9 B a = 81, b = 64, h = 4, k = 9
C a = 8, b = 9, h = 4, k = 9 D a = 9, b = 8, h = 4, k = 9
E a = 9, b = 8, h = 4, k = 9
x2 ( y 2 )2
b ------ + ------------------- = 1
36 144
A a = 36, b = 144, h = 0, k = 2 B a = 36, b = 144, h = 1, k = 2
C a = 6, b = 12, h = 0, k = 2 D a = 6, b = 12, h = 1, k = 2
E a = 12, b = 6, h = 0, k = 2
( x + 3 )2 ( y + 2 )2
c ------------------- + ------------------- = 1
81 4
A a = 9, b = 2, h = 3, k = 2 B a = 81, b = 4, h = 3, k = 2
C a = 9, b = 2, h = 3, k = 2 D a = 81, b = 4, h = 3, k = 2
E a = 81, b = 4, h = 3, k = 2
( x 12 ) 2 y 2
d ---------------------- + ----- = 1
16 4
A a = 4, b = 2, h = 12, k = 0 B a = 2, b = 4, h = 12, k = 0
C a = 16, b = 4, h = 12, k = 1 D a = 16, b = 4, h = 12, k = 1
E a = 4, b = 2, h = 12, k = 0
WORKED 2 Sketch the graph of the following functions:
Example
9 ( x 2 )2 ( y 3 )2 ( x 2 )2 ( y + 4 )2
a ------------------- + ------------------- = 1 b ------------------- + ------------------- = 1
9 4 9 4
( x + 1 )2 y2 x2 ( y 4 )2
c ------------------- + ----- = 1 d ----- + ------------------- = 1
9 5 9 4
( x 3 )2 ( y 3 )2 ( x 2 )2 ( y + 3 )2
e ------------------- + ------------------- = 1 f ------------------- + ------------------- = 1
25 4 9 4
( x + 1 )2 ( y 2 )2 ( x 2 )2 ( y 4 )2
g ------------------- + ------------------- = 1 h ------------------- + ------------------- = 1
16 5 36 9
( x + 2 )2 ( y + 1 )2 x2 y2
i ------------------- + ------------------- = 1 j ------ + ----- = 1
9 7 25 4
( x 4 )2 y2 ( x 2 )2 ( y + 2 )2
k ------------------- + ----- = 1 l ------------------- + ------------------- = 1
12 6 16 4

WORKED 3 Sketch the graph of the following functions:
Example
( x 2 )2 ( y + 3 )2 x2 ( y + 3 )2
10 a ------------------- + ------------------- = 1 b ----- + ------------------- = 1
4 9 9 16
x2 y2 x ( y 4 )2
2
c ----- + ------ = 1 d ----- + ------------------- = 1
9 15 9 25
( x 4 )2 ( y + 2 )2 ( x 2 ) ( y + 3 )2
2
e ------------------- + ------------------- = 1 f ------------------- + ------------------- = 1
4 25 4 9
x2 y2 ( x 3 )2 ( y 1 )2
g ------ + ------ = 1 h ------------------- + ------------------- = 1
25 36 9 36
( x 2 )2 ( y + 1 )2 ( x 3 )2 ( y 2 )2
i ------------------- + ------------------- = 1 j ------------------- + ------------------- = 1
8 9 9 36
( x + 3 )2 y2 ( x + 2 ) ( y + 3 )2
2
k ------------------- + ------ = 1 l ------------------- + ------------------- = 1
4 12 4 16
4 multiple choice
( x + 3 )2 ( y 2 )2
Consider the ellipse with the equation ------------------- + ------------------- = 1 .
25 16
a The centre of the ellipse is:
A (3, 2) B (3, 2) C (3, 2) D (2, 3) E (2, 3)
b The maximum and minimum points on the ellipse are respectively:
A (2, 3) and (2, 3) B (3, 7) and (3, 3) C (3, 6) and (3, 2)
D (2, 2) and (2, 8) E (3, 2) and (3, 6)
WORKED 5 Sketch the graphs of the following functions:
Example
11
a 9(x 5)2 + 16(y + 1)2 = 144 b 16x2 + 25y2 = 400
c 16(x 2)2 + 25y2 = 400 d 4(x 1)2 + 16(y + 3)2 = 64
e 16(x 2)2 + 9(y + 5)2 = 144 f 25(x 3)2 + 9(y + 2)2 = 225
g 36(x 4)2 + 4(y 2)2 = 144 h 9x2 + 16(y + 1)2 = 144
i 9(x + 3)2 + 7y2 = 63 j 4(x 4)2 + 9(y 3)2 = 36
Graphing ellipses (and hyperbolas)

Graphics Calculator tip! using function graphs
2
y
1. To graph an ellipse with an equation (say) of (x 1)2 + ----- = 1, first rearrange the
4
2
equation to make y the subject. The equation becomes y = 2 1 ( x 1 ) .
2
2. Enter Y1 = 2 1 ( X 1 ) and enter Y2=Y1 (see figure on left, below).
(Remember, to enter Y1, press VARS and select YVARS, 1:Function and 1:Y1).
3. Press ZOOM and select 4:ZDecimal to get good jumps for tracing (adjust the WINDOW
settings for Ymin and Ymax later if necessary) and TRACE as required. Note that
ZDecimal also gives a square or true proportion window. (Zoom in or out as
necessary to get a complete view. See centre figure, below.)
4. If you use your own WINDOW settings, you may not get a good view. The screen below
has window [1, 3] by [3, 3]. The graph is incomplete (poor jumps) and is not in true
proportion (see figure on right).
Graphs of hyperbolas
Hyperbolas have the following important characteristics.
1. The basic equation of a hyperbola y
x 2 y 2 b
y = ax y = ba x
centred at (0, 0) is ----2- ----2- = 1 .
a b
2. If this curve were shifted h units to the
right and k units up, then the centre (a, 0) (a, 0)
a a x
would move to (h, k) and its equation 0
(0, 0)
( x h )2 ( y k )2
would become ------------------
- ------------------ = 1.
a2 b2
3. The basic form of a hyperbola centred at
(0, 0) is shown at right.
The vertices for this curve are at (a, 0) and (a, 0) and the two asymptotes are given
b b
by y = --- x and y = --- x .
a a
When the hyperbola is not centred at (0, 0):
( x h )2 ( y k )2
1. For the curve of the function ------------------- - = 1 , the points on
- ------------------
a2 b2
x2 y2
----2- ----2- = 1 are moved h units to the right and k units up (or x has been
a b
replaced with (x h) and y replaced with (y k)).
2. Therefore, the vertices are (a + h, k), (a + h, k) and the centre is at (h, k).
b b
3. The asymptotes are at y k = --- ( x h ) and y k = --- ( x h ) .
a a
To draw sketches of hyperbolic relations we simply:
1. Rearrange the equation into the appropriate general form and determine the values
of a and b.
2. Write down the coordinates of the centre.
3. State the coordinates of the vertices.
4. Write down the equations of the asymptotes.
5. Sketch a hyperbolic graph which fits the above information.
WORKED Example 12
x2 y2
Sketch the graph of the hyperbola with equation ----- ------ = 1 .
9 25
THINK WRITE
1 The equation is in the correct form, so read h = 0, k = 0 so there are no translations.
off the values of a and b and h and k. a2 = 9 b2 = 25
a=3 b=5
2 Write down the coordinates of the centre. The centre is at (0, 0).
3 Write down the coordinates of the vertices. The vertices are (3, 0) and (3, 0).
THINK WRITE
5 5
4 Write down the equations of the asymptotes. The asymptotes are y = --- x and y = --- x .
3 3
5 Draw the asymptotes, plot the vertices and y
y = 53 x y = 53 x
centre, and then sketch the hyperbola. 10
5 (0, 0)
(3, 0) (3, 0)
8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8x
5
10 x2

y2
=1
9 25
WORKED Example 13 ( x 3 )2 ( y 2 )2
Sketch the graph of the hyperbola with the equation ------------------- ------------------- = 1 .
16 9
THINK WRITE
1 The equation is in the correct form, so read off h = 3, k = 2
the values of a and b and h and k. a2 = 16 b2 = 9
a=4 b=3
2 Write down the coordinates of the centre. The centre is (3, 2).
3 Write down the coordinates of the vertices. The vertices are (4 + 3, 2) and (4 + 3, 2) or
(1, 2) and (7, 2).
4 Write down the equations of the asymptotes. The asymptotes:
3 3
y 2 = --- ( x 3 ) y 2 = --- ( x 3 )
4 4
4 ( y 2 ) = 3 ( x 3 ) 4 ( y 2 ) = 3 ( x 3 )
4y 8 = 3x + 9 4y 8 = 3x 9
4y + 3x = 17 4y 3x = 1
5 For each asymptote find the x- and For 4y + 3x = 17 For 4y 3x = 1
y-intercepts. x = 0, 4y = 17 x = 0, 4y = 1
y = -----
17
4
- y = -----
4
1
-
(0, 17
------ )
4
(0, -----
4
1
-)
y = 0, 3x = 17 y = 0, 3x = 1
6 The x- and y-intercepts for 4y 3x = 1 are x = 17 ------
3
x= 1
---
3
too close to each other so use one of these 17
( ------ , 0) ( 1--3- , 0)
points, say ( 1--3- , 0), and the centre to sketch this 3 y
line as both asymptotes intersect here. 10 4y 3x = 1
7 Plot the vertices and centre and then sketch the 5
(3, 2)
hyperbola. (1, 2) (7, 2)
10 5 0 5 10 15 x
5 4y + 3x = 17
10 (x 3)2
(y
2) 2
=1
16 9
WORKED Example 14
Sketch the graph of the hyperbola with equation 6x2 9(y 2)2 = 54.
THINK WRITE
1 Rearrange the equation by dividing both 6x2 9(y 2)2 = 54
sides by 54 to make the RHS = 1. 6x 2 9 ( y 2 ) 2 54
-------- ---------------------- = ------
54 54 54
2 Simplify by cancelling. x2 ( y 2 )2
----- ------------------- = 1
9 6
3 Read off the values of h and k h = 0, k = 2, translation of 2 units up
Work out values of a and b. a2 = 9 b2 = 6
a=3 b = 6 as a, b > 0
4 Write down the coordinates of the centre. The centre is at (0, 2).
5 Write down the coordinates of the The vertices are:
vertices. (3 + 0, 2) and (3 + 0, 2)
or (3, 2) and (3, 2)
6 Write down the equations of the The asymptotes are:
asymptotes. 6 6
y 2 = ------- ( x 0 ) and y 2 = ------- x
3 3
3( y 2) = 6 x 3( y 2) = 6x
3y 6 = 6x 3y 6 = 6x
3y + 6x = 6 3y 6x = 6
7 Write down the x- and y-intercepts for Intercepts for 3y + 6 x = 6 are ( 6 , 0) and (0, 2).
the asymptotes.
Intercepts for 3y 6 x = 6 are ( 6 , 0) and
(0, 2).
8 Draw the asymptotes, plot the vertices y
and centre, and then sketch the 3y 6 x = 6
10
hyperbola. (0, 2)
5
(3, 2) (3, 2)
10 0 10 x
5 5
5
3y + 6 x = 6
10
6x2 9(y 2)2 = 54
remember
remember
( x h )2 ( y k )2
For a hyperbola with equation ------------------
- ------------------ = 1:
a2 b2
1. The vertices are (a + h, k), (a + h, k).
2. The centre is at (h, k).
b b
3. The asymptotes are at y k = --- ( x h ) and y k = --- ( x h ).
a a
1D Graphs of hyperbolas
1 multiple choice
For each of the equations below, choose the correct alternative for the reads
L Sp he hca
d
et
Mat
EXCE
equations of the asymptotes and vertices.
x2 y2
a ------ ------ = 1 Graphs of hyperbolas
81 64
A y = 8--9- x, y = 8--9- x, (9, 0), (9, 0) B y = 9--8- x, y = 9--8- x, (9, 0), (9, 0)
C y = 8--9- x, y = 8--9- x, (8, 0), (8, 0) D y = 9--8- x, y = 9--8- x, (8, 0), (8, 0)
E y = 8--9- x, y = 8--9- x, (9, 8), (9, 8)
x2 ( y 3 )2
b ------ ------------------- = 1
36 144
A 2y = x + 6, 2y = 6 x, (6, 3), (6, 3) B y = 2x + 3, y = 3 2x (6, 3), (6, 3)
C y = 2x + 3, y = 3 2x (0, 3), (0, 3) D 2y = x + 6, 2y = 6 x, (12, 3), (12, 3)
E y = 2x + 3, y = 3 2x (12, 3), (12, 3)
( x + 3 )2 y2
c ------------------- ----- = 1
9 4
A 2y = 3x 9, 2y = 9 3x, (6, 0), (0, 0)
B 3y + 2x 6 = 0, 3y 2x + 6 = 0, (5, 0), (1, 0)
C 2y = 3x 9, 2y = 9 3x, (5, 0), (1, 0)
D 2y = 3x 9, 2y = 9 3x, (3, 3), (3, 3)
E 3y + 2x 6 = 0, 3y 2x + 6 = 0, (6, 0), (0, 0)
( x 2 )2 ( y 1 )2
d ------------------- ------------------- = 1
16 4
A 2y = x, 2y = 4 x, (0, 1), (4, 1) B y = 2x 3, y = 5 2x (2, 1), (6, 1)
C 2y = x, 2y = 4 x (2, 1), (6, 1) D y = 2x 3, y = 5 2x, (0, 1), (4, 1)
E 2y = x, 2y = 4 x (2, 1), (2, 3)
2 Sketch the graphs of the hyperbolas with the following equations:
WORKED x2 y2 x2 y2
Example a ----- ----- = 1 b ----- ----- = 1
12 9 4 4 9
x2 y2 x2 y2
c ----- ----- = 1 d ----- ------ = 1
9 9 9 16
x2 y2 x2 y2
e ----- ----- = 1 f ------ ----- = 1
4 4 16 4
( x 2 )2 ( y 3 )2 ( x 2 )2 ( y 3 )2
WORKED g ------------------- ------------------- = 1 h ------------------- ------------------- = 1
Example 9 4 25 4
13
( x 2 )2 ( y 2 )2 x2 ( y 1 )2
i ------------------- ------------------- = 1 j ----- ------------------- = 1
9 25 9 25
( x 3 )2 ( y 3 )2 ( x 1 )2 ( y + 1 )2
k ------------------- ------------------- = 1 l ------------------- ------------------- = 1
25 4 25 9
3 multiple choice
The rule representing the graph shown at y
right is: 3
y2 x2
A x 2 + ----- = 1 B ----- y 2 = 1 2
4 2
1
( x + 2 )2 x2
C ------------------- y 2 = 1 D ----- y 2 = 1 x
4 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3
1
x2
E ----- + y 2 = 1
4 2
3
4 multiple choice
( x 5 )2 ( y 3 )2
The graph which best represents the relation ------------------- ------------------- = 1 is:
9 4
A y B y
2
6
(5, 3)
0
10 8 6 4 2 x
4
(2, 3) (8, 3) 2
2 (8, 3) (2, 3)
(5, 3) 4
0 2 4 6 8 10 x 6
2
8
C y D y
6
6
(0, 5) (6, 5) 4
4 (3, 5) (3, 3) (7, 3)
2 (5, 3)
2
0 2 4 6 8 10 x
0 2 4 6 8 10 x
2
2
E y
6
4
2
(3, 0) (3, 0)
6 4 2 0 2 4 6 x
2
4
WORKED 5 Sketch the graph of the hyperbola with the equation:

Example
14 a 25x2 16y2 = 400 b 9x2 16y2 = 144
c x2 y2 = 25 d 9x2 25y2 = 225
SHE
ET 1.1 e 16(x 2) 9(y + 5) = 144
2 2
f 25(x 3)2 9(y + 2)2 = 225
Work
g 36(x 4)2 4(y 2)2 = 144 h 9x2 16(y + 1)2 = 144

i 9(x + 3)2 7y2 = 63 j 4(x 4)2 9(y 3)2 = 36

Partial fractions
Adding fractions to obtain a single fraction is a familiar and basic process. For example,
1
---
3
+ 1
---
4
= 4
------
12
+ 3
------
12
= 7
------
12
or
1 2 1( x 1) + 2( x + 2)
------------ + ----------- = ----------------------------------------------
x+2 x1 ( x + 2)( x 1)
x 1 + 2x + 4
= ---------------------------------
x2 + x 2
3x + 3
= ----------------------
-
x +x2
2
The reverse of this process is to split a fraction into the sum of simpler fractions.
These simpler fractions are referred to as partial fractions. For example, using the
above examples:
1. 7
------
12
= 1
---
3
+ 1
---
4
Fractions Partial fractions
3x + 3 1 2
2. - = ------------ + -----------
----------------------
x2 + x 2 x+2 x1
Splitting a rational expression into partial fractions is useful when antidifferentiating
rational expressions, as we will see in chapter 6. It is also useful for sketching graphs of
some rational expressions, as will be seen in the next section.
For now, we concentrate on the methods for splitting a fraction with a quadratic
denominator into partial fractions.
Equating polynomials
We regularly use the symbol , which means is identically equal to, to indicate that
two expressions are equal for all allowable values of x.
Two polynomials of degree n are equal if they coincide for more than n values of x.
For example, suppose a(x + 2) + b(x 3) 5x 5.
If values of a and b are found so that the polynomials (degree 1) on each side of this
identity are equal for two substituted values of x, then they must be equal for all values of x.
The most convenient values of x to substitute into the above identity are x = 2 and
x = 3 as they allow a and b to be solved by direct substitution.
This is demonstrated in the following worked example.
WORKED Example 15
Determine the values of a and b in the following identities:
a a(x + 4) + b(x 3) x + 11 b a(3x 4) + b 12x 19.
THINK WRITE
a 1 Substitute x = 4 to eliminate a from a a(x + 4) + b(x 3) x + 11
the identity. Let x = 4
7b = 4 + 11
Continued over page
7b = 7
THINK WRITE
2 Solve for b. b = 1
3 Substitute x = 3 to eliminate b from Let x = 3.
the identity. 7a = 3 + 11
7a = 14
4 Solve for a. a=2
5 State the solution. The solution is a = 2 and b = 1.
b 1 Substitute x = 4
--- to eliminate a from b a(3x 4) + b 12x 19
3
the identity. Let x = 4--3- .
2 Solve for b. b = 12( 4--3- ) 19

= 16 19
b = 3
3 Substitute b = 3 and x = 0, say (or any Let x = 0.
4a 3 = 19
value of x other than 4--3- ), since b cannot
be eliminated from the identity.
4 Solve for a. 4a = 16
a=4
5 State the solution. The solution is a = 4 and b = 3.
Creating partial fractions

P( x)
The general procedure for splitting a rational expression ------------ , where Q(x) is a
Q( x)
quadratic expression, into partial fractions is outlined in the steps below.
Step 1. If the degree of P(x) is greater than or equal to the degree of Q(x) then divide
Q(x) into P(x) and split the rational part into partial fractions using the
following steps.
Step 2. Factorise the denominator Q(x).
P( x) a b
Step 3. Equate ------------ ----------- + ----------- where R(x) and S(x) are factors of Q(x) and
Q( x) R( x) S( x)
are usually linear.
Step 4. Express the right-hand side of the identity in the same form as the left-hand
side, with the same denominators:
P ( x ) aS ( x ) + bR ( x )
------------ -----------------------------------
Q( x) Q( x)
Step 5. Equate the numerators: P(x) aS(x) + bR(x).
Step 6. Solve for a and b by substitution.
Step 7. Substitute a and b into the partial fractions.
Notes
1. If Q(x) is a perfect square then steps 3 to 5 will be similar to but not exactly like
those prescribed above. This will be demonstrated later in case 2.
2. The solution can be quite easily checked by adding the partial fractions which
should equal the original rational expression.

Case 1: Factorised denominator
If f (x), g(x) and h(x) are linear functions, then:
f ( x) a b
---------------------- ----------- + -----------
g ( x )h ( x ) g ( x ) h ( x )
WORKED Example 16
x5
Express ---------------------------------- as partial fractions.
( x + 3)( x 1)
THINK WRITE
a b x5 a b
1 Equate the rational expression to ------------ + ----------- . ---------------------------------- ------------ + -----------
x+3 x1 ( x + 3)( x 1) x + 3 x 1
2 Express the right-hand side of the identity into the a( x 1) + b( x + 3)
----------------------------------------------
same form as the left-hand side. ( x + 3)( x 1)
3 Equate the numerators. x 5 a(x 1) + b(x + 3)
4 Substitute x = 1 to eliminate a. Let x = 1.
5 Solve for b. 4 = 4b
b = 1
6 Substitute x = 3 to eliminate b. Let x = 3.
8 = 4a
7 Solve for a. a=2
8 Express the original rational expression as partial x5 2 1
---------------------------------- = ------------ + -----------
fractions. ( x + 3)( x 1) x + 3 x 1
Case 2: Perfect square denominator

If f (x) and g(x) are linear, then:
f ( x) a b
------------------ ----------- + ------------------
[ g( x ) ]2 g( x ) [ g( x ) ]2
WORKED Example 17
2x 3
Write the rational expression ----------------------2 as partial fractions.
(4 x 7)
THINK WRITE
2x 3 a b
1 Equate the rational expression to ---------------------- --------------- + ----------------------
a b ( 4x 7 ) 2 4x 7 ( 4x 7 ) 2
-------------------- + ---------------------2- .
( 4x 7 ) ( 4x 7 )
Express the right-hand side of the identity a ( 4x 7 ) + b

2 -------------------------------
-
into the same form as the left-hand side. ( 4x 7 ) 2
3 Equate the numerators. 2x 3 a(4x 7) + b
4 Substitute x = 7
---
4
to eliminate a. Let x = 7--4- .
2 7--4- 3 = b
5 Solve for b. b= 1
---
2
Continued over page
THINK WRITE
6 Substitute another value for x, say x = 0, and Let x = 0.
b = 1--2- . 3 = 7a + 1
---
2
7 Solve for a. 7a = 7--2-
a= 1
---
2
8 Express the rational expression as partial 1
---
1
---
2x 3 2 2
fractions. - + ---------------------
---------------------2- = -------------- -
( 4x 7 ) 4x 7 ( 4x 7 ) 2
1 1
or = ----------------------- + -------------------------2
2 ( 4x 7 ) 2 ( 4x 7 )
Case 3: Denominator is not factorised

If the denominator of a rational expression is not factorised, then factorise it first before
splitting it into partial fractions.
WORKED Example 18
x 15
By first factorising the denominator, express ------------------- as partial fractions.
x2 9
THINK WRITE
1 The denominator factorises as a difference x 15 x 15

- = ----------------------------------
------------------
of perfect squares. x2 9 ( x + 3)( x 3)
a b a b
2 Equate the rational expression to ------------ + ----------- . ------------ + -----------
x+3 x3 x+3 x3
3 Express the right-hand side of the identity into a( x 3) + b( x + 3)

---------------------------------------------
-
the same form as the left. x2 9
4 Equate the numerators. x 15 a(x 3)(x + 3)
3 15 = 6b
6 Solve for b. 6b = 18
b = 3
3 15 = 6a
a=2
9 Express the rational expression as partial x 15 2 3
------------------
- = ------------ -----------
fractions. 2
x 9 x + 3 x 3

Case 4: The degree of the numerator the degree of
the denominator
If the degree of the numerator of a rational expression is greater than or equal to the
degree of the denominator, then divide the denominator into the numerator first before
splitting the fractional part into partial fractions.
WORKED Example 19
Express each of the following as partial fractions:
5 x 2 + 10 x 52 2 x3 5 x2 + 3 x + 7
a ------------------------------------- b ---------------------------------------------
-
( x 2)( x + 4) x2 x 2
THINK WRITE
a 1 The degrees of the numerator and a Degrees are both 2.
denominator are both 2.
2 Expand the denominator so that it can be 5x 2 + 10x 52 5x 2 + 10x 52
------------------------------------ = -----------------------------------
-
divided into the numerator. ( x 2)( x + 4) x 2 + 2x 8
3 Use long division to divide. 5
x2 + 2x 8 5x2 + 10x 52
5x2 + 10x 40
12
5x 2 + 10x 52 12
4 Express the original rational expression in ------------------------------------ = 5 + ----------------------------------
( x 2)( x + 4) ( x 2)( x + 4)
terms of the quotient and remainder.
a b 12 a b
5 Equate the fractional part to ----------- + ------------ . ---------------------------------- ----------- + ------------
x2 x+4 ( x 2)( x + 4) x 2 x + 4
a( x + 4) + b( x 2)
6 Express the right-hand side of the identity in ----------------------------------------------
( x 2)( x + 4)
the same form as the left-hand side.
7 Equate the numerators. 12 a(x + 4) + b(x 2)
12 = 6b
9 Solve for b. b=2
12 = 6a
11 Solve for a. a = 2
12 2 2
12 Express the fraction as partial fractions. So ---------------------------------- = ----------- + ------------
( x 2)( x + 4) x 2 x + 4
13 Rewrite the original expression as partial 5x 2 + 10x 52 2 2
------------------------------------ = 5 ----------- + ------------
fractions. ( x 2)( x + 4) x2 x+4
b 1 The degree of the numerator (3) is greater b 2x 3
than the degree of the denominator (2). x2 x 2 2x3 5x2 + 3x + 7
2 Use long division to divide the 2x3 2x2 4x
denominator into the numerator. 3x2 + 7x + 7
3x2 + 3x + 6
4x + 1
Continued over page
THINK WRITE
2x 3 5x 2 + 3x + 7 4x + 1
3 Express the original rational expression - = 2x 3 + ----------------------
-------------------------------------------- -
in terms of the quotient and remainder. x2 x 2 x2 x 2
4x + 1 4x + 1
4 Factorise the denominator of the ----------------------
- = ----------------------------------
fraction part. x x 2 ( x + 1)( x 2)
2
a b
5 Equate the fractional part to ------------ + -----------
x+1 x2
a b
------------ + ----------- .
x+1 x2
a( x 2) + b( x + 1)
6 Express the right-hand side of the ----------------------------------------------
( x + 1)( x 2)
identity in the same form as the left-hand
side.
7 Equate the numerators. 4x + 1 a(x 2) + b(x + 1)
8 + 1 = 3b
9 Solve for b. 3b = 9
b=3
4 + 1 = 3a
a=1
4x + 1 1 3
12 Express the fraction as partial fractions. So ---------------------------------- = ------------ + -----------
( x + 1)( x 2) x + 1 x 2
13 Rewrite the original expression as 2x 3 5x 2 + 3x + 7 1 3
partial fractions. - = 2x 3 + ------------ + -----------
--------------------------------------------
x2 x 2 x+1 x2
remember
remember
1. If f (x), g(x) and h(x) are linear functions, then:
f ( x) a b
(a) ---------------------- ----------- + -----------
g ( x )h ( x ) g ( x ) h ( x )
f ( x) a b
(b) -----------------2- ----------- + -----------------2- .
[g( x)] g( x) [g( x)]
2. If the denominator of a rational expression is not factorised, then factorise it

first before splitting it into partial fractions.
3. If the degree of the numerator of a rational expression is greater than or equal
to the degree of the denominator, then divide the denominator into the
numerator first before splitting the fractional part into partial fractions.
1E Partial fractions
WORKED 1 Evaluate the values of a and b in the following identities.

Example
15 a a(x 2) + b(x + 1) 3x b a(x + 3) + b(x 3) x + 9
c a(x + 2) + b 3x + 10 d a(x 4) + b(2x 1) 4x + 5
e a(3x + 5) + b(4x 3) 29 f a(2x + 3) + b(5 x) 4 6x
g a(2 3x) + b(x + 7) 48 3x h a(x + 2) + b(3x + 1) 9x 8
WORKED 2 Express the following as partial fractions. Math
Example
3x + 5 7x + 3 5x + 4
cad
16 a ---------------------------------- b ---------------------------------- c ----------------------------------
( x + 2)( x + 1) ( x 3)( x + 3) ( x 2)( x + 5) Partial
fractions
7x 14 2x 14 x 22
d ------------------------------------- e ---------------------------------- f -------------------------------------
( 2x 1 ) ( x 4 ) ( x + 1)( x 3) ( x 4 ) ( 2x + 5 )
x + 19 9 12x 2x + 1
g ------------------------------------- h ---------------------------------------- i ----------------------------------------
( 3x + 2 ) ( 3 x ) ( 2x + 3 ) ( 6 5x ) ( 3x + 7 ) ( 3x 4 )
3x + 2
j ----------------------------------------
( 2x 1 ) ( 4x + 5 )
3 multiple choice
The respective values of a and b in the identity ax + b(x 5) 3x + 10 are:
A 5, 2 B 5, 2 C 2, 5 D 3, 0 E 1, 2
4 multiple choice
x + 15 a b
The respective values of a and b in the identity ---------------------------------- ------------ + ----------- are:
( x + 3)( x 1) x + 3 x 1
A 2, 1 B 2, 2 C 3, 1 D 4, 3 E 3, 4
WORKED 5 Write each of the following rational expressions as partial fractions.
Example
17 2x + 5 4x 9 3x 7 10x 9
a ------------------2- b ------------------2- c ------------------2- d ---------------------2-
( x + 1) ( x 2) ( x + 3) ( 2x 1 )
2x 5 23 12x x+1 5x + 3
e ------------------2- f ---------------------2- g ----------------------2 h ----------------------2
(4 x) ( 5 2x ) ( 3x + 2 ) ( 2x + 1 )
WORKED 6 By first factorising the denominator, express each of the following functions as partial
Example
18
fractions.
3x 4 x 17 7x 10
a ----------------------
- b -------------------------- c --------------------------
x2 x 6 x 2 + 6x 7 x 2 2x 8
x 25 3x 19 40 x
d ------------------
- e ----------------------------- f --------------------------2
x 2 25 2x 2 5x 3 8 + 2x x
1 8x 3x + 4 9 8x
g -----------------------------2- h --------------------------
- i -----------------------------
-
3 + 7x 6x x + 4x + 4
2 4x 4x + 1
2
WORKED 7 Express each of the following functions as partial fractions.

Example
19 2x 2 + 6x 5 3x 2 + 4x 11 4x 3 + 4x 2 18x 30
a ---------------------------------- b ---------------------------------- c --------------------------------------------------
( x + 2)( x 1) ( x 3)( x + 4) ( x 2 ) ( 2x + 5 )
4x 2 + x 54 4x 3 + 28x 2 37x + 10 36x 3 + 39x 2 5x 17

d ----------------------------- e ---------------------------------------------------------
- f -----------------------------------------------------
x 2 x 12 3 + 8x 4x 2 12x 2 + 5x 3
12x 2 28x 85 4x 3 24x 2 + 39x 2
g -------------------------------------- h --------------------------------------------------
2x 2 5x 25 x 2 6x + 9
8 multiple choice
x 3 x 2 17x + 51
Consider the rational expression -------------------------------------------
-.
x 2 + 3x 10
a After long division the expression simplifies to:
3x + 7 4x 5
A x + 2 + ----------------------------- B x 2 + -----------------------------
x + 3x 10
2 x + 3x 10
2
2x + 9 5x + 11
C x + 4 + ----------------------------- D x 4 + -----------------------------
x + 3x 10
2 x + 3x 10
2
6x + 7
E x 3 + -----------------------------
x 2 + 3x 10
b When expressed as a partial fraction, the expression simplifies to:
2 3 3 5
A x 4 + ------------ + ----------- B x 3 + ----------- + ------------
x+5 x2 x5 x+2
6 1 1 4
C x + 4 + ------------ ----------- D x 2 + --------------- + -----------
x+5 x2 x + 10 x 1
3 2
E x 4 + ------------ + -----------
x+5 x2
hca
d To easily find the partial fractions for an expression or to check your answers, the
Mat
Mathcad file Partial fractions found on the Maths Quest CD-ROM can be used.
Partial The screen shows two examples. Note that the second example applies to cases with
fractions repeated factors in the denominator.
SM 01 p-38

Sketch graphs using partial fractions
In this section we investigate how partial fractions can be used to assist in the graphing
of rational functions. Emphasis is placed on locating asymptotes and the addition-of-
ordinates method of graphing.
Turning points and axis intercepts are not as important here as they usually are in
graphing, as we are more concerned with the basic shape of the graphs.
Addition of ordinates
The graph of a function that involves the addition of two (or more) simpler, familiar
functions can be obtained by graphing the two simpler functions on the same set of
axes and then adding the ordinates (y-values).
1
For example, consider the graph of the function y = x + ---
x
1 y
1. Sketch the graphs of y1 = x and y2 = --- ,
x 3 y1 = x
with broken lines, on the same set of 2
axes.
1 (1, 1)
2 x y = 1
2. For several values of x add the y values, 3 2 1
y1 and y2, to obtain y. Some examples 0 1 2 3 x
are: (1, 1) 1
(a) When x = 1, y1 = 1 and y2 = 1, so 2
y = 1 + 1 = 2, giving the point 3
(1, 2).
(b) When x = 1, y1 = 1 and y2 = 1, so y = 1 1 = 2, giving the point (1, 2).
(c) When x = 2, y1 = 2 and y2 = 1--2- , so y = 2 + 1
---
2
= 2 1--2- , giving the point (2, 2 1--2- ).
3. Repeat until the shape of the function is y

deduced.
3 y1 = x
(1, 2)
The graph of the function y = f (x) + g(x) 2
can be obtained by graphing y1 = f (x) 1 (1, 1)
y2 = 1x
and y2 = g(x) on the same set of axes and 3 2 1
0 1 2 3 x
then adding the ordinates.
(1, 1) 1
2
(1, 2)
3
y = x + 1x
a
Graphs of the type y = --------------- + g ( x )
bx + c
a
As we saw earlier in this chapter, graphs of the form y = --------------- + g ( x ) have asymp-
bx + c
c
totes x = --- and y = g ( x ) .
b
a
The graph of the function y = --------------- + g ( x ) can be obtained by:
bx + c
a
1. sketching the graphs of y 1 = --------------- and y2 = g(x) (an asymptote) on the same
bx + c
axes
2. adding the two by the addition-of-ordinates method.
Notes
1. If g(x) = d, a constant, then the graph of y
a, b, c, d > 0
a x = c
y = --------------- + d can be sketched by b
bx + c
a
y=
bx + c
+d
recognising that it is a hyperbola.
Assuming that a, b, c and d are greater d y=d
than 0, the sketch is:
c 0 x
2. Wherever possible, verify graphs using a b
graphics calculator.
WORKED Example 20
Sketch the graphs of each of the following:
1 12 x + 11
a y = ------------ b y = --------------------------
x+3 4x 3
THINK WRITE
a The graph is a hyperbola with a y
asymptotes x = 3 and y = 0 (x-axis).
1
y =
x+3
3 0 x
b 1 Divide the denominator into the b

3
numerator. 4x 3 12x + 11
12x + 9
2
2 Express the rational function as 12x + 11 2
partial fractions. y = -------------------------- 3 + ---------------
4x 3 4x 3
3 The graph is a hyperbola with y
asymptotes x = 3--4- and y = 3. x = 34
0 3 x
4
3
y = 3

WORKED Example 21
x2 5 x + 6
Sketch the graph of the function y = --------------------------- .
x4
THINK WRITE
1 Divide the denominator into the x1
numerator. x 4 x2 5x + 6
x2 4x
x+6
x+4
2
2 Express the rational function as partial x 2 5x + 6 2
fractions. y = -------------------------- x 1 + -----------
x4 x4
3 Sketch the graphs of y1 = x 1 y
y1 = x 1
2
(asymptote) and y2 = ----------- on the same
x4 2
y2 = x
4
axes.
0
1 2 3 4 x
1
x=4
4 Add the two graphs by addition of y
ordinates to obtain the graph of
x 2 5x + 6 y1 = x 1
y = -------------------------- .
x4 2
y2 =
x4
0
1 2 3 4 x
1 2
y = x 1 +
x4
x=4
a b
Graphs of the type y = ------------ + ----------- + c
f ( x) g( x)
a b
Graphs of the form y = ----------- + ----------- + c , where a, b and c R and f (x) and g(x) are
f ( x) g( x)
linear expressions, have two vertical asymptotes and the line y = c behaves as a hori-
a b
zontal asymptote everywhere except for the point where ----------- + ----------- = 0 .
f ( x) g( x)
a b
The graph of y = ------------ + ----------- + c is obtained by:
f ( x) g( x)
a b
1. sketching the graphs of y 1 = ------------ and y 2 = ----------- + c on the same axes
f ( x) g( x)
a b
2. solving ------------ + ----------- = 0 to find where y = c
f ( x) g( x)
3. adding the two graphs by the addition-of-ordinates method.
WORKED Example 22
x 11
Sketch the graph of the function y = --------------------------
2
- by first expressing it as partial fractions.
x 4x 5
State the equations of all vertical asymptotes.
THINK WRITE
1 Factorise the denominator of the rational x 11 x 11
- ----------------------------------
-------------------------
expression. x 2 4x 5 ( x + 1 ) ( x 5 )
2 Express the rational expression as partial a b
------------ + -----------
a b x + 1 x 5
fractions in the form ------------ + ----------- .
x+1 x5 a( x 5) + b( x + 1)
----------------------------------------------
( x + 1)( x 5)
x 11 a(x 5) + b(x + 1)
Let x = 5.
6 = 6b
b = 1
Let x = 1.
12 = 6a
a=2
2 1 2 1
So y = ------------ + ----------- or ------------ -----------
x+1 x5 x+1 x5
2 y
3 Sketch the graphs of y 1 = ------------ and
x+1
1
y 2 = ----------- on the same axis.
x5 y2 = x 2
+1
1 0 5 x
1
y1 =
x5
2 1 When y = 0,
4 Solve the equation ------------ ----------- = 0 to 2 1
x+1 x5 ------------ ----------- = 0
determine where the horizontal asymptote, x+1 x5
y = 0, is crossed. 2(x 5) 1(x + 1) = 0
2x 10 x 1 = 0
x 11 = 0
x = 11
So horizontal asymptote is crossed at (11, 0).
5 Add the two graphs by the addition-of- y
ordinates method to obtain the graph of the
rational function. 2
y2 =
x+1
1 0 5 x
(11, 0)
2 1 1
y =
x+1

x5 y1 =
x5
6 State the equations of the vertical asymptotes. Vertical asymptotes are x = 1 and x = 5.

WORKED Example 23
3 x 2 + 2 x 26
Sketch the graph of the function f ( x ) = ---------------------------------
- , clearly indicating all asymptotes.
x2 + x 6
THINK WRITE
1 Divide the denominator of the rational 3
expression into the numerator. x2 + x 6 3x2 + 2x 26
3x2 + 3x 18
x8
2 Express f (x) in terms of the quotient and x8
f ( x ) = 3 + ---------------------- -
remainder. x2 + x 6
x8
= 3 + ----------------------------------
( x + 3)( x 2)
3 Express the fraction as partial fractions. x8 a b
---------------------------------- ------------ + -----------
( x + 3)( x 2) x + 3 x 2
a( x 2) + b( x + 3)
--------------------------------------------------
( x + 3)( x 2)
x 8 a(x 2) + b(x + 3)
Let x = 2.
10 = 5b
b = 2
Let x = 3.
5 = 5a
a=1
1 2
4 Rewrite f (x) in partial fraction form. So f ( x ) = ------------ ----------- + 3
x+3 x2
5 State the equations of the vertical asymptotes. Vertical asymptotes are x = 3 and x = 2.
1 y
6 Sketch the graphs y 1 = ------------ and
x+3
y2 = x 2 + 3 2

2
y 2 = ----------- + 3 on the same axis. 3
x2
3 0 2 x
1
y1 = x
+3
1 2 When y = 3,
7 Solve ------------ ----------- = 0 to find where the
x+3 x2 1 2
------------ ----------- = 0
horizontal asymptote, y = 3, is crossed. x+3 x2
1(x 2) 2(x + 3) = 0
x 2 2x 6 = 0
x8=0
x = 8
So horizontal asymptote is crossed at (8, 3).
Continued over page
THINK WRITE
8 Add the two graphs by the addition-of- y
ordinates method to obtain the graph 2
y2 = +3
x2
of f (x).
3
(8, 3)
8 3 0 2 x
1 2
y =
x+3

x2 + 3
1
y1 =
x+3
You can verify the graphs obtained by using a graphics calculator. The following screens show the
equation entered, the WINDOW settings used and the graph produced for worked example 23.
SM 01 p-44a SM 01 p-44b
remember
remember
a
1. The graph of y = --------------- + g ( x ) can be obtained by:
bx + c
a
(a) sketching the graphs of y 1 = --------------- and y 2 = g ( x ) (an asymptote) on the
bx + c
same axes
(b) adding the two by the addition-of-ordinates method.
a b
2. The graph of y = ----------- + ----------- + c is obtained by:
f ( x) g( x)
a b
(a) sketching the graphs of y 1 = ----------- and y 2 = ----------- + c on the same axes
f ( x) g( x)
(b) adding the two graphs by the addition-of-ordinates method.

Sketch graphs using partial
1F fractions
Use a graphics calculator wherever possible to verify the graphs reads d
L Sp he hca
obtained in the following exercise.
et
Mat
EXCE
1 Sketch the graphs of each of the following functions:
WORKED 1 3 2 Single function grapher
Example a y = ----------- b y = ------------ c y = -----------
20a x2 x+4 x1
3x 1 4x + 5 4x + 14
WORKED d y = --------------- e y = --------------- f y = -----------------------
Example 3x 2 2x + 1 x3
20b 2x 7
g y = -------------------
x+3
WORKED 2 Sketch the graph of the functions:

Example
21 x2 x + 1 2x 2 + 4x + 3 x 2 + 4x + 5
a y = ----------------------- b y = ------------------------------ c y = ---------------------------
x1 x+2 x+1
x 2 7x + 11 3x 2 4x 3
d y = ----------------------------- e y = -----------------------------
x3 x2
WORKED 3 Sketch the graph of each of the following functions by first expressing them as partial
Example
22
fractions. State the equations of all vertical asymptotes in each case.
2x + 2 3 5x 2
a y = ---------------------------------- b y = ---------------------------------- c y = --------------
-
( x 2)( x + 4) ( x + 2)( x 1) x2 4
3x 5 x+2
d y = -------------------------- e y = -----------------------------
-
2
x 2x 3 2x + 7x + 3
2
4 multiple choice Math
cad
3x + 4
Consider the function f ( x ) = --------------------------
-. Partial
x + 3x + 2
2 fractions
a As a partial fraction, f (x) is equal to:
1 2 1 4 2 1
A ------------ + ------------ B ------------ + ------------ C ------------ + ------------
x+2 x+1 x+2 x+1 x+2 x+1
2 1 1 2
D ----------- + ----------- E ----------- ------------
x2 x1 2x x+1
b The graph which best represents f (x) is:
A y B y C y
43
0
1 4 2 x 2 1 0 x 2 1 0 x
3
D y E y
43
2 1 0 x 0 1 2 x
5 multiple choice
2x 3 2x 2 11x + 7
The graph of the function f ( x ) = ----------------------------------------------- has asymptotes with equations:
x 2 x 12
A x = 3, x = 4, y = 2x B x = 6, x = 2, y = 2x C x = 3 and x = 4
D x = 2 and x = 3 E x = 3, x = 2, y = x + 2
6 multiple choice
x 3 2x 2 3x + 9
If g ( x ) = ----------------------------------------
- then its graph has asymptotes described by the equations:
x2 4
A x = 2, x = 2, y = x B x = 4, x = 1 C x = 4, x = 1 and y = x 2
D x = 2 and x = 2 E x = 2 and y = x + 2
WORKED 7 Sketch the graph of each of the following, clearly indicating all asymptotes.
Example
23 2x 2 + 2x 2 x2 + 5 3x 2 + 6x + 14
a f ( x ) = -----------------------------
2
- b f ( x ) = ----------------------
2
- c g ( x ) = -------------------------------------
x 1 x x2 x2 x 6
30x 2 10 2x 2 + 7x 11
d g ( x ) = -------------------------
- e f ( x ) = ------------------------------------
-
6x 2 x 2 x 2 4x + 3
Further graphing and partial fractions

a b a b
Graphs of the type y = f ( x ) + ----------- + -----------------2- and y = f ( x ) + ----------- + ----------- ,
g( x) [g( x)] g( x) h( x)
where f (x), g(x) and h(x) are linear expressions, will now be explored.
Sketch the graph for each of the following. For question 1 and 2, find the turning
points.
2x + 3 x1
1 y = --------------------------
- 2 y = -----------------------------
x 2 + 2x + 1 x 2 8x + 16
x 3 2x 2 10x 1 2x 3 2x 2 13x + 8
3 y = -------------------------------------------
- 4 y = -----------------------------------------------
x 2 2x 15 x2 x 6
x 3 + 6x 2 + 8x 5 2x 3 + 19x 2 + 41x 18
5 y = ----------------------------------------
- 6 y = -----------------------------------------------------
-
x 2 + 3x 4 x 2 + 10x + 25
summary
Sketch graphs of y = axm + bxn + c where m = 1 or 2 and n = 1 or 2
Step 1. Break the given function into 2 separate simpler functions.
Step 2. Sketch the graph of each of the separate functions created, on the one set of
axes.
Step 3. Determine the asymptotes of the original function and pencil in how the graph
of the function approaches these asymptotes. Consider:
1. large positive values for x
2. large negative values for x
3. values very close to and either side of the vertical asymptote.
Step 4. Work out the x-intercept(s), y-intercept and turning point for the given
function to give greater accuracy.
Reciprocal graphs
1
To sketch the graph of y = ----------- from the graph of y = f (x):
f ( x)
1. find the vertical asymptote at the x-intercepts of f (x)
2. the horizontal asymptote is the x-axis
3. find the common points when f (x) = 1.
The graphs are in the same quadrant:
1
1. f (x) < 0, ----------- < 0
f ( x)
1
2. f (x) > 0, ----------- > 0.
f ( x)
1
Note: If y = ----------- , then:
f ( x)
1. f (x) = 1, y = 1 and f (x) = 1, y = 1
2. also, f (x) < 0, y > 0 and f (x) > 0, y < 0.
Graphs of ellipses
( x h )2 ( y k )2
- + ------------------
For ------------------ = 1:
a2 b2
1. the centre of the ellipse is (h, k)
2. the vertices are (a + h, k), (a + h, k), (h, b + k), (h, b + k).
Graphs of hyperbolas
( x h )2 ( y k )2
For ------------------
- ------------------ = 1:
a2 b2
1. vertices are (a + h, k), (a + h, k)
2. centre is at (h, k)
b b
3. Asymptotes are at y k = --- ( x h ) and y k = --- ( x h ) .
a a
Partial fractions
If f (x), g(x) and h(x) are linear functions, then:
f ( x) a b
1. ---------------------- ----------- + -----------
g ( x )h ( x ) g ( x ) h ( x )
f ( x) a b
2. -----------------2- ----------- + -----------------2- .
[g( x)] g( x) [g( x)]
If the denominator of a rational expression is not factorised, then factorise it first
before splitting it into partial fractions.
If the degree of the numerator of a rational expression is greater than or equal to the
degree of the denominator, then divide the denominator into the numerator first
before splitting the fractional part into partial fractions.
Sketch graphs using partial fractions

a
The graph of y = --------------- + g ( x ) can be obtained by:
bx + c
a
1. sketching the graphs of y 1 = --------------- and y 2 = g ( x ) (an asymptote) on the
bx + c
same axes
a b
The graph of y = ----------- + ----------- + c is obtained by:
f ( x) g( x)
a b
1. sketching the graphs of y 1 = ----------- and y 2 = ----------- + c on the same axes
f ( x) g( x)
CHAPTER
review
Multiple choice
1 The graph at right could be described by the rule:
3 1 1
y
1A
A y = --- + x B y = ----2- + x C y = --- + 3x 3
x x x (1, 3)
D y = x +x2 3 1
(1, 1)
E y = 2x --- x
x 1 0 1
(1, 3)
3
1
2 The graph which represents the function f ( x ) = ----2- + 2x 1 is:
x 1A
A y B y C y
0
1 x 0 0
1 2 1 x 1 x
1 2 1 2
D y E y
1
0 1 x 0 x
2
1
3 The graph representing the function y = -------------
- is:
2
x 9 1B
A y B y
(0, 19 ) (0, 19 )
0
x
3 0 3 x
C y D y
0 0
x x
3 3 3 3
(0, 19 ) (0, 19 )
E y
(0, 19)
3 0 3 x
1
4 The graph of the rational function y = ---------------------------------------
- has asymptotes:
1B 2x 2 + 11x 12
A y = 0 and x = 4 only B y = 0, x = 3--2- and x = 4 C x = 3--2- and x = 4 only
D y = 0, x = 3--2- and x = 4 E y = 0, x = 2
---
3
and x = 4
( x + 1 )2 ( y 2 )2
Consider the ellipse with equation ------------------- + ------------------- = 1 for questions 5 and 6.
4 9
5 The maximum and minimum points are respectively:
1C A (1, 5) and (1, 1) B (2, 4) and (2, 2) C (1, 5) and (1, 1)
D (1, 5) and (1, 1) E (1, 6) and (1, 4)
6 The graph representing this equation is:
1C A y B y C y
5 5
1
2 (1, 2)
1 0 1 3 x (1, 2) 2
2 (1, 2) x
1 0 1 3 0
1
3 1 1 2 x
1
5
D y E y
4 2
(1, 2) 2 (0, 0)
3 0 3 x
x
4 1 0 1 2
2

7 The rule which describes the ellipse at right is:
x2 x2
y
1C
A ----- + ( y 3 ) 2 = 1 B ----- + ( y 3 ) 2 = 1 4
2 4
3 (0, 3)
( x 3 )2 ( y 3 )2
C ------------------- + y 2 = 1 D x2 + ------------------- = 1 2
4 4
1
x2
E ------ + ( y + 3 ) 2 = 1 0 1 x
16 2 1 2
( x 4 )2 ( y + 1 )2
Consider the hyperbola ------------------- ------------------- = 1 for questions 8 and 9.
25 9
8 The hyperbola has vertices given by:
A (1, 1) and (9, 1) B (1, 1) and (1, 7) C (4, 4) and (4, 2) 1D
D (4, 1) and (5, 3) E (6, 1) and (4, 1)
9 The graph of the hyperbola has asymptotes with equations:

A y = 5--3- (x 4) 1 B y = 3--5- (x + 4) + 1 C y = 5--3- (x 4) + 1
1D
D y = 3--5- (x 4) 1 E y = -----
25
9
- (x 4) + 1
10 The rule which describes the hyperbola shown below is:

( x + 1 )2 ( y + 2 )2 y 1D
A ------------------- + ------------------- = 1 5
9 16 y = 34 x 4
( x 1 )2 ( y + 2 )2
B ------------------- ------------------- = 1
16 9 x
5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3
1
(x + 1 )2 (y + 2 )2
C ------------------- ------------------- = 1 (5, 2) (1, 2) 2 (3, 2)
16 9 3
( x + 1 )2 ( y + 2 )2
D ------------------- ------------------- = 1
4 3
( x + 1 )2 ( y 2 )2 y = 34 x 11

E ------------------- ------------------- = 1 4
4 3
3x + 13
11 When expressed as partial fractions, ----------------------------- - is equal to:
x + 8x + 16
2
1E
1 3 3 1 2 1
A ------------ + ------------------2- B ------------ + ------------------2- C ----------- + ------------------2-
x + 4 ( x + 4) x + 4 ( x + 4) x 4 ( x 4)
3 1 4 2
D ------------ + ------------ E ----------- -----------
x+2 x+8 x8 x2
3x 3 7x 2 8x + 16
12 The rational expression ----------------------------------------------- is equal to:
x2 x 6 1E
1 3 2 4 1 2
A 3x + ----------- + ------------ B 3x 2 + ------------ + ----------- C x 3 + ----------- ------------
x3 x+2 x+3 x2 x6 x+1
3 2 2 4
D 3x + 4 + ------------ + ----------- E 3x 4 + ----------- + ------------
x+6 x1 x3 x+2
2x 2 + 3x 10
13 The graph of the rational function y = --------------------------------
- is:
1F x2 4
A y B y C y
4
2 1
(0, 22 ) ( 23 , 2)
2
2 0 2 x
2 0 2 x 2 0 2 x
2
D y E y
0 2 1
x (0, 12 )
2 2 x
2 0 2
4
(0, 14 )
y
14 The rule describing the function graphed at right is:
1F (3, 2)
1 2 1 1 (1, 1)
A y = --- + ----------- B y = ----2- + -----------
x x2 x x2 1
1 2 2 1 x
C y = --- + ------------ D y = --- + ------------ 1 0 1 2 3
1
x x+2 x x+2
(1, 1) 2
1 2
E y = --- -----------
x x2
Short answer
2
1 Write down the equation of the asymptotes for y = 3 ----2- + 2x .
1A x
y
3
2 The function y = ----2- 2x is broken into the functions
1A x
5
3 y = x32
y 1 = ----2- and y 2 = 2x , which appear on the graph
x
shown. Describe the behaviour of the function 0
6 4 2 2 4 6 x
3
y = ----2- 2x near the asymptotes. Without any further
x
calculations, sketch the graph of the function. y = 2x
5
2
3 a Calculate the exact value of the turning point for the graph of the function y = x 2 --- .
1A x
2
b Calculate the x-intercept of the graph of the function y = x 2 --- .
x
2
c Sketch the graph of the function y = x 2 --- , showing intercepts and the turning point.
x

4
4 Sketch the graph of the function y = x ----2- , showing intercepts and the turning point.
x 1A
5 The graph of the function f (x) = x2 5 is shown at right.
1
y
1B
Sketch the graph of the function y = ----------- . f(x) = x2 5
f ( x)
5 5
6 a Sketch the graph of the function y = x2 7x + 6, 0
showing the turning point and intercepts. 6 4 2 2 4 6 x
1B
b Hence, on the same set of axes, sketch the graph of
1
the function y = -------------------------- . 5 (0, 5)
x 7x + 6
2
7 Sketch the graph of the following:

( x + 1 )2 y2 ( x 5 )2 ( y + 6 )2
a ------------------- + ------ = 1 b ------------------- + ------------------- = 1
36 25 36 25 1C
x2 (y 1 )2
c 7 ( x 1 ) 2 + 4 ( y + 2 ) 2 = 28 d ----- ------------------- = 1
9 25 1D
(x + 1 )2 y2
e ------------------- ------ = 1 f 4 ( x + 3 ) 2 9y 2 = 36
9 16
8 Express each of the following rational functions in partial fraction form.
9x 33 3x + 5 2x 3 7x 2 + 4x + 5
1E
a y = ----------------------------- b y = -----------------------------
- c y = --------------------------------------------
-
x 2 7x + 12 2x 2 + 5x 3 x 2 4x + 4
9 Sketch the graph of each rational function in question 8.

1F
Analysis
1 A drinking trough with semicircular ends is to be made from pressed metal, and the volume
of the trough is to be 100 litres.
a If r is the radius (in cm) of the semicircular end, show that the surface area of the trough
200 000
is S ( r ) = ------------------- + r 2 , r > 0
r
b Sketch the graph of surface area [S(r)] versus r. (Use a table of values),
c Ignoring any extra metal required to make the joins, find the minimum surface area of the
trough and the corresponding value of r.
2 An open box is to be made from a roll of steel 2 m wide (see x x

the diagram at right). x x
a Write down the expression for the length and width of the
y
box.
3
b If the box is to enclose a volume of 8 m , write down a rule
x x
linking y and x. x x
c Write down an expression for the total surface area of the box and then use substitution to
make this a function of x only.
d Show that the minimum surface area occurs when the box is 0.5 m high and then find the
minimum surface area that will enclose the given volume.
(Hint: Express the fractional part of the surface area as partial fractions before
differentiating.)
e Calculate the length that needs to be cut off the roll of steel to make the box.
3 A family goes to the beach and one of the boys takes a lilo Boy
and goes paddling. He is 120 m from the shore, measured at
right angles to the shore, and 150 m from where the rest of
the family are lying on the beach. His father calls him to 150 m
come back to shore, and he needs to get back in the quickest 120 m
possible time. He paddles at 2 m/s and runs along the beach at x Family
4 m/s. A diagram of his trip is shown at right.
a Find an expression for the distance paddled through the
water as a function of x.
b Using the equation
distance travelled
speed = ------------------------------------------ ,
time taken
find the time he takes to paddle to the shore in terms of x.
c Write down an expression for the distance travelled along the beach in terms of x and also
the time taken travelling along the beach.
test
yyourself
ourself d Write down an expression for the total time he takes to get back to his family. Use this
CHAPTER
expression to find the value of x that gives a minimum value for the time of travel.
1 e What is the minimum time of travel?

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Chap 01 SM Page 1 Thursday, October 12, 2000 9:23 AM

Summary of basic sketch graph information

Chapter 1 Coordinate geometry 3

Horizontal, oblique (sloping) or curved asymptote

Note: If a = 0 then the asymptote will be horizontal; otherwise, it will be oblique or

Sketching the graphs of rational functions

Chapter 1 Coordinate geometry 5

so (1, 1) is on the hyperbola.

(d) Take the cube root of both sides to x= 3 1--4-

Stationary points (turning points)

Chapter 1 Coordinate geometry 7

6 Take the cube root of both sides. x= 1

9 State the turning point. ( 1--2- , 3) is the turning point.

asymptote we need to pick a value of x (14) (7)

12 For x > 1--2- : pick a value greater than 1--2- ,

13 State the nature of the turning point. ( 1--2- , 3) is a local minimum.

4 Consider the graph of the function

Chapter 1 Coordinate geometry 9

(b) Multiply both sides by x2 and x3 2 = 0

(1.59, 2.38) is a local maximum.

Continued over page

Chapter 1 Coordinate geometry 11

5 multiple choice Math

Chapter 1 Coordinate geometry 13

Chapter 1 Coordinate geometry 15

Chapter 1 Coordinate geometry 17

(a) find the vertical asymptote at the x-intercepts of f (x)

(b) the horizontal asymptote is the x-axis

(c) find the common points when f (x) = 1.

Chapter 1 Coordinate geometry 19

b The y-intercept and turning point are respectively:

E (0, 1--3- ) and (2, 1)

c The graph of f (x) is best represented by:

a Express the area of the base, A cm2, in terms of x.

Chapter 1 Coordinate geometry 21

(4, 2) 2 (1, 2) (6, 2)

Chapter 1 Coordinate geometry 23

1 Rearrange and simplify by dividing both 5x2 + 9(y 2)2 = 45

4 Major axis is parallel to the x-axis as a > b.

5 The extreme points (vertices) parallel to the Vertices are:

6 The extreme points (vertices) parallel to the and (0, 5 + 2) (0, 5 + 2)

7 Sketch the graph of the ellipse. y

(3, 2) 2 (0, 2) (3, 2)

reads d 1 multiple choice

Chapter 1 Coordinate geometry 25

Graphing ellipses (and hyperbolas)

Chapter 1 Coordinate geometry 27

Chapter 1 Coordinate geometry 29

E y = 8--9- x, y = 8--9- x, (9, 8), (9, 8)

WORKED 5 Sketch the graph of the hyperbola with the equation:

g 36(x 4)2 4(y 2)2 = 144 h 9x2 16(y + 1)2 = 144

Chapter 1 Coordinate geometry 31

Fractions Partial fractions

2 Solve for b. b = 12( 4--3- ) 19

Creating partial fractions

Chapter 1 Coordinate geometry 33

Case 2: Perfect square denominator

Express the right-hand side of the identity a ( 4x 7 ) + b

Case 3: Denominator is not factorised

1 The denominator factorises as a difference x 15 x 15

3 Express the right-hand side of the identity into a( x 3) + b( x + 3)

Chapter 1 Coordinate geometry 35

2. If the denominator of a rational expression is not factorised, then factorise it

Chapter 1 Coordinate geometry 37