CEJ: Series 3, Vol. 3, No.

2 Copyright 2006

A Psychospiritual Model of Spiritual Formation: A

Review of David Benners Contributions
!
Phil Howard
Toccoa Falls College

Abstract: Our culture is in tune with the spiritual. Yet, understanding what constitutes the spiri-
tual, let alone how to cultivate it, remains unclear. This article will explore the foundations of Ben-
ners psychospiritual model of human nature and its implications for Christian educators. Of partic-
ular interest is the influence that Benners model can have on our efforts toward holistic Christian
formation.

Introduction

Not many years ago, I opened a graduate-level course on Spiritual For-

mation with the question, Is a young Marxist woman living in Beijing as
spiritual as a woman who attends the House of God of Prayer in downtown
Atlanta? This question prompted a lively conversation and some disagree-
ment. In more recent years I have asked that same question on the under-
graduate level. While frequently invoking the Well, it depends on what you
mean by spiritual qualification, these students appear to arrive rather
quickly at the assumption driving the question. And, while I am confident
that my students are astute, my suspicion is that they simply reflect an in-
creasingly spiritually aware and receptive culture that recognizes that, what-
ever it is, the spiritual plays an extremely important role in life.
While spirituality is an emerging theme in religious, education, business,
health care, and leadership literature, our ability to capture the essence of the
nature of spirituality can be characterized as ambiguous at best. In fact, the
ambiguity surrounding the concept of spirituality is so great as to make
the term almost meaningless (Benner, 1989, p. 19). Further complicating
matters, while there is every indication of a spiritual receptivity in our cul-
ture, most observers point out a pervasive reticence toward organized reli-
gion as a viable source to better understand and experience this spirituality.
Countless sources inform us that many people see the church as irrelevant for
several reasons and, therefore, one of the last places many of our contempo-
raries will look for answers to their spiritual quest. It is into this environment,
HOWARD: A Psychospiritual Model of Formation 231

however, that we as Christian educators have perhaps unprecedented oppor-

tunity to exert great influence.
Since the late 1980s, David Benner has made substantial contributions
to the literature relating to spirituality and spiritual formation in ways that
address the often-shaky linkage between psychology, spirituality, and Chris-
tian education. Benner has a Ph.D. in clinical psychology (York University,
Canada) and has done postdoctoral studies at the Chicago Institute of Psy-
choanalysis. He continues to lecture, and conduct seminars and workshops
around the world, many of which address spiritual health and formation.
He is the founding director of the Institute for Psychospiritual Health, an
agency committed to understanding and promoting the well-being of ones
inner life, and a Distinguished Professor of Psychology and Spirituality at the
Psychological Studies Institute in Atlanta, Georgia. Benner has devoted the
last two decades of his life to addressing an emerging therapeutic culture
that inappropriately creates a dichotomy between psychological and spiritual
aspects of persons (2002b, p. 19), and to encouraging Christian spiritual
development.

Foundations of Spirituality

Benners early contributions were designed to address tendencies in the

field of counseling that revealed a bias toward a psychological reductionism
(1988, p. 47) in explaining the nature of persons. This bias was typically ex-
pressed in one of two extremes. On one hand, the predominant view found in
most counseling and psychology resources suggested a truncated perspective
of the nature of persons in which the spiritual was construed as simply one
part of our being, if it was acknowledged at all. Here, spirituality becomes
the activity of some relatively independent part of personality outside the
mainstream of other psychological mechanisms and processes. In this
model, spiritual problems are judged to reside in the spiritual part of per-
sonality while psychological problems have their locus in a separate psycho-
logical part. Consequently, spirituality [is] an added-on appendage of per-
sons that is not well integrated into the rest of the fabric of personality
(1989, p. 20). On the other hand, a school of Christian counseling champi-
oned by Jay Adams suggested that all nonorganic problems are rooted in sin
and, by Benners assessment of Adams, the only appropriate treatment of
them is to expose the underlying sinful attitude or behavior and encourage
confession and repentance (1988, p. 45).
In this context, Benner proposed a broadened view of spirituality and a
way of intimately relating it to and placing it within the overall framework of
psychospiritual functions and processes of personality (1988, p. 52). These
early contributions suggested that the scriptural view of persons is a wholis-
232 Christian Education Journal

tic one and that humans are not a composite of a number of parts; we do
not have a spirit or have a body; we are embodied spirits (1988, p. 110).
Fundamentally, Benner states that a biblical anthropology suggests human
personhood is of one piece; we are not composed of separate or independent
parts, whether these be body and soul, or soul and spirit (1998, p. 110).
Specifically, Hebrew psychology was wholistic; parts were never seen as ul-
timate realities but only as conceptualizations having no independent exis-
tence. As human beings we are, therefore, one vital and integral personality
(1988, p. 109). Thus, while possessing various attributes or characteristics of
personhood, these must always be understood in the light of the basic whole-
ness of personality (1988, p. 110). As will be discussed later, our awareness of
this unity of personality (1988, p. 108) is crucial to the nature of disciple-
ship and sanctification because it is our entire personality that desires to re-
late to God, not just what is commonly referred to as ones spirit or soul. Any
bifurcation of human personality is therefore, both artificial and destruc-
tive (1988, p. 108).
The key concept in Benners model is psychospirituality. This psycho-
spiritual framework refers to the fact that the inner world has no separate
spiritual and psychological compartments (1998, p. 110). Suggesting that the
terms soul and spirit are used interchangeably in Scripture, Benner states that
psychospirituality represents the immaterial inner core of human personal-
ity (1998, p. 540). Consequently, he understands human beings as integrated
beings, and even more fundamentally that all persons are created spiritual
beings (1988, p. 104). Our spirituality represents the human quest for and
experience of meaning, God, and the other (1998, p. 87). This spirituality is
what it means to be human (2002b, p. 15). Not only do we seek after God as
integrated, whole beings, but also it is the nature of the human experience to
engage in this God-quest, regardless of geographic, ethnic, or religious
boundaries. This questthese deep strivings (1988, p. 104)is what de-
fines the essential nature of the human experience. This point is critical for
those of us concerned with discipleship because not all humans engage this
quest in the same manner or reach the same conclusions along the way. The
implications are quite literally eternal and have everything to do with how we
frame our evangelism and discipleship efforts. Furthermore, this perspective
renders moot our tendencies to suggest that certain people are not very
spiritual.
If, in fact, all persons are created spiritual beings, the degree of separa-
tion between those labeled as spiritual and those as non-spiritual is, more ac-
curately, only acknowledging their differing awarenesses of and responses to
these deep strivings (1988, p. 104). Individuals who we typically identify as
non-spiritual are not devoid of spiritual yearning but [have] merely chosen
to ignore them (1998, p. 88). The fundamental issue confronting humankind
HOWARD: A Psychospiritual Model of Formation 233

(and our neighbors, friends, and family) is, therefore, not whether we are
spiritual or not, but rather whether our spirit is alive or dead. This point is
profound, and far beyond semantics. In this regard, we have more in com-
mon than not with people who express this spirituality differently than we
do. At the very least, we must respond with a fundamental respect for people
regardless of their immediate spiritual sensitivities if we understand that this
spiritual essence is common to humankind and ultimately a reflection of be-
ing created in the image of God.
According to Benner, this essence of being human, our spirituality, is the
response to a deep and mysterious human yearning for self-transcendence
and surrender (1988, p. 104). Again, by definition, this essence is shared by
all human beings. He enlarges this generic definition to suggest four common
expressions of our spiritual essence regardless of its ground or outcomes. One
primary expression is spirituality as a search for self-transcendence. As hu-
man beings, we are designed for deep and intimate union (1989, p. 20) with
someone (or something) that transcends not only our individual experience
but also that of humankind as a whole. Whether consciously or not, we tend
to understand that we are not ultimate nor, left to our own capabilities, are we
adequate to make sense of and manage life. A second primary expression of
human spirituality is that we inherently seek to surrender to, or align our-
selves with, this self-transcendent being or thing. We need to be in the ser-
vice of some cause much bigger than ourselves (1989, p. 21). This commonly
held human quest leads us not only to come to know and relate to this tran-
scendent entity but to live in ways that are at least somewhat consistent with
the implications of this relationship. At its core, this is the essence of integrity
and, as will be seen later, has implications for the process of sanctification.
Benner introduces the third and fourth expressions of spirituality as
secondary because, while essential to our nature, they emerge from our ex-
perience of self-transcendence and surrender. The third element of our spir-
ituality is a human desire to resolve issues of identity, to have a personal
sense of meaning and to know that our existence is not an accident. This ex-
perience is necessary because we have forgotten who we are and where we
belong (1989, p. 21). Fourth, we seek an integration of our being. We want
to discover our true self. We seek the integration of action and thought, in-
terior life and external behavior, affect and cognition, conscious and uncon-
scious, and so forth (1989, p. 21). This expression leads us back to the first
component of our spiritual essence because the reference point for this in-
tegration must be something outside ourselves (1989, p. 21). It is these four
components that define spirituality and describe the essence of the human
experience.
While as Christians we find the fulfillment of this quest through Gods
gracious call to a relationship with himself (1989, p. 20), it seems obvious
234 Christian Education Journal

that much of humankind does not respond similarly. In light of the diversity
of responses to this quest, Benner suggests, Not all spirituality is religious,
and not all religious spirituality is Christian (1988, p. 105; 1989, p. 22; 1998,
p. 89). The most rudimentary expression of our spirituality is natural spiri-
tuality in which individuals engage their longings for self-transcendence and
surrender and yet may not be aware of their ultimate significance (1988,
p. 105). Building on Gerald May, Benner suggests that our spirituality be-
comes religious only when an individual begins to experience the self in rela-
tionship with some higher power and responds to this relationship with
prayer or worship (1988, p. 105). This response may involve movement to-
ward the one true God or it may be a movement toward some other god
(1989, p. 22). Much of what takes place in Alcoholic Anonymous falls under
the rubric of religious spirituality as individuals are encouraged to relinquish
control of their lives to and seek a relationship with a higher power (1998, p.
90). The third expression of spirituality is Christian spirituality in which an
individuals probings and responses to deep spiritual longings are carried
out within the context of the Christian faith and community (1988, p. 106).
More specifically, Christian spirituality involves a deep relationship with
God made possible through faith in Jesus Christ and the life of the indwelling
Holy Spirit (1989, p. 22).

Foundations of Spiritual Growth

As is the case in any relationship, this deep relationship with God is in-
tended to mature. Such growth involves movement into a deeper and closer
relationship with God [by which] our wills and character are increasingly
conformed to Gods will and character, and we become more whole (1998, p.
90). Benners psychospiritual emphasis leads to the idea that spiritual growth
is related to psychological growth, and by extension our deeper relationship
with God is to find our place, identity, and purpose and to discover a point of
reference for the integration of our personality (1998, pp. 90, 91). On the
contrary, to be spiritually dead is to be unresponsive to the deep call from
within to find ones place in submission to God, [and] to be psychologically
underdeveloped and impoverished (1988, p. 126).
Benners psychospiritual model also provides a helpful qualification to
the many theories of human development that typically fail to connect psy-
chological growth with spiritual growth. In response, he creates an inherent
linkage between psychological development, or what he identifies as struc-
tural milestones and spiritual development that he refers to as directional
milestones (1988, pp. 126, 127). Structural milestones describe movement
from high levels of dependence to an integration of ones being. Six stages
mark this movement, including symbiotic dependency, differentiation of self,
HOWARD: A Psychospiritual Model of Formation 235

relatedness, individuation, self-transcendence, and integration of personality.

These milestones interact with the directional milestones of spiritual devel-
opment that involves movement from basic trust to the capacity for intimacy.
Specific directional stages include development of basic trust, awareness of
call to self-transcendence, recognition of call as from God, awareness of in-
sufficiency of self, receipt of divine forgiveness, progressive freedom from sin,
progressive evidence of the fruit of the Spirit, and deepening intimacy with
God (p. 127).
These spiritual, directional stages are further organized in three groups
that more specifically describe the process of spiritual growth. Stages 14 re-
late theologically to the process of preparation, stage 5 is identified as justifi-
cation, and stages 68 involve sanctification (1988, pp.130132). The presup-
position here is that significant spiritual activity takes place in an individuals
life of any age, even prior to ones awareness of and cooperation with that
activity.
This movement toward a deeper and closer relationship with God in-
volves an intended destination of the Christian journey in which a Chris-
tian becomes a great lover, whole and holy, and his true self-in-Christ (2002b,
p. 32). While each of these three master goals is obviously crucial to the pro-
cess of discipleship, the second and third qualities are perhaps especially per-
tinent. Becoming a great lover involves learning to reflect Gods love first by
experientially knowing his love for us, when the thing about me that I most
deeply know is that I am deeply loved by God (p. 33) and that Jesus does not
love some immaterial or eternal part of me, he loves me (p. 35). Becoming a
great lover also spills over into neighbor love as we learn to forgive, pray for
others, and humbly respond to our inherent limitations in loving others (pp.
33, 34).
The second master goal of this journey involves becoming whole and
holy. It is with significance that Benner states that the goal of the Christian
spiritual journey is not to become less human and more divine; it is to become
more fully human. Salvation is not to rescue us from our humanity; it is to re-
deem our humanity (2002b, p. 35). This concept is perhaps especially impor-
tant for those of us who operate within a classical holiness framework because
realistically disciples do not become more whole and holy by denying entire
aspects of [our] humanity (i.e., our sexuality, intellect, emotions, playfulness)
but, like Jesus, by embracing our humanness.The authentic journey of Chris-
tian spirituality must always involve redemption of our humanity, never its de-
nial (p. 35), a redemption that leads to holiness through a restored relation-
ship with God. Yet this holiness does not involve the annihilation of our
identity with a simple transplant of Gods identity. Rather it involves taking
on the life and character of a holy God by means of a restored relationship to
him and becoming like the God with whom we live in intimate relationship.
236 Christian Education Journal

It is acquiring his Spirit and allowing spirit to be transformed by Spirit (pp.

36, 37). This process of wholeness and holiness involves an imperative aware-
ness of the interdependence of knowing God and self. Many Christians sup-
pose that discipleship is exclusively concerned with coming to know God
more fully while concluding that growing in self-awareness is worldly and
consequently sinful. Benners helpful corrective is that this deep knowing of
each supports deeper knowing of the other (p. 36).
The third master goal, becoming our true self-in-Christ, builds on the
second. One consequence of the interdependent knowing of God and self,
mentioned above, is a growing awareness that the self I am called from eter-
nity to be has meaning only in relation to Christ (2002b, p. 38). Much of our
spiritual journey, therefore, involves dealing with our sinful self or what Ben-
ner refers to as our reluctance to find my identity and fulfillment in Christ
[that] leaves me vulnerable to living out of a false center. (2002b, p. 38). This
false center, or false self, is the embodiment of an inappropriate and unreal-
istic dependence on what we have, what we do, and what people think of us.
Consequently, many Christians continue on the journey either by failing to
be appropriately self-aware, refusing to come face-to-face with the shadow
aspects of our personality (1998, p. 101), and/or by living a lie, pretending to
be someone we are not (2002b, p. 37). Building on Galatians 2:20, Benner
suggests that it is our sinful or false self that is to be crucified. And so, If our
sinful and false ways of being are what we are to crucify, what are we to actu-
alize? The self that I am to become is Christ in me; it is my self-in-Christ
(2002b, p. 39) experienced in ways that enable us to be more fully human.

Implications for Christian Formation

These foundational thoughts lead to at least two broad implications as

this model relates to Christian formation. First, Benners thinking presses us
to a wholistic response to discipleship. Clearly, we cannot reduce discipleship
simply to what we perceive to be an individuals spiritual needs. God is con-
cerned with transforming the whole self, and our attention as educators/
disciplers must be attuned to his concern. Second, our role as disciplers must
involve the full range of the development/milestones of an individuals psy-
chospiritual lifespan. Some of us serve seemingly resistant and unresponsive
individuals, yet we act as disciplers nonetheless. Similar to Pauls metaphor,
some of us will sow, and others of us will reap, but each of us can be inten-
tional about our identification with and involvement in Gods purpose to
bring about the increase.
Benners more recent works extend his psychosocial model to the nature
of soul care that he defines as the support and restoration of the well-being
of persons in their depth and totality, with particular concern for their inner
HOWARD: A Psychospiritual Model of Formation 237

life (1998, p. 23). His presupposition is that, properly understood, Christian

transformation encompasses a radical journey that moves us from our false
self to our true self-in-Christ. Attempting to mature on our own is obviously
a contradiction of terms and will quickly lead to the conclusion that the goals
mentioned above are absolutely unattainable. In fact, authentic transfor-
mation seems so tiresome, so long a reach. I simply want to stay where I am. I
want to stop the journey and make my destination wherever I presently find
myself (2002b, p. 39). Consequently, a psychospiritual model of Christian
formation is premised on substantial involvement of other people with vary-
ing degrees of intensity at numerous places of a disciples journey.
To address what he considers to be the fragmented state of Christian soul
care, Benner has created a relational taxonomy of care that includes Christian
psychotherapy, Christian/pastoral counseling, lay counseling, family and mu-
tual soul care, pastoral care, spiritual direction, and intensive soul care (1998,
p. 203). More recently, he has focused attention on the role of friendships,
small groups, marriage, and spiritual direction (2002a; Moon & Benner,
2004) in providing the nurture necessary for the spiritual journey.

Implications for Spiritual Direction

Simply put, a clear biblical presupposition is that followers of Jesus

Christ need other followers willing to experience mutually transforming rela-
tionships in ways that foster maturity in the Body of Christ and which ad-
dress North American tendencies toward individualism and self-absorption.
While all of the relationships mentioned above are potentially crucial to
Christian formation, spiritual direction is a form of care that is of growing in-
terest for many people. Spiritual direction is defined as a prayer process in
which a person seeking help in cultivating a deeper personal relationship
with God meets with another for prayer and conversation that is focused on
increasing awareness of God in the midst of life experiences and facilitating
surrender to Gods will (2002b, p. 94). Simply put, spiritual direction is a
mutual paying attention to God (2002b, p. 95). Benners earlier observa-
tions suggested that this dynamic could be fulfilled through a discipleship re-
lationship, spiritual mentoring, friendships, or shepherding. Regardless of the
venue, these relationships are cultivated to intentionally foster spiritual
growth and greater attentiveness and responsiveness to God (1998, p. 195).
More recent contributions, however, distance spiritual direction from
the authoritarian tendencies of shepherding and from discipling since, ac-
cording to Benner, discipling typically is structured, helps people new in the
faith, and involves higher levels of accountability. While involving a measure
of accountability, spiritual direction relationships are built on accompani-
ment, guiding, and co-learning (2002b, pp. 90, 91, 93). These relationships
238 Christian Education Journal

are also different from pastoral and other counseling relationships because
attention is not primarily directed toward problems and/or behavior, but
rather growth and the inner life (1998, p. 196) since counseling is problem-
centered (and) spiritual direction is Spirit-centered (2002b, p. 92). Further-
more, these relationships, while possessing the potential for friendship build-
ing, are more deeply focused on discernment of the leading of the Holy
Spirit and nurture in Christian growth and spirituality (1998, p. 197).
While the literature related to mentoring relationships is virtually with-
out limit, Keith Anderson and Randy Reese have co-authored an exception-
ally helpful book, Spiritual Mentoring (1999), in which they create some clear
linkages with Benners spiritual direction model. These connections are even
clearer when Benner and Moons edited work, Spiritual Direction and the
Care of Souls (2004), is considered. Both models are premised on high levels
of mutuality and require good and kind listeners (Benner & Moon, 2004,
p. 21) as one comes alongside another for a period of time, brief or extended,
in partnership with the Holy Spirit, for the explicit task of nurturing spiritual
formation in the life of the mentoree (Anderson & Reese, 1999, p. 50). Simi-
larly, Benner and Moon suggest that spiritual direction involves the associa-
tion of two people who intend the development of an intimate relationship
with Godconversing with an invisible Friend, if you will, until we become
just like him (2004, p. 15). These relations are premised on helping an indi-
vidual recognize and respond to the already present activity of God (Ander-
son & Reese, 1999, p. 50; Benner & Moon, 2004, pp. 1214). Each is con-
cerned with the formation of ones true identity in God within the context of
community (Anderson & Reese, 1999, p. 50; Benner & Moon, 2004, pp.
1416). And, these relationships are viewed as foundational to ones journey
of faith (Anderson & Reese, 1999, p. 50; Benner & Moon, 2004, pp. 19, 21).

Concluding Observations

Benners contributions to the process of Christian formation are sub-

stantial. He reminds us that, at its core, the spiritual life is always a unified
life (2005, p. 12) because we are created as inherently whole, integrated be-
ings. He suggests that the soul is the meeting point of the psychological and
the spiritual and that spiritual caregivers must care for the souls of others in
such a way that their care touches the deepest levels of peoples inner lives
(1998, p. 13). And while encouraging deepening self and God-awareness,
Benner reminds us that such growth is predicated on an intentional, multi-
layered model of nurture involving other Christians in ways that move disci-
pleship from a North American preoccupation with individualism. These
foundations for and the practices of the relational taxonomy, Benner sug-
gests, are especially pertinent in an emerging postmodern culture in which
HOWARD: A Psychospiritual Model of Formation 239

the metaphor of journey resonates with many people. Benners psychospir-

itual model gives credence to an Ill join you on the journey perspective of
discipleship reinforcing the notion that relationships and processes are vitally
important to holistic Christian formation.

REFERENCES
Anderson, K. R., & Reese, R. D. (1999). Spiri-
tual mentoring: A guide for seeking and giving
direction. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity
Press.
David Benner has written extensively on both
the professional and popular level. The works
cited below represent those sources integrated
in this article and/or are directly related to the
contributions of a psychospiritual perspective
for discipleship. They are perceived as particu-
larly helpful for those of us who are involved
in Christian formation/discipleship at various
levels.
Benner, D. (1988). Psychotherapy and the spiri-
tual quest. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book
House.
Benner, D. (1989). Toward a psychology of
spirituality: Implications for personality and
psychotherapy. Journal of Psychology and
Christianity, 8 (1), 1930.
Benner, D. (1998). Care of souls: Revisioning
Christian nurture and counsel. Grand Rapids,
MI: Baker Book House.
Benner, D. (2002a). Nurturing spiritual
growth. Journal of Psychology and Theology, 30
(4), 355361.
Benner, D. (2002b). Sacred companions: The
gift of spiritual friendship and direction. Down-
ers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press
Benner, D. (2003). Surrender to love: Discover-
ing the heart of Christian spirituality. Downers
Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press.
Benner, D. (2004). The gift of being yourself:
The sacred call to self-discovery. Downers
Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press.
Benner, D. (2005). Desiring Gods will: Aligning
our hearts with the heart of God. Downers
Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press.
Moon, G. W., & Benner, D. (Eds.). (2004).
Spiritual direction and the care of souls: A guide
to Christian approaches and practices. Downers
Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press.
AUTHOR
Phil Howard (Ph.D. Trinity International
University) serves as Associate Professor of
Christian Education at Toccoa Falls College
in Toccoa, GA. He can be reached at
<phoward@tfc.edu>