Acknowledgement

I
Acknowledgement
It gives me great privilege to express my sincere thanks to all those

who supported me along the way.
Firstly, I would like extend my gratitude to the English Department of

Hanoi University for giving me the permission to conduct this thesis.
I am deeply indebted my supervisor Vu Phuong Thao, lecturer of

English Department, whose support, advice, corrections and encouragement
helped me all the time while undertaking this thesis.
I am sincerely thankful to 34 students from the class of 2013 whose

willingness to take part in the survey is one of the main factors to the
accomplishment of this thesis.
Finally, I am truly grateful to my mother and my friends who

ceaselessly supported, advocated and encouraged me during the complement
of this study. I would never been able to complete this thesis without their aid,
advice and encouragement.
II
Abstract
The purpose of this thesis is to investigate cognitive and meta-cognitive

strategies employed in academic reading comprehension by first year English
majors at Hanoi University, the frequency of usage as well as the existence of
a correlation between strategies used and students proficiency in reading. A
reading comprehension test and a survey of reading strategies were delivered
to 34 fresh men in English Department in the second week of April 2014.
Based on the scores, students are divided into two groups of high and low
proficient students. Then six out of students who got the highest and lowest
scores in the test were invited to a semi-structured interview to gather more
data for deeper comparison.
The results indicated that cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies are

employed at medium rate. Among strategies mentioned in the research,
translating a cognitive strategy is hardly used by students regardless of their
reading proficiency. Meanwhile, cognitive strategies of scanning and
skimming and connecting relevant information as well as meta-cognitive
strategy of checking receive appreciation from all students. Students at
different levels usually apply these three strategies in their reading
comprehension. There is a remarkable difference between strategies utilization
of high and low proficient students. Students who perform better at reading
tend to use more cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies than the rest. They
also apply these strategies more frequently than low proficient students. In
more detail, cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies are usually used by high
proficiency students while students at lower level only employ them
sometimes. Therefore, it can be plausibly indicate that there is a correlation
between strategies use and students reading performance. The better they are
at reading comprehension, they more cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies
they employ in the process.
III
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ............................................................ 1

1.1. Background to the Thesis ........................................................................ 1
1.2. Aims of the study and research questions ............................................... 2
1.3. Scope and significance of the study ........................................................ 3
1.4. Organization of the Thesis ...................................................................... 3
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE .............................. 5
2.1. Reading skill and academic reading comprehension .............................. 5
2.1.1. The role of reading skill .................................................................... 5
2.1.2. Definitions of reading comprehension .............................................. 5
2.2. Learning strategies and academic reading strategies .............................. 6
2.2.1. Definitions of learning strategies ...................................................... 6
2.2.2. Types of learning strategies .............................................................. 7
2.3. Cognitive strategies in reading comprehension ...................................... 8
2.3.1. Definitions of cognitive strategies in reading comprehension.......... 8
2.3.2. Role of cognitive strategies in reading comprehension .................... 8
2.3.3. Classifications of cognitive strategies in reading
comprehension ............................................................................................ 9
2.4. Meta-cognitive strategies in reading comprehension .............................. 9
2.4.1. Definitions of meta-cognitive strategies in reading
comprehension ............................................................................................ 9
2.4.2. Effects of meta-cognitive strategies on reading comprehension .... 10
2.4.3. Categories of meta-cognitive strategies in reading
comprehension .......................................................................................... 10
CHAPTER THREE: METHODS AND PROCEDURES .......................... 11
3.1. Research questions restated ................................................................... 11
3.2. Subjects ................................................................................................. 11
3.3. Instrumentations .................................................................................... 12
a. EFL academic reading comprehension test........................................... 12
b. Survey of reading strategies (SORS) .................................................... 12
IV
c. Semi-structured interview ..................................................................... 15

3.4. Procedure ............................................................................................... 16
CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION ................................ 17
4.1. The utilization of cognitive strategies in academic reading
comprehension by first-year English majors ................................................ 17
4.1.1. Cognitive strategies with labels categorized into subscales ........... 17
4.1.2. Cognitive strategies utilized by first-year English majors in
academic reading comprehension ............................................................. 18
4.1.3. Cognitive strategies utilization in academic reading
comprehension of high proficient (HP) and low proficient (LP)
student group ............................................................................................. 20
4.2. The employment of meta-cognitive strategies in academic reading
comprehension by first-year English majors ................................................ 25
4.2.1. Meta-cognitive strategies categorized into subscales ..................... 25
4.2.2. Meta-cognitive strategies employed by English-majored
freshmen in academic reading comprehension ......................................... 26
4.2.3. Meta-cognitive strategies employment in academic reading
comprehension of high proficient (HP) and low proficient (LP)
student group ............................................................................................. 28
4.3. Cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies utilization in academic
reading comprehension of low and high proficient students - A more
profound analogy between two groups of successful and unsuccessful
reading test-takers Data from the retrospective interview ........................ 33
4.3.1. Cognitive strategies used by successful and unsuccessful test-
takers ......................................................................................................... 33
4.3.2. Meta-cognitive strategies utilized by successful and
unsuccessful test-takers ............................................................................. 35
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS .............................. 37
5.1. Conclusion ............................................................................................. 37
5.2. Suggestions ............................................................................................ 38
V
APPENDICES
Appendix 1 ....................................................................................................... 39
Appendix 2 ....................................................................................................... 43
Appendix 3 ....................................................................................................... 46
VI
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Taxonomy of SORS........................................................................... 13

Table 2. The SILL scale of strategy use frequency ......................................... 15
Table 3. Cognitive strategies categorized into subscales ................................ 17
Table 4. Frequency of cognitive strategies utilized by first-year English
majors in academic reading comprehension .................................................... 18
Table 5. Cognitive strategies utilized in academic reading comprehension
by HP student group ........................................................................................ 20
Table 6. Cognitive strategies utilized in academic reading comprehension
by LP student group ......................................................................................... 22
Table 7. Meta-cognitive strategies categorized into subscales ........................ 25
Table 8. Frequency of meta-cognitive strategies employed by English-
majored freshmen in academic reading comprehension .................................. 26
Table 9. Meta-cognitive strategies utilized in academic reading
comprehension by HP student group ............................................................... 28
comprehension by LP student group ............................................................... 30
Table 11. Cognitive strategies used by successful and unsuccessful test-
takers ................................................................................................................ 33
Table 12. Meta-cognitive strategies utilized by successful and
unsuccessful test-takers.................................................................................... 35
VII
LIST OF BAR CHARTS
Bar chart 1. Cognitive strategies utilized in academic reading

comprehension by HP students in comparison with LP students .................... 24
Bar chart 2. Meta-cognitive strategies utilized in academic reading

comprehension by HP students in comparison with LP students .................... 32
VIII
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
COM: Comprehending strategies
ESL: English as a Second Language
EVA: Evaluating strategies
HP: High Proficient
MEM: Memory strategies
MON: Monitoring strategies
L1: First Language
L2: Second Language
LP: Low Proficient
PLA: Planning strategies
RET: Retrieval strategies
SILL: the Strategy Inventory for Language Learning
SORS: Survey of Reading Strategies

1
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1. Background to the Thesis
English has been officially used by people from all over the world so
learning this language has become an urgent need in the modern era. There are
more and more ESL (English as a second language) learners who ceaselessly
invest a great deal of time and effort in finding the way to master the
language. For achieving that mastery of English, it is vital for them to be
proficient in all four skills of listening, speaking, writing and reading, among
which reading is recognized as the most essential skill to acquire for the
majority of learners by a large number of researchers, Anderson (2003),
Easton (2011) and Richland (2014) are just some to name. Good reading skill
is the key for learners to make progress in different areas of language learning
(Anderson, 2003). The essence of reading has been emphasized for decades,
thus many commentators such as White (2004), Lei, Rhinehart, Howard &
Cho (2010) have investigated the factors having impacts on this skill.
As Othman & Jaidi (2012) remarked, reading is a sophisticated process

requiring cognitive and even meta-cognitive approaches. And it is critical for
adult learners like university students to not only explicitly understand the
content of a reading text but also be able to analyze it in depth. In this process,
learners experience a procedure of structuring by employing a set of mental
activities which are regarded as reading strategies (Susar, 2006, as cited in
Akkaya, 2012). Thus, strategies have been consciously utilized by learners to
complete reading tasks. This arouses concern of researchers on the psychology
of readers and its impact on reading performance with the theory of cognitive
and meta-cognitive strategies. The theory illustrates how readers mentally
process the reading text and suggests how cognitive and meta-cognitive
strategies help improve reading performance (Tavish, 2008). They have been
regarded as a useful tool for achieving reading comprehension. The positive
effects of using these strategies in reading process have been addressed in a
2
certain number of studies (Phakiti, 2006; Tavish, 2008; Othman & Jaidi,
2012).
Academic reading comprehension has been radical to university

students for its presence in all academic discipline, yet most students still
struggle with it (Kroner, 2013). Easton (2011) stated that the products of
reading comprehension are greatly underscored, yet its process receives only
little attention from learners. As a student of English Department, the
researcher is aware of the fact that the students majoring in English at Hanoi
University are no exception. Many of them have difficulties in reading
comprehension but have not taken enough notice of the process. Therefore, it
is worth recognizing the cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies in reading
process and exploring whether utilizing these strategies help enhance
academic reading skill.
1.2. Aims of the study and research questions
This research is conducted to investigate cognitive and meta-cognitive

reading strategies utilized by first-year English majors at Hanoi University in
achieving their reading comprehension. It also aims to find out the
interrelation between these strategies and the reading performance. The
subjects oriented are primarily first-year students of English Department at
Hanoi University. The following three research questions are to be examined
in this study:
1. What cognitive and/or meta-cognitive strategies are used by first-

year English majors in academic reading comprehension? And how frequently
are they utilized?
2. Is there a correlation between students strategies use and the

students proficiency in academic reading?
3
1.3. Scope and significance of the study
This study focuses on cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies

employed in academic reading comprehension by first-year English majors at
Hanoi University. The information gathered from 34 students randomly
chosen from first year students of English Department at Hanoi University.
They are asked to do an academic reading comprehension test and a survey of
reading strategies. Subsequently, only 6 of them who get the highest and
lowest score in the test are invited to a semi-structured interview. All the data
and information collected are used for the purpose of analysis and discussion
to investigate cognitive and meta-cognitive reading strategies used by
students, how frequently they are employed and the existence of a relationship
between strategies utilized and students proficiency.
The contributions of this study would be of interest to students and

teachers in dealing with academic reading comprehension. Students would
recognize their usage of cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies and how these
strategies can help them to improve their reading comprehension. Teachers
would design and apply instruction for learners to apply these strategies in
reading to enhance their skill. In addition, this research also contributes to two
areas of research commonly studied within the context of L2 learning. The
first is learners self-awareness and self-improvement in learning. The second
is teachers reading strategy instruction for learners.
1.4. Organization of the Thesis
This thesis comprises five chapters as following.
Chapter One: Introduction
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature
Chapter Three: Methods and Procedure

4
Chapter Four: Findings and Discussion
Chapter Five: Suggestions and Conclusion
The first chapter provides a comprehensive introduction of the thesis.

The background, aims, research questions, scope and significance of the study
are presented in this chapter.
Chapter Two notes critical points of previous studies in the similar area
as well as offers definitions of concepts examined in the thesis. Reviews of
reading comprehension, learning strategies, cognitive and meta-cognitive
reading strategies are included.
Chapter Three explains the subject, instrumentations used and

procedure of the research.
Chapter Four details the findings and discussion.
The last chapter states some limitations of the research, offers

suggestions to further studies and concludes the whole research.
5
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
2.1. Reading skill and academic reading comprehension
2.1.1. The role of reading skill
The importance of reading skill is indisputable. Being one of the most

fundamental but convoluted skills in L2 learning and vital for every ESL
learners to acquire and master, this skill has been a rousing subject for
research in linguistics. Besides, its difficulty and elaboration are also
conclusive. Reading proficiency in L2 is much demanding to achieve because
of the complexity, dynamic and multi-dimension of L2 reading (Alderson,
2000; Snow, 2002). According to Tavish (2008), reading process is one
in which a reader constructs his or her own meaning while reading. Existing
knowledge, organized as schemas, influences the construction of these
meanings or, in other words, comprehension. (p. 407). There are three main
kinds of reading widely recognized by many commentators (NICHHD, 2000;
Ahmadi, Hairul, & Pourhossein, 2012, as cited in Ahmadi, Ismail & Abdullah,
2013). They are accuracy (involves phonological and orthographic processing),
fluency (includes time), and comprehension.
2.1.2. Definitions of reading comprehension
Reading comprehension is, as Ahmadi, Ismail & Abdullah (2013)

stated, a readers understanding of the surface and hidden meaning of a text. It
involves a combination of the text and the reader in which the reader uses
knowledge and experiences of language skills, cognitive information and
world knowledge (p. 238). Meneghetti, Carretti & Beni (2006) defined
reading comprehension as an elaborate cognitive capacity requiring readers
ability to integrate their knowledge with information of the text and resulting
in the complexity of mental representation.
6
Cummins (1979, 2000) made a distinction between conversational and

academic language and he stated that while it only takes two intensive years
for most learners to attain conversational proficiency, it can be seven to fifteen
years as for academic language and still depends on some factors such as
learners level of L1, formal education experience and amount of exposure to
complex language (as cited in Easton, 2011). Reading comprehension is
challenging for learners, and this skill in academic setting is much more
difficult. As Othman & Jaidi (2012) has put it, the purpose of academic
reading is not only understanding the text but also being able to analyze its
content profoundly. Reading was acknowledged as the most crucial for ESL
learners in academic context by Grabe (1991). Green (2005) noted that it can
directly affect academic performance and success. Therefore, it is worth
researching the way to have mastery of academic reading comprehension skill.
2.2. Learning strategies and academic reading strategies
2.2.1. Definitions of learning strategies
Learning strategies have been known as tactics employed by learners to

improve their learning (Khezrlou, 2011). As defined by Chamot (2004), they
are the conscious thoughts and actions that learners take in order to achieve a
learning goal (p.14). Scarcella & Oxford (1992) clarified learning strategies
as specific actions, behaviors, steps, or techniques -- such as seeking out
conversation partners, or giving oneself encouragement to tackle a difficult
language task -- used by students to enhance their own learning (p. 63, as
cited in Oxford, 2003). When being consciously chosen and suitable for
learners learning styles and L2 task, these strategies will be very helpful.
7
2.2.2. Types of learning strategies
According to Oxford (2003), learning strategies are classified into six

groups which are cognitive, metacognitive, memory-related, compensatory,
affective, and social.
Cognitive and metacognitive can be categorized into different two

types of strategies in other taxonomy which are direct and indirect
respectively. Cognitive strategies allow learners to directly manipulate the
language material. Metacognitive strategies, which indirectly operate on the
material, enable learners to control the whole learning process.
These two groups of strategies have been the focus of many studies on
reading comprehension skills (Muiz-Swicegood, 1994; Fauzan, 2003;
Phakiti, 2003; Zhang, 2007). They found that L2 learners who utilize such
strategies during reading process can produce higher academic reading
performance. Research has indicated that good readers differ from poor
readers in their utilization of cognitive and metacognitive reading strategies
(Zhang, 2007; Guan, Roehrig, Mason & Meng, 2011; Othman & Jaidi, 2012).
The distinction between these two types of readers was drawn by Paris and
Jacobs (1984, p.2083, as cited in Mokhtari & Reichard, 2002) as:
Skilled readers often engage in deliberate activities that

require planful thinking, flexible strategies, and periodic
self-monitoring. They think about the topic, look
forward and backward in the passage, and check their
own understanding as they read. Beginning readers or
poor readers do not recruit and use these skills. Indeed,
novice readers often seem oblivious to these strategies
and the need to use them.
8
2.3. Cognitive strategies in reading comprehension
2.3.1. Definitions of cognitive strategies in reading comprehension
Oxford (2003) suggested that cognitive strategies are the most popular
strategies employed by language learners. These strategies are concerned with
operations or techniques applied to learning or problem solving that require
direct analysis, transformation, or synthesis of learning materials. Cognitive
reading strategies are regarded as mental process directly related to the
processing of information for learning, which are obtaining, storage, retrieval
or use of information (William & Burden, 1997, as cited in Syatrina, 1998).
2.3.2. Role of cognitive strategies in reading comprehension
The importance of cognitive strategies increases with the level of

learners. Thus, they are crucial in academic context which generates high
demand for proficiency of learners. Cognitive strategies are significantly
related to L2 formal proficiency in a positive correlation. Their positive
effects on language learning have been approved in studies by Park (1994),
Ku (1995), Oxford and Ehrman (1995), Kato (1996) and Oxford, Judd, and
Giesen (1998) (as cited in Oxford, 2003).
The role of cognitive strategies in reading process particularly has been

recognized by Gao (2006). They are believed to be essential components in
reading comprehension. According to Alderson (2000), these strategies allow
readers to utilize signals from the reading text and information in their mind to
fill the gap of understanding. He also stressed that they are important in L2
reading context and vital for readers to overcome the language difficulties,
especially when reading difficult academic texts.
9
2.3.3. Classifications of cognitive strategies in reading comprehension
As Mayer (2008) noted, there are three main types of cognitive

strategies. The first is elaboration strategies, by which connections are
established between new material and what is already known. Second,
rehearsal strategies help store information in the memory by repeating the
material. And the final one is organization strategies to visualize the material
to facilitate learning. Although the names may be different, the features of
each type are unanimous. Phakiti (2006) called them comprehending, memory
and retrieval strategies.
2.4. Meta-cognitive strategies in reading comprehension
2.4.1. Definitions of meta-cognitive strategies in reading

comprehension
Many researchers agree that learners awareness and monitoring of

their comprehension processes are critically vital aspects of reading skill.
These concepts are referred in literature as metacognition which can be known
as the knowledge about reading and the self-control mechanisms. It is broadly
clarified by Wenden (1998) as learners beliefs and knowledge of their own
learning process. There was also a distinction between metaconitive
knowledge and metacognitive strategies. While the former is learners
information about their learning, the latter refers to skills actively and
consciously employed by learners to direct and regulate their learning.
Metacognitive strategies are actions used by learners to manage

cognitive activities and assure a cognitive objective being achieved (Maghsudi
& Talebi, 2009). According to Oxford (2003), metacognitive strategies are
utilized to control the learning process overall.
10
2.4.2. Effects of meta-cognitive strategies on reading comprehension
They are confirmed to have positive effects on task completion and L2

reading proficiency. In studies of reading comprehension, there has been an
increasing emphasis on the effects of metacognitive strategies used in the
process (ONeil, 1992; Muiz-Swicegood, 1994; Cromley, 2005; Zare-ee,
2007; Othman & Jaidi, 2012; Zhang & Seepho, 2013). They confirm the
notion that employing metacognitive strategies helps readers to improve their
reading comprehension performance. As Mokhtari & Reichard (2002)
mentioned, good readers are aware of their own cognitive and linguistic
resources, and are able directing their attention to the appropriate clues in
anticipating, organizing and retaining text information. Poor readers, on the
other hand, do not know what methods to use to improve their reading ability.
They are not capable of self-planning, self-monitoring and self-evaluating
their reading skill properly, or in other words, lack metacognitive strategy use
in academic reading comprehension (Zhang, 2007).
Metacognitive reading strategies are essential to learners as they can

help them verify their reading process and make necessary adjustments
(Hassan, 2003). Wenden (1998) asserted that metacognitive strategies supply
learners with a toolkit of ideas which in turn enable them to play a more active
role in their own language acquisition.
2.4.3. Categories of meta-cognitive strategies in reading

comprehension
As Chamot (2004) defined, these strategies include planning (i.e.,

developing a plan before reading a text, making a conscious effort to focus on
key words, phrases, or types of information in the text), monitoring (asking
self questions about the learning process intermittently), and evaluating
11
(checking back to assess what was learned, reflecting on what was learned
through journals or learning logs).
CHAPTER THREE: METHODS AND PROCEDURES
3.1. Research questions restated
The research aims to explore the cognitive and meta-cognitive

strategies employed by low and high proficiency first-year English majors in
academic reading comprehension and the frequency they are used. This study
is to examine whether there is a relation between the application of cognitive
and meta-cognitive strategies and reading performance of students. The
following three research questions are to be investigated in this study:
1. What cognitive and/or meta-cognitive strategies are used by first-

year English majors in academic reading comprehension? And how frequently
are they utilized?
2. Is there a correlation between students strategies use and the

students proficiency in academic reading?
3.2. Subjects
The respondents were 34 first-year majors of English Department at

Hanoi University who were randomly chosen in different classes and gathered
in the day of survey. The majority of them were female and at the age of 18 on
average. They were from the same academic year and shared the same study
condition. By random selection of participants, there was an equal chance of
choosing varied English language proficiencies which made the result more
objective.
12
3.3. Instrumentations
There were two research instruments regarded as the most appropriate

and employed in the research: (a) an academic reading comprehension test and
(b) a survey of reading strategies (SORS) were used to collect data and (c) a
semi-structured interview.
a. EFL academic reading comprehension test
The test was taken from a photocopiable source on the Internet. The
test is confirmed to be appropriate to examine learners academic reading
proficiency. It comprises a reading passage titled Land of the rising sum and
13 questions in total to check students comprehension of the text. There are
three types of questions: Choosing headings for paragraphs, Identification of
writers views/claims or of information in the text, and Multiple-choice. They
are fully designed for testing both skimming and scanning skills of learners.
Therefore, it is valid to take the test for the reading comprehension testing
purpose of the research.
The answers of students would be marked on 100-point grading scale.

Based on this scale, students are divided into two groups: high proficient
students (HP) and low students (LP). The HP group includes students scoring
70 and above. The counterpart involves students getting less than 70. The
purpose of categorizing is to investigate what strategies used by high
proficient students in comparison with low proficient ones and the
interrelationship between strategy use and reading comprehension
performance. The test is shown in Appendix 1.
b. Survey of reading strategies (SORS)
A cognitive and metacognitive reading strategies questionnaire or a

survey of reading strategies (SORS) has been advocated as a useful tool for
evaluate these strategies employed in reading process (Wenden, 1998;
Mokhtari & Reichard, 2002; Fauzan, 2003). According to Mokhtari and
13
Reichard (2002), this is a self-reported instrument developed to measure adult

ESL students cognitive and metacognitive awareness and perceived use of
reading strategies related to reading academic materials.
The SORS utilized in this study was adapted from the self-reported
questionnaire designed by Phakiti in 2006 to assess the cognition and meta-
cognition of adult learners while reading an academic text. It is a
questionnaire consisting of 30 items, each of which briefly describes a
situation of readers when reading academic materials, such as I read the texts
and questions several times to better understand them. Each situation
represents for a strategy which is aligned with one of the two strategy groups:
Cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies. These items are mixed in the
questionnaire in order to receive the most objective results. However, for the
purpose of data analysis, they are then grouped into two sets of 13 cognitive
strategies and 17 meta-cognitive strategies. In each group, strategies are
categorized into three subscales: Comprehending, Memory and Retrieval for
group of Cognitive strategies and Planning, Monitoring and Evaluating for
group of Meta-cognitive strategies. Please see the next page for the taxonomy
of the SORS by Phakiti (2006).
1
Table 1. Taxonomy of SORS
No. of
Processing Subscale Items
items
Cognitive strategies Comprehending 5 2, 3, 6, 7 14
Memory 4 1, 5, 8, 22
Retrieval 4 4, 9, 26, 29
Meta-cognitive strategies Planning 6 10, 11, 19, 20, 23, 27
Monitoring 6 12, 16, 17, 21, 24, 25
Evaluating 5 13, 15, 18, 28, 30
30
1
Reprinted from Modeling cognitive and metacognitive strategies and their relationships to EFL
reading test performance, by A. Phakiti, 2006, Melbourne Papers in Language Testing 2006, 1, p.
65. Copyright 2006 by University of Melbourne. Adapted with permission.
14
Participants were asked to do the survey after finishing the reading test
and, based on their own reading experience, choose strategies that they used
on a 5-point Likert-scale: 1 (Never), 2 (Sometimes), 3 (Often), 4 (Usually)
and 5 (Always). The SORS is provided in Appendix 2.
For calculating the frequency of strategy use by students, all the points
chosen in handouts by participants would be summed up and divided to the
total numbers of students. By conducting this process, the result achieved
would be the average point. This method is clear to interpret the score and can
show the averages in explicit marks.
However, in order to interpret the data collected, a summative rating

scale known as the Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL)
designed by Oxford (1990) is utilized. This scale is proved to be effective in
demonstrating that strategy use relates to language proficiency by researchers
(Phakiti, 2006) and Zhang & Seepho, 2013). The instrument was originally
developed for the U.S. Defense Language Institute, which wanted to
determine how the use of learning strategies influences the success or failure
of military personnel learning foreign languages (Oxford, 1986, as cited in
Oxford, 1999). Nonetheless, there was a greater scope emerged for the SILL
when it was adopted by numerous universities, schools, agencies, and
institutes around the globe.
15
The SILL scales interpretation is demonstrated in the Table 2 as

following (Oxford, 1990, as cited in Zhang & Seepho, 2013):
2
Table 2. The SILL scale of strategy use frequency
Mean Score Frequency Evaluation

4.5-5.0 Always or almost always used
High
3.5-4.49 Usually used
2.5-3.49 Medium Sometimes used
1.5-2.49 Generally not used
Low
1.0-1.49 Never or almost never used
c. Semi-structured interview
In order to get a better understanding of cognitive and meta-cognitive

strategies, a semi-structured interview was conducted after scoring the reading
test. There were only 12 students selected for the interview. They were 6
successful and 6 unsuccessful test-takers with lowest and highest marks in the
test respectively. The 30 strategies were sorted into 3 set of pre-reading,
while-reading and post-reading. As it was difficult for students to describe in
detail the strategies used, so a table of questions was designed to ask them
what strategy they actually used in each stage during the test. This interview
was aimed to confirm the relationship between strategies used and the
students reading proficiency. The interview questionnaire is shown in
Appendix 3.
2
Reprinted from Metacognitive Strategy Use and Academic Reading Achievement: Insights from a
Chinese Context by L. Zhang & S. Seepho, 2013, Electronic Journal of Foreign Language
Teaching, 2013, Vol. 10, No. 1, pp. 5469, p. 58. Copyright 2013 by Centre for Language Studies,
National University of Singapore. Adapted with permission.
16
3.4. Procedure
Prior to the official survey, the pilot one was carried out in class 4A10
in the last week of March. The results of the pilot survey revealed some
misunderstandings with the question in the interview. Hence, some changes
are implemented to make it clearer. After a rigorous revise, the survey was
conducted 34 first -year English majors who were randomly chosen in 10
classes of English Department at Hanoi University and then gathered in a
scheduled day. This official survey was conducted in the second week of April
2014, in the same manner as the pilot one. 34 handouts returned were
appropriate. The 6 interviews were valid.
The data was analyzed in the following procedure. First, in the reading
test, the answers could be marked to categorized groups of students upon their
reading proficiency. Then in the strategy questionnaire would be coded
according to the given taxonomy and scale. The circles of participants for each
strategy would be counted. Lastly, the strategies used in each stage of the test
by successful and unsuccessful test-takers would be displayed by counting the
ticks.
17
CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
4.1. The utilization of cognitive strategies in academic reading

comprehension by first-year English majors
4.1.1. Cognitive strategies with labels categorized into subscales
Table 3. Cognitive strategies categorized into subscales
Subscale Item Cognitive strategies Label

Comprehending 2 I translated the reading texts and tasks into Translating
Vietnamese.
3 I used pictures or titles of the texts to help Using pictures and
comprehend reading tasks. titles
6 I tried to understand the texts and Attempting
questions regardless of my vocabulary regardless of
knowledge. vocabulary
7 I tried to find topics and main ideas by Scanning and
scanning and skimming. Skimming
14 I attempted to identify main points of the Identifying main
given reading texts and tasks. points
Memory 1 I made short notes or underlined main Note taking and main
ideas during the test. ideas
5 I spent more time on difficult questions. Devoting time
8 I read the texts and questions several Repetition
times to better understand them.
22 I tried to understand the questions Remembering tasks
adequately before attempting to find the
answers.
Retrieval 4 I used my own English structure Using grammar
knowledge to comprehend the text.
9 I used my prior knowledge to help Using prior
understand the reading test. knowledge
26 I used multiple thinking strategies to help Using multi-
answer the test questions. strategies
29 I selected relevant information to help me Connecting relevant
understand the reading texts and answer information
the test questions.
Table 3 illustrates the classification of cognitive strategies investigated

in the study. The grouping method was borrowed from the research conducted
by Phakiti (2006). It can be seen that, there are 13 items of cognitive strategies
mentioned in the survey. They are labeled in order to be referred in name in
18
substitute of the whole description. These 13 items correspond with strategies

described by Oxford (2003) which are note taking, summarizing, inferencing,
using prior knowledge; predicting, analyzing and using context clues. They
are sorted into three groups of strategies which are comprehending, memory
and retrieval. These three types of cognitive strategies correlate to which
noted by William and Burden, (1997) (as cited in Syatrina, 1998). These
researchers referred cognitive strategies as a mental process consists of three
operations which are obtaining, storage, retrieval.
4.1.2. Cognitive strategies utilized by first-year English majors in

academic reading comprehension
Table 4. Frequency of cognitive strategies utilized by first-year

English majors in academic reading comprehension
Cognitive strategies
Comprehending Memory strategies Retrieval strategies Overall cognitive
strategies (COM) (MEM) (RET) strategies
No. of No. of No. of OVERALL mean:
Value Value Value
items items items 3.26
2 2.36 1 3.48 4 3.24
3 2.71 5 3.24 9 3.30
6 3.06 8 3.24 26 3.18
7 3.77 22 3.77 29 3.77
14 3.77
COM mean: 2.98 MEM mean: 3.43 RET mean: 3.37
KEY TO AVERAGES: 3.5 or higher = High; 2.5 3.49 = Medium; 2.49 or lower =
Low
Table 4 shows the recurrence rate of cognitive strategies utilized in

academic reading comprehension by English-majored freshmen. As can be
seen in the Table, all three strategy groups of comprehending, memory and
19
retrieval are used in medium frequency with the SILL values of 2.98, 3.43 and
3.37 correspondingly which means that they are sometimes employed. Among
them, memory strategies are the most frequently exploited with the average
value of 3.43. The least often used strategies are which in comprehending
group (SILL value of 3.01). The biggest mean score gap which is between the
highest and lowest strategy use groups is 0.45. Therefore, the disproportion in
employment frequency of the three cognitive strategies is not dramatic.
There are some appreciative strategies among listed items with high
average values of 3.77 which are item 7, 14 and 29 of scanning and skimming,
identifying main points and connecting relevant information respectively. The
first two items are classified into comprehending group and the rest is of
retrieval. It is noteworthy that there are favorable strategies in groups of
comprehending and retrieval while there is none in the memory set.
Noticeably, there is a low average value of 2.36 among strategies

investigated. The referred strategy is item 2 described as I translated the
reading texts and tasks into Vietnamese (translating). It appears that the
technique of translating the text into L1 is not favorable for students. The
outcome is a contradiction to previous articulation of Kern (1994) who
asserted that translation plays an important and multidimensional role in the
L2 reading comprehension processes (P. 455) (as cited in Seng and Hashim,
2006). This can be justified by the findings of Upton (1997) which suggest the
relation between the reliance degree of readers on translation in reading
process and their level of proficiency. In academic context, students are more
proficient in reading, thus they do not have to resort to the help of translation
to comprehend a text. This strategy should be viewed as an important
developmental aspect of L2 comprehension processes rather than an
undesirable habit to be discouraged at all costs (p. 442, Kern, 1994, as cited
in Seng and Hashim, 2006). Notwithstanding, there is still a need for further
study to find a more authentic and reliable justification for this fact.
20
Generally, cognitive strategies generally are sometimes used with the

overall mean value of 3.26. It can be noted that there is a moderate utilization
of cognitive strategies in academic reading comprehension by first-year
English majors.
4.1.3. Cognitive strategies utilization in academic reading

comprehension of high proficient (HP) and low proficient (LP) student
group
4.1.3.1. Cognitive strategies utilized in academic reading

comprehension by HP student group
Table 5. Cognitive strategies utilized in academic reading

Value Value Value
2 2.87 1 3.59 4 3.73
3 2.73 5 4.16 9 3.59
6 3.87 8 3.01 26 3.30
7 4.44 22 4.01 29 4.44
14 3.87
Low
Table 5 shows the use frequency of HP group in academic reading

comprehension. As recorded in the Table, the average values of the three
strategy group are all high. Retrieval cluster is the most often employed with
3.67 point, accompanied by memory group with 3.69 point. The lowest score
21
of frequency is of comprehending set with 3.56 point. The gap between

recurrence rates of these three categories, however, is not broad with only 0.2
score.
There are three most appreciative items by HP students in every

strategy group, which all score at high level of use frequency. They are to be
noted as following. Among comprehending strategies, the item 7 of scanning
and skimming is at the highest use frequency with 4.4 point, followed by item
6 of attempting to understand regardless of vocabulary and item 14 of
identifying main points with equivalent score of 3.87. The category 5 -
devoting time in memory set is the most frequently used with the value of
4.16. The second most often employed is criteria 22 of remembering tasks
with recurrence score of 4.01, which is 0.02 point more than item 1 - note
taking and main ideas. In the group of retrieval strategies, item 9 - using prior
knowledge is the least used item with 3.59 point, preceded with category 4
and 29 of using grammar and connecting relevant information with 3.73 and
4.44 respectively. It is notable that among 9 mentioned strategies, there are
two items recording a remarkable score of 4.44 which is even at the higher
level of high average scale. They are items of scanning and skimming and
connecting relevant information. This means they are always or almost always
used by students.
To summarize, cognitive strategies are utilized at medium rate of

regularity with mean value of 3.67 by high proficient students in academic
reading comprehension. Retrieval is the most often used group of strategies.
The most favorable items are scanning and skimming and connecting relevant
information.
22

comprehension by LP student group
Table 6. Cognitive strategies utilized in academic reading

Value Value Value
2 2.00 1 3.40 4 2.90
3 2.70 5 2.60 9 3.10
6 2.50 8 3.40 26 3.10
7 3.30 22 3.60 29 3.30
14 2.40
Low
Table 6 shows cognitive strategies imposed in academic reading

comprehension by freshmen in English Department at Hanoi University. As
can be seen in the Table, the mean frequency score of all three strategy groups
are at medium level with the highest value of 3.37 for retrieval. The following
group is memory with 3.25 score, which is 0.67 point more than planning.
There is a fairly wide disproportion among these three sets of strategies. The
biggest variance is 0.79 point between the highest and the lowest values.
There is an indication that comprehending strategies are the least

appreciative compared to the other two groups with remarkable score
difference. This gap can be demystified by the low score of item 2 of
translating in comprehending group with 2.00 point which is at the low
average of frequency. The outcome corresponds with the result analyzed in
23
part 3 of this chapter about cognitive strategies utilized by first-year English

majors in academic reading comprehension. It can be inferred that translating
is the least approving and frequently used strategy of first-year English major
generally and even low proficient students particularly.
Noticeably, there is an item among cognitive strategies mentioned

score at high level with 3.6 point. It is the strategy of remembering tasks (item
22), described as I tried to understand the questions adequately before
attempting to find the answers, which is employ at high frequency. The
strategy is advocated for being effective in reading comprehension process by
Alderson (2000), especially in completing the reading task as it helps readers
to have an explicit understanding of the goal. This can clarify the high use
frequency of the category.
To conclude, there is a medium use rate of cognitive strategies among

students of low proficient group. Translating is considered the least employed
among all the strategies with low average score. LP students tend to apply
remembering tasks strategy most often in academic reading comprehension.
24

comprehension by HP students in comparison with LP students
Bar chart 1. Cognitive strategies utilized in academic reading

Comprehending strategies 2.58

3.56
Memory strategies 3.25

3.69
Retrieval strategies 3.37 LP students

3.76
HP students
Overall cognitive strategies 2.95
3.67
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5

KEY TO AVERAGES: 3.5 or higher = High; 2.5 3.49 = Medium; 2.49 or lower = Low
Bar chart 1 demonstrates cognitive strategies employed by HP students

compared to LP students in academic reading comprehension. As depicted in
the chart, the strategy use frequency of high proficient group is significantly
higher than its counterpart. Score of overall cognitive strategies utilization by
HP students is 0.72 point more than that of LP students. These scores are at
different rates of high and medium. It is noteworthy that HP students apply
cognitive strategies in academic reading reasonably more frequent than LP
students do. While the former usually use the strategies, the latter only employ
them sometimes.
As for three sub-groups of strategies, they all witness the difference in

application rate between HP and LP students. Remarkably, the most
significant score gap between these two groups of students is in the use
frequency of comprehending strategies with 0.98 point. HP students impose
strategies of comprehending in reading much more often than their
counterpart. It can be inferred that there is a possible relation between
students proficiency and their utilization of cognitive strategies. Students
25
with higher proficiency are more likely to use these strategies in academic
reading comprehension than those with lower proficiency.
4.2. The employment of meta-cognitive strategies in academic reading

comprehension by first-year English majors
4.2.1. Meta-cognitive strategies categorized into subscales
Table 7. Meta-cognitive strategies categorized into subscales
Subscale Item Cognitive strategies Label

Planning 10 I tried to identify easy and difficult test tasks. Identifying easy and
difficult tasks
11 When I started to complete the test, I planned Planning the
how to complete it and followed the plan. procedure and
following the plan
19 I determined what the test tasks/questions Setting task
required me to do. expectation
20 I was aware of the need to plan a course of Planning actions
action.
23 I made sure I understood what had to be done Setting goals
and how to do it.
27 I made sure to clarify the goal and know how to Clarifying goals
complete it.
Monitoring 12 I was aware of what and how I was doing in the Being aware of what
test. and how
16 I was aware of which strategy to use and how Being aware of
and when to use it. strategy
17 I corrected mistakes immediately when found. Correcting mistakes
21 I was aware of how much the test remained to Being aware of how
be completed. much to do
24 I was aware of my ongoing reading and test Monitoring the
taking. process
25 I kept track of my own progress to complete the Keeping track of the
questions on time. process
Evaluating 13 I checked my own performance and progress Checking
while completing the test. performance and
progress
15 I thought through the meaning of the test Assessing meaning
tasks/questions before answering them.
18 I asked myself how the test questions and the Self-testing
given texts related to what I already knew.
28 I checked my accuracy as I progressed through Checking accuracy
the test.
30 I carefully checked the answers before Checking up

submitting the test.
26
The categorization of meta-cognitive strategies examined in the

research is shown in Table 7. It was taken from the taxonomy noted by Phakiti
(2006). As has been demonstrated, meta-cognitive strategies listed in the
questionnaire comprise 17 items which have labels to be stated
straightforwardly instead of mentioning their transcriptions.
These items coincide closely with strategies noted in the study of

Oxford (2003) which are identifying ones own learning style preferences and
needs, planning for an L2 task, gathering and organizing materials, arranging
a study space and a schedule, monitoring mistakes, and evaluating task
success, and evaluating the success of any type of learning strategy. They are
classified into three groups of strategies namely planning, monitoring and
evaluating. This taxonomy was also approved by Jacobs & Paris (1987) (as
cited in Ahmadi, Ismail and Abdullah, 2013).
4.2.2. Meta-cognitive strategies employed by English-majored

freshmen in academic reading comprehension
Table 8. Frequency of meta-cognitive strategies employed by

English-majored freshmen in academic reading comprehension
Meta-cognitive strategies
Planning Monitoring Evaluating Overall metacognitive
strategies (PLA) strategies strategies (EVA) strategies
(MON)
No. of No. of No. of OVERALL mean: 3.2
Value Value Value
items items items
10 2.7 12 3.3 13 2.7
11 2.7 16 2.8 15 3.9
19 3.5 17 3.8 18 3.0
20 2.9 21 3.0 28 3.3
23 3.6 24 3.2 30 4.1
27 3.2 25 3.2
PLA mean: 3.12 MON mean: EVA mean: 3.4
3.23
Low
27
Table 8 reveals the meta-cognitive strategies applied in academic

reading comprehension by freshmen in English Department at Hanoi
University. As specified in the Table, the frequency score of each strategy
group is at medium rate with the highest value of 3.4 for evaluating, virtually
reaching the high average rate of 3.5. The subsequent group is monitoring
with 3.23 score, which is 0.11 point more than planning. However, there is no
considerable score gap among these three sets of strategies. The widest
variance is 0.28 point between the highest and the lowest values.
Discernibly, no meta-cognitive strategy is in rare use by students. All

the stated items get the scores of medium and above which means they are
employed often. Among them, there are four most approving strategies of 15,
17, 19 and 30 which are of frequent utilization. They are items of assessing
meaning, correcting mistakes, setting task expectation and checking up whose
average values in turn scores 3.9, 3.8, 3.5 and 4.1. Hence, they are usually
used by students. These strategies are fairly distributed into all three groups of
planning, monitoring and evaluating. It is noteworthy that in each group of
meta-cognitive strategies alluded, there is at least one items favored by
students and in frequent employment in their academic reading
comprehension.
Briefly, meta-cognitive strategies are approved and used by students in

medium rate with the overall mean of 3.2. There is no strategies underrated by
readers and the most glowing items are assessing meaning, correcting
mistakes, setting task expectation and checking up whose average values show
high frequency of engagement.
28
4.2.3. Meta-cognitive strategies employment in academic reading

comprehension of high proficient (HP) and low proficient (LP) student
group
4.2.3.1. Meta-cognitive strategies utilized in academic reading


(MON)
Value Value Value
items items items
10 3.29 12 3.71 13 3.14
11 3.14 16 3.43 15 4.00
19 4.00 17 4.00 18 3.71
20 3.57 21 3.86 28 3.57
23 4.14 24 3.71 30 4.43
27 3.86 25 3.86
3.76
Low
Table 9 presents meta-cognitive strategies utilized in academic reading

comprehension by first-year English majors. As can be observed in the Table,
the mean frequency score of all three strategy groups are at high level with the
highest value of 3.77 for evaluating, accompanied by monitoring with only 0.1
point less. The least used set is planning with score of 3.67. There is no
substantial score disparity among these three sets of strategies. The largest gap
29
is only 0.1 point between the highest and the lowest values. It is noticeable
that though planning strategies are less favorable than the rest, all three
strategy subscales are in fairly equal use and usually applied by students in
reading comprehension.
Among 17 strategies mentioned, over half of them score at high

frequency level. However, there are five items have medium values which are
items 10 - Identifying easy and difficult tasks, 11 - Planning the procedure and
following the plan and 23 - Setting goals of planning group, 16 - Being aware
of strategy of monitoring set and 13- Checking performance and progress of
evaluating group. Three of them are in planning group so it can be the
demystification for the lowest score of this group in comparison with
monitoring and evaluating.
Meta-cognitive strategies are generally utilized at high rate of

regularity with mean value of 3.73 by high proficient students in academic
reading comprehension. Planning strategies are less frequently employed by
students yet the use frequency disproportion between them and the rest is not
significant.
30


(MON)
Value Value Items
items items items
10 2.30 12 3.00 13 2.40
11 2.40 16 2.40 15 3.80
19 3.20 17 3.70 18 2.50
20 2.50 21 2.40 28 3.10
23 3.40 24 2.80 30 3.90
27 2.70 25 2.80
2.85
Low
Table 10 documents the meta-cognitive strategy employment of LP

students in academic reading comprehension. As listed in the table, the mean
score of overall meta-cognitive strategies is 2.90, being at medium degree.
Generally, these strategies are used by students sometimes. All three subscales
are also at medium use frequency. The highest score is 3.14 of evaluating,
followed by 2.85 and 2.75 of monitoring and planning correspondingly. The
variance in score among these three sets of strategies is not remarkable. 0.39
point is the widest gap which is between the highest and the lowest values.
31
There are visibly both favorable and unfavorable items among

mentioned meta-cognitive strategies with high and low average score
respectively. Items that receive frequency values at high rate are item 17 -
correcting mistakes of monitoring subscale and item 15 - assessing meaning
and item 30 checking up of evaluating group. It is notable that while LP
students have a tendency to use meta-cognitive strategies sometimes, there are
still three items valued and applied usually in reading by them.
On the other hand, there are strategies rarely used by students which
equivalently allocated into all three groups. They are item 10 (Identifying easy
and difficult tasks), 11 (Planning the procedure and following the plan) of
planning set, item 21(Being aware of how much to do) of monitoring group
and item 13 (Checking performance and progress) of evaluating category.
To summarize, there is a medium use rate of meta-cognitive strategies

among students of low proficient group. While there are three strategies used
at high frequency by students, there are still five of the items hardly applied to
academic reading comprehension.
32

Bar chart 2. Meta-cognitive strategies utilized in academic

reading comprehension by HP students in comparison with LP students
Planning strategies 2.75

3.67
Monitoring strategies 2.85

3.76
Evaluating strategies 3.14

3.77 LP students
HP students
Overall meta -cognitive strategies 2.9
3.73
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
Low
Bar chart 2 illustrates meta-cognitive strategies utilized by HP students

in comparison with LP students in academic reading comprehension. As
shown in the chart, the strategy use frequency of high proficient group is
considerably higher than its counterpart. The scores of overall meta-cognitive
strategies employment by HP and LP students are at different rates of high and
medium. The former achieves 0.83 point more than the latter. It is noteworthy
that HP students employ meta-cognitive strategies in academic reading
reasonably more frequent than LP students do. While the former usually use
the strategies, the latter only employ them sometimes.
As for three sub-groups of strategies, there is a disproportion in every

group in utilization frequency between HP and LP students. Noticeably, the
most significant score gap between these two groups of students is in the use
rate of planning and monitoring strategies with quite equivalent scores of 0.92
and 0.91 respectively. HP students impose strategies of planning and
monitoring in reading much more often than their counterpart.
33
It can be indicated that there is a plausible interrelationship between

students proficiency and their employment of meta-cognitive strategies. High
proficient students are inclined to use meta-cognitive strategies in academic
reading comprehension more than low proficient students.
4.3. Cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies utilization in academic

reading comprehension of low and high proficient students - A more
profound analogy between two groups of successful and unsuccessful
reading test-takers Data from the retrospective interview
4.3.1. Cognitive strategies used by successful and unsuccessful test-

takers
Table 11. Cognitive strategies used by successful and

unsuccessful test-takers
Subscale Item Labels of cognitive Successful Unsuccessful

strategies used test-takers test-takers
(%) (%)
Comprehending 2 Translating 0 67
3 Using pictures and titles 17 17
6 Attempting to understand 67 33
regardless of vocabulary
7 Scanning and Skimming 100 100
14 Identifying main points 83 33
Mean percentage 53.4 50
Memory 1 Note taking and main 100 50
ideas
5 Devoting time 100 33
8 Repetition 67 0
22 Remembering tasks 83 67
Mean percentage 87.5 37.5
Retrieval 4 Using grammar 67 17
9 Using prior knowledge 100 33
26 Using multi-strategies 87 0
29 Connecting relevant 100 50
information
Mean percentage 88.5 25
Overall average percentage 74.7 38.5
34
Table 11 shows cognitive strategies employed by successful and

unsuccessful test-takers. As recorded in the table, the portion of successful
readers using all three categories of strategies is drastically more than their
counterpart. To be more specific, it is 74% for the former and 38.5% for the
latter. The ratios of students accomplishing the test who apply
comprehending, memory and retrieval in reading process are in turn 3.4%,
50%, and 65.5% more than that of students failing the test. It is noticeable that
while the gaps in percentage of successful and unsuccessful test-takers using
memory and retrieval strategies are considerably wide with over 50%,
comprehending group tends to be used by equal rate of students from two
groups.
Visibly among the statistics, there are some strategies are made use of
by all the students who succeeded in the test. They are allocated in every
subscale of strategies. In comprehending set, item 7 of scanning and skimming
are fully appreciated by students. For memory group, they are item 1 - note
taking and main ideas and item 5 - devoting time. Item 9 (Using prior
knowledge) and item 29 (Connecting relevant information) are strategies in
retrieval group employed by 100% students.
It is noticeable that while the rate of unsuccessful test-takers using

cognitive strategies in reading process is very low (under 50%), strategy no.7
of comprehending set receives complete support from all students in this
group. There is an implicit suggestion that scanning and skimming is the most
favorable of students regardless of their proficiency.
Equally significant, there is an exceptional figure presented in the table.

It is the case of translating strategy. It is mentioned above that almost all
cognitive strategies are in use of higher portion of successful readers than
unsuccessful ones. However, there is no successful test-taker using translating
strategy in the test while more than a half of unsuccessful students utilize this
strategy in reading process. This can be clarified by study of Upton (1997). He
35
asserted that there is a correlation between the reliance degree of readers on

translation in reading process and their level of proficiency. The higher their
proficiency is, the less they rely on translating in reading.
To summarize, students who accomplish in the test are remarkably

more liable to use cognitive strategies than those who fail in the test. The
numbers of strategies used by the former group of students are also more
substantial than that of the latter one.
4.3.2. Meta-cognitive strategies utilized by successful and unsuccessful

test-takers
Table 12. Meta-cognitive strategies utilized by successful and

unsuccessful test-takers
Successful Unsuccessful
Labels of meta-cognitive
Subscale Item test-takers test-takers
strategies employed
(%) (%)
Planning 10 Identifying easy and difficult tasks 50 0
11 Planning the procedure and 33 0
following the plan
19 Setting task expectation 83 33
20 Planning actions 50 33
23 Setting goals 100 50
27 Clarifying goals 67 17
Monitoring 12 Being aware of what and how 50 33
16 Being aware of strategy 67 33
17 Correcting mistakes 100 100
21 Being aware of how much to do 83 50
24 Monitoring the process 83 50
25 Keeping track of the process 100 67
Evaluating 13 Checking performance and progress 67 17
15 Assessing meaning 33 0
18 Self-testing 50 33
28 Checking accuracy 50 0
30 Checking up 100 83
Overall average percentage 68.6 35.2
36
Table 12 presents meta-cognitive strategies employed by students who

accomplished and failed in the test. As can be seen in the table, the rate of
successful readers using all three subscales of strategies is nearly double that
of their counterpart. To be more specific, it is 68.6% for the former and 35.2%
for the latter. The ratio of successful students who apply monitoring in reading
process is 25% more than that of unsuccessful students. Meanwhile, the
portions of planning and evaluating strategies used by the former student
group almost triple those of the latter group. It is noteworthy that whilst
planning and evaluating sets of strategies are notably more favorable for
successful student group, both clusters of students share the number of over a
half for using monitoring strategies.
Statistically, there are several meta-cognitive strategies employed by all

the students who accomplished in the test. They are distributed in all strategy
sets. In planning group, item 23 (setting goals) is employed by 100% students.
Item 17 (Correcting mistakes) and item 25 (Keeping track of the process) are
strategies in monitoring set fully approved by students. For evaluating group,
they are item 30 checking up.
It should be noted that not only in successful student group, but also in
their counterpart exists a strategy employed by 100% students. The item
utilized by all students who did not succeed in the test is no.17 of monitoring
group - correcting mistakes. This strategy also receives approval of the whole
student in successful group.
There is a possible indication that it is the most favorable meta-

cognitive strategy of all students irrespective of their reading proficiency.
Briefly, students who are successful in the test tend to apply more
meta-cognitive strategies in reading process than those who are not successful.
The numbers of strategies used by the former group of students are
significantly more than that of the latter one.
37
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS
5.1. Conclusion
On the whole, cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies are employed in

academic reading comprehension by first-year English majors at medium rate.
Among strategies mentioned in the research, translating a cognitive strategy
is hardly used by students. Regardless of their reading proficiency, students
are unlikely to resort this strategy in their academic reading process.
Meanwhile, cognitive strategies of scanning and skimming and connecting
relevant information as well as meta-cognitive strategy of checking receive
appreciation from all students. Students at different levels usually apply these
three strategies in their reading comprehension. The first research question
stated in Chapter 1 has been brought to light.
As analyzed from the data collected, there is a remarkable difference

between strategies utilization of high and low proficient students. The
statistics reveal that students who perform better at reading tend to use more
cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies than the rest. They also apply these
strategies more frequently than low proficient students. In more detail,
cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies are usually used by high proficiency
students while students at lower level only employ them sometimes.
Therefore, it can be plausibly indicate that there is a correlation between
strategies use and students reading performance. The better they are at
reading comprehension, they more cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies
they employ in the process. This suggestion provides the answer for the
second research question.
38
5.2. Suggestions
The findings of this study, however, are limited to first-year English

majors at Hanoi University. Due to the limitations of the number of subjects,
research scale, financial budget and time, the results cannot be taken as
demonstration for all students at Hanoi University. Besides, since the
researcher lacks statistical skills for research, the statistics analysis has not
show a more explicit correlation as expected. Thereby, further studies in this
area are highly appreciated which may conduct a closer investigation into how
each cognitive and meta-cognitive can affect students reading comprehension
and in which stage of the process. It should be remarked that further studies
may focus on instruction of these strategies in reading by instructors for
learners and how it may benefit learners in enhancing their performance.
This study is conducted in the hope of supporting students at English

Department in being aware of cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies in
reading and their positive effects on the performance. By noticing the
interrelationship between strategy use and learners reading performance,
students may make use of these strategies in improving their academic reading
comprehension. There is also a expectation that the research can be a useful
reference for teachers in developing and applying cognitive and meta-
cognitive strategy instruction into reading class and help students to enhance
their academic reading comprehension.
39
Appendix 1
READING COMPREHENSION TEST

Dear participants, I am conducting this thesis to investigate the cognitive and meta-
cognitive strategies used by first-year English majors in academic reading comprehension
and the correlation between strategy utilization and students proficiency. Please take some
minutes to complete the test. All the information will be kept confidential and the results will
be used for the research purpose only. Thank you for your cooperation.
**********
Name:
Score:
You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 1-13, which are based on the
Reading Passage on the following pages.
Questions 1-5
The Reading Passage has six sections, AF.
Choose the correct heading for sections BF from the list of headings below.
Write the correct number, iix, in boxes 1-5 on your answer sheet.
List of Headings
i The influence of Monbusho

ii Helping less successful students
iii The success of compulsory education
iv Research findings concerning achievements in maths
v The typical format of a maths lesson
vi Comparative expenditure on maths education
vii Background to middle-years education in Japan
viii The key to Japanese successes in maths education
ix The role of homework correction
Example Answer:
Section A iv
1 Section B
2 Section C
3 Section D
4 Section E
5 Section F
40
LAND OF THE RISING SUM

A Japan has a significantly better record in terms of average mathematical
attainment than England and Wales. Large sample international comparisons of
pupils' attainments since the 1960s have established that not only did Japanese
pupils at age 13 have better scores of average attainment, but there was also a
larger proportion of 'low' attainers in England, where, incidentally, the variation
in attainment scores was much greater. The percentage of Gross National
Product spent on education is reasonably similar in the two countries, so how is
this higher and more consistent attainment in maths achieved?
B Lower secondary schools in Japan cover three school years, from the seventh
grade (age 13) to the ninth grade (age 15). Virtually all pupils at this stage attend
state schools: only 3 per cent are in the private sector. Schools are usually
modern in design, set well back from the road and spacious inside. Classrooms
are large and pupils sit at single desks in rows. Lessons last for a standardised 50
minutes and are always followed by a 10-minute break, which gives the pupils a
chance to let off steam. Teachers begin with a formal address and mutual
bowing, and then concentrate on whole-class teaching.
Classes are large usually about 40 and are unstreamed. Pupils stay in the
same class for all lessons throughout the school and develop considerable class
identity and loyalty. Pupils attend the school in their own neighbourhood, which
in theory removes ranking by school. In practice in Tokyo, because of the
relative concentration of schools, there is some competition to get into the 'better'
school in a particular area.
C Traditional ways of teaching form the basis of the lesson and the remarkably
quiet classes take their owe notes of the points made and the examples
demonstrated. Everyone has their own copy of the textbook supplied by the
central education authority, Monbusho, as part of the concept of free compulsory
education up to the age of 15. These textbooks are, on the whole, small,
presumably inexpensive to produce, but well set out and logically developed.
(One teacher was particularly keen to introduce colour and pictures into maths
textbooks: he felt this would make them more accessible to pupils brought up in
a cartoon culture.) Besides approving textbooks, Monbusho also decides the
highly centralised national curriculum and how it is to be delivered.
D Lessons all follow the same pattern. At the beginning, the pupils put solutions to
the homework on the board, then the teachers comment, correct or elaborate as
necessary. Pupils mark their own homework: this is an important principle in
Japanese schooling as it enables pupils to see where and why they made a
mistake, so that these can be avoided in future. No one minds mistakes or
41
ignorance as long as you are prepared to learn from them After the homework
has been discussed, the teacher explains the topic of the lesson, slowly and with
a lot of repetition and elaboration. Examples are demonstrated on the board;
questions from the textbook are worked through first with the lass, and then the
dass is set questions from the textbook to do individually. Only rarely are
supplementary worksheets distributed in a maths dass. The impression is that the
logical nature of the textbooks and their comprehensive coverage of different
types of examples, combined with the relative homogeneity of the dass, renders
work sheets unnecessary. At this point, the teacher would circulate and make
sure that all the pupils were coping well.
E It is remarkable that large, mixed-ability classes could be kept together for maths
throughout all their compulsory schooling from 6 to 15. Teachers say that they
give individual help at the end of a lesson or after school, setting extra work if
necessary. In observed lessons, any strugglers would be assisted by the teacher
or quietly seek help from their neighbour. Carefully fostered lass identity makes
pupils keen to help each other anyway, it is in their interests since the class
progresses together.
This scarcely seems adequate help to enable slow learners to keep up. However,
the Japanese attitude towards education runs along the lines of 'if you work hard
enough, you can do almost anything'. Parents are kept closely informed of their
children's progress and will play a part in helping their children to keep up with
dass, sending them to 'Juku' (private evening tuition) if extra help is needed and
encouraging them to work harder. It seems to work, at least for 95 per cent of the
school population.
F So what are the major contributing factors in the success of maths teaching?
Clearly, attitudes are important. Education is valued greatly in Japanese culture;
maths is recognised as an important compulsory subject throughout schooling;
and the emphasis is on hard work coupled with a focus on accuracy.
Other relevant points relate to the supportive attitude of a class towards slower
pupils, the lack of competition within a class, and the positive emphasis on
learning for oneself and improving one's own standard. And the view of
repetitively boring lessons and learning the facts by heart, which is sometimes
quoted in relation to Japanese lasses, may be unfair and unjustified. No poor
maths lessons were observed. They were mainly good and one or two were
inspirational.
42
Questions 6-9
DO the following statements agree with the claims of the writer in Reading Passage
120?
In boxes 6-9 on your answer sheet, write:
YES if the statement agrees with the claims of the writer

NO if the statement contradicts the claims of the writer
NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this
6 There is a wider range of achievement amongst English pupils studying maths than
amongst their Japanese counterparts.
7 The percentage of Gross National Product spent on education generally reflects the
level of attainment in mathematics.
8 Private schools in Japan are more modern and spacious than state-run lower
secondary schools.
9 Teachers mark homework in Japanese schools.
Questions 10-13
Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D.
Write the correct letter in boxes 10-13 on your answer sheet.
10 Maths textbooks in Japanese schools are

A cheap for pupils to buy.
B well organised and adapted to the needs of the pupils.
C written to be used in conjunction with TV programmes.
D not very popular with many Japanese teachers.
11 When a new maths topic is introduced,

A students answer questions on the board.
B students rely entirely on the textbook.
C it is carefully and patiently explained to the students.
D it is usual for students to use extra worksheets.
12 How do schools deal with students who experience difficulties?

A They are given appropriate supplementary tuition.
B They are encouraged to copy from other pupils.
C They are forced to explain their slow progress.
D They are placed in a mixed-ability class.
13 Why do Japanese students tend to achieve relatively high rates of success in

maths?
A It is a compulsory subject in Japan.
B They are used to working without help from others.
C Much effort is made and correct answers are emphasised.
D There is a strong emphasis on repetitive learning
43
Appendix 2
SURVEY OF READING STRATEGIES (SORS)

Dear participants, I am conducting this thesis to investigate the cognitive and
meta-cognitive strategies used by first-year English majors in academic
reading comprehension and the correlation between strategy utilization and
students proficiency. Please take a few minutes to complete the survey. All
the information will be kept confidential and the results will be used for the
research purpose only. Thank you for your cooperation.
**********
Name:
The statements which people use to describe themselves when taking a
reading comprehension test are given below. Read and indicate what you
thought during the test. Choose:
1: Never
2: Sometimes
3: Often
4: Usually
5: Always
Your thinking Never--------Always
1 I made short notes or underlined main ideas during the 1 2 3 4 5
test.
2 I translated the reading texts and tasks into Vietnamese. 1 2 3 4 5
3 I used pictures or titles of the texts to help comprehend 1 2 3 4 5
reading tasks.
4 I used my own English structure knowledge to 1 2 3 4 5
comprehend the text.
5 I spent more time on difficult questions. 1 2 3 4 5
6 I tried to understand the texts and questions regardless 1 2 3 4 5
of my vocabulary knowledge.
7 I tried to find topics and main ideas by scanning and 1 2 3 4 5
skimming.
44
8 I read the texts and questions several times to better 1 2 3 4 5

understand them.
9 I used my prior knowledge to help understand the 1 2 3 4 5
reading test.
10 I tried to identify easy and difficult test tasks. 1 2 3 4 5
11 When I started to complete the test, I planned how to 1 2 3 4 5
complete it and followed the plan.
12 I was aware of what and how I was doing in the test. 1 2 3 4 5
13 I checked my own performance and progress while 1 2 3 4 5
completing the test.
14 I attempted to identify main points of the given reading 1 2 3 4 5
texts and tasks.
15 I thought through the meaning of the test 1 2 3 4 5
tasks/questions before answering them.
16 I was aware of which strategy to use and how and when 1 2 3 4 5
to use it.
17 I corrected mistakes immediately when found. 1 2 3 4 5
18 I asked myself how the test questions and the given 1 2 3 4 5
texts related to what I already knew.
19 I determined what the test tasks/questions required me 1 2 3 4 5
to do.
20 I was aware of the need to plan a course of action. 1 2 3 4 5
21 I was aware of how much the test remained to be 1 2 3 4 5
completed.
22 I tried to understand the questions adequately before 1 2 3 4 5
attempting to find the answers.
23 I made sure I understood what had to be done and how 1 2 3 4 5
to do it.
24 I was aware of my ongoing reading and test taking. 1 2 3 4 5
25 I kept track of my own progress to complete the 1 2 3 4 5
questions on time.
26 I used multiple thinking strategies to help answer the 1 2 3 4 5
test questions.
45
27 I made sure to clarify the goal and know how to 1 2 3 4 5

complete it.
28 I checked my accuracy as I progressed through the test. 1 2 3 4 5
29 I selected relevant information to help me understand 1 2 3 4 5
the reading texts and answer the test questions.
30 I carefully checked the answers before submitting the 1 2 3 4 5
test.
**********
Thank you!
46
Appendix 3
SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEW
In this part, you will find the statements about what you might do in the reading test.
When you read a text, think about what kind of things you did before, during, and
after reading. (Put a check in the box on the right side of the thing the interviewee
did.)
Before you started reading the test,

10 Do you try to identify easy and difficult test tasks?
11 When you start to complete the test, do you plan how to complete it
and follow the plan?
18 Do you ask yourself how the test questions and the given texts related
to what you already know?
19 Do you determine what the test tasks/questions require you to do?
20 Are you aware of the need to plan a course of action?
23 Do you make sure you understand what have to be done and how to
do it?
27 Do you make sure to clarify the goal and know how to complete it?
While reading the test,

1 Do you make short notes or underline main ideas during the test?
2 Do you translate the reading texts and tasks into Vietnamese?
3 Do you use pictures or titles of the texts to help comprehend reading
tasks?
4 Do you use your own English structure knowledge to comprehend the
text?
5 Do you spend more time on difficult questions?
6 Do you try to understand the texts and questions regardless of your
vocabulary knowledge?
7 Do you try to find topics and main ideas by scanning and skimming?
47
8 Do you read the texts and questions several times to better understand
them?
9 Do you use your prior knowledge to help understand the reading test?
12 Are you aware of what and how you are doing in the test?
13 Do you check your own performance and progress while completing
the test?
14 Do you attempt to identify main points of the given reading texts and
tasks?
15 Do you think through the meaning of the test tasks/questions before
answering them?
16 Are you aware of which strategy to use and how and when to use it?
21 Are you aware of how much the test remains to be completed?
22 Do you try to understand the questions adequately before attempting
to find the answers?
24 Are you aware of your ongoing reading and test taking?
25 Do you keep track of my own progress to complete the questions on
time?
26 Do you use multiple thinking strategies to help answer the test
questions?
29 Do you select relevant information to help you understand the
reading texts and answer the test questions?
After reading the test,

17 Do you correct mistakes immediately when found?
28 Do you check your accuracy as you progressed through the test?
30 Do you carefully check the answers before submitting the test?
**********
Thank you!
48
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I

It gives me great privilege to express my sincere thanks to all those

Firstly, I would like extend my gratitude to the English Department of

I am deeply indebted my supervisor Vu Phuong Thao, lecturer of

I am sincerely thankful to 34 students from the class of 2013 whose

Finally, I am truly grateful to my mother and my friends who

The purpose of this thesis is to investigate cognitive and meta-cognitive

The results indicated that cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies are

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ............................................................ 1

c. Semi-structured interview ..................................................................... 15

Table 1. Taxonomy of SORS........................................................................... 13

LIST OF BAR CHARTS

Bar chart 1. Cognitive strategies utilized in academic reading

Bar chart 2. Meta-cognitive strategies utilized in academic reading

COM: Comprehending strategies

ESL: English as a Second Language

EVA: Evaluating strategies

HP: High Proficient

MEM: Memory strategies

MON: Monitoring strategies

L1: First Language

L2: Second Language

LP: Low Proficient

PLA: Planning strategies

RET: Retrieval strategies

SILL: the Strategy Inventory for Language Learning

SORS: Survey of Reading Strategies

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1. Background to the Thesis

As Othman & Jaidi (2012) remarked, reading is a sophisticated process

Academic reading comprehension has been radical to university

1.2. Aims of the study and research questions

This research is conducted to investigate cognitive and meta-cognitive

1. What cognitive and/or meta-cognitive strategies are used by first-

2. Is there a correlation between students strategies use and the

1.3. Scope and significance of the study

This study focuses on cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies

The contributions of this study would be of interest to students and

1.4. Organization of the Thesis

This thesis comprises five chapters as following.

Chapter One: Introduction

Chapter Two: Review of the Literature

Chapter Three: Methods and Procedure

Chapter Four: Findings and Discussion

Chapter Five: Suggestions and Conclusion

The first chapter provides a comprehensive introduction of the thesis.

Chapter Three explains the subject, instrumentations used and

Chapter Four details the findings and discussion.

The last chapter states some limitations of the research, offers

CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

2.1. Reading skill and academic reading comprehension

2.1.1. The role of reading skill

The importance of reading skill is indisputable. Being one of the most

2.1.2. Definitions of reading comprehension

Reading comprehension is, as Ahmadi, Ismail & Abdullah (2013)

Cummins (1979, 2000) made a distinction between conversational and

2.2. Learning strategies and academic reading strategies

2.2.1. Definitions of learning strategies

Learning strategies have been known as tactics employed by learners to

2.2.2. Types of learning strategies

According to Oxford (2003), learning strategies are classified into six

Cognitive and metacognitive can be categorized into different two

Skilled readers often engage in deliberate activities that