Professional Documents
Culture Documents
CHAPTER I
Background
shift in recent decades. While it was once common practice for employers to arrange for
programs remotely, the corporate climate forced a cessation to this model. However
attractive for employees, the remote training method was not viable for the corporations
productivity combined with the costs of travel, lodging, expenses, and instructor fees
corporations needed to reconsider the way they approached training and whether or not
inherent value in the practice of employee education and training; in the 1980s, Richard
Mayer, CEO of Kentucky Fried Chicken, credited a strategic training plan as the
salvation of their company from the threat of bankruptcy: [i]t is more costly to not have
suggested that the reciprocal value employees perceived after benefitting from the
As the technological advancements of the Digital Age presented new frontiers for
communication, the way society shared information and engaged in learning was
incurring exorbitant costs to the corporation. Strother (2002) found that many
corporations began opting for eLearning programs in lieu of in-person training because of
the tremendous savings in both time and cost for the employer:
companies using online training can expect plenty of time and cost
While there is little argument against the benefits of the eLearning training model
for employers, there is substantial evidence to question its efficacy as a tool to engender
authentic learning and progress. The eLearning model for training does not result in the
consistent gains and positive outcomes that face-to-face training programs once had;
survey results indicate that individuals struggle to learn without peer interaction and
instructor support, and that the independent learning experience fosters a sense of
isolation, causing for a loss of perceived value and motivation for employees (Xie, 2012,
p. 291). As corporations have increased their reliance upon eLearning for their training
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company policy, and learn job-related skills (Lee, Hsieh, & Hsu, 2011, p. 124). In many
cases, when employees are unable to understand or learn from the independent training,
they run the risk of skill obsolescence or potential termination. These incongruous
outcomes and learner experiences between face-to-face and eLearning programs for
corporate training has indicated that further research needs to be done to better establish a
practice that considers how and why adults are motivated and best-enabled to learn in an
eLearning environment.
Elementary, secondary, and higher education institutions may offer some solutions
to this problem, as educators have long been blending eLearning platforms, instructional
technologies, and mobile learning devices into their pedagogical practice to enhance the
learner experience for their students. Significant gains have been identified when
through various exercises, and then connect it to their prior knowledge or real-world
understanding (Horton, 2012). Hortons model has been replicated within the
pedagogical model called Flipped Instruction. Through this model, teachers create, or
curate, intentional digital content for independent review. Students then come into class
having already reviewed the content and absorbed the new information, and are thereby
apply and explore their new knowledge. These learning experiences assist them in
establishing working and long-term memory that will aid them in developing mastery of
training, there are significant gaps between their application and implementation of
instructional tools. Flipped instruction is one instance where corporate trainers and
instructional designers could benefit from the expertise and experience of elementary,
eLearning initiatives, corporate trainers must not reconsider their dependence on the tool
of eLearning, but rather revise their application and incorporation of it in their training
initiatives.
Purpose
The purpose of this study is to identify the lessons that can be learned from
existing educational research concerning the efficacy and practice of flipped instruction
in order to inform the design and delivery of corporate training programs that engender
authentic learning for their employees. This research is intended to determine ways that
instructional designers can develop content that will foster professional development,
reduce employee turnover, support progress and growth for the company, and assist
Research Questions
engagement?
2. Which pedagogical practices best complement eLearning content in
environment?
5
In recent decades, the world has seen more technological advancements than the
previous two centuries combined (Flumerfelt & Green, 2013, p. 357). Just as this has
worked to shape and greatly alter our society, culture, and industry, this evolution of
emerging technologies has impacted the way people interact, learn, process, and think.
While there have been many studies to support and illustrate the use of instructional
corporate training to suggest proven methods for the development, structure, delivery or
assessment of corporate training programs that yield authentic learning. This study seeks
to determine how corporate instructors can improve training programs that will support
however, because there are only so many hours in a day, the training often gets pushed
approach to addressing this issue is an attempt to make corporate training more palatable
achieve
7
While all of the aforementioned aspects can be true of e-Learning initiatives, they
are more idealistic than actual. Despite the significant number of studies to support the
use of the eLearning technology, the proposition and delivery of this training are not
always done in a manner that fosters intrinsic value or motivation on the part of the
learner. Lee (2010) evaluated the efficacy of training programs in industry-wide surveys:
which increased from $820 in 2003 [] The rationale for huge training
[] Several researchers have claimed that many training programs are not
In order for training programs to yield positive results and achieve their goals,
corporations need to reconsider their approach in order to determine how these programs
8
are going to successfully train the employees in the ways that they are intended to, in
In order to better motivate employees to engage and find inherent value in the
training, corporate trainers must reconsider how they can best design, implement and
deliver their e-Learning to their target audience. One proven method for training is called
on-the-job training, which has become a necessary factor in the corporate sector. This
and is inherently relevant to ones job, as it occurs within the work environment, and
illustrates the personal relevance of technology acquisition, policy and procedure review,
soft skills, or other specific job-related content to each individual trainee. van de
Werfhorst (2014) explains that in order to maintain ones position, an employee must be
prepared for a career of lifelong learning, where continuous upskilling is needed for
changing occupations and mobility across businesses and organizations; so, too, should
employers prepare to establish an environment that fosters and provides workers with
particular work attitudes and competencies [improving] their ability to avoid skills
something that all employees must do to prevent skill obsolescence due to technology
transience and evolving job markets (p. 129). In order to understand how to establish an
upskilling mindset and culture within the work environment, corporations must
understand how people are motivated and most efficiently able to learn and process new
Within the realm of K-12 instruction, teachers have long identified a need for
change in the way they presented instructional content with their students; because of the
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emerging technologies of the 21st Century, there has been a shift in the way people learn
since the turn of the millennium, and this has influenced changes in the way educators
approach teaching. Prensky (2001) coined the term digital natives to define the
students of the early 2000s that had been raised in the digital age, as he sought to examine
why his students were unable to absorb information or learning through the same
It is now clear that as a result of this ubiquitous environment and the sheer
volume of their interaction with it, todays students think and process
As Dagget and McNulty (2005) describe, technology has and will continue to advance
more in the next few years than it has in the past two centuries (as cited in Flumerfelt &
Green, 2013, p. 357). To that point, digital natives have grown up in a culture that has
literacy for technology acquisition and navigation that is different from any other
generation.
In order to better meet the needs of these students and tap into their specific skill
sets, many educators have shifted their methods in order to use digital media, games,
digital tools, and other emerging technologies as vehicles of instruction. Using the
accessibility of the Internet, file sharing and linking have made these materials accessible
to students through personal devices and at home. Through this modality, learners can
access eLearning content according to their own terms, and cater their learning to a
10
schedule and environment that is best suited for them to achieve what Joo, Lim, and Kim
As many of these digital natives are entering the workforce, the corporate sector
needs to consider the different ways that these individuals learn, in order to foster an
environment of professional development and personal mastery. So now, more than ever,
instructional designers need to consider the methods that have proven successful in
educating this generation of learners. Trout (2016) recommends that eLearning and on-
demand training are well-suited for training solutions because they accommodat[e]
multiple facilities, learning styles, cultural differences and languages making it the most
accessible way to reach the widest range of learners (p. 34). By considering the
educational research concerning the best practices for the implementation and utilization
programs that will be more efficient in engendering authentic learning for all participants.
Some teachers have found ways to make digital online instruction and on-demand
learning fun, engaging, and effective through the practice of flipped instruction; this
institutions as teachers are working to transition the direct instruction of content outside
method of instruction has inspired many educators to create and curate dynamic and
differentiation, and review to their students. With this training, students are given the
over their learning process. As teachers adopt the role of a facilitator rather than a
steward of learning, they give their students the freedom to direct their own learning and
inquiry processes. As Bishop and Verleger (2013) describe, flipped instruction is the
instructional lectures derived from direct instruction method founded upon behaviorist
executed when the teacher establishes the four pillars by: implementing a flexible
creating intentional and meaningful content, and monitoring their students progress and
learning continuously (p. 2). With these pillars in place, students are able to best able
to benefit from the flipped model. As students independently explore flipped content,
they are not only receiving the necessary information for their course of study, but also
regards to independent learning indicate that the flipped classroom model may be
appropriate for preparing students for 21st Century career that will require continued on
the job learning (p. 25). By adopting this practice, corporations could encourage their
employees to be lifelong learners and masters of their field, as the fruits of their learning
could contribute corporations overall success. Also, a vertical integration of this model
would work to establish a learning culture in the workplace, as employees are naturally
12
Studies show that learners at the undergraduate and graduate level generally
Enfield, 2013, p. 17). Enfield (2013) examined his students perceptions of the flipped
classroom experience: He found that of his 37 students, 62.2% of them found the flipped
content to be very helpful, and 37.8% considered the videos to be somewhat helpful;
while his top performing students were less likely to report that the videos were very
helpful (35.7%) than the middle (68.8%) and bottom (71.4%) students (p. 17). With this
While there have been several studies conducted that indicate the efficacy and
benefits of flipped learning in elementary, secondary, and higher education, there are not
corporate sector. Joo, Lim, and Kim (2012) found that [d]espite the rapid growth of e-
learning in the corporate training sector, this quantitative growth has not always
asked to complete this training in conjunction with their job duties, or at home, attention
to detail, engagement, and focus are often low (p. 313). Despite the achievement gaps
and observed drops in motivation, employees are not inherently resistant to learning;
however, in order to address those concerns trainers and instructional designers must
work to enhance engagement through the way that instruction is proposed, delivered, and
the content they are learning. Even learners who want a just-in-time
repeated: what if its not enough? What if our learners are not prepared to
apply the learning after their experience with a particular learning tool or
instructional designers can seek to enhance and enrich content for corporate training in
order to improve the quality and efficacy of learning for their employees. Instructional
technology has been identified as a tool for necessary reform in the field of education; in
order to promote similar progress in the corporate sector, the best practices for the
with the roles and responsibilities of the content developer, corporate trainer or instructor,
and learner in contributing to and fostering a learning environment that will benefit all
corporations that are current, relevant, and establish an environment that is conducive to
learn on their own terms at their own pace, content developers can frame instructional
design issues around the learner and his interaction with technology in an effort to
uncover shared solutions to resolve complex problems (p. 116). This study indicates
learners are more likely to engage with a learning experience that is offered to them on
their own terms; in being offered the freedom to choose when the learning will happen
and where the learning will happen, learners are more likely to comply with independent
learning opportunities (Ramayah, Ahmad, & Hong, 2012, p. 127). However, current
applications of corporate training do not always offer the freedom that instructional
training programs are more effective when employees are given flexible schedules and
While there is research to indicate that eLearning content is most successful when
the developer considers the specific needs of the learners in order to create relevant,
digestible, purposeful, and relatable content (Joo, Lim, & Kim, 2012; Park, Kim, & Yu,
2011), there are no clear recommendations for the kinds of instructional technologies or
media that will best yield learning flow and authenticity of learning in a corporate setting.
Puhakainen and Siponen (2010) found that the efficacy of corporate training was
enhanced when the program was designed to enhance personal relevance through
on a personal level (p. 774). The researcher hypothesizes that by applying Hortons
engender authentic learning and increase performance in trainees, as they have targeted
Both schools and corporations are facing the same quandary. They are observing
the need for a shift in their approach to teaching, and are identifying similar issues and
trends with their learners. In comparing the literature, the researcher has concluded that
the benefits resulting from the flipped model are indicative of potential applications in the
corporate sector. While recent studies illustrate that the same environmental and
research to indicate that the two are confronting the problem in the same way: Schools
are finding success as they incorporating the flipped model to establish learner-centered
environments that promote self-efficacy and intrinsic value through the use of educational
technology, while also providing support in class by allocating specific time and
resources for students to use as they interact with peers and instructors to construct
learner-centered environments as indicators of success but not taking the time to adopt or
incorporate the methods that are proven to foster those attributes of a successful
instructional program.
This study seeks to define how the lessons learned by educators who apply the
methods of flipped instruction can help to inform and thereby transform the field of
corporate training. In so doing, the researcher seeks to determine methods that will
16
engender a corporate culture that places value in their employees and fosters a learning
Definitions
differences (Spain, Priest, & Murphy 2012, p. 88). These training programs are effective
resources as they offer a personalized educational experience that is flexible to the needs
and capabilities of the learner. Adaptive training can serve to describe ability grouping,
group problem solving, and training placement guided by pretest scores or uses of
to adult education, or the art and science of adult learning (Kearsley, 2010, as cited in
Pappas, 2013). Knowles outlined that there were five assumptions about adult learners
that were different from child learners: (1) adult learners have a self-concept of
themselves as self-directed human being, (2) adult learners draw from a growing
relevant to the developmental tasks of his/her social roles, (4) adult learners orient their
centeredness, and (5) adults are motivated internally moreso than externally (Pappas,
2013). Knowles also delineated four principles of andragogy: (1) adults need to be
involved in the planning and evaluation of their instruction, (2) adults benefit mainly
17
from experiential learning activities that allow for mistakes, (3) learning subjects are
better absorbed when they have immediate relevance to the learners application, (4)
Thorndikes initial law of effect (1898, 1911) that responses to a situation that are
followed by satisfaction are strengthened; responses that are followed by discomfort are
weakened (Ormrod, 2016, p. 47), illustrates that when learners perceive ease of use and
usability of an innovation, they are more likely to adopt a new technology than when they
are confronted with difficulty or discomfort while learning a new innovation. Using the
terminology of Lee, Hsieh, and Hsu (2011), the researcher will use the term behavioral
intention to describe the likely use, adoption, and adaptation of new innovations.
Blended Learning: The marriage between traditional and new ways of organizing
learning are combined (p. 165). This practice is, as its name indicates, a mix of various
Lee, Hsieh, and Hsu (2011) define compatibility as the degree to which an innovation is
regarded as being consistent with the potential end-users existing values, prior
experiences, and needs (p. 126). In their research, Lee, Hsieh, and Hsu (2011)
Lee, Hsieh, and Hsu (2011) define complexity as the end-users perceived level of
difficulty in understanding innovations and their ease of use (p. 126). Complexity is in
direct contrast to Perceived Ease of Use, a construct of Davis et al. (1989) Technology
Acceptance Model (Lee, Hsieh, & Hsu, 2011, p. 126). After comparing the works of
Davis (1989) and Rogers (1995), Lee, Hsieh, and Hsu (2011) indicated, TAM and IDT
propose that the formation of users intention is partially determined by how difficult the
innovation is to understand or use (p. 126). In their review of the research, Lee, Hsieh,
and Hsu (2011) concluded that complexity has a negative affect on employee acceptance
workplace orientation, and ethical behaviors in the workplace (Trout, 2016, p. 34). The
researcher will refer to an individuals preparation for their chosen industry, and the
as one of the Big Five Personality Traits (Orvis et al., 2011) that has bearing on the
persistent, dutiful, organized, and strive for personal achievement (Bauer, Brusso, &
Orvis, 2012, p. 152). This type of learner is intrinsically motivated, self-efficacious, and
is often observed to set higher goals than that of their peers (p. 152).
new information in order to construct knowledge and make connections between what is
19
previously known, and what is being learned occurs on a personal and individual level.
However, groups can also work together to establish an evolved understanding of a topic,
and social constructivism occur, as students are trusted to forge their own learning in such
Corporate Training: The researcher will use the term corporate training to define
Corporate Training Environment: The researcher will use the term corporate
Edutainment: Training and educational tools and programs that are designed to
enhance learner engagement, but fail to engender authentic learning (Li, Chan, &
intended to motivate or enhance engagement on the part of the learner (Dunn, 2014, p.
40).
understanding and learning process. When using e-Learning, programs, learners benefit
from flexible timelines and learning patterns, as they interact with the content on their
own schedule and according to their own choice. This constructivist design allows for
20
learners to interact with new information at their own pace, and revisit topics or skill
lessons at their leisure. Flexible timelines also promote authentic learning, as learners do
eLearning platforms. Through this inverted model, students enjoy an engaging learning
experience that is effective in helping students learn the content, and increas[e] self-
innovation as an idea, practice, or object that is perceived as new by an individual or another unit
of adoption and diffusion as the process by which an innovation is communicated through certain
channels over time among the members of a social system, we can better understand Agarwals
(2000) proposal that Innovation Diffusion Theory argues that potential users make decisions to
adopt or reject an innovation based on beliefs that they form about the innovation (as cited in
Lee, Hsieh, & Hsu, 2011, p. 126). IDT includes five significant innovation characteristics:
relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, and trialability and observability (Lee, Hsieh, &
Intentional Content: Instructional designers must create a curate content that is relevant
to the learner, easily accessed, and promotes constructivist principles for learning. Content
should be scaffolded and presented in a purposeful way that promotes growth and enrichment,
and also provides remediation when necessary. By considering how to bridge the gap between
what is known, and what needs to be known, a designer can develop content that will benefit the
learner through the enhancement of perceived intrinsic value (FLN, 2014, p. 2).
engage in a task because the task is inherently enjoyable, a reward in itself; when a learner is
intrinsically motivated they are less likely to procrastinate their participation in a learning
opportunity (pp 34-35). Ryan and Deci (2000) identified three conditions as motivational
factors: autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Other factors to increase intrinsic motivation
are optimal level of challenge and autonomy of choice (Dunn, 2014, p.40). As intrinsic
that one derives from the participation and completion of a task is defined as intrinsic value.
With intrinsic value, a learner is innately motivated to engage, and is not influenced by external
factors. When a learner inherently possesses an intrinsic value for an activity, they also tend to
self-regulate to ensure that they achieve full understanding and cognition (Joo, Lim, & Kim,
2012, p. 314).
Learning Authenticity: Complex characteristic that occurs when learners recognize the
learning activities, complex tasks, and conditions of evaluations are authentic in order to
train/teach them skills or knowledge that can has real-world applications that are immediately
relevant to their lives. When learning authenticity has been realized, learning flow can be
Learning Culture: The Flipped Learning Network (2014) defines a learning culture as a
learner-centered environment that puts the instructor in the role of monitor and facilitator, rather
than leader. When this culture is established learners can interact with knowledge at their own
pace and receive necessary interventions from an instructor when needed. This helps to establish
self-efficacy as well as provide supports for learners when needed (p. 2).
thereby achievement of the learner. When learning flow is achieved, the learner is completely
absorbed by the educational experience and does not easily fall to boredom or frustration.
Without flow, authentic learning cannot be achieved and the chance of failure is increased (Joo,
training as an instructional curriculum that is designed and tailored to a specific group based on
results of prior knowledge or ability assessments. Content, delivery, and interventions are
determined on the outset of the course. These programs, along with the inclusion of technology-
based training, provide an experience that is specific to the learners ability at the outset of the
course, and due to the low-maintenance nature of this content, is cost-effective for the
and explores the entirety of the learning content all at once in a singular occasion (Ormrod, 2016,
p. 154).
frequent assessments to measure student performance and progress. Students receive specific
and personalized feedback to assist them in their learning process. Adaptations may result in
technologies can assess and diagnose necessary interventions on an individual basis to best
provide support to learners. While this is an incredibly effective instructional strategy, its costs
often make its implementation impossible for organizations with limited resources (p. 90).
Microtraining: Stober & Putter (2013) define microtraining as learning and development
that takes place over short segments of time (p. 42). Microtraining can be delivered through
face-to-face or online platforms, and consists of small segments or chunks of information that
can easily be digested without causing much disruption to the flow or productivity of a workday.
Microtraining lessons have the added benefit of allowing learners to receive new information or
innovation that permits training and learning digitally on a device that is not fixed to a location.
This allows for learning, training, or upskilling to occur in an environment that is mobile,
ubiquitous, and in accordance with the freedom of choice enjoyed by the learner. Benefits of
mobile learning include: social interactivity, personalized learning experience, portability, and
Motivation: According to Ramayah, Amad, and Hong (2012) motivation is defined as the
specific desire of the trainee to learn the content of the training course that is characterized by
both the trainees enthusiasm for learning and the trainees persistence in attempting to learn the
materials when the content becomes more difficult (p. 128). The presence of a motivation elicits
Neuroticism: Bauer, Brusso, and Orvis (2012) describe neuroticism as one of the Big
Five Personality Traits that has bearing on the efficacy of adaptive learning and game-based
learning. Individuals who are neurotic are prone to psychological distress, anxiety, self-
conscious, and tend to react in expressions of anger or frustration (p. 152). Individuals who are
neurotic are less likely to find success in training due to their anxiety, as they do not excel when
confronted with challenge. These types of learners are best suited to student-centered
Hsieh, and Hsu (2011) define observability as the degree to which the results of innovations can
be visible by other people (p. 126). After reviewing the research, Lee, Hsieh, and Hsu (2011)
determined that observability had a positive effect on on employee acceptance and adoption of
experience as one of the Big Five Personality Traits that has bearing on the efficacy of adaptive
that is held by individuals who are intellectually curious, creative, and enjoy experiencing new
things; these individuals find success in training, and are innately motivated to maintain focus
Participation: For the purpose of this study, the term participation will be used by the
researcher to define any action by the learner related to the review and absorption of educational
content, collaboration with peers, course-related interactions or communications with the trainer,
reflection of their own learning process, completion of assessment tasks, independent application
of new information or skills to job performance, or engagement in activities occurring within the
engagement in required or mandated learning opportunities. Chu and Choi (2005) defined
negative behavior by which the learner allows fear and indecisive behavior to paralyze their
progress in learning, as it negatively impacts academic performance and learning as it limits both
the quality and quantity of student work; the detrimental impact of passive procrastination has
been observed by Akinsola et al. (2007) in the form of lower goal commitment and decreased
achievement (Dunn, 2014, pp. 34-35). Dunn (2014) posited that passive procrastination
stemmed from three contributing factors: the learners academic self-regulation (or self-efficacy),
intrinsic motivation, and course-related anxiety (p. 35). Research indicates that passive
procrastination is often worse in online learning environments than face-to-face learning
processes of learning; the art, science, and craft of effective teaching (Smith, 2012).
Perceived Ease of Use: External factor that influences a learners level of engagement or
interest due to the nature of the learning environment or experience while using instructional
technology (Joo, Lim, & Kim, 2012, p. 314). When a learner has confidence or belief in the
particular system of technology, they are more likely to enter a learning flow as they are not
distracted by external factors. Perceived Ease of Use is a construct measured in Davis et al.
(1989) Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) and has direct correlations with the Innovation
Diffusion Theory (IDT) innovation characteristic, Complexity (Lee, Hsieh, & Hsu, 2011, p. 126).
interest due to applicability or connections to their lives. When a learner is able to perceive the
applications of a topic or skill, they are more likely to feel motivated to engage with the learning
and enter a learning flow (Joo, Lim, & Kim, 2012, p. 314). Perceived Usefulness is a construct
measured in Davis et al. (1989) Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) and has direct
correlations with the Innovation Diffusion Theory (IDT) innovation characteristic, Relative
Problem-Based Learning: Type of learning activity or content that assists students in the
acquisition of new skills and knowledge as they are tasked with complex problems that engage
critical thinking and real-world connections or applications. For the purpose of this study, the
researcher will use the term Problem-Based Learning (PBL) to define any type of educational
326).
the teacher adopt a role of facilitator rather than disseminator of knowledge. The instructor in a
successful Flipped Classroom curates and creates digital content that is concise, relevant, and
specific (Park, Kim, & Yu, 2011; Enfield, 2013) and then scaffolds the content to allow learners
to construct and navigate their own learning. Puhakainen and Siponen (2010) recommend that
the instructor of a corporate training program is best able to determine the needs of a group of
employees after doing action research; through surveys, interviews, and observation an instructor
can better understand the need for the training, the existing knowledge of the participants, and
thereby make predictions that will aid them in developing an effective program (pp. 763-764). In
addition to the research, planning and development of the program, the instructor should both
make themselves available for questions and provide learning spaces and resources that can
benefit the learner. By being available to provide additional supports and reinforcement when
needed, closely monitoring student progress in order to intervene when necessary, and regularly
adapting the program to better meet the needs of learners, the instructor will best implement a
successful program (FLN, 2014, p. 2). Dunn (2014) argues that an educator is best able to foster
intrinsically motivated learners when they have helped learners to establish appropriate learning
goals and provided intentional and relevant content in the design and execution of the course (p.
36).
behavior that is done expressly for the purpose of receiving an anticipated end-result that is
wished for. Tolmans theory suggests that once an individual has identified their goal as an end-
IDT; Lee, Hsieh, and Hsu (2011) define relative advantage as the degree to which an innovation
is considered as being better than the idea it replaced and is considered to be a factor that
contributes greatly to the adoption of an innovation (p. 126). Relative Advantage is a direct
Model (Lee, Hsieh, & Hsu, 2011, p. 126). After reviewing the studies done by Shih (2007), Lee
(2007), Lee, Hsieh, and Hsu (2011) hypothesized that relative advantage had a positive effect on
the perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and behavioral intentions with technology (p.
127).
Self-Efficacy: Ormrod (2016) suggests that a learners engagement and effort is directly
tied to their perception of a successful outcome (p. 130). Joo, Lim, and Kim (2012) agree that
internal motivators, such as self-efficacy, are strong predictors of achievement (p. 315).
Self-Regulation: Ormrod (2016) explains that learners who find success in their
educational pursuits are observant of consequences that result from their own and others
behaviors in order to determine social and cultural acceptability of behaviors, as well as those
behaviors that will yield wished-for results; Ormrod (2016) identified behaviors of self-
Technology Acceptance Model (TAM): Davis et al. (1989) established the TAM, which
was derived to apply to any specific domain of human-computer interactions and asserted that
perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use dictated the individuals behavioral intentions for
the use of information technology (Lee, Hsieh, & Hsu, 2011, p. 125). According to Davis et al.
(1989), relevance and personal connection to a system and its applications were equally as
impactful as the individuals level of ease while interacting and using the system in determining
Test Anxiety: Motivational factor that affects performance and achievement in areas of
learning and assessment. Learners are less apt to learn or concentrate when they suffer from text
anxiety, as they are distracted by the threat of failure or poor achievement when learning flow
should be occurring. Studies indicate that the experience of learning under this condition is
likely to yield poor results in terms of performance (Joo, Lim, & Kim, 2012, p. 315).
and Hsu (2011) coin the term trialability, to mean the degree to which innovations can be tested
on a limited basis (p. 126). According to Yang (2007) when there was perceived higher
trialability, there was a similar increase in perception regarding ease of use of the system (Lee,
Upskilling: van de Werfhorst (2014) coined the term upskilling to explain the continuous
need for employees to reskill or train with emerging technologies, changes in job responsibilities,
or to meet ever-changing needs faced by most industries to avoid skill obsolescence and potential
Summary
Chapter I illustrates how the instructional methods and uses of eLearning by educators in
K-12 classrooms may be useful in informing how the corporate training industry can better
achieve authentic learning. While many studies have been completed to measure the efficacy of
eLearning and instructional technologies in the corporate sector, there are very few studies that
illustrate that authentic learning can be accomplished using the current methodologies. However,
many studies reflect that the flipped model is an effective method when used in elementary,
secondary, and higher learning institutions in attempt to combat the same issues confronted by
corporate trainers and instructional developers. This investigation seeks to explore how
corporate training might benefit from the incorporation of the flipped model in order to establish
a learning culture and increase the factors that contribute to authentic learning and academic
achievement. Salient research questions have been designed to drive the research process for
thorough content analysis of recent studies. Definitions relevant to this research have been
provided for the reference and convenience of the reader to engender comprehension. In this
study, a thorough review of the literature will yield insights regarding the efficacy of this
practice.
Chapter II will establish a scholarly framework for this investigation through the review
of relevant literature. Topics reviewed in the literature will be: Developing Content to Enhance
Engagement for Adult Learners, Developing Pedagogical Practices for the Corporate Flipped
Training Classroom, Assessment Methods for Participation, Compliance, and Motivation, and