DISINFECTION

Definition
Disinfection is a unit process involving
reactions that render pathogenic
organisms harmless

companion unit process is sterilization

which is killing of all organisms (not
practiced in water and waste water
treatment).
content
methods of disinfection

factors affecting disinfection

various disinfectants
Chlorine
Chemistry
Unit design
Ozone
Ultraviolet
Methods Of Disinfection And
Disinfectant Agents Used
Chemical Agents

Physical Agents
Factors Affecting
Disinfection
disinfectants are affected by the following

time of contact between disinfectant and

the microorganism
the intensity of the disinfectant
age of the microorganism
nature of the suspending liquid
temperature.
Time Of Contact And Intensity Of
Disinfectant
It is a universal fact that the time needed
to kill a given percentage of
microorganisms decreases as the intensity
of the disinfectant increases, and the time
needed to kill the same percentage of
microorganisms increases as the intensity
of the disinfectant decreases, therefore

T 1/Im
Time Of Contact And Intensity Of
Disinfectant
T = k/Im
Known as Universal Law of Disinfection

K (proportionality constant) can be determined

experimentally

Taking ( ln ) of both sides

Ln t = Ln k m Ln I

Straight line equation with y-intercept [Ln k]

and slope [m]
 For [n] experiments

Time (t) is called contact time

Intensity (I) is called lethal dose
Example :time & intensity
Age of Microorganism
Young bacteria can be easily killed, while
old ones are resistant.
As bacterium ages, a polysaccharide
sheath is developed around the cell wall.

Using 2 mg/L chlorine for bacteria culture

about 10 days old, it takes 30 min contact
time to produce the same reduction as for
young culture of about one day old dosed
with one minute of contact time.
Nature Of The Suspending
Fluid
For example, extraneous materials such
ferrous, manganous, hydrogen sulfide,
and nitrates react with applied chlorine
before the chlorine can do its job of
disinfecting. Also, the turbidities of the
water reduces disinfectant effectiveness
by shielding the microorganism. Hence,
for most effective kills, the fluid should
be free of turbidities.
Effect Of Temperature
The variation of the contact time to
effect a given percentage kill with
respect to temperature can therefore be
modeled by means of the Van't Hoff
equation
 KT1 and KT2 are the equilibrium constants at
temperatures T1 and T2, respectively. H0298 the
standard enthalpy change of the reaction and R is
the universal gas constant. If KT1 is replaced by
contact time tT1 at temperature Tl and KT2 is
replaced by contact time tT2 at temperature T2,
the resulting equation would show that as the
temperature increases, the contact time to kill the
same percentage of microorganisms also
increases. Of course, this is not true. Thus, the
replacement should be the other way around.
Doing this is the same as interchanging the
places in the difference term between T1 and T2
inside the exp function. Thus, doing the
interchanging

.
Other Disinfection Formulas

The literature reveals other disinfection formulas. These include Chick's law for contact time,
modifications of Chick's law, and relationship between concentration of disinfectant and
concentration of microorganisms reduced in a given percentage kill. Chick's law and its
modification called the Chick-Watson model, however, are not useful formulas, because they
do not incorporate either the concentration of the disinfectant that is needed to kill the
microorganisms or the incorporation of the concentration is incorrect.
The relationship of the concentration of disinfectant and the concentration of the
microorganisms is also not a useful formula, since it does not incorporate the contact time
required to kill the microorganisms. It must be noted that for a formula to be useful, it must
incorporate both the concentration (intensity) of the disinfectant and the contact time
corresponding to this concentration effecting a given percentage kill. For these reasons, these
other disinfection formulas are not discussed in this book.
The Chick-Watson model needs to be addressed further. Watson explicitly expressed the
constant k in Chick's law in terms of the concentration of disinfectant C as Cn , where is
an activation constant and n is another constant termed the constant of dilution. Chick's Law,
thus, became

Ln(N/No) = - Cn

where N is the concentration of microorganisms and t is time. Note that C is a function of time.
When this equation was integrated, however, it was assumed constant, thus producing the
famous Chick-Watson model, where No is the initial concentration of microorganisms.
Because the concentration C was assumed constant with time during integration, this
equation is incorrect and, therefore, not used in this book.
Disinfection happens as a result of

damage to the cell wall : cell lysis and death.

alteration of cell permeability : causes the
membrane to lose selectivity to substances
and allow important nutrients such as
phosphorus and nitrogen to escape the cell.
(phenolic compound)
alteration of the protoplasm : alteration of the
structure and producing a lethal effect on the
microorganism. ( Heat & Acids and Alkali )
inhibition of enzymatic activities : cause the
rearrangement of the structure of enzymes.
( chlorine)
Physical Agents
ultraviolet light (UV)
electron beam
gamma-ray irradiation
Sonification
heat.
Physical Disinfection
Gamma rays are emitted from radioisotopes, such
as cobalt-60, because of their penetrating power,
have been used to disinfect water and wastewater.

electron beam uses an electron generator. A beam

of these electrons is then directed into a flowing
water or wastewater ,to be disinfected. For the
method to be effective, the liquid must flow in thin
layers.
Disadvantage: production of intermediates and
free radicals as the beam hits the water.

sonification high-frequency ultrasonic sound

waves are produced by a vibrating-disk generator.
These waves rattle microorganisms and break
them into small pieces.
 Ultraviolet Light (UV)
Water, air, and foodstuff can be disinfected using UV.
radiation destroys bacteria, bacterial spores, molds,
mold spores, viruses, and other microorganisms.
Radiation at a wavelength of around 254 nm
penetrates the cell wall and is absorbed by the cell
materials including DNA and RNA stopping cell
replication or causing death.
The use of UV radiation for disinfection dates back to
the 1900s in disinfecting water supplies.
The low-pressure mercury arc lamp is the principal
means of producing ultraviolet light at a wavelength
of 253.7 nm which is within the optimum range for
germicidal effect.
however, that the optimum range for germicidal
effect is within the UV-B (<320 nm) a dangerous
range for causing skin cancer.
Unit Operation In UV
Disinfection
Generation of UV Radiation
Inserting into or above the flowing water or
wastewater to be disinfected
Contact time is very short being in range of
seconds to few minutes
Intensity is normally expressed as milliwatts
per square centimeter or projected area
To be effective, the sheet of flowing liquid
should be thin so that radiation can
penetrate
Lamb bulbs are typically 0.75 m to 1.5 m in
length and 15-20 mm in diameter.
Example : UV
Chemical Agents
widely used chemical agent is chlorine.

Other chemical gents are ozone, CI02, the

halogens bromine and iodine and romaine
chloride, the metals copper and silver,
KMn04, phenol, alcohols, soaps and
detergents, quaternary ammonium salts,
hydrogen peroxide, and various alkalis and
acids.
 CLO2 (Strong Oxidant)
does not form trihalomethanes that are disinfection by-
products and suspected to be carcinogens.
effective in destroying phenolic compounds that often
cause severe taste and odor problems
Although its principal application as been in wastewater
disinfection, chlorine dioxide has been used in potable
water treatment for oxidizing manganese and iron and
for the removal of taste and odor.
Disadvantages:
Similar to the use of chlorine, it produces measurable
:sidual disinfectants.
CIO is a gas and its contact with light causes it to
2
photooxtize, however. Thus, it must be generated on-site.
its probable conversion to chlorate, a substance toxic to
humans, makes its use for potable water treatment
questionable.
Ozone
very strong oxidizer and has been found to be
superior to chlorine in inactivating resistant
strains of bacteria and viruses.
very unstable
half-life of only 20 to 30 min in distilled water.
therefore generated on site before use.
Typical dosage is 1.0 to 5.3 kg/IOOO m3 of treated
water at a power consumption of 10 to 20 kW/kg
of ozone.
complete destruction is accomplished with a
residual of 0.3 mg/L of ozone in 3 min. in distilled
water
Ozone Production
first refrigerating air to below the dew point to
remove atmospheric humidity. The
dehumidified air is then passed through
desiccants such as silica gel and activated silica
to dry to -40 to -60e. The dried and
dehumidified air is then introduced between
two electrically and oppositely charged plates
or through tubes where an inner core and the
inner side of the tube serve as the oppositely
charged plates. Passage through these plates
converts the oxygen in the air into ozone
according to the following reaction
3 O2 2 O3
 demand in ozonation is also first exerted before the
actual disinfection process take place. This
immediate ozone demand is due to ferrous,
monogamous, nitrites, and hydrogen sulfide. The
immediate demand reaction with ozone are as
follows:

these reactions must be satisfied first before the

actual act of disinfecting commences.
a mole of ozone grabs 2 moles of electrons, making
it a strong oxidizer.
molecular O2 has been produced from the
decomposition of ozone.
This is one of the advantages in the use of ozone;
the effluent is saturated with dissolved oxygen.
Unit Operations In
Ozonation
In its simplest form, the unit operations of
ozonation involve the production of ozone
and the mechanics of dissolving and mixing
the ozone in the water or wastewater.

the contact time and dosage being best

determined by a pilot plant study. But, a
contact time of 20 min is not unreasonable,
and a residual of 0.4 mg/L of ozone has
been found to be effective.
Example : Ozone
Chlorine
The first use of chlorine as a disinfectant in America was in
New Jersey in the year 1908 (Leal, 1909). At that time
George A. Johnson and John L Leal chlorinated the water
supply of Jersey City, NJ.
The principal compounds of chlorine that are used in water
and wastewater treatment are the molecular chlorine (CI 2),
calcium hypochlorite [Ca(OCL)2] and sodium hypochlorite
[NaOCl]. Sodium hypochlorite is ordinary bleach. Chlorine
is a pale-green gas, which turns into a yellow-green liquid
when pressurized. Both the aqueous and liquid chlorine
react with water to form hydrated chlorine. Below 9.4C,
liquid chlorine forms the compound Cl2 . 8H2O.
Chlorine gas is supplied from liquid chlorine that is shipped
in pressurized steel cylinders ranging in size from 45 kg
and 68 kg to one tonne containers. It is also shipped in
multiunit tank cars that can contain fifteen I-tonne
containers and tank cars having capacities of 15, 27, and
50 tonnes.
Handling Chlorine Gas
the following points are important to consider:

Chlorine gas is very poisonous and corrosive.

Therefore, adequate ventilation should be
provided. In the construction of the ventilation
system, the capturing hood vents should be
placed at floor level, because the gas is heavier
than air.
The storage area for chlorine should be walled off
from the rest of the plant. There should be
appropriate signs posted in front of the door and
back of the building. Gas masks should be
provided at all doors and exits should be provided
with clearly visible signs
 Chlorine solutions are very corrosive and should
therefore be transported in plastic pipes.
The use of calcium hypochlorite or sodium hypochlorite
as opposed to chlorine gas should be carefully
considered when using chlorination in plants located
near residential areas. Accidental release of the gas
could endanger the community. Normally, small plants
that usually lack well trained personnel, should not use
gaseous chlorine for disinfection.
Calcium hypochlorite can oxidize other materials,
Sodium hypochlorite is also affected by heat and light.
Thus, both should be stored in a cool dry place and in
corrosion-resistant containers.
High-test calcium hypochlorite, HTH, contains about
70% chlorine.
Sodium hypochlorite can contain 5 to 15% available
chlorine.
Chlorine Chemistry
( content )
hydrolysis and optimum pH range of
chlorination
expression of chlorine disinfectant concentration
reaction mediated by sunlight
reactions with inorganic
reactions with ammonia
reactions with organic nitrogen
breakpoint reaction
reactions with phenols
formation of trihalomethanes
acid generation
available chlorine.
Chlorine Vs Hypochlotites
All the chlorine disinfectants reduce to the
chloride ion (Cl-) when they oxidize other
substances, which must, of course, be reducing
substances. The chlorine starts with an oxidation
state of zero and ends up with a -1; it only needs
one reduction step. One the other hand, the
hypochlorites start with oxidation states of + 1
and end up with also a -1; thus, they need two
reduction steps. Because the chlorine atom only
needs one reduction step, while the hypochlorites
need two, the chlorine atom is a stronger oxidizer
than the hypochlorites. As a stronger oxidizer, it
is also a stronger disinfectant
Hydrolysis & Optimum pH Range of
Chlorination
in the form of liquefied chlorine. The liquid
must then be evaporated into a gas. As the
gas, CI2(g) is applied into the water or
wastewater, it dissolves into aqueous
chlorine, CI2(aq) as follows:

CI2(aq) then hydrolyzes, one of the chlorine

atoms being oxidized to + 1 and the other
reduced to -1. This reaction is called
disproportionation. The reaction is as follows:
 Note that hydrochloric acid is formed. This
is a characteristic in the use of the chlorine
gas as a disinfectant. The water becomes
acidic. Also the chlorine molecule is a much
stronger oxidizer than the hypochlorite ion
and, hence, a stronger disinfectant. If the
water is intentionally made acidic, the
reaction will be driven to the left, producing
more of the chlorine molecule. This
condition will then produce more
disinfecting power.

HOCI further reacts to produce the

dissociation reaction:
Distribution of CI2(aq) and
HOCl

Taking log and rearrangement

pKH is the negative logarithm to the base 10 of KH

 The concentration of 1.0 gmmole/L of chloride is
35,500 mg/L. This will never be encountered in
the normal treatment of water and wastewater.
Disregarding this entry in the table, the
concentration of CI2(aq) is already practically
nonexistent at around pH 4.0 and above. ill fact,
it is even practically nonexistent at pH's less than
4, except when the pH is close to zero and
chloride concentration of 0.1 gmmol/L; but, 0.1
gmmol/L is equal to 3,500 mglL, which is already
a very high chloride concentration and will not be
encountered in the treatment of water and
wastewater.

Practically, then, for conditions encountered in

practice, at pH's greater than 4.0, [HOCI]
predominates over CI2(aq)
Distribution of HOCl and
OCl-
Note that from the previous result, HOCI
predominates over CI2(aq) above pH 4.0,
CI2(aq) being practically zero. Thus,
above this pH, the distribution of the
chlorine disinfectant species will simply
be for HOCI and OCl-

Taking log. And rearrangement

This table shows that HOCI predominates over
OCl- at pH's less than 7.5. Also considering
Table 17.3, we make the conclusion that for
all practical purposes, HOCI predominates
over all chlorine disinfectant species in all pH
up to less than 7.5, the concentration of HOCl
and OCl- are equal and above that pH OCl-
predominant over all chlorine disinfectant.
But HOCL is 80 100% more effective than
OCl so the optimum range will be up to pH
7.0. and beyond this range OCL predominant
and disinfection become less effective.

The three species Cl, HOCL, OCL are called

free chlorine
Expression of chlorine
disinfection concentration
To unify the concentration, it will be expressed in
term of molecular chlorine Cl2
Portents reaction are: & from these reaction
Reaction Mediated by
Sunlight
Aqueous chlorine is not stable in presence of
sunlight which contains UV, this radiation
provides energy that derive chemical reaction
for breaking up the molecule of hypochlorous
acid. Electrons released will reduce chlorine
atom in HOCl to chloride.

Disinfectant should be stored in opaque

container otherwise the chlorine gas will be
converted to hypochloric acid, and the
hypochlorites will be converted into
corresponding salt.
Reaction with Inorganic
The major substances that interfere the
disinfection process and can be present
in water are

Ferrous
manganous
Nitrites
hydrogen sulfide.
 Reaction with Ammonia & Optimum pH
Range for Chloramines Formation
Effluents from sewage treatment plants can contain significant
amounts of ammonia that when disinfected, instead of finding
free chlorine, substitution products of ammonia called
chloramines are found. In addition, in water treatment plants,
ammonia are often purposely added to chlorine. This, again,
also forms the chloramines. Chloramines are disinfectants like
chlorine, but they are slow reacting, and it is this slow-reacting
property that is the reason why ammonia is used.
The purpose is to provide residual disinfectant in the
distribution system. In other words, the formation of
chloramines assures that when the water arrives at the tap of
the consumer, a certain amount of disinfectant still exists.
The formation of chloramines is a stepwise reaction sequence.
When ammonia and chlorine are injected into the water that is
to be disinfected, the following reactions occur, one after the
other in a stepwise manner.
 Reactions with pH
Reaction (1) indicates that at the time when one mole of HOCI is
added to one mole of NH3, the conversion into monochloramine
is essentially complete. In view of the relationship of HOCI and
OCL as a function of pH, however, this statement is not exactly
correct. From previous discussions, at pH 7.5, hypochlorous acid
and the hypochlorite ion exist in equal mole concentrations, but
beyond pH 7.5, the hypochlorite ion predominates. OCl does not
directly react with NH3 to form the monochloramine, but must
first hydrolyze to produce the HOCI before Reaction proceeds.
Thus, when the pH is above 7.5, addition of one mole of HOCI to
one mole of ammonia does not guarantee complete conversion
into NH2Cl. At these pH values, the one mole of HOCI added
becomes lesser, because of the predominance of the
hypochlorite ion. HOC1, however, exists at practically 100
concentrations at pH's below 7.0; hence, at this range, a mole for
mole addition would essentially guarantee the aforementioned
conversion into monochloramine.

Same for reaction (2) & (3) ; at pH >7.5, the conversion are not
complete
 More details about forming N gas
Reactions with Organic
Nitrogen
Chlorine reacts with organic amines to form organic
chloramines. Examples of the organic amines are those
with the groups NH2, -NH-, and -N =. Parallel to its
reaction with ammonia, HOCI also reacts with organic
amines to form organic monochloramines and organic
dichloramines by the chloride atom simply attaching to
the nitrogen atom in the organic molecule.
For example, methyl amine reacts with HOCI as follows

As in the conversion of monochloramine to

dichloramine, monochloromethyl amine converts to
dichloromethyl amine in the second step reaction as
follows:
 Other nitrogen-containing organic
compounds are the amides which contain the
group OCNH2 and -CNH-. The ammonia and
organic amine molecules have basic
properties. They react readily with HOCl,
which is acidic. The organic amides, on the
hand, are less basic than the amines are;
thus, they do not react as readily to form
organic chloramides with hypochlorous acid.
They consume chlorine, however, so organic
amides as well as organic amines are
important in chloramination. Although the
organic chloramides and organic chlorarnines
have some disinfecting power, they are not
as potent as the ammonia chloramines; thus,
their formation is not beneficial.
Breakpoint Reactions
(1) before A

Figure shows the status of chlorine residual as

a function of chlorine dosage. From zero
chlorine applied at the beginning to point A,
the applied chlorine is immediately consumed.
This consumption is caused by reducing
species such as Fe2+, Mn2+, H2S, and NO.

no chlorine residual is produced before point A

 (2) between A-B

organic amines and their decomposition

products such as ammonia may be
present. In addition, ammonia may be
purposely added for chloramine
formation to produce chlorine residuals
in distribution systems. Also, other
organic substances such as organic
arnides may be present as well. chloro-
organic compounds and organic
chloramines are formed. Ammonia will
be converted to monochlorarnine at this
 (3) beyond B breakpoint

the chloro-organic compounds and organic

chlorarnines break down. the monochlorarnine
starts to convert to the dichloramine, but, at the
same time, it also decomposes into the nitrogen
gas. the dichloramine converts to the trichloramine,
the conversion being complete at the lowest point
indicated by "breakpoint In addition, nitrates will
also be formed from the dichloramine before
reaching the breakpoint.
As shown by the downward swing of the curve, the
reactions that occur between point B and the
breakpoint are all breakdown reactions. Substances
that have been formed before reaching point B are
destroyed in this range of dosage of chlorine.
These breakdown reactions have been collectively
called breakpoint reactions.
 The breakpoint reactions only break down the decomposable
fractions of the respective substances. All the nondecomposables
will remain after the breakpoint. This will include, among other
nondecomposables, the residual organic chloramines, residual
chloro-organic compounds, and residual ammonia chloramines.
any amount of chlorine applied beyond the breakpoint will appear
as free chlorine residual.
Important knowledge is gained from this "chlorine residual versus
applied chlorine" curve. We have learned that all the ammonia
chloramines practically disappear at the breakpoint. We have also
learned that the organic chlorarnines are not good disinfectants.
Therefore, as far as providing residual disinfectant in the
distribution system is concerned, chlorination up to the breakpoint
should not be practiced.

The practice of chlorinating up to and beyond the breakpoint is

called superchlorination. Superchlorination ensures complete
disinfection; however, it will only leave free chlorine residuals in
the distribution system, which can simply disappear very quickly.

If superchlorination is to be practiced to ensure complete

disinfection and it is also desired to have long-lasting chlorine
residuals, then ammonia should be added after superchlorination
to bring back the chlorine dosage to the point of maximum
Reactions with phenols
Chlorine reacts readily with phenol and organic compounds
containing the phenol group by substituting the hydrogen
atom in the phenol ring with the chlorine atom. These
chloride substitution products are extremely odorous.

Figure shows the threshold odor as a function of pH and the

concentration of chlorine dosage

chlorination at acidic conditions would produce very bad

odors compared to chlorination at high pH values. This is
very unfortunate, because HOCI predominates at the lower
pH range, which is the effective range of disinfection.

increasing the chlorine dosage produces the worst

nightmare for odor production.
 Following Figure shows the reaction scheme
for the breakdown of phenol to odorless low
molecular weight decomposition products
using HOCl. The threshold odor concentrations
of the various chloride substituted phenolic
compounds are also indicated in brackets.
Note that the worst offenders are 2-
monochlorophenol and 2, 4-dichlorophenol,
which have an odor threshold of 2.0 pg/L. In
order to effect these breakdown reactions,
superchlorination would be necessary, which
would also mean that the odor had increased
before it disappeared.
Formation of
trihalomethanes
Reaction with organic compounds such as
humic acids produce undesirable by-
products. These known as Disinfection by-
product DBPs. Such as, chloroform. See
figure.

Chloroform formation enhanced at high pH.

So disinfection at low pH will prevent
chloroform formation and this is better as
HOCl will be dominant.
 Acid Generation
Whether or not acid will be produced depends upon the form of
chlorine disinfectant used. Using chlorine gas will definitely
produce hydrochloric acid. Sodium hypochlorite and calcium
hypochlorite will not produce any acid; on the contrary, it can
result in the production of alkalinity. Superchlorination using HOCI
will definitely produce acids.

a mole of hydrochloric acid is produced per mole of chlorine gas

that reacts. Chlorination uses up the disinfectant, so this reaction
would be driven to the right and any mole of chlorine gas added
will be consumed. Thus, if a mmol/L of the gas is dosed, this will
produce a mmol/L of HCl. This is equivalent to one mgeq of the
acid, which must also be equivalent to a mgeq of alkalinity. The
analytical equivalent mass of alkalinity in terms of CaCO 3 is 50 mg
CaCO3 per mgeq. Thus, the mmol/L of hydrochloric acid produced
will need 50 mg/L of alkalinity expressed as CaCO 3 for its
neutralization. Or, simply, one mmol of hydrochloric acid requires
50 mg of alkalinity expressed as CaCO3 for its neutralization.
Available chlorine
The strength of a chlorine disinfectant is
measured in terms of available chlorine. Available
chlorine is defined as the ratio of the mass of
chlorine to the mass of the disinfectant that has
the same unit of oxidizing power as chlorine.
The unit of disinfecting power of chlorine may be
found as follows in terms of one mole of
electrons:

the unit of oxidizing power of CI2 is C12/2 = 35.5

 Consider another chlorine disinfcctant such as
NaOCI. To find its available chlorine. its unit of
disinfecting power must also, first, be determined.

the unit of disinfecting power of NaOCI is

NaOC1/2 = 37.24.

the available chlorine of NaOCI is the ratio of the

mass of chlorine to the mass of NaOCI that has the
same unit of oxidizing power as chlorine. or
available chlorine of NaOCl = 35.5/37.24 = 0.95 or
95%.
In other words, NaOCl is 95% effective compared
with chlorine.
Design of Chlorination Unit
Operation
Important parameters to be considered

Chlorine Feeder
Dosage Control
Chlorine Injection
Initial Mixing
Contact time & Chlorine Dosage
Maintenance & self-cleaning velocity
Chlorine Feeder
Chlorine Gas Feeder

Hypochlorite Solution Feeder

Chlorine feeder using Gas
Feeder
Chlorine feeder using tonne
container
Chlorine feeder using chlorine
cylinder
Hypoclorinator paced by mainline
meter
 Dosage Control
There are five ways of providing dosage control.

(1) manual control. This is the simplest and involves the operator adjusting the
now rate of chlorine to match requirements. The chlorine residual is checked at
intervals of time such as 15 min and dosage adjusted accordingly. The residual
desired may be in the vicinity of 0.5 mg/L This method of control is obviously
used in small facilities.
(2) program control. The program control is a selected set pattern of dosage
that must have already been determined to effect the desired disinfection.
Program control is the cheapest way to attain automatic control.
(3) flow-portioned control. Flow-proportioned control proportions dosage
according to the flow rate of the water to be disinfected. The rate of suction of
the solution is proportioned to the reading of the meter. Flow-proportioned
control is also called flow-paced control.
(4) residual-proportioned control. Residual proportioned control proportions
dosage according to the amount of chlorine residual desired. This system
requires an automatic residual chlorine analyzer at the effluent and a signal
transmitter. The signal is sent to a controller that then changes valve settings
for proper dosage.
(5) combination of the flow proportioned and residual-proportioned control. In
this setup, the two signals coming from the flow meter and the residual
chlorine analyzer are transmitted to a controller that calculates the resulting
valve setting according to these signals' input.
Dosage control type 5
Chlorine Injection & Initial Mixing

To ensure complete disinfection chlorine

should be mixed at point of application

Rapid mixing should be instituted at the

point of application so that the
disinfectant can immediately act on
microorganism rather than wasting time
reacting with intervening substances
Contact time and chlorine
dosage
The two most important parameters
used in the design of chlorine contact
tanks is the contact time and dosage of
chlorine.
Maintenance of self-cleaning
velocity
In the case of sewage treatment plants.
some solids would have escaped settling. In
the case of water treatment plants, however,
the effluent should be very clear with no
danger of solids depositing on the chlorine
contact tank. As in any design of open
channels, the velocity through the cross
section should be self-cleaning. We have
seen this requirement in design of sewers.
The design of chlorine contact tanks is no
exception. Self-cleaning velocities of 2.0 to
4.5 m/min have been mentioned in the
literature.
Dechlorination
Effluents from sewage treatment plants are
not allowed to contain residual chlorine in
excess of tolerable values as determined by
water quality standards. Thus, chlorinated
effluents should be dechlorinated.
Sulfur dioxide, sodium sulfite, sodium
metabisulfite, and activated carbon have
been used for dechlorination.
Because sulfur dioxide, sodium sulfite, and
sodium metabisulfite contain sulfur, we will
call them sulfur dechlorinating agents.
Dechlorination is an oxidation-reduction
reaction.
Sulfur Dechlorination Agents
HOCL represents the residual chlorine

Using SO2

Using Na2SO4

Using Na2S2O5

.
Activated Carbon
Dechlorination
Carbon is a reduced agent. So chlorine
will be reduced to chloride, and carbon
will be oxidized to carbon dioxide
 Effect of Dechlorination
Effluents on DO of Receiving
Sulfur dechlorination

Stream
agents should be
controlled and effluent
minimized because of
its effect in DO of
water. The reaction of
these residual on
oxygen are:

This will reduce DO and

increase BOD, COD.
And also production of
H+ ions may decrease
the pH
Thanks

Q&A