ISIJ International, Vol. 32 (1992), No. 3, pp.

350-358
Review

A Technology for the Prediction and Control of Microstructural

Changesand Mechanical Properties in Steel

Ohjoon KWON
Steel Products Department, Research Institute of Industrial Science and Technology, P.O. Box 135, Pohang. Korea.
(Received on September2. 1991. accepted in final form on December20. 1991 )

Computer modelling of microstructural changes and the relationships between microstructure and
mechanical properties of hot roiled steel products has been under active development in the research
community. A newtechnology emergesfrom the modell ing studies, attempting to predict the microstructural
changes occurring during hot rolling and cooling of steels and to control their mechanical properties so
that production is carried out under the optimum processing condition, This computer aided prediction and
control technoiogy is practiced using the mathematical models based on physical metallurgy. The model
describes quantitatively the transformation behaviors during hot working and cooiing, such as recrys-
tallization, grain growth, precipitation and phase transition from austenite to ferrite. It also clarifies the
relations existing amongthe processing condition, microstructure and the final mechanical properties.
Various models of alloy steels as well as plain carbon steels have been developed for the last IOyears. It
has been expected that the models would widely be applied to practice in the steel industry in the near
future and makea great contribution to quality control and process optimization. Someprospective areas
where the models are applied are guarantee of mechanical properties throughout the coil length, elimination
of tensile tests, decrease in property variation, automatic resetting of processing conditions, save in alloys,
and developing new process controi models, However, in order to meet this expectation, there are many
obstacles to be cleared with regard to modei refining, understanding on physical metallurgy, sensor
development, process control and quality design systems. It was also suggested that a close cooperation
amQngresearchers and engineers from different disciplines would be indispensable to accomplish the goal.
KEYWORDS:
steel; mathematical model; prediction; control; phase transformation; microstructure;
mechanical property.

the processing conditions based on the predictions.1'2)

l .
Introduction
The economic manufacture of excellent quality
products is the ultimate goal of technological develop-
ment. It is what engineers and researchers pursue on the
production line as well as in the laboratory. To achieve
this goal, it is imperative to predict the properties of
manufacturing products and, based on this prediction,
to design the products' chemistry and processing routes,
and control their manufacture and quality.
Traditionally, the prediction and control of micro-
structural evolution and mechanical properties relied
upon an engineer's own knowledge and experience.
Therefore, prediction and the method used to control
production were totally dependent on the individual. In
steel manufacture where processing is complex and the
microstructure evolved is dynamio, such predictions
would take a lot of time and effort and consistent contro]
would be almost impossible. However, with the aid of
recent advances in physical metallurgy, rolling tech-
nology, thermomechanical processing, and computer
engineering, it is now possible to makepredictions of
microstructures and mechanical properties during
production with high speed computers and to control
Attempts have been madeto develop this newcomputer
aided prediction and control technology. The technology,
called here the SPPC (structure/property prediction and
control) technology,3) is a version of the computer
Integrated manufacturing process where manufacturing
engineering is carried out by process design and control
for factory automation. The aims of this technology are
to increase productivity, reduce manufacturing cost and
improve product quality through on-line prediction and
control (see Fig. l).
Changesin microstructures and mechanlcal proeprties
can be predlcted most accurately using mathematical
models based on physical metallurgy. Development of
the mathematical models has been the topic of the
technical committees and conferences recently orga-
nized in Japan4~6) and western countries.7,8) Various
models describing the complete microstructural changes
throughout hot rolllng and cooling have been developed
for the last ten years.9~ i7) Application of these models
to production is nowbeing undertaken in manufacturing
of steel products. However, the efforts for application
are mostly concentrated on hot strip rolling. This may
be due to the fact that a close control of the processing

~ 1992 ISIJ 350

 ISIJ Internationai, Vol, 32 (1 992), No, 3
ble control of hot rolling conditions, it has been nec-
Microstructure
essary to develop a computer model to clarify the rela-
tionship between the microstructure and mechanical
/. '
Inter- properties. This computer model has its theoretical basis
relationship ~. on physical metallurgy. With this metallurgical model,
Mechani ca I Process i n8 the information needed to control processing variables
= *::
Paraoeter is generated from high speed
Property computers, enabling the
simplification of steel chemistry.
In addition to the simplification of steel chemistry, the
predi ct i on control
SPPCtechnology is designed to play a critical role in
improving product quallty and establishing a flexible
Prediction & Control Technology manufacturig system. In hot strip rolling where high
speed computer control of rolling and cooling systems
guarantees high productivity, the large fiuctuation of
cost qual i ty
product ivi ty mechanical properties has been a persistent problem.
i ncrease reduction i lprove
However, adequate use of the metallurgical model
Frg. l. Diagram showing the concept and the goal of the together with an elaborate computing and control sys-
prediction and control technology. tem is expected to solve the problem of the proper-
ty fluctuation to some extent. In modern society, as
industrial structure becomes more complicated so the
condition and the final properties is most important in
need of customers tend to differ. To meet these different
the hot strip mill where steel products are manufactured
at the high speed in the largest quantity.
needs, necessary to establish a fiexible manufacturing
it is

This paper discusses the background to the develop- system so that the strip mill can produce many steel
grades with lesser quantities for each grade. This can be
ment of this prediction and control technology and its accomplished using an on-line control system assisted
recent trends. In addition, it critically reviews the
influence of the technological development and howthe
by thermomechanical processing and computer mod-
elling. The SPPCtechnology utilizing thermomechan-
new technology can be applied to real production. ical proecssing, guarantees production of various steel
grades of excellent physical properties. The technology
2. Background
can also be used to design new grades of steel and
Newtechnologies developed in the steel industry have new manufacturing processes. In addition, by using
directed their attention to the direct linkage or merging the metallurgical model, the conventional simulation
of two or moreconsecutive stages of production processes experiments are replaced by the computer simulation
as a meansto save energy and cost. Research carried out technique resulting in saving in cost, time and man-
in advanced nations has focused on this search for power.
efficiency. Continuous casting, hot charge rolling, hot
direct rolling, smelting reduction, thin slab casting, strip 3. Construction of Metallurgical Model
casting and rheo-casting,
are examplesof technologies all
To achieve the precise prediction and control of
which have been or are expected to be applied to real product quality, the details of microstructural evolution
production to achieve process linkage and merging. occurring during hot rolling and cooling, and the re-
A commoncharacteristic of the new technologies is lationship between the microstructure and mechanical
that they need close control in both scheduling and properties, should be illustrated in the model. The model
operation. This in limitations
may result to schedule provides a tool to develop the on-1ine prediction and
matching and a deterioration of productivity and quality. control technology. Therefore, the first step required to
To reduce these negative effects, attempts have beenmade develop the new technology is to construct the basic
to give as muchflexibility
as possible to steel refining model by theoretical treatment, as well as laboratory
and casting processes,to which the newtechnologies are experiment.
primarily applied. An effective wayto improve fiexibility In view of the processing route of hot rolled steel strips,
is known to be the simplification of slab size and steel the metallurgical model is considered to consist of three
chemistry. sub-modeis: the austenite conditioning model; transfor-
Slab size simplification has been attempted by in- mation model; and mechanical property model (see Fig.
stalling a vertical mill and applying plastic deformation 2).3,14) These sub-models include
numerousmetallurgi-
in the width. Manysteel
mills
nowpractice this technol- cal relations which clarify the microstructural evolution
ogy, with a width control capacity of up to 400 mm. and the structure-property relationship.
The simplification of steel chemistry, called 'reaffecta-
tion' in French,
meansreducing the number of steels
3.1. Microstructure in Hot Rolling
manufactured in the steelmaking shop by allowing a Continuous cast slabs are hot rolled to strips or plates
variety of mechanical properties in a coil of a given under fixed conditions. These conditions depend on the
chemical composition. This can be achieved by the required steel chemistry, size and physical properties. The
control of processing parameters in the hot strip mill microstructural changes during hot rolling are grain
exercising the thermomechanical process. For a desira- growth in the reheating furnace, work hardening during

351 r.()
1992 ISIJ
 ISIJ International, Vol. 32 (1992), No. 3
Table 1. The reported relations describing the kinetics of
ProFcessi 11Lg static recrystallization in steels.
FarJEIBle te r

Investigator Static recrysrallization

Au5teni te Condi tioning
Model
Sellars
CMnSteel X=1-exp{k(t/to 5)2} k=1n0.5
et a!.i 8,28] =4.9
8p > lO4 dol/2 ZO'I 5
Dr Ae ppt n'

(Univ, of Z= i exp(3 12OOO/RT)

Sheffield) when8>0.88p: I0.5=2.5x l0~19e~4d02
Trans format i on
Model x exp(300 OOOIRT)
wheng to 5=1.06x l0~5Z~06
Da Vol . Frac t i on ppt In x exp(300 OOOIRT)
Nb Steel X=1exp{k(1/t005)2} k=1n0.95
Aci02 ~4 exp(300 OOOIRT)
/o
05 = 8
cal 1 Property
Mech8Jrl i
Mode exp[{ (275 OOOIRT) B} [Nb]]
'

- 185
A=6.75 l0~20 >
B=
St ren~;th Duct i I i ty Toughness
Esaka C-MnSteel Xs=(1 -Xp){i -exp(-t/r)1!3}
Fig. 2. Three submodels and some important output pa- el a!.9' Xp= I - exp[ - {{e - 8.)/(s. - s)}"']
rameters to be evaluated in the metallurgical model. (NSC) 0.026 exp(4 600/ T)
m=2.25{
e.
= I - exp( - c!olK)}
plastic deformation, recrystallization (dynamic or static) K=472 8~ o 0723 exp( - 2600/T)
T* = 9. 11x 10~ 15 e~ 2
36 exp(67 6701RT)
during hot rolling, grain growth after full recrystalliza-
tion, and dissolution and reprecipitation of fine carbo- Yada26)
(NSC)
CMnSteel
2.2
X=I -exp{-0.693[(1-t~)/to 5]2}
lO~ Sv~0.5 ~~ 2 exp(30 OOO/T)g-2
12
nitrides. These phase transformation behaviors are de- !o
5= x
Sv (24/1rd.)(0.49 1exp(e) + o. 155 exp( - 8)
scribed in the austenite conditloning model. Important =
outputs from the austenite conditioning model are the
+ o, 1433 exp( 3g)) -
austenite grain size, the accumulated strain retained after
hot rolling and the distrlbution of precipitates in the
Kwon
et al. 14'27)
CMnAdol 4145
l0.5
X=1-exp{-0.693(t/to 5)2}
Steel
8~ 144 Z~o, 1 exp(- QRIRT)3' 21
=
as-rolled matrix. These properties of austenite play im- (POSCOl A=3.32xl0~15 QR=285000
portant roles on subsequent austenite-ferrite transfor- RIST) Nb Steel X=1-exp{k(t/to,05)2} k=-0.0513
mation during cooling.
to
= Ad02e~4 exp(QAIRT)
os
x exp[{(QsIRT) - 185)} [Nb]]
Quantitative analysis of the microstructural changes
during hot rolling was pioneered by Sellars et al.18,19)
x exp[{(Qc/ T) - (C/,')} [NbC]/,'}]
A=6.75xl0~8 B=185 C=2,063xl05
{
Relations describing the onset of dynamic recrystalli- QA=300000QB=2.75x lOs Qc=1.534x 107

zation, the kinetics of static recrystallization, and the

grain growth developed by static recrystallization and
Choquet HSLASteel X=1-exp{-0.693(1/to 5)2}

et al. 12) 8P 8~o 28 d~lo 878

5 = VRexp(QR/RT)
to
grain growth in terms of thc initial microstructure and (IRSID) QRIR= 39 660 - 6025.8EC]o 4 + 755[C]o 65
the conditions of hot working are derived from availa- +2.848 x l0~3EMn]2+4423[Mo]0.2
ble laboratory observations. Predictions madefrom the + (466.45 + 5.57 x 105(Tc T)4[Nb]o 6s

relationships gave reasonable agreement with the P= dy ~ o 115{_ 389 +fp(Nb)]

vR=fR(C. Mn, Mo, Nb)
structures observed in the hot rolled products. Similar
analyses have recently been madeby various investi-
gators.20-28) Somerelations for the kinetics of static
Roberts CMnSteel lO~X=1-exp{-0.693(t/to
21 ~4 D02exp(QRIRT)
5)2}

el a!.24) to
5= x 5 E
recrystallization of plain carbon steels and Nb-contain- (Inst. for Q,~
= 330 OOOJ/mol
ing steels are summerizedin Table 1.9'i2,14,15,18,24,26,28) Metall., TiV X=1-exp{-0.693(t/t0.5)2}
Steel
3'5 D02exp(QRIRT)
s = 5x
Sweden) fo lO~ 18 (e-0.058)~
TheAvrami type rate equation29) wasused for describing QR= 280OOOmol
the recrystallization kinetics. The dynamic recrystalli-
zation behavior has intensively been studied recent- Hodgson C MnSteel X=1-exp{-0.693(1/!o 5)1 5}

ly 30-32) because its occurrence directly influenced the et a/. 15) lo

5=
0.53 Z~o 8 exp(240 OOOIRT)
austenite microstructure. It has been khownthat dynamic (BHP)
recrystallizatlon operated not only during rough rolling
at a high temperature, but also during successive tandem
rolling at the finishing stand.33) austenite grain size was not found significant when the
Table I showsthat extensive work has been considered models were applied to simulate the multi-pass hot strip
to be performed for the recrystallization kinetics in plain rolling process of palin carbon steels. It has also been
carbon steels, but, not for those in microalloyed steels. found that the grain size was influenced negligibly by
This maybe attributed to the fact that the recrystalli- the multi-pass rolling schedule.18,23,24) However, in mi-
zation kinetics of plain carbon steels exhibited a simple croalloyed steels, full recrystallization does not occur be-
Avrami type sigmoidal behavior, whereas those for mi- tween industrial rolling passes and, hence, a precise quan-
croalloyed steels exhibited a discontinuity in the typical titativedescription of recrystallization kinetics would
behavior.34 36) Although each research group employed be important for an accurate prediction of microstruc-
different equations to deal with the recrystallization tural changes and roll force.
kinetics and grain growth, the difference in the final

@1992 ISIJ 352

 ISIJ International, Vol. 32 (1 992), No. 3
3.2. Austenite/Ferrite
Transformation Table 2. The reported relations describing the kinetics of
austenite to ferrite transformation.
Hot austenite transforms to ferrite,
rolled pearlite,
bainite or martensite during cooling after rolling. These
Investigator Austenite/ferrite transformation
phase transitions are described by the transformation
model. The properties of austenite and the cooling con-
dition both affect transformation behaviors, and they
Esaka
et a/.9)
X/X*..= i -exp[ {(2 24/dy'")q+0 114(A8)
x {( I + 4Ae)kf(1 - Tf)"}12.24]
}
determine the type of transformation products, the n7
= I .08
n = I.O
kf exp[9.493 13.27[C]
volume fraction and the grain size of ferrite. The = - - I19[Mn]
temperature-time-transformation
+ 0.01243(T- 273) - 2.613 x lO~ 5
(TTT) and continu-
ous-cooling-transformation (CCT) diagrams can be
x (T
273)2]

= 22.59[C] + I.9 16[Mn] - 0.0532(T- 273)

In Tf

constructed with the aid of the transformation model. + 5.788 x lO~ 5(T- 273) + 0.854 In d*/
Transformation temperatures such as A,3, A*1 B* and M~ + o. 56 l
,
can also be evaluated using the relations in the model. q= 0.5{c2
+ bc2(a2 - c2)~o 5 F+b(a2 - c2) ~ o 5E}
r~~ I -ep p= {a2(b2 - c2)/b2(a2 - c2)}0.5
Since precipitates often formed in microalloyed steels are a:=;1-( I r)
- '1
= cosh(c/a)
very fine and their effect on the mechanical properties
may be significant, quantitative analysis of their for-
matlon and strengthening effect is necessary. Important
b~: l
E (1 -P2 sin20)o sdO

outputs from the transformation model are the type of

transformation products, the volume fraction, the ferrite
grain size and the distribution of precipitates.
c Ir F:= (1 -p2 sin20)0'5dO

Suehiro Nucleation and growth:

The isothermal transformation kinetics of austenite
have been treated by the well-known Kolmogorov
et a/.47)
(NSC)
dx/dt 4.046[{k (6 d'/4)IG
=
x {In[
I
I/( I -
-X)]}3/4( }II 14

X)]
JohnsonMehl-Avrami (KJMA) equation, using the -
Site saturation: dX/dl=k2(6/dy)G(i-X)
concept of the extended volume.29,37~39) The classical I = T~o SDexp{ -k3/RTAGv2)
nucleation and growth theories40-46) were used to G= (l/2,)D{(Cyo( C'/)1(Cy - Co()}
determine the volume fraction and the grain size of the kl
= 17476 k2 8.933 x lO~ 12 exp(21
= 107 (cal3/m013)
100/T)
k3
newly formed phases from deformed austenite as a = 1.305 x

I - exp{J
function of time, temperature and chemistry. 9, 12- 14.47)
Saito X(1) ~; J(1!) V(t" t)dl ,
Table 2 summarizes the reported kinetic equations for et al, 13)
ferrite transformation. Since the transformation reac- (KSC)
tions take place during continuous cooling in the practical
= N(t) p*Z exp( - AG*/R T) exp( -
J(t) T/t)
p*= 87rg~vDyXe/(a4AG~)
situation, the additivity rule48) has been applied. The T= 12kt a~ya4/(DccX V2AG~)
conditions to satisfy for an application of the additivity Z= VAG~/[41T(3kTe.)1/2 a~y AG=47re(a~v)/AG~
rule are: l) isokinetic condition48); 2) site saturation e= a~, +a~~-cr,,, (dependent on the transf. mode)
condition39)' and 3) growth limited condition.49) The
dR/dt
= {Dl(C. - Cl )}(dcld,'),
=R

applicability of the additivity rule to austenite-to-ferrite Kwone! a/. 14) X=X~..{1-exp[-K(t-x)"]} n=0.94
transformation has been eva]uated by various investi- (RIST/ In
K=- O. 1623 x 10 ~ 3[C] T2 + (O. 1372[C]
gators.42,49~53) These studies showed that the ferrite POSCO) }
+ 0.2023LMn] T- 4. 8394[Mn]
+6.5866
transformation satisfied the site saturation condition,
the pearlite transformation satisfied the isokinetic condi-
In T= 3.366 In(A T) + 0.00 14d^/ + 2.032[C]
tion at a slow reaction rate and the site saturation con-
+ I .58 1[Mn] + 8.218 + 6317.51T
dition at a fast reaction rate, and, finally, the bainite Choquet dx/dt
= k Cm(- dFld T)( I - x)
et a/. 12)
transformation satisfied the growth limited condition. F( T)
= exp[ - k/( T- To)}
Microalloying with Al, Nb, V and Ti would result in (IRSID) Cm= cooling rate
To = f (Ar3)
precipitation during transformation. The precipitation ,

Ar3 = Ar3(comp) exp[ a log(Cr)]

behaviors were extensively studied by Honeycomb and -
coworkers.54~57) According to them, microalloyed car-
bides exhiblted four different morphologies depending mechanical properties such as tensile strength, yield
strength, elongation and toughness. Various types of such
on the reaction temperature and the cooling rate.
However, quantitative analysis of the precipitation relationship have been reported over the last thirty years.
behavior and its interaction with ferrite transformation However, most of them have attempted to relate the
is
very scarce. Precipitation of AlN was considered mechanical properties directly to the manufacturing
important becaue it infiuences both the strength of hot parameters, and not to the microstructural parameters,
strips and the drawablity of cold sheets rather strongly. Oneof the most important microstructural parameters
The'bahavior has recently been treated quantitative- is the ferrite grain size, for which the relation with
ly.12,58) strength is expressed by the well-known Hall-Petch
equation.59,60) In describing the mechanical properties
3.3. Structure-Property Relationships of composite aggregates such as steel, the mixture law
The mechanical property model deals with the was found to be useful.61) For a more general illustra-
relatlonship between the microstructure evolved during tion of the structure-property relation, the following
hot rolling and subsequent cooling and the resultlng factors should be taken into consideration: precipita-

353 (O 1992 ISIJ

 ISIJ International, Vol. 32 (1992), No. 3
Table 3. The reported relations for tensile strength of metallurglcal model around 1980.1'9'10) As a result, two
steels.
NSC research groups had independently developed their
models,9'11) and a KSC
Investigator Tensile strength group had also reported the
development of its model.13) Other Japanese steel-
own
Pickering62] TS= 15.4{ 19.
I + I.8[Mn] + 5.4[Si] + 0.25fp makers appeared to inltiate their efforts for the model
+ 0.5d JI f2 development in mid-'80. Nippon Kokan Corporation
(NKK) had reportedly developed a mathematical model
Esaka el al.9) TS= O. 157Hf Vf + 0'222HbVb+ 0.246HpVp
very recently, which was applied to improve an efficiency
(NSC) + 44.03 Vo 5 + I.6d~ l!2 + 4.65 of mill trials for plate production.16) Kobe Steel, Ltd.
d=(cifVf+dpVp+dbVb+d V "' ", ) (Kobe), Sumitomo Metal Industries, Ltd. (SMI) and
Yada63) TS= 3.04H~ Nisshin Steel Co., Ltd. were knownto work together to
(NSC) H~= j jHf + J'pHp + fbHb develop metallurgical models for high strength low alloy
Hf = 36 1 0.357T~f + 50[Si] H 175 (HSLA) as well as plain carbon steels, organizing a
Hb= 508 - 0.588 T~b+ 50[Si]
collaborating research group with Umemoto at Toyo-
T,~f(or T~b)
= r
Tdx/J dx. Avg, transf, temp.
hashi University of Technology and Tomotaat lbaragi
University.66) Their research outcomes have been
presented in the recent ISIJ meeting.
Sait064) TS= TSAC+ ATS
(KSC) ATS= 4.0Ada/da 2!3 + I.OAVp+ 2.5 VB Research on the metallurgical model in western
+ 13.2 VM countries has traditionally been carrled out at the
unlversities. The microstructural evolution during hot
Kwon TS= 0.095Hf Vf + 0'264HpVp+ 0.277HbVb rolling has extensively been studied by the groups ied by
et a!.14) + 75.5 Vfd- 1'2
+ 13.4Vf(1 - Vf) + 3'8 Sellars at Sheffield University (England), 18,19,28) Jonas
(RIST/ Hf =27 72exp(980/T"f )+39 8[Si] +9 l
' ' '

atMcGill University (Canada)22,34) and DeArdoat the

POSCO) Hp=215.4-0.016T p -24.04[Mn]+58.26[Si] '*'

Hb= 27.72 exp(9801T.,b) + 39.8[Si] + 9. 1 Unlversity of Pittsburgh (USA).36,67) For the transfor-
mation behavior of austenite, theories developed by
Choquet TS= TS~+ TS** + ktXfd - I f2 + k*Xp Aaronson and coworkers have been used widely. 43 - 46)
et a/. 12) TS.. 29[Mn] + 79[Si] + 700[P] + 5369[N]
= Quantitative analyses of transformation kinetics carried
(IRSID) K 724 K.=500 TS~=237
out by various investigators5i,52,68 ~ 71) have been found
useful. In the industrial side, the research groups at

tion hardening, solution (substitutional

IRSID (France),12,25) BHPSteel International Group
or interstitlal) (Australia), 15) and Hoogovensljmuiden (Netherlands) 72)
hardening, transformation hardening and dislocation
have made contributions to the model development.
strengthening. It is also suggested that more studies
However, the models developed by these groups were
should be carried out to clarify the microstructural
focused more on microstructures during hot working
effect on ductility and toughness.
than on austenite/ferrite transformation. Somepapers
Table Iists
3 the reported relations for tensile
which have recently been published to quantitatively
strength.9,12,14,62 ~64) It found that the hardness of
was describe the thermal and microstructural state of hot strip
each phase transformed was strongly dependent on the
during rolling and cooling are cited.22,23,73)
transformation temperature, which would determine the
dislocation density and the solute content. Hence, the
structure-property relation proposed by Yada63) was of 5. Application to Production
the modified mixture law type with the Hall-Petch
equation, and was expressed in terms of the mean
Oncethe construction of three sub-models is complete,
computlng can be executed from the reheating stage to
transformation temperature. Kwonet al.14) treated the
the final cooling stage. This complete software package
relation in the similar way. A
comprehensive review has
can be applied to steel manufacture in manydifferent
been madeby Tomota65) on the quantitative treatment
of the relations between mechanical properties and ways. The areas for practical application of the
metallurgical model had initially been suggested by
microstructure. It
was suggested that strength, ductili- Yadal) and, iater, by Esaka et a/.9) and Saito et al.13)
ty and fracture characteristics could effectively be es-
timated from the flow curve, but the available technique
Figure 3 illustrates the concept of the on-line prediction
and control system to be applied in the hot strip mlll.
to predict the flow curve is very limited.
This system, proposed by Yada,1) provides the graphic
illustration of the potential use of the metallurgical mod-
4. Recent Developmentof the Metallurgical Model el associated with the existing models of temperature,
The mathematical models based on physical metal- deformation resistance and rolling. The topic of practi-
lurgy has most actively been developed in Japan. This cal application was discussed in the recent Nishiyama

maybe due to the fact that thermomechanical processing memorial symposium held in 1989.4) Combining all
which was an essential tool for prediction and control available information together, an approach shown in
of microstructures and mechanical properties has been Fig. 4 was chosen to realize application. 14)
the practical
practiced most widely by the Japanese steelmakers. The details of the approach explained as follows.
is

Nippon Steel Corporation (NSC) and Kawasaki Steel Off-1ine prediction technology is the simplest phase,
Corporation (KSC) started research on the extensive for which the complete SPPCmodel can be used. By

@1992 ISIJ 354

 l ~~~
I
i Hot : Aus:en te Tran!formatlor~ Structure Prepertles l
l i Trlnsformtion l
DeforrT'otiQ~ prior to Mode' -Prapert,es Strength
r,10dcl Tr,LnsforrTxltian Mierostruture Ret8t~anship; E,QngatiQn l
in lial l l
Structurel I
\ l
Re! i a t arnce \ I
l to OefQrrnation \ I
rModel for *- ~~t
I l ode l TerTperJlture Madei l
~S
:
~ac~
Initial l i
1 l l I

L~
l Structurc
UU l J Rcl]ing Model
l
l
l
l
i l
i
__J*__ j
Rol i Ing D~mensions Temperatures Caa'img and l
Cycle Condi t ion l Meiisured Melsured Coi I irlg Conditions l

Meta']urjicat P,Irameters
Measured l
Grlin Dimeter
Fraction TrlnsfQrmed

Sl- +>=*Q
*=*r'e
QQo o QQQ
eoeo o e e -~
(~~~~~T~~=~~~~~)

F~,~.**
(p~~;~T~~~1C~
Mil~*
(~~T:~~7~(~)
-
(~ITI~
c.f t..

Fig. 3, on-hne predrctron and control system whrch wlll be applled to hot stnp mms(arter Yada*))

mid-Iength have, so far, not been guaranteed by testing,

sppc However, using the metallurgical model, properties in
M-d*1
the mid-portion are readily predictable. The predicted
off-Li*~ values are also useful to modify the electrical and me-
P*=di * t i .~
chanical settings for rolling and cooling control if actual
Properties deviate from predictions. It has recently been
o~-Li*- reported that on-line prediction systems have been in-
P**di*ti-~
All-y/P*-***~ stalled at the hot strip mill.74-76) T.he prediction sys-
I)-*i~;"
o^-Li~- l tem installed at NSC shown
has that the agreement be-
c-~ t *-
tween the predicted values of ferrite fraction, grain size
and tensile properties were in good agreement with the
sppc measured ones.74,75) The salient feature of the on-line
T**h"-1-~y
Fig. 4. Schematic iuustration ofthe progressive application of
system installed a Pohang lron Steel Co., Ltd, was &
that the calculation time for each prediction was very
the metanurgical model into practice.
short, about 0,1 sec for one point calculation.76) This
enabled predictions of 500 Iengthwise tensile properties
providing arbitrary processing parameters such as steel along a coil within 50sec from the input data of the
composition, rolling and cooling conditions, the corre- manufacturing parameters collected by the on-1ine com-
sponding micrpstructural changes and the resulting me- puter.
chanical properties of hot rolled strip and plates can be On-line control is a more advanced technology
predicted using the model. Repetition of the calcula- whereby control of the processing variables is automat-
tion under various processing conditions provides valua- ic. For precise control,
a high speed computing system
ble information regarding the structureproperty rela- is required for real time calculation, and sensors with
tionship. A graphic representation of the transformation high accuracy are needed for tracking microstructural
behavior can reproduce TTTand CCTdiagrams. This changes. Once the technology is established, slabs in
can save both time and cost needed for diagram con- which composition deviates from the target, can be saved
struction using conventional experimental techniques. by modifying the predetermined setting to a newsetting
Design of new steels is also possible through the trial- evaluated from the model. This modification is particu-
and-error execution of the off-1ine prediction software larly important whenhot direct rolling is practiced, be-
package. cause there is little time available between slab casting
On-1ine application of the model to rolling mills can and rolling. On-line control can help reduce the fluctua-
be practiced in two stages: 1) on-1ine prediction and 2) tion ofmechanical properties and increases productivity.
on-line control. With the on-line prediction technology, It
can also be used either for the accurate prediction of
it is possible to evaluate the mechanical property roll force during successive tandem rolling or for the
variation widthwise or lengthwise, as soon as rolled precise cooling control by taking account of the effect
products emergefrom the coiler. The information, once of transformation heat.
the accuracy is proven, can be used to guarantee Another area where the SPPC model would be useful
mechanical properties throughout the coil length and, in alloy and process design for maximum
is production
thereby, save a numberoftestings which would otherwise efficiency. The alloy and process design should be
be required. Since most mechanical tests are conducted executed in such a manner that products are manu-
for the tail or top ofa coil, the properties ofcoils in the factured under optimum conditions. To optimize a

355 *() 1992 ISIJ

 ISIJ International, Vol. 32 (1 992), No. 3

550
54Q

- O
~p

/// tF;~)
C~' ~ .c,

S'
~~J,!:d~'

e\' Fig. 5.
,,:~'
Search for the optimum cooling condition using the
~~
(~~ ~) steepest descent method (after Sait013)).
10 5
Cooting rate ('C/sec) CooLing rate ('C/sec l

Alloy/procees

Design
th-1ine

Control
~-1ine
Prediction
f
Of -line

Prediction

Teup. Hodel
Pro Si muI at i on Rolling Hodel
Opti!aization

reect~uline rQlling calditieQ cooling cooditioo

redefining redefining
Ror cooling lech, properties
coaposition
rolling liil
set-up
r/'! tr8n8forl8tioo
(TS, YS, EloQg.
)
set-up roll force
MeI t i ng thid,,1~s, 1'idth
L Cast ing llcrostructural ehange cro'n, c8lber, etc.

J~;ijL Hot Rolli!1bg Cooling Hot Coil

I~] j~i
Fig 6. Practical application of the mathematical model based on physical metallurgy for hot Strip manufactute.

manufacturing condition, certain

parameters
must be accurately specified. The parameters used could
be: alloying content; mechanical property; fluctuation in
tensile property; productivity; delivery; production cost
at various manufacturing stages; and so on. The optimal
values of these parameters under given constraints can
be obtained using various methods of optimization.
There are manyoptimization techniques available, and
proper selection is important. It was reported previously
that the optimumcooling condition could be determined
to minimize the fluctuation in tensile strength by using
the steepest descent method, in which the search
continued along the direction of steepest descent
determined (see Fig. 5).13) It has also been shown that
the linear programming technique is useful for finding
the ideal chemical composition of a high strength hot
rolled steel for the oil industry.77) An application of the
metallurgical model to quality design of steel plates has
recently been reported.78)
Summarizing the practical applications of the met-
allurgical model described above, an on-line system for
prediction, control, design and evaluation can be con-
structed in the hot strip mill as shownin Fig. 6. An ef-
crucial tool in this system is process simulation
fective by which
the optimumcondition can be seeked.
6. Future Tasks
As reviewed in the preceding sections the development
of the SPPCmodel and technology will produce many
benefits leading to cost reduction and quality improve-
ment. However, there are manysteps to makebefore
the model can be applied to actual production. Some
problems can be solved in the laboratory, but others
must be cleared up on the production line.
The refinement of various equations in the model is
most essential. The mathematical calculation of these
equations requires numerousthermodynamic data, the
accuracy of which is sometimesuncertain. In steels where
the existence of multi-component phases is complex, the
computerized phase analysis technique is highly re-
commended.The technique, knownas the CALPHAD
(Calculation of Phase Diagram), will be very useful in
developing newalloy systems. The widely used computer
software includes 'thermo-calc'79) and 'PMLFKT'.80)
The recent advances in physical metallurgy have

C 1992 ISIJ 356

 ISIJ International, Vol. 32 (1992), No. 3
certainly been the main driving force in developing the technology and computer control have made great
prediction and control model we have been discussing. contributions to the development of the SPPCmodel.
Various strengthening mechanismshave been actively This model makes possible the prediction of micro-
applied in the ferrous alloy systems, and conventional structural evolution and me9hanical properties. It is also
theories for phase transformation and recerystallization expected that, by using prediction derived from the
kinetics were found useful. Classical nucleation theories metallurgical model, maximumbenefits from manu-
developed more than 50 years ago are still widely used facturing control will be obtainable.
with only minor modifications. However, many areas Although the development of the metallurgical model
remain to be worked upon. Ductile fracture which de- for plain carbon steel has been reported by several
termines the extent of elongation during tensile loading research groups, it application to industrial production
maybe an example. Toughnessis also a parameter which is only at
an elementary stage. To realize the practical
is difficult to predict from the existing structure-property application,
many problems should be solved as de-
theories. Precipitation hardening may be considered a scrided in the previous section. It was indicated earlier
well-understood subject, but in actual fact the interac- that the SPPCtechnology consists of various
compo-
tions of precipitates with moving boundaries and dis- nents of science and engineering. Therefore, successful
locations need clearer investigation. development of the technology assumesequal contribu-
Accurate models of temperature and deformation are tions from all related fields, as was recently pointed out
required to allow further refinement of metallurgical by Sellars.83) Failure to secure any one of those con-
relations. Temperature and plastic deformation are not tributions will limit its satisfactory application to pro-
uniform over the surface of the material being rolled. duction. Hence, in order to achieve the ultimate goals
Therefore, the models should be constructed in such a of cost reduction and quality improvement, close co-
way that the values of the thermal and mechanical data operation amongresearchers and engineers from vari-
used for calculation stand for the corresponding posi- ous disciplines is indispensable.
tion of the strip. Since the cooling condition during
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O 1992 ISIJ 358