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CHAPTER I

THE PROBLEM AND ITS SETTING

Background

The culture and approach to corporate training have experienced a tremendous

shift in recent decades. While it was once common practice for employers to arrange for

their employees to participate in face-to-face training seminars and off-site training

programs remotely, the corporate climate forced a cessation to this model. However

attractive for employees, the remote training method was not viable for the corporations

to maintain due to the logistical drawbacks an interruption to work flow and

productivity combined with the costs of travel, lodging, expenses, and instructor fees

made this model unsustainable. To stay competitive in their respective industries,

corporations needed to reconsider the way they approached training and whether or not

the ends were justifying the means.

Despite the fiscal concerns, corporations and organizations continued to find

inherent value in the practice of employee education and training; in the 1980s, Richard

Mayer, CEO of Kentucky Fried Chicken, credited a strategic training plan as the

salvation of their company from the threat of bankruptcy: [i]t is more costly to not have

training. In fact, it is downright terminal (Sussman, 1982, p. 104). Mayer also

suggested that the reciprocal value employees perceived after benefitting from the

companys investment in them inspired a passionate and cooperative staff whose

commitment and gratitude saved the company from ruin.


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As the technological advancements of the Digital Age presented new frontiers for

communication, the way society shared information and engaged in learning was

revolutionized. Mobile learning and emerging instructional technologies provided a new,

cost-effective avenue to bring education and training programs to employees, without

incurring exorbitant costs to the corporation. Strother (2002) found that many

corporations began opting for eLearning programs in lieu of in-person training because of

the tremendous savings in both time and cost for the employer:

Given that as much as 40% of money spent on in-person corporate

learning is eaten up by travel costs (Zhang & Nunamaker, 2003),

companies using online training can expect plenty of time and cost

savings, compared with conventional face-to-face training. (Joo, Lim, &

Kim, 2012, p. 313)

Using eLearning as a platform allowed corporations to continue to invest in their

employees through more comprehensive training programs, without incurring the

substantial fees training programs once cost them.

While there is little argument against the benefits of the eLearning training model

for employers, there is substantial evidence to question its efficacy as a tool to engender

authentic learning and progress. The eLearning model for training does not result in the

consistent gains and positive outcomes that face-to-face training programs once had;

survey results indicate that individuals struggle to learn without peer interaction and

instructor support, and that the independent learning experience fosters a sense of

isolation, causing for a loss of perceived value and motivation for employees (Xie, 2012,

p. 291). As corporations have increased their reliance upon eLearning for their training
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programs, the responsibility is placed entirely on employees to independently participate

in training to satisfy necessary certifications, comply with industry regulations, review

company policy, and learn job-related skills (Lee, Hsieh, & Hsu, 2011, p. 124). In many

cases, when employees are unable to understand or learn from the independent training,

they run the risk of skill obsolescence or potential termination. These incongruous

outcomes and learner experiences between face-to-face and eLearning programs for

corporate training has indicated that further research needs to be done to better establish a

practice that considers how and why adults are motivated and best-enabled to learn in an

eLearning environment.

Elementary, secondary, and higher education institutions may offer some solutions

to this problem, as educators have long been blending eLearning platforms, instructional

technologies, and mobile learning devices into their pedagogical practice to enhance the

learner experience for their students. Significant gains have been identified when

eLearning is designed to enable learners to absorb information, apply new learning

through various exercises, and then connect it to their prior knowledge or real-world

understanding (Horton, 2012). Hortons model has been replicated within the

pedagogical model called Flipped Instruction. Through this model, teachers create, or

curate, intentional digital content for independent review. Students then come into class

having already reviewed the content and absorbed the new information, and are thereby

prepared to participate in interactive, engaging learning experiences that allow them to

apply and explore their new knowledge. These learning experiences assist them in

establishing working and long-term memory that will aid them in developing mastery of

the content or skill they are engaging with.


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Despite inherent similarities between the fields of education and corporate

training, there are significant gaps between their application and implementation of

instructional tools. Flipped instruction is one instance where corporate trainers and

instructional designers could benefit from the expertise and experience of elementary,

secondary, and higher education instructors. In order to enhance the efficacy of

eLearning initiatives, corporate trainers must not reconsider their dependence on the tool

of eLearning, but rather revise their application and incorporation of it in their training

initiatives.

Purpose

The purpose of this study is to identify the lessons that can be learned from

existing educational research concerning the efficacy and practice of flipped instruction

in order to inform the design and delivery of corporate training programs that engender

authentic learning for their employees. This research is intended to determine ways that

instructional designers can develop content that will foster professional development,

reduce employee turnover, support progress and growth for the company, and assist

individuals in avoiding skill obsolescence.

Research Questions

The study will address the following research questions:

1. How do corporate educators develop flipped content to enhance

engagement?
2. Which pedagogical practices best complement eLearning content in

order to provide support and clarification for adult learners in a flipped

environment?
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3. How do corporate educators successfully ensure student compliance,

participation, and motivation in independent learning activities?


4. How is the efficacy of corporate flipped training measured?

Need for the Study

In recent decades, the world has seen more technological advancements than the

previous two centuries combined (Flumerfelt & Green, 2013, p. 357). Just as this has

worked to shape and greatly alter our society, culture, and industry, this evolution of

emerging technologies has impacted the way people interact, learn, process, and think.

While there have been many studies to support and illustrate the use of instructional

technology in education, there is not an equivalent body of research in the field of

corporate training to suggest proven methods for the development, structure, delivery or

assessment of corporate training programs that yield authentic learning. This study seeks

to determine how corporate instructors can improve training programs that will support

employees in their abilities navigating technology transience, emerging technologies, job-

related training, and avoiding skill obsolescence.

Many corporations expect required training or continued education efforts to

occur on a finite timeline in conjunction with employees other job-related duties;

however, because there are only so many hours in a day, the training often gets pushed

into an employees personal time. This acts as an impediment to learning as employees

perceive the training as something of an obligation rather than an opportunity. One

approach to addressing this issue is an attempt to make corporate training more palatable

to employees by transitioning to an eLearning or mobile learning model. Lee, Hsieh, and

Hsu (2011) describe this shift:


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To maintain competitiveness and keep a highly-trained and educated

workforce, organizations have invested considerable amount[s] of time

and resources in e-Learning as a supplement to traditional types of

training, because it can be simultaneously implemented company wide,

achieve
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immediacy, consistency and convenience, and is associated with higher

profits and lower turnover [] But, despite increased usage,

underutilization remains a problem. (p. 124)

While all of the aforementioned aspects can be true of e-Learning initiatives, they

are more idealistic than actual. Despite the significant number of studies to support the

use of the eLearning technology, the proposition and delivery of this training are not

always done in a manner that fosters intrinsic value or motivation on the part of the

learner. Lee (2010) evaluated the efficacy of training programs in industry-wide surveys:

According to the 2005 State of the Industry report by the American

Society of Training and Development, US organizations annual

expenditure on training is reported to be about $955 per employee in 2005,

which increased from $820 in 2003 [] The rationale for huge training

expenditure is that the organizations regard training as an effective

intervention for enhancing human performance to achieve a competitive

advantage in the marketplace. Unfortunately, research indicates that no

more than 20% of corporate investment in training results in performance

improvement or transfer of training to the workplace. Transfer is defined

as the on-the-job application of skills and knowledge gained in the training

[] Several researchers have claimed that many training programs are not

designed for transfer, and instructional strategies or theories for enhancing

transfer are not integrated into the design. (pp.181-182)

In order for training programs to yield positive results and achieve their goals,

corporations need to reconsider their approach in order to determine how these programs
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are going to successfully train the employees in the ways that they are intended to, in

order to benefit all stakeholders equally.

In order to better motivate employees to engage and find inherent value in the

training, corporate trainers must reconsider how they can best design, implement and

deliver their e-Learning to their target audience. One proven method for training is called

on-the-job training, which has become a necessary factor in the corporate sector. This

method for professional development has a low-impact on workflow and productivity,

and is inherently relevant to ones job, as it occurs within the work environment, and

illustrates the personal relevance of technology acquisition, policy and procedure review,

soft skills, or other specific job-related content to each individual trainee. van de

Werfhorst (2014) explains that in order to maintain ones position, an employee must be

prepared for a career of lifelong learning, where continuous upskilling is needed for

changing occupations and mobility across businesses and organizations; so, too, should

employers prepare to establish an environment that fosters and provides workers with

particular work attitudes and competencies [improving] their ability to avoid skills

obsolescence by upskilling (p. 129). As van de Werfhorst describes, upskilling is

something that all employees must do to prevent skill obsolescence due to technology

transience and evolving job markets (p. 129). In order to understand how to establish an

upskilling mindset and culture within the work environment, corporations must

understand how people are motivated and most efficiently able to learn and process new

information in order to achieve transfer (Lee, 2010, p. 182).

Within the realm of K-12 instruction, teachers have long identified a need for

change in the way they presented instructional content with their students; because of the
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emerging technologies of the 21st Century, there has been a shift in the way people learn

since the turn of the millennium, and this has influenced changes in the way educators

approach teaching. Prensky (2001) coined the term digital natives to define the

students of the early 2000s that had been raised in the digital age, as he sought to examine

why his students were unable to absorb information or learning through the same

methods that had been successful with students in the past:

It is now clear that as a result of this ubiquitous environment and the sheer

volume of their interaction with it, todays students think and process

information fundamentally differently from their predecessors. These

differences go far further and deeper than most educators suspect or

realize. (Prensky, 2001, p.1)

As Dagget and McNulty (2005) describe, technology has and will continue to advance

more in the next few years than it has in the past two centuries (as cited in Flumerfelt &

Green, 2013, p. 357). To that point, digital natives have grown up in a culture that has

been continually adapting to emerging technologies; therefore, they have developed

literacy for technology acquisition and navigation that is different from any other

generation.

In order to better meet the needs of these students and tap into their specific skill

sets, many educators have shifted their methods in order to use digital media, games,

digital tools, and other emerging technologies as vehicles of instruction. Using the

accessibility of the Internet, file sharing and linking have made these materials accessible

to students through personal devices and at home. Through this modality, learners can

access eLearning content according to their own terms, and cater their learning to a
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schedule and environment that is best suited for them to achieve what Joo, Lim, and Kim

(2012) call learning flow (p. 313).

As many of these digital natives are entering the workforce, the corporate sector

needs to consider the different ways that these individuals learn, in order to foster an

environment of professional development and personal mastery. So now, more than ever,

instructional designers need to consider the methods that have proven successful in

educating this generation of learners. Trout (2016) recommends that eLearning and on-

demand training are well-suited for training solutions because they accommodat[e]

multiple facilities, learning styles, cultural differences and languages making it the most

accessible way to reach the widest range of learners (p. 34). By considering the

educational research concerning the best practices for the implementation and utilization

of instructional technologies, instructional designers better prepare corporate training

programs that will be more efficient in engendering authentic learning for all participants.

Some teachers have found ways to make digital online instruction and on-demand

learning fun, engaging, and effective through the practice of flipped instruction; this

pedagogical approach is rapidly becoming common practice in K-12 and higher-learning

institutions as teachers are working to transition the direct instruction of content outside

of the classroom, providing opportunities for interactive exploration and enrichment of

knowledge in the common learning environment (FLN, 2014). This student-centered

method of instruction has inspired many educators to create and curate dynamic and

interactive media that provide reinforcement, enrichment, practice, interaction,

differentiation, and review to their students. With this training, students are given the

opportunity to construct their own understanding, empowering them to take ownership


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over their learning process. As teachers adopt the role of a facilitator rather than a

steward of learning, they give their students the freedom to direct their own learning and

inquiry processes. As Bishop and Verleger (2013) describe, flipped instruction is the

fruition of a unique combination of learning theories once thought to be incompatible

active, problem-based learning activities founded upon a constructivist ideology and

instructional lectures derived from direct instruction method founded upon behaviorist

principles (p. 2).

According to the Flipped Learning Network (2014), flipped instruction is best

executed when the teacher establishes the four pillars by: implementing a flexible

learning environment, promoting a student-centered learning culture, selecting and

creating intentional and meaningful content, and monitoring their students progress and

learning continuously (p. 2). With these pillars in place, students are able to best able

to benefit from the flipped model. As students independently explore flipped content,

they are not only receiving the necessary information for their course of study, but also

developing skills of self-advocacy and independent exploration. After experimenting

with the flipped model, Enfield (2013) concluded, improvements in self-efficacy in

regards to independent learning indicate that the flipped classroom model may be

appropriate for preparing students for 21st Century career that will require continued on

the job learning (p. 25). By adopting this practice, corporations could encourage their

employees to be lifelong learners and masters of their field, as the fruits of their learning

could contribute corporations overall success. Also, a vertical integration of this model

would work to establish a learning culture in the workplace, as employees are naturally
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encouraged to maintain academic behaviors long-established by their experience with the

flipped model while at school (van de Worfhorst, 2014).

Studies show that learners at the undergraduate and graduate level generally

perceive flipped instruction as a positive experience (Bishop & Verleger, 2013, p. 2;

Enfield, 2013, p. 17). Enfield (2013) examined his students perceptions of the flipped

classroom experience: He found that of his 37 students, 62.2% of them found the flipped

content to be very helpful, and 37.8% considered the videos to be somewhat helpful;

while his top performing students were less likely to report that the videos were very

helpful (35.7%) than the middle (68.8%) and bottom (71.4%) students (p. 17). With this

endorsement of the practice as a successful tool for differentiation, it can be concluded

that the practice is supportive of learning for a wide-range of learner types.

While there have been several studies conducted that indicate the efficacy and

benefits of flipped learning in elementary, secondary, and higher education, there are not

consistent correlations when considering the efficacy of eLearning programs in the

corporate sector. Joo, Lim, and Kim (2012) found that [d]espite the rapid growth of e-

learning in the corporate training sector, this quantitative growth has not always

guaranteed an equivalent improvement in the quality of learning; as employees are

asked to complete this training in conjunction with their job duties, or at home, attention

to detail, engagement, and focus are often low (p. 313). Despite the achievement gaps

and observed drops in motivation, employees are not inherently resistant to learning;

however, in order to address those concerns trainers and instructional designers must

work to enhance engagement through the way that instruction is proposed, delivered, and

designed in order to encourage and foster learning:


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participants have a desire to learn and, in many cases, want to master

the content they are learning. Even learners who want a just-in-time

learning opportunity for exploration purposes are often interested to know

what is considered mastery of the subject. In reviewing all the challenges

associated with change and innovation, one concept continues to be

repeated: what if its not enough? What if our learners are not prepared to

apply the learning after their experience with a particular learning tool or

teaching technique? Again, this is why purposeful course design and

development is essential. When learning objectives are matched with

learning outcomes, assignments, and assessments, learners are aware of

what is required to achieve mastery of content. (Linder-VanBerschot &

Summers, 2015, p. 115)

Through research of proven methods employed in the flipped instruction model,

instructional designers can seek to enhance and enrich content for corporate training in

order to improve the quality and efficacy of learning for their employees. Instructional

technology has been identified as a tool for necessary reform in the field of education; in

order to promote similar progress in the corporate sector, the best practices for the

implementation and applications of this technology should be considered in conjunction

with the roles and responsibilities of the content developer, corporate trainer or instructor,

and learner in contributing to and fostering a learning environment that will benefit all

stakeholders in the corporate environment.

Linder-VanBerschot and Summers (2015) argue that through the use of

instructional technologies, content developers can create educational programs for


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corporations that are current, relevant, and establish an environment that is conducive to

learning; by understanding the needs of learners and providing them opportunities to

learn on their own terms at their own pace, content developers can frame instructional

design issues around the learner and his interaction with technology in an effort to

uncover shared solutions to resolve complex problems (p. 116). This study indicates

that instructional technologies are successful in operant conditioning as, in general,

learners are more likely to engage with a learning experience that is offered to them on

their own terms; in being offered the freedom to choose when the learning will happen

and where the learning will happen, learners are more likely to comply with independent

learning opportunities (Ramayah, Ahmad, & Hong, 2012, p. 127). However, current

applications of corporate training do not always offer the freedom that instructional

technology has the potential to provide, so more research is needed to determine if

training programs are more effective when employees are given flexible schedules and

freedom to participate in a just-in-time or on-demand learning model (Linder-

VanBerschot & Summers, 2015).

While there is research to indicate that eLearning content is most successful when

the developer considers the specific needs of the learners in order to create relevant,

digestible, purposeful, and relatable content (Joo, Lim, & Kim, 2012; Park, Kim, & Yu,

2011), there are no clear recommendations for the kinds of instructional technologies or

media that will best yield learning flow and authenticity of learning in a corporate setting.

Puhakainen and Siponen (2010) found that the efficacy of corporate training was

enhanced when the program was designed to enhance personal relevance through

purposeful activities that illustrated real-world consequences and benefits to participants


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on a personal level (p. 774). The researcher hypothesizes that by applying Hortons

(2012) Absorb-Do-Connect model, instructional designers and content developers can

engender authentic learning and increase performance in trainees, as they have targeted

the intrinsic value as a central goal of the program.

Both schools and corporations are facing the same quandary. They are observing

the need for a shift in their approach to teaching, and are identifying similar issues and

trends with their learners. In comparing the literature, the researcher has concluded that

the benefits resulting from the flipped model are indicative of potential applications in the

corporate sector. While recent studies illustrate that the same environmental and

motivational issues affect classrooms and industries similarly, there is no correlational

research to indicate that the two are confronting the problem in the same way: Schools

are finding success as they incorporating the flipped model to establish learner-centered

environments that promote self-efficacy and intrinsic value through the use of educational

technology, while also providing support in class by allocating specific time and

resources for students to use as they interact with peers and instructors to construct

knowledge; whereas corporations are identifying self-efficacy, intrinsic-value, and

learner-centered environments as indicators of success but not taking the time to adopt or

incorporate the methods that are proven to foster those attributes of a successful

instructional program.

This study seeks to define how the lessons learned by educators who apply the

methods of flipped instruction can help to inform and thereby transform the field of

corporate training. In so doing, the researcher seeks to determine methods that will
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engender a corporate culture that places value in their employees and fosters a learning

culture and growth-oriented environment.

Definitions

Adaptive Training: Instruction that changes dynamically based on the learners

performance, abilities, learning needs, experiences, skills, and other individual

differences (Spain, Priest, & Murphy 2012, p. 88). These training programs are effective

resources as they offer a personalized educational experience that is flexible to the needs

and capabilities of the learner. Adaptive training can serve to describe ability grouping,

group problem solving, and training placement guided by pretest scores or uses of

adaptive programs such as artificial intelligence or other technology-based innovations

(Spain, Priest, & Murphy, 2012, p. 88).

Andragogy: Malcolm Shepherd Knowles used the term andragogy as a synonym

to adult education, or the art and science of adult learning (Kearsley, 2010, as cited in

Pappas, 2013). Knowles outlined that there were five assumptions about adult learners

that were different from child learners: (1) adult learners have a self-concept of

themselves as self-directed human being, (2) adult learners draw from a growing

reservoir of experiences as a resource for learning, (3) adults readiness to learn is

relevant to the developmental tasks of his/her social roles, (4) adult learners orient their

learning according to immediate application, rather than postponed or future application,

and consider new learning according to problem-centeredness rather than subject-

centeredness, and (5) adults are motivated internally moreso than externally (Pappas,

2013). Knowles also delineated four principles of andragogy: (1) adults need to be

involved in the planning and evaluation of their instruction, (2) adults benefit mainly
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from experiential learning activities that allow for mistakes, (3) learning subjects are

better absorbed when they have immediate relevance to the learners application, (4)

adult learning must be problem-centered (Pappas, 2013).

Behavioral Intention: The learning theory of operant conditioning and

Thorndikes initial law of effect (1898, 1911) that responses to a situation that are

followed by satisfaction are strengthened; responses that are followed by discomfort are

weakened (Ormrod, 2016, p. 47), illustrates that when learners perceive ease of use and

usability of an innovation, they are more likely to adopt a new technology than when they

are confronted with difficulty or discomfort while learning a new innovation. Using the

terminology of Lee, Hsieh, and Hsu (2011), the researcher will use the term behavioral

intention to describe the likely use, adoption, and adaptation of new innovations.

Blended Learning: The marriage between traditional and new ways of organizing

learning are combined (p. 165). This practice is, as its name indicates, a mix of various

approaches to education and is usually recognized as a combination of conventional

campus-based face-to-face education, online or distance learning, and situated learning

within a work-life setting (Moe & Rye, 2011, p. 166).

Compatibility: Compatibility is a significant innovation characteristic of the IDT;

Lee, Hsieh, and Hsu (2011) define compatibility as the degree to which an innovation is

regarded as being consistent with the potential end-users existing values, prior

experiences, and needs (p. 126). In their research, Lee, Hsieh, and Hsu (2011)

determined that experiences of compatibility have positive effects on employee

acceptance and adoption of new innovations (p.127).


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Complexity: Complexity is a significant innovation characteristic of the IDT;

Lee, Hsieh, and Hsu (2011) define complexity as the end-users perceived level of

difficulty in understanding innovations and their ease of use (p. 126). Complexity is in

direct contrast to Perceived Ease of Use, a construct of Davis et al. (1989) Technology

Acceptance Model (Lee, Hsieh, & Hsu, 2011, p. 126). After comparing the works of

Davis (1989) and Rogers (1995), Lee, Hsieh, and Hsu (2011) indicated, TAM and IDT

propose that the formation of users intention is partially determined by how difficult the

innovation is to understand or use (p. 126). In their review of the research, Lee, Hsieh,

and Hsu (2011) concluded that complexity has a negative affect on employee acceptance

and adoption of new innovations (p. 127).

Compliance: An employees alignment with, participation in, and completion of

training relevant to industry standards, regulatory requirements, company policy,

workplace orientation, and ethical behaviors in the workplace (Trout, 2016, p. 34). The

researcher will refer to an individuals preparation for their chosen industry, and the

completion of related training as compliance.

Conscientiousness: Bauer, Brusso, and Orvis (2012) describe conscientiousness

as one of the Big Five Personality Traits (Orvis et al., 2011) that has bearing on the

efficacy of adaptive learning and game-based learning. Conscientious individuals are

persistent, dutiful, organized, and strive for personal achievement (Bauer, Brusso, &

Orvis, 2012, p. 152). This type of learner is intrinsically motivated, self-efficacious, and

is often observed to set higher goals than that of their peers (p. 152).

Constructivism: The human inclination to wish to organize and make sense of

new information in order to construct knowledge and make connections between what is
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previously known, and what is being learned occurs on a personal and individual level.

However, groups can also work together to establish an evolved understanding of a topic,

this is called social constructivism. In a flipped classroom, elements of both individual

and social constructivism occur, as students are trusted to forge their own learning in such

an environment (Ormrod, 2016, pp. 158-159)

Corporate Training: The researcher will use the term corporate training to define

any educational opportunity related to professional development, employee compliance

training, upskilling, or technology acquisition training provided to an employee by their

employer (Hedden, 2016).

Corporate Training Environment: The researcher will use the term corporate

training environment to define the conditions in which a corporation provides training

and learning opportunities to their employees (Hedden, 2016).

Edutainment: Training and educational tools and programs that are designed to

enhance learner engagement, but fail to engender authentic learning (Li, Chan, &

Skidmore, 2012, p. 640).

Extrinsic Motivation: External factors such as rewards and reward systems

intended to motivate or enhance engagement on the part of the learner (Dunn, 2014, p.

40).

Flexible Environment: The Flipped Learning Network (2014) indicates that

learners require a flexible and compassionate environment in order to construct their

understanding and learning process. When using e-Learning, programs, learners benefit

from flexible timelines and learning patterns, as they interact with the content on their

own schedule and according to their own choice. This constructivist design allows for
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learners to interact with new information at their own pace, and revisit topics or skill

lessons at their leisure. Flexible timelines also promote authentic learning, as learners do

not experience anxiety or constrained from a limiting schedule (p. 2).

Flipped Instruction: A pedagogical approach that flips instruction from a direct,

in-person learning experience to an individual learning experience available through

eLearning platforms. Through this inverted model, students enjoy an engaging learning

experience that is effective in helping students learn the content, and increas[e] self-

efficacy in their ability to learn independently. Additionally, challenges and potential

solutions to those challenges are discussed (Enfield, 2013, p. 14).


Innovation Diffusion Theory (IDT): By referring Rogers (1995) definitions of

innovation as an idea, practice, or object that is perceived as new by an individual or another unit

of adoption and diffusion as the process by which an innovation is communicated through certain

channels over time among the members of a social system, we can better understand Agarwals

(2000) proposal that Innovation Diffusion Theory argues that potential users make decisions to

adopt or reject an innovation based on beliefs that they form about the innovation (as cited in

Lee, Hsieh, & Hsu, 2011, p. 126). IDT includes five significant innovation characteristics:

relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, and trialability and observability (Lee, Hsieh, &

Hsu, 2011, p. 126).

Intentional Content: Instructional designers must create a curate content that is relevant

to the learner, easily accessed, and promotes constructivist principles for learning. Content

should be scaffolded and presented in a purposeful way that promotes growth and enrichment,

and also provides remediation when necessary. By considering how to bridge the gap between

what is known, and what needs to be known, a designer can develop content that will benefit the

learner through the enhancement of perceived intrinsic value (FLN, 2014, p. 2).

Intrinsic Motivation: Dunn (2014) defines intrinsic motivation as the inclination to

engage in a task because the task is inherently enjoyable, a reward in itself; when a learner is

intrinsically motivated they are less likely to procrastinate their participation in a learning

opportunity (pp 34-35). Ryan and Deci (2000) identified three conditions as motivational

factors: autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Other factors to increase intrinsic motivation

are optimal level of challenge and autonomy of choice (Dunn, 2014, p.40). As intrinsic

motivation is increased, inhibitors such as anxiety and procrastination are decreased.


Intrinsic or Inherent Value: A learners reason for doing a task, and the natural enjoyment

that one derives from the participation and completion of a task is defined as intrinsic value.

With intrinsic value, a learner is innately motivated to engage, and is not influenced by external

factors. When a learner inherently possesses an intrinsic value for an activity, they also tend to

self-regulate to ensure that they achieve full understanding and cognition (Joo, Lim, & Kim,

2012, p. 314).

Learning Authenticity: Complex characteristic that occurs when learners recognize the

learning activities, complex tasks, and conditions of evaluations are authentic in order to

train/teach them skills or knowledge that can has real-world applications that are immediately

relevant to their lives. When learning authenticity has been realized, learning flow can be

accomplished (Park, Kim, & Yu, 2011, p. E37).

Learning Culture: The Flipped Learning Network (2014) defines a learning culture as a

learner-centered environment that puts the instructor in the role of monitor and facilitator, rather

than leader. When this culture is established learners can interact with knowledge at their own

pace and receive necessary interventions from an instructor when needed. This helps to establish

self-efficacy as well as provide supports for learners when needed (p. 2).

Learning Flow: A construct related to the level of engagement, concentration, and

thereby achievement of the learner. When learning flow is achieved, the learner is completely

absorbed by the educational experience and does not easily fall to boredom or frustration.

Without flow, authentic learning cannot be achieved and the chance of failure is increased (Joo,

Lim, & Kim, 2012, p. 313).

Macro-adaptative Training: Spain, Priest, and Murphy (2012) describe macro-adaptive

training as an instructional curriculum that is designed and tailored to a specific group based on
results of prior knowledge or ability assessments. Content, delivery, and interventions are

determined on the outset of the course. These programs, along with the inclusion of technology-

based training, provide an experience that is specific to the learners ability at the outset of the

course, and due to the low-maintenance nature of this content, is cost-effective for the

organization (p. 89).

Massed Practice: An ineffective method of learning, where a learner absorbs, experiences

and explores the entirety of the learning content all at once in a singular occasion (Ormrod, 2016,

p. 154).

Micro-adaptive Training: Spain, Priest, and Murphy (2012) describe micro-adaptive

training as an instructional curriculum that is adapted according to results of continual and

frequent assessments to measure student performance and progress. Students receive specific

and personalized feedback to assist them in their learning process. Adaptations may result in

real-time alterations in sequencing, instructional strategy, or learning trajectory. Instructional

technologies can assess and diagnose necessary interventions on an individual basis to best

provide support to learners. While this is an incredibly effective instructional strategy, its costs

often make its implementation impossible for organizations with limited resources (p. 90).

Microtraining: Stober & Putter (2013) define microtraining as learning and development

that takes place over short segments of time (p. 42). Microtraining can be delivered through

face-to-face or online platforms, and consists of small segments or chunks of information that

can easily be digested without causing much disruption to the flow or productivity of a workday.

Microtraining lessons have the added benefit of allowing learners to receive new information or

training in the context of their normal work environment (p. 42).


Mobile Learning: Stober & Putter (2013) define mobile learning as any e-learning

innovation that permits training and learning digitally on a device that is not fixed to a location.

This allows for learning, training, or upskilling to occur in an environment that is mobile,

ubiquitous, and in accordance with the freedom of choice enjoyed by the learner. Benefits of

mobile learning include: social interactivity, personalized learning experience, portability, and

economic viability (p. 42).

Motivation: According to Ramayah, Amad, and Hong (2012) motivation is defined as the

specific desire of the trainee to learn the content of the training course that is characterized by

both the trainees enthusiasm for learning and the trainees persistence in attempting to learn the

materials when the content becomes more difficult (p. 128). The presence of a motivation elicits

a positive emotional response to the activity of learning.

Neuroticism: Bauer, Brusso, and Orvis (2012) describe neuroticism as one of the Big

Five Personality Traits that has bearing on the efficacy of adaptive learning and game-based

learning. Individuals who are neurotic are prone to psychological distress, anxiety, self-

conscious, and tend to react in expressions of anger or frustration (p. 152). Individuals who are

neurotic are less likely to find success in training due to their anxiety, as they do not excel when

confronted with challenge. These types of learners are best suited to student-centered

environments and instructional methods.

Observability: Observability is a significant innovation characteristic of the IDT; Lee,

Hsieh, and Hsu (2011) define observability as the degree to which the results of innovations can

be visible by other people (p. 126). After reviewing the research, Lee, Hsieh, and Hsu (2011)

determined that observability had a positive effect on on employee acceptance and adoption of

new innovations (p. 127).


Openness to Experience: Bauer, Brusso, and Orvis (2012) describe openness to

experience as one of the Big Five Personality Traits that has bearing on the efficacy of adaptive

learning and game-based learning or gamification. Openness to Experience is a personality trait

that is held by individuals who are intellectually curious, creative, and enjoy experiencing new

things; these individuals find success in training, and are innately motivated to maintain focus

during learning opportunities and meet challenges gracefully (p. 151).

Participation: For the purpose of this study, the term participation will be used by the

researcher to define any action by the learner related to the review and absorption of educational

content, collaboration with peers, course-related interactions or communications with the trainer,

reflection of their own learning process, completion of assessment tasks, independent application

of new information or skills to job performance, or engagement in activities occurring within the

learning environment (Hedden, 2016)

Passive Procrastination: Procrastination is a problem that affects enrollment and

engagement in required or mandated learning opportunities. Chu and Choi (2005) defined

passive procrastination as a form of counterproductive academic procrastination, which reflects

negative behavior by which the learner allows fear and indecisive behavior to paralyze their

progress in learning, as it negatively impacts academic performance and learning as it limits both

the quality and quantity of student work; the detrimental impact of passive procrastination has

been observed by Akinsola et al. (2007) in the form of lower goal commitment and decreased

achievement (Dunn, 2014, pp. 34-35). Dunn (2014) posited that passive procrastination

stemmed from three contributing factors: the learners academic self-regulation (or self-efficacy),

intrinsic motivation, and course-related anxiety (p. 35). Research indicates that passive
procrastination is often worse in online learning environments than face-to-face learning

environments (Dunn, 2014, p. 42).

Pedagogy: The processes applied to accompany learners through their individual

processes of learning; the art, science, and craft of effective teaching (Smith, 2012).

Perceived Ease of Use: External factor that influences a learners level of engagement or

interest due to the nature of the learning environment or experience while using instructional

technology (Joo, Lim, & Kim, 2012, p. 314). When a learner has confidence or belief in the

particular system of technology, they are more likely to enter a learning flow as they are not

distracted by external factors. Perceived Ease of Use is a construct measured in Davis et al.

(1989) Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) and has direct correlations with the Innovation

Diffusion Theory (IDT) innovation characteristic, Complexity (Lee, Hsieh, & Hsu, 2011, p. 126).

Perceived Usefulness: External factor that influences a learners level of engagement or

interest due to applicability or connections to their lives. When a learner is able to perceive the

applications of a topic or skill, they are more likely to feel motivated to engage with the learning

and enter a learning flow (Joo, Lim, & Kim, 2012, p. 314). Perceived Usefulness is a construct

measured in Davis et al. (1989) Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) and has direct

correlations with the Innovation Diffusion Theory (IDT) innovation characteristic, Relative

Advantage (Lee, Hsieh, & Hsu, 2011, p. 126).

Problem-Based Learning: Type of learning activity or content that assists students in the

acquisition of new skills and knowledge as they are tasked with complex problems that engage

critical thinking and real-world connections or applications. For the purpose of this study, the

researcher will use the term Problem-Based Learning (PBL) to define any type of educational

content that asks learners to consider workplace applications, scenario-based interactions, or


other activities that would require learner engagement and critical thinking (Ormrod, 2016, p.

326).

Professional Educator/Trainer: The Flipped Learning Network (2014) recommends that

the teacher adopt a role of facilitator rather than disseminator of knowledge. The instructor in a

successful Flipped Classroom curates and creates digital content that is concise, relevant, and

specific (Park, Kim, & Yu, 2011; Enfield, 2013) and then scaffolds the content to allow learners

to construct and navigate their own learning. Puhakainen and Siponen (2010) recommend that

the instructor of a corporate training program is best able to determine the needs of a group of

employees after doing action research; through surveys, interviews, and observation an instructor

can better understand the need for the training, the existing knowledge of the participants, and

thereby make predictions that will aid them in developing an effective program (pp. 763-764). In

addition to the research, planning and development of the program, the instructor should both

make themselves available for questions and provide learning spaces and resources that can

benefit the learner. By being available to provide additional supports and reinforcement when

needed, closely monitoring student progress in order to intervene when necessary, and regularly

adapting the program to better meet the needs of learners, the instructor will best implement a

successful program (FLN, 2014, p. 2). Dunn (2014) argues that an educator is best able to foster

intrinsically motivated learners when they have helped learners to establish appropriate learning

goals and provided intentional and relevant content in the design and execution of the course (p.

36).

Purposive Behaviorism: Ormrod (2016) defines Tolmans theory of learning as any

behavior that is done expressly for the purpose of receiving an anticipated end-result that is
wished for. Tolmans theory suggests that once an individual has identified their goal as an end-

result of a behavior, that the behavior will be repeated (p. 148).

Relative Advantage: Relative Advantage is a significant innovation characteristic of the

IDT; Lee, Hsieh, and Hsu (2011) define relative advantage as the degree to which an innovation

is considered as being better than the idea it replaced and is considered to be a factor that

contributes greatly to the adoption of an innovation (p. 126). Relative Advantage is a direct

corollary to Perceived Usefulness, a construct of Davis et al. (1989) Technology Acceptance

Model (Lee, Hsieh, & Hsu, 2011, p. 126). After reviewing the studies done by Shih (2007), Lee

(2007), Lee, Hsieh, and Hsu (2011) hypothesized that relative advantage had a positive effect on

the perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and behavioral intentions with technology (p.

127).

Self-Efficacy: Ormrod (2016) suggests that a learners engagement and effort is directly

tied to their perception of a successful outcome (p. 130). Joo, Lim, and Kim (2012) agree that

internal motivators, such as self-efficacy, are strong predictors of achievement (p. 315).

Self-Regulation: Ormrod (2016) explains that learners who find success in their

educational pursuits are observant of consequences that result from their own and others

behaviors in order to determine social and cultural acceptability of behaviors, as well as those

behaviors that will yield wished-for results; Ormrod (2016) identified behaviors of self-

regulatory individuals as setting standards and goals, self-observation, self-evaluation, self-

reaction, and self-reflection (p. 134).

Technology Acceptance Model (TAM): Davis et al. (1989) established the TAM, which

was derived to apply to any specific domain of human-computer interactions and asserted that

perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use dictated the individuals behavioral intentions for
the use of information technology (Lee, Hsieh, & Hsu, 2011, p. 125). According to Davis et al.

(1989), relevance and personal connection to a system and its applications were equally as

impactful as the individuals level of ease while interacting and using the system in determining

the individuals future behaviors.

Test Anxiety: Motivational factor that affects performance and achievement in areas of

learning and assessment. Learners are less apt to learn or concentrate when they suffer from text

anxiety, as they are distracted by the threat of failure or poor achievement when learning flow

should be occurring. Studies indicate that the experience of learning under this condition is

likely to yield poor results in terms of performance (Joo, Lim, & Kim, 2012, p. 315).

Trialability: Trialability is a significant innovation characteristic of the IDT; Lee, Hsieh,

and Hsu (2011) coin the term trialability, to mean the degree to which innovations can be tested

on a limited basis (p. 126). According to Yang (2007) when there was perceived higher

trialability, there was a similar increase in perception regarding ease of use of the system (Lee,

Hsieh, and Hsu, 2011, p.127).

Upskilling: van de Werfhorst (2014) coined the term upskilling to explain the continuous

need for employees to reskill or train with emerging technologies, changes in job responsibilities,

or to meet ever-changing needs faced by most industries to avoid skill obsolescence and potential

termination (p. 123).

Summary

Chapter I illustrates how the instructional methods and uses of eLearning by educators in

K-12 classrooms may be useful in informing how the corporate training industry can better

achieve authentic learning. While many studies have been completed to measure the efficacy of

eLearning and instructional technologies in the corporate sector, there are very few studies that
illustrate that authentic learning can be accomplished using the current methodologies. However,

many studies reflect that the flipped model is an effective method when used in elementary,

secondary, and higher learning institutions in attempt to combat the same issues confronted by

corporate trainers and instructional developers. This investigation seeks to explore how

corporate training might benefit from the incorporation of the flipped model in order to establish

a learning culture and increase the factors that contribute to authentic learning and academic

achievement. Salient research questions have been designed to drive the research process for

thorough content analysis of recent studies. Definitions relevant to this research have been

provided for the reference and convenience of the reader to engender comprehension. In this

study, a thorough review of the literature will yield insights regarding the efficacy of this

practice.

Chapter II will establish a scholarly framework for this investigation through the review

of relevant literature. Topics reviewed in the literature will be: Developing Content to Enhance

Engagement for Adult Learners, Developing Pedagogical Practices for the Corporate Flipped

Training Classroom, Assessment Methods for Participation, Compliance, and Motivation, and

Measuring Efficacy of Flipped Instruction in the Corporate Environment.

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