Why Buildings Fall Down How Structures Fail

Co
py
rig
ht
ed
m
at
er
ial
.L
ice
ns
ed
to
se
eb
oo
n.
ng
@
lyc
op
od
iu
m
.co
m
.au
on
03
/02
/20
17
Best Practice in Steel Construction - INDUSTRIAL
Industrial Buildings
17
/20
/02
Contents
03
on
.au
m
The Steel Construction Institute (SCI) develops and promotes
the effective use of steel in construction. It is an independent, 01 Introduction
.co
1
membership based organisation. SCIs research and development
activities cover multi-storey structures, industrial buildings, bridges, civil engineering
m
and offshore engineering. Activities encompass design guidance on structural steel,
iu
light steel and stainless steels, dynamic performance, fire engineering, sustainable
od
construction, architectural design, building physics (acoustic and thermal performance),
value engineering, and information technology.
02 Key Design Factors
op
2
lyc
www.steel-sci.org
@
This publication presents best practice for the design of steel construction
ng
technologies used in industrial buildings, and is aimed at architects and other

03 Support Structures
n.
members of the design team in the early stages of planning an industrial

building project. It was prepared as one of a series of three under an RFCS
oo
dissemination project Euro-Build in Steel (Project n RFS2-CT-2007-00029).

15
eb
The projects objective is to present design information on best practice in steel,

and to take a forward look at the next generation of steel buildings. The other
se
publications cover best design practice in commercial and residential buildings.

to
The Euro-Build project partners are: 04 Roof & Wall Systems

ed
ArcelorMittal
Bouwen met Staal
25
ns
Centre Technique Industriel de la Construction Mtallique (CTICM)

Forschungsvereinigung Stahlanwendung (FOSTA)
ice
Labein Tecnalia
SBI
.L
The Steel Construction Institute (SCI) 05 National Practice

ial
Technische Universitt Dortmund
33
er
Although care has been taken to ensure, to the best of our knowledge, that all data
at
and information contained herein are accurate to the extent that they relate to either
m
matters of fact or accepted practice or matters of opinion at the time of publication,

the partners in the Euro-Build project and the reviewers assume no responsibility for
06 Case Studies
e d
any errors in or misinterpretations of such data and/or information or any loss or
47
ht
damage arising from or related to their use.

rig
ISBN 978-1-85942-063-8
py
2008. The Steel Construction Institute.

Co
This project was carried out with financial support from the European Commissions
Research Fund for Coal and Steel.
Front cover: Mors company building, Opmeer / Netherlands

Photograph by J. and F. Versnel, Amsterdam
EURO-BUILD in Steel
Introduction 01
17
/20
/02
01 Introduction
03
on
.au
Large enclosures or industrial type buildings are very common in business
m
parks, leisure and sports buildings. Their functionality and architectural
.co
quality are influenced by many factors, e.g. the development plan, the
variety of usages and the desired quality of the building. Steel offers
m
numerous possibilities to achieve both pleasant and flexible functional use.
iu
od
For buildings of large enclosure, the In most cases, an industrial building is
economy of the structure plays an not a single structure, but is extended by
op
important role. For longer spans, the office and administration units or elements
lyc
design is optimised in order to minimise such as canopies. These additional
the use of materials, costs and elements can be designed in a way that
they fit into the whole building design.
@
installation effort. Increasingly, buildings

are designed to reduce energy costs and
ng
to achieve a high degree of sustainability. This publication describes the common

n.
forms of industrial buildings and large

oo
Industrial buildings use steel framed enclosures, and their range of application
structures and metallic cladding of all in Europe. Regional differences that may
eb
types. Large open spaces can be created exist depending on practice, regulations
that are efficient, easy to maintain, and and capabilities of the supply chain,
se
are adaptable as demand changes. are presented in Section5.

Steel is chosen on economic grounds,
to
as well as for other aspects such as fire, The same technologies may be extended
ed
architectural quality and sustainability. to a range of building types, including

sports and leisure facilities, halls,
ns
supermarkets and other enclosures.

ice
.L
ial
er
at
m
e d
ht
rig
py
Co
Figure 1.1 Leisure building using a steel

framed structure
EURO-BUILD in Steel
02 Best Practice in Steel Construction - INDUSTriAL Buildings
17
/20
/02
02 Key Design Factors
03
on
.au
The design of industrial buildings is affected by many factors.
m
The following general guidance is presented to identify the key
.co
design factors and the benefits offered by steel construction.
m
Industrial buildings are generally Forms of Industrial Buildings Forms of Industrial
iu
designed as enclosures that provide The most elementary system used for
Buildings
od
functional space for internal activities, an industrial building consists of two
which may involve use of overhead columns and a beam. This configuration
op
cranes or suspended equipment as can be modified in numerous ways using
well as provision of office space or Fire Safety
lyc
various types of connections between the
mezzanine floors. beams and columns and for the column
@
base. The types of structures most

Various structural forms have been commonly used in industrial buildings are
ng
developed over the last 30 years that portal frames with hinged column bases.
Building Physics
n.
optimise the cost of the steel structure Portal frames provide sufficient in-plane
oo
in relation to the space provided. stability, and thus only require bracings
However, in recent years, forms of for out-of-plane stability.
eb
expressive structure have been used

in architectural applications of industrial Figure2.1 shows a variety of rigid frames Loading
se
buildings, notably suspended and with fixed (a) or hinged (b) column bases.
tubular structures. Fixed column bases may be considered
to
when heavy cranes are used, as they Concept Design

deflect less under horizontal forces.
ed
A single large hall is the main feature

of most industrial buildings. Hinged column bases have smaller Considerations
ns
The construction and appearance foundations and simple base

ice
of an industrial building provides the connections. In examples (c) and (d),

design engineer with a wide range of
possible configurations in order to
the structure is located partly outside the Floors
.L
building, and so details concerning the

realise the architectural ideas and the piercing of the building envelope have to
ial
functional requirements. Generally, be designed carefully. The complex detail

er
an industrial building has a rectangular in these types of structure also serve

floor space, which is extendable in its architectural purposes.
Service Integration
at
long direction. The design of the building

m
has to be coordinated with functional In Figure2.2, different structures consisting

requirements and the energy-saving of beam and columns are presented.
d
Lighting
e
concept, including lighting. Figure2.2 (a) shows an example of a

ht
structure without purlins, that is stiffened

rig
The following forms of industrial buildings by diaphragm action in the roof and
represent an overview of the possible bracings in the walls. In Figure2.2 (b),
py
architectural and constructional solutions. purlins are used, leading to a simple

Exhibition halls, railway stations, airports design of the roof cladding, which has
Co
and sports arenas tend to be special reduced spans and only serves to
structures. However, the following support vertical loads. The roof is
general issues are restricted to stiffened by plan bracing. The structure
standard floor plans. without purlins may offer a more pleasant
EURO-BUILD in Steel
Key Design Factors 02
17
/20
/02
03
on
.au
m
(a ) Frame with fixed column bases (b) Frame with hinged
column bases
.co
m
iu
od
op Figure 2.1 Examples of rigid
lyc
(c) Frame with lattice girders (d) Suspended portal frame
framed sructures
@
ng
n.
oo
eb
(a ) Structure without purlins, roof (b) Structure with purlins

stiffened by trapezoidal sheeting
se
to
ed
ns
(c) Lattice girder with purlins (d) Cable suspended

ice
beams with purlins Figure 2.2 Examples of column

and beam structures
.L
appearance when viewed from the inside. individual directional load paths. In addition to the primary steel structure,
ial
Figures2.2 (c) and (d) show lattice trusses Spatial structures and space trusses are a wide range of secondary components
er
and cable suspended beams, which may non-directional structures; they can be has also been developed, such as
be beneficial to achieve larger spans, as expanded, but would become heavy for cold formed steel purlins, which also
at
well as desirable for visual reasons. long spans. Figure2.4 shows some provide for the stability of the framework
m
examples of spatial structures. (see Figures2.6 and 2.7).

Arch structures offer advantageous load-
ed
carrying behaviour as well as having a Portal frames These simple types of structural systems
ht
pleasant visual appearance. In Figure2.3 Steel portal frames are widely used can also be designed to be architecturally
rig
(a), a building with a three-hinged arch is in most of the European countries more appealing by using curved
shown. Alternatively, the structure can be because they combine structural members, cellular or perforated beams
py
elevated on columns or integrated in a efficiency with functional application. etc., as illustrated in Figure2.8.
truss structure, as in Figure2.3 (d). Various configurations of portal frames
Co
can be designed using the same Innovative structural systems have also
The forms of buildings with primary and structural concept as shown in Figure2.5. been developed in which portal frames
secondary structural elements described Multi-bay frames can also be designed, are created by moment resisting
above are all directional structures, for as in Figure2.5 (e) and (f), either using connections using articulations and ties,
which the loads are carried primarily on single or pairs of internal columns. as given in Figure2.9.
EURO-BUILD in Steel
17
/20
/02
03
on
.au
(a ) Three-hinge lattice (b) Elevated curved beams
arch with purlins
m
.co
m
iu
(c) Arch-structure using space frame (d) Elevated curved trusses
Figure 2.3 Examples of curved
od
or arch structures
op
lyc
@
(a ) Girder grid on columns (b) Suspended girder grid

ng
with fixed bases

n.
oo
eb
(c) Space frame on columns (d) Curved space frame on

se
with fixed bases columns with fixed bases

Figure 2.4 Examples of spatial structures
to
6
ed
6m 6m
ns
25 - 40 m 25 - 30 m
(a) Portal frame - medium span (b) Curved portal frame
ice
6
.L
8m 8m
3.5 m
ial
8m 9m 8m 25 m
(c) Portal frame with mezzanine floor (d) Portal frame with overhead crane
er
6
at
6m
m
25 m
d
(e) Two bay portal frame

e
6 6
ht
rig
8m
3.5 m
py
10 m
(f ) Portal frame with integral office
Co
3
10
6m
40 m
(g) Mansard portal frame

Figure 2.5 Various forms of portal frames
EURO-BUILD in Steel
17
/20
/02
03
on
.au
m
.co
m
iu
od
op
lyc
@
ng
Figure 2.6 Linked single bay portal frame

n.
oo
eb
se
to
ed
ns
ice
.L
Figure 2.7 Two bay portal frame with

ial
purlins and roof bracing

Kingspan Ltd
er
at
m
de
ht
rig
py
Co
Figure 2.8 Curved beams used in a portal

frame structure
EURO-BUILD in Steel
17
/20
/02
03
on
.au
m
.co
m
iu
od
op
lyc
Figure 2.9 Innovative moment-
resisting connections in
@
an industrial building
ng
n.
oo
eb
se
to
ed
ns
ice
.L
Figure 2.10 Installation process for a

modern portal frame
ial
Barrett Steel Buildings Ltd

er
The installation process of the primary However, columns can also be internal forces are accounted for in the
structure and secondary members, such constructed in a similar way, as illustrated design of the lattice members, when the
at
as purlins, is generally carried out using in Figure2.13, in order to provide lattice truss acts to stabilise the building
m
mobile cranes, as illustrated in Figure2.10. inplane stability. against lateral loads.

e d
Lattice trusses Using lattice structures, a comparatively Suspended structures

ht
Long span industrial buildings can be high stiffness and load bearing resistance By using suspended structures, long-
rig
designed with lattice trusses, using C, H can be achieved while minimising material span buildings with high visual and
or Osections. Lattice trusses tend to be use. Besides the ability to create long architectural quality can be realised.
py
beam and column structures and are spans, lattice structures are attractive
rarely used in portal frames. Various and enable simple service integration. The division into members that are
Co
configurations of lattice trusses are predominantly subject to either tension

illustrated in Figure2.11. The two generic A pinned structure is an idealisation used or compression permits the design of
forms are W or Nbracing arrangements. in design. Moment-resisting connections lightweight structures. However, structures
In this case, stability is generally provided can be designed using bolted or welded that save on materials use do not
by bracing rather than rigid frame action. connections. The resulting additional necessarily lead to economic solutions.
EURO-BUILD in Steel
17
/20
/02
03
on
1.5 m 1.5 m 1.5 m 6
.au
m
8m 8m 8m
.co
25 m 25 m 25 m
m
(a) Lattice girder - W form (b) Lattice girder - N form (c) Duo-pitch lattice girder
iu
2.5 m 2.5 m
od
1.5 m 1.0 m 1.0 m
8m 8m op 8m
lyc
@
25 m 25 m 20 m
ng
(d) Articulated lattice girder (e) Curved lattice girder (f ) Curved lattice truss and canopy
n.
oo
1.0 m 6
2.5 m
eb
6m 6m
se
20 m 20 m
to
(g) Articulated bow-string (h) Mono-pitch lattice girder with canopy

ed
ns
ice
Figure 2.11 (Above) Various forms of lattice

truss used in industrial buildings
.L
ial
er
at
m
e d
ht
rig
py
Co
Figure 2.12 (Left) Lattice truss using

tubular members
EURO-BUILD in Steel
17
/20
/02
03
on
.au
m
.co
m
iu
od
op
lyc
Figure 2.13 Lattice frame using
@
lattice columns
ng
Particularly in space structures, the joints the following fire safety issues should performing fire tests, three levels of fire
n.
may be very complex and more time be addressed: design calculations:

Level 1: Classification of structural
oo
consuming to construct and install. Means of escape (number of

Therefore, possible applications of this emergency exits, characteristics of components by using tables.
eb
type of structure are industrial buildings exit signs, number of staircases, Level 2: Simplified calculation methods.
that also serve architectural purposes width of doors). Level 3: Advanced calculation methods.
se
rather than merely functional buildings. Fire spread (including fire resistance
and reaction to fire). Building physics
to
Suspended structures can be designed Smoke and heat exhaust Thermal insulation
ed
by extending columns outside the building ventilation system. The main purpose of thermal insulation
envelope, as illustrated in Figure2.14. Active fire fighting measures (hand in industrial buildings is to ensure an
ns
Suspended structures accomplish longer extinguishers, smoke detectors, adequate indoor climate depending
sprinklers, plant fire brigade).
ice
spans, although the suspension cables or on the use of the building. During the
rods also penetrate the building envelope, Access for the fire brigade. heating season, one of the main
.L
and can be obstructive to the use of the functions of the building envelope is
external space. Fire resistance requirements should be to reduce the heat loss by means of
ial
based on the parameters influencing fire effective insulation. This is particularly

er
Lattice and suspended structures are growth and development, which include: true for buildings with normal indoor
complex and are not covered in detail in Risk of fire (probability of fire temperatures, such as retail stores,
at
this Best Practice Guide. occurrence, fire spread, fire duration, exhibition halls and leisure centres,
m
fire load, severity of fire, etc.). it is true to a lesser extent for

Fire Safety Ventilation conditions buildings with low indoor temperatures,
d
Even though the general context of fire

e
(air input, smoke exhaust). such as workshops and warehouses.

ht
safety regulations is the same throughout Fire compartment

rig
Europe, national differences do exist. (type, size, geometry). For large panels, thermal bridges
For example a single-storey industrial Type of structural system. and airtightness of joints have a major
py
building in the Netherlands with a Evacuation conditions. influence on the energy-balance of

compartment size of 50x100m has no Safety of rescue team. the building. The thermal insulation
Co
requirements concerning fire resistance, Risk for neighbouring buildings. has to be placed without gaps and
whereas in France, a fire resistance of Active fire fighting measures. the building envelope must be sealed
30minutes is required in many cases, and made airtight at longitudinal and
and in Italy the requirement is possibly as The new generation of European transverse joints.
high as 90minutes. At the design stage, regulations allow, in addition to
EURO-BUILD in Steel
17
/20
/02
03
on
.au
m
.co
m
iu
od
op
lyc
Figure2.14 Suspended structure used at
the Renault Factory, Swindon,
UK built in the 1980s
@
Architect:Richard Rogers Partnership

ng
In the summer, the role of the building for industrial buildings, it may be are given in Eurocodes EN199111,
n.
envelope is to reduce the effects of solar necessary to limit values of acoustic 199113 and 199114. Table2.1 shows
oo
gain on the interior space. The summer emissions from particular machinery. the relevant actions and structural
heat reduction depends on the total area components and Figure2.15 shows a
eb
and orientation of openings, as well as the In steel framed buildings, acoustic insula- typical load scheme.
effectiveness of solar protection measures. tion is mainly achieved by the construction
se
of the building envelope. All measures of Vertical loads

Condensation
risk acoustic insulation are based on the Self weight
to
Thermal and moisture protection are following physical principles: Where possible, unit weights of materials
should be checked with manufacturers
ed
linked closely, because damage arising Interruption of transmission, e.g.

from high local humidity is often the result by using multi-skin constructions. data. The figures given in Table2.2 may
ns
of missing or improperly installed thermal Sound absorption, e.g. by using be taken as typical of roofing materials
ice
insulation. On the other hand, lack of perforated sheeting or cassettes. used in the pre-design of a portal frame
moisture protection can lead to Reducing response by increasing the construction. The self weight of the steel
.L
condensation in the construction, mass of a component. frame is typically 0.2 to 0.4kN/m2,

which in turn affects the effectiveness expressed over the plan area.
ial
of the thermal insulation. For single sound sources, a local

er
enclosure or isolation is recommended. Service loads

In multi-skin roof or wall constructions, In order to reach a high level of acoustic Loading due to services will vary greatly,
at
condensation risk has to be controlled insulation, special sound-absorbing roof depending on the use of the building. In a
m
byinstalling a vapour barrier on the inner and wall cladding are effective. For multi- portal frame structure, heavy point loads
skin of the structure. Wall constructions skin panels the level of sound insulation may occur from such items as suspended
e d
that are vapour proof on both sides, can be controlled by varying the acoustic walkways, runway and lifting beams or air
ht
like sandwich panels, prevent diffusion. operating mass. Due to the complexity of handling units. The following loads may
rig
However, the humidity in the internal this issue, it is recommended to consult be used for pre-design:
space also has to be regulated by air the specialist manufacturers. A nominal load over the whole of
py
conditioning. Section4 covers roof and the roof area of between 0.1 and
floor systems. Loading 0.25kN/m on plan depending on the
Co
The actions and combinations of actions use of the building, and whether or
Acoustic insulation described in this section should be not a sprinkler system is provided.
In all European countries, minimum considered in the design of a single-
requirements exist on the sound storey industrial building using a steel Imposed load on roofs
insulation of buildings. In addition, structure. Imposed, snow and wind loads EN1991-1-1 and -3 define characteristic
EURO-BUILD in Steel
17
/20
/02
03
wind uplift
on
snow load
.au
m
dead load sway
imperfection
sway
.co
imperfection
m
wind wind
pressure suction
iu
od
op
Frame span
lyc
@
Figure 2.15 Loading scheme on

ng
a portal frame Action Applied to

n.
Self-weight Cladding, purlins, frames, foundation

oo
Snow Cladding, purlins, frames, foundation

Concentrated snow Cladding, purlins, (frames), foundation
eb
Wind Cladding, purlins, frames, foundation

se
Wind (increase on single element) Cladding, purlins, fixings

Wind (peak undertow) Cladding, purlins, (fixings)
to
Thermal actions Envelope, global structure

ed
Service loads Depends on specification: roofing, purlins, frames

Crane loads Crane rails, frame
ns
Dynamic loads Global structure (Depends on building use and locality)

ice
Second order effects

Wall bracings, columns
Table 2.1 Actions and relevant (Sway imperfections)
.L
structural components
ial
Material Weight (kN/m)

er
Steel roof sheeting (single skin) 0.07 - 0.20

at
Aluminium roof sheeting (single skin) 0.04

m
Insulation (boards, per 25mm thickness) 0.07

Insulation (glass fibre, per 100mm thickness) 0.01
e d
Liner trays (0.4mm 0.7mm thickness) 0.04 - 0.07

ht
Composite panels (40mm 100mm thickness) 0.10 - 0.15

rig
Purlins (distributed over the roof area) 0.03

Steel decking 0.20
py
Three layers of felt with chippings 0.29

Co
Slates 0.40 / 0.50

Tiling (clay or plain concrete) 0.60 - 0.80
Tiling (concrete interlocking) 0.50 - 0.80
Table 2.2 Typical weights of Timber battens (including timber rafters) 0.10
roofing materials
10 EURO-BUILD in Steel
17
/20
/02
values of various types of imposed Wind uplift forces on cladding can In the first instance, it is necessary to
03
loads on roofs: be relatively high at the corner of the identify the size of the enclosure and to
on
A minimum load of 0.6 kN/m (on plan) building and at the eaves and ridge. develop a structural scheme, which will
for roof slopes less than 30is applied, In these areas, it may be necessary provide this functional space taking into
where no access other than for cleaning to reduce the spacing of the purlins account all the above considerations.
.au
and maintenance is intended. and side rails. The importance of each of these conside-
m
A concentrated load of 0.9kN - this rations depends on the type of building.
will only affect the sheeting design. Imperfections For example, the requirements concerning
.co
A uniformly distributed load due to Equivalent horizontal forces have to a distribution centre will be different from
snow over the complete roof area. be considered due to geometrical and those of a manufacturing unit.
m
The value of the load depends on the structural imperfections. According to
iu
buildings location and height above EN199311 for frames sensitive to To develop an effective concept design,
od
sea level. If multi-bay portal frames buckling in a sway mode, the effect of it is necessary to review these conside-
with roof slopes are used, the effect of imperfections should be allowed for in rations based on their importance,
op
concentrated snow loads in the frame analysis by means of an equivalent
lyc depending on the type of building.
valleys has to be coonsidered. imperfection in the form of: Table2.3 presents a matrix which
A non-uniform load caused by snow initial sway deflections; and / or relates the importance of each
@
drifting across the roof due to wind individual bow imperfections consideration to particular types of
blowing across the ridge of the of members. industrial buildings. Note that this
ng
building and depositing more snow matrix is only indicative, as each

n.
on the leeward side. This is only Other horizontal loads project will be different. However, the
oo
considered for slopes greater than Depending on the project, additional matrix can serve as a general aid.
15 and will not therefore apply to horizontal loading may have to be
eb
most industrial buildings. considered, such as earth pressure, Compartmentation & mixed use
force due to operation of cranes, Increasingly, larger industrial buildings
se
Horizontal loads accidental actions and seismic action. are designed for mixed use, i.e. in most
Wind loading cases integrated office space and / or
to
Wind actions are given by EN199114. Concept design staff rooms for the employees are
considerations
ed
Wind loading rarely determines the size provided. There are different possible
of members in low-rise single span portal General issues locations for these additional spaces
ns
frames where the height : span ratio is Prior to the detailed design of an industrial and uses, as shown in Figure 2.16:
ice
less than 1:4. Therefore, wind loading building, it is essential to consider many For single-storey industrial buidings,
can usually be ignored for preliminary aspects such as: creation of separate space inside
.L
design of portal frames, unless the Space optimization. the building and possibly two
height-span ratio is large, or if the Speed of construction. storeys high, separated by
ial
dynamic pressure is high. Combined Access and security. internal walls.

er
wind and snow loading is often Flexibility of use. In an external building, directly
critical in this case. Environmental performance. connected to the hall itself.
at
Standardization of components. For two-storey industrial buildings,

m
However, in two span and other multi- Infrastructure of supply. partly occupying the upper floor.
span portal frames, combined wind Service integration.
e d
and vertical load may often determine Landscaping. This leads to special concept design
ht
the sizes of the members, when alternate Aesthetics and visual impact. requirements concerning the support
rig
internal columns are omitted. The Thermal performance and structure and the building physics
magnitude of the wind loading can air-tightness. performance. If the office area is
py
determine which type of verification Acoustic insulation. situated on the upper storey of the
has to be provided. If large horizontal Weather-tightness. industrial building, it may be designed
Co
deflections at the eaves occur in Fire safety. as a separate structure enclosed by

combination with high axial forces, Design life. the structure of the building. In this case,
then second order effects have to be Sustainability considerations. floor systems from commercial buildings
considered in the verification procedure. End of life and re-use. can be used, often based on composite
EURO-BUILD in Steel 11
17
/20
/02
03
Considerations for concept design
Thermal performance and air tightness

on
Standardization of components
.au Aesthetics and visual impact

Environmental performance
Flexibility of use and space
Specialist infra structure
m
Speed of construction
of life and reuse

Access and Security
integration
.co
Space optimization
Weather tightness
Acoustic isolation
Sustainability
Landscaping
um
Design life
Services
Type of single-storey
di
oEnd
industrial buildings
op
High bay warehouses
lyc
Industrial manufacturing
facilities
@
Distribution centres
ng
Retail superstores
n.
oo
Storage / cold storage

eb
Small scale fabrication

facilities
se
Office and light

manufacturing
to
Processing plants
ed
Leisure centres
ns
Sports hall complexes

ice
Exhibition halls
.L
Aircraft or maintenance
ial
hangars
er
Legend No tick = Not important = important = very important

at
Table 2.3 Important design factors for industrial buildings

m
structures, e.g. integrated floor beams. the design, even if there is no internal located on the top floor of the building,
d
office space. In order to prevent fire spread,

e
Another possible solution is to attach the additional escape routes are required and
ht
office to the main structure. This requires the compartment size is limited to a active fire fighting measures have to be
certain value. Therefore fire walls have to
rig
particular attention to be paid to the stabili- considered. Fire-spread has to be

sation of the combined parts of the building. be provided for separation and should prevented from one compartment to
py
ensure at least 60 and often 90minutes another, which can be achieved, for
Apart from structural issues, special fire resistance. This is even more vital if example by a composite slab between
Co
attention has to be paid to: hazardous goods are stored in the building. the office and industrial space.
Fire protection Because the office is designed for use by Thermal insulation
For large industrial buildings, fire compart- a larger number of people, fire safety As for fire safety, offices also have
mentation may play an important role in demands are stricter. If the offices are higher requirements on thermal insulation.
17
/20
/02
03
office office
on
.au
office hall
m
hall hall
.co
m
iu
od
op Figure 2.16 Possible location of an office
lyc
(a) inside (b) outside (c) on top floor
attached to an industrial building
@
In industrial buildings used for storage is required, typically using two layers of ventilation depends on the size and
purposes of non-sensitive goods, thermal synthetic material. orientation of the building. Roof vents
ng
insulation may not be required. In offices, are a common option for natural
Service integration
n.
however, a high level of comfort is ventilation in buildings without suitably

oo
needed, which makes thermal insulation For industrial buildings, special large openings, however these need to
necessary. Therefore the interfaces requirements for building services are be carefully positioned so as to maximize
eb
between the cold and the warm often defined, which may be necessary their performance. Hybrid ventilation
compartments have to be designed to for the operation of machines and systems are now popular in industrial
se
provide adequate insulation. manufacturing lines. buildings. They use predominantly

natural ventilation, but with mechanically
to
Acoustic performance The service integration should be taken driven fans to improve predictability of
ed
Especially in industrial buildings with into account in the early planning stages. performance over a wider range of
noise-intensive production processes, In particular, the position and size of weather conditions.
ns
astrict separation between the production ducts should be coordinated with the
unit and the office areas has to be realised.
ice
structure and provisions for natural lighting. Mechanical Heat and Ventilation
This may require special measures for Recovery (MHVR) systems use the heat
.L
acoustic insulation, depending on the The use of structural systems, such as from the exiting warm stale air to heat up
production processes. cellular beams and trusses, can facilitate the fresh cool air as it enters the building.
ial
integration of services and help to The warm air is vented out of the building
Floors
er
achieve a coherent appearance alongside the incoming fresh air, allowing

In most cases, the floors for industrial of the building. heat transfer from the exiting to the
at
buildings are used for vehicles or incoming air. Although this heat transfer
m
heavy machinery. They are designed The design of the servicing machinery will never be 100% efficient, the use of
to support heavy loads and have to and rooms can be of major importance MHVR systems can significantly reduce
d
be flat. Concentrated loads due to

e
in industrial buildings. Centralisation

of the amount of energy required to warm
ht
vehicles, machines, racking and the building services can offer the the fresh air to a comfortable level.
rig
containers have to be considered, advantage of easy maintenance.

depending on the application. Figure2.17 shows different possible Further issues which may need
py
solutions of the positioning of the consideration in services design include:

Most industrial buildings have a concrete service rooms. The possible affect of elements for
Co
floor with a minimum thickness of solar protection on air exchange.

150mm on top of a layer of sand or Natural ventilation reduces the reliance Odour extraction.
gravel, which is also at least 150mm on air conditioning systems, which in turn Control of humidity.
thick. For large floor areas, a sliding layer means a reduction in the buildings CO2 Control of airtightness.
between the base layer and the concrete emissions. The effectiveness of natural Acoustic insulation.
17
/20
/02
03
on
.au
Lighting
m
Requirements for the lighting of industrial
.co
buildings depend on the type of use.
m
The concept and arrangement of
iu
openings to provide natural lighting
od
permit diversity in architectural design.
Rooflights and gable glazed roofs are
op
common, along with lightbands in the lyc
faade (Figure 2.18). Openings for
natural lighting can serve as smoke and (a) separate servicing rooms (b) servicing rooms on the roof
heat outlets in case of fire.
@
ng
Well-designed natural daylighting can

n.
have a significant impact on a buildings

oo
carbon emissions. However, too much

natural daylighting can result in excessive
eb
solar gain in the summer, leading to

overheating, and increased heat loss
se
through the envelope in the winter.

to
The decision to utilise natural daylight (c) internal servicing rooms (d) servicing rooms in the basement
ed
within a building and the type of day-

lighting selected have important implica-
ns
tions for the overall building design.

ice
.L
ial
er
at
m
(a) Uniformly distributed rooflights (b) Light-bands in faade

e d
ht
rig
py
Co
Figure 2.17 (Top right) Possible

arrangements of the servicing
rooms and service routes
(c) Linear rooflights (d) Shed bands in roof
Figure 2.18 (Right) Examples of ways of
providing natural lighting
in industrial buildings
Support Structures 03
17
/20
/02
03 Support Structures
03
on
.au
This section describes common systems used for main support
m
structures in industrial buildings. The characteristics of portal frames
.co
as well as column and beam structures are described, together with
information on secondary components and connections.
m
iu
Portal frame structures A number of types of structure can be Portal frame structures
od
Portal frame buildings are generally low- classified broadly as portal frames.
rise structures, comprising columns and The information given with regard to
op
horizontal or sloping rafters, connected
by moment-resisting connections.
spans, roof pitch, etc. is typical of the
lyc
forms of construction that are illustrated.
Column and beam
structures
@
Portal frames with hinged column bases Steel sections used in portal frame
are generally preferred as they lead to structures with spans of 12 m to 30m
Secondary components
ng
smaller foundation sizes in comparison to are usually hot rolled sections and are
and bracing
n.
fixed bases. Furthermore, fixed columns specified in grades S235, S275 or even
oo
require more expensive connection S355 steel. Use of high-strength steel is

details and therefore are predominately rarely economic in structures where
eb
used only if high horizontal forces have to serviceability (i.e. deflection) or stability
be resisted. However, pinned columns criteria may control the design. Connections
se
have the disadvantage of leading to

slightly heavier steel weights due to the Frames designed using plastic
to
lower stiffness of the frame to both global analysis offer greater economy,
ed
vertical and horizontal forces. although elastic global analysis is

preferred in some countries.
ns
This form of rigid frame structure is stable Where plastic analysis is used,
ice
in its own plane and provides a clear the member proportions must be
span that is unobstructed by bracing. appropriate for the development
.L
Stability is achieved by rigid frame action of plastic bending resistance.

provided by continuity at the connections
ial
and this is usually achieved by use of Types of steel portal frames

er
haunches at the eaves. Pitched roof portal frame

One of the most common structures for
at
Out-of-plane stability in most cases has industrial buildings is the single-span

m
to be provided by additional elements, symmetrical portal frame, as shown in

such as tubular braces and purlins
d
Figure 3.2. The following characteristics

(Figure3.1). By using profiled sheeting,
e
emerged as the most economical and

ht
the stiffening of the roof can be obtained can therefore be seen as a basis at an
rig
by stressed skin diaphragm action early design stage:

without additional bracing. Shear walls, Span between 15 m and 50 m
py
cores and the use of fixed ended (25 to 35 m is the most efficient).
columns can also provide outofplane Eaves height between 5 and 10 m
Co
restraint to the portal frames. (5 to 6 m is the most efficient).
17
/20
/02
03
on
.au
m
.co
m
iu
Stiffening in two directions by using Stiffening in longitudinal direction by using
bracings in roof and walls as well as in gable
od
bracings in roof and walls with frame in gable
wall (roof cladding also provides in-place stiffness) wall for possible further expansion
op
lyc
@
ng
n.
oo
eb
Stiffening in longitudinal direction by using Stiffening in longitudinal direction by using

se
bracings in roof and special bracings for bracings in roof and portal frame in wall for
integration of a door in the wall integration of a door
Figure 3.1 Examples of out-of plane
to
bracing of a portal frame

ed
Roof pitch between 5 and 10 It can be designed to stabilise the frame. Where the crane is of relatively low
(6 is commonly adopted). Often the internal floor requires additional capacity (up to about 20 tonnes),
ns
Frame spacing between 5 m and fire protection. brackets can be fixed to the columns
ice
8 m (the greater spacings being to support the crane (see Figure 3.5).
associated with the longer span Portal frame with Use of a tie member between haunches
across the building or fixed column bases
.L
portal frames). external mezzanine

Haunches in the rafters at the eaves Offices may be located externally to the may be necessary to reduce the relative
ial
and if necessary at the apex. portal frame, creating an asymmetric eaves deflection. The outward movement
er
portal structure, as shown in Figure 3.4. of the frame at crane rail level may be of
Table3.1 can be used as an aid for The main advantage of this framework is critical importance to the functioning of
at
pre-design of single span portal frames. that large columns and haunches do not the crane.
m
The use of haunches at the eaves and obstruct the office space. Generally, this
apex both reduces the required depth of additional structure depends on the portal For heavy cranes, it is appropriate to
d
rafter and achieves an efficient moment

e
frame for its stability. support the crane rails on additional

ht
connection at these points. Often the columns, which may be tied to the portal
rig
haunch is cut from the same size of Crane portal frame with frame columns by bracing in order to
section as the rafter. column brackets provide stability.
py
Cranes, if needed, have an important

Portal frame with a influence on the design and the Propped portal frame
Co
mezzanine floor dimensions of portal frames. Where the span of a portal frame is
Office accommodation is often provided They create additional vertical loads greater than 30 m, and there is no need
within a portal frame structure using as well as considerable horizontal forces, to provide a clear span, a propped portal
amezzanine floor (see Figure 3.3), which influence the size of the column frame (see Figure 3.6) can reduce the
which may be partial or full width. section, in particular. rafter size and also the horizontal forces
17
/20
/02
Eaves Frame Required
03
Snow load Span Roof pitch
height spacing crosssection
on
[kN/m] [m] [m] [] [m] Column Rafter
30.0 6.0 6.0 5.0 IPE 600 IPE 550
.au
25.0 6.0 6.0 5.0 IPE 500 IPE 500
0.75 20.0 6.0 6.0 5.0 IPE 450 IPE 450
m
15.0 5.0 6.0 5.0 IPE 360 IPE 360
.co
12.0 4.0 6.0 5.0 IPE 300 IPE 300
m
30.0 6.0 6.0 5.0 HEA 500 HEA 500
iu
25.0 6.0 6.0 5.0 IPE 600 IPE 550
od
1.20 20.0 6.0 6.0 5.0 IPE 500 IPE 500
15.0 5.0 6.0 5.0 IPE 450 IPE 450
op
12.0 4.0 6.0 5.0 IPE 360 IPE 360
lyc
30.0 6.0 6.0 5.0 HEA 650 HEA 650
25.0 6.0 6.0 5.0 HEA 550 HEA 550
@
2.00 20.0 6.0 6.0 5.0 IPE 600 HEA 600

ng
15.0 5.0 6.0 5.0 IPE 500 IPE 500

n.
12.0 4.0 6.0 5.0 IPE 400 IPE 400 Table 3.1 Pre-design table
for portal frames
oo
Roof pitch Apex

Rafter
eb
Eaves
se
Apex haunch
to
Eaves haunch
ed
Column
ns
Figure 3.2 Single span symmetrical portal

ice
frame
.L
ial
er
Mezzanine
at
m
d
Figure 3.3 Portal frame with internal

e
mezzanine floor
ht
rig
py
Co
Mezzanine
Figure 3.4 Portal frame with external

mezzanine floor
17
/20
/02
03
on
.au
m
Column
bracket
.co
Figure 3.5 Portal frame with column
m
brackets
iu
od
op
Possible location
lyc * of out of plane restraint
Prop
Clear internal
@
height
ng
n.
Figure 3.6 Propped portal frame

oo
at the bases of the columns, thus leading applications. The rafter can be curved wall is not provided by a portal frame,
to savings in both steelwork and to a radius by cold bending. For spans bracings or rigid panels are needed,
eb
foundation costs. greater than 16m, splices may be required as shown in Figure3.11.
in the rafter because of limitations of
se
This type of frame is sometimes referred transport. For architectural reasons, Column & beam structures
to as a single span propped portal, but it these splices may be designed to be Column and beam structures require an
to
acts as a two-span portal frame in terms visually unobtrusive. independent bracing system in both
ed
of the behaviour of the beam. directions. The beams may be Isections

Alternatively, where the roof must be or lattice trusses.
ns
Tied portal frame curved but the frame need not be curved,
Column & beam structures with
ice
In a tied portal frame (see Figure3.7), the rafter can be fabricated as a series of
the horizontal movements of the eaves straight elements. hinged column bases
.L
and the moments in the columns are For simple beam and column structures,
reduced, at the cost of a reduction in the Cellular portal frame the columns are loaded mainly in com-
ial
clear height. For roof slopes of less than Cellular beams are commonly used pression which leads to smaller columns.
er
15, large forces will develop in the in portal frames which have curved Compared to a portal frame, the internal
rafters and the tie. rafters (see Figure3.10 and Figure2.9). moments in the beam are greater,
at
Where splices are required in the rafter leading to larger steel sections.
Since
m
Mansard portal frame for transport, these should be detailed to pinned connections are less complex
A mansard portal frame consists of a preserve the architectural features for this than moment resisting connections,
e d
series of rafters and haunches (as in form of construction. fabrication costs can be reduced. Table
ht
Figure3.8). It may be used where a large 3.2 gives some indicative column and
rig
clear span is required but the eaves Gable wall frames beam sizes for a hinged column base.
height of the building has to be minimised. Gable wall frames are located at the ends
py
A tied mansard may be an economic of the building and may comprise posts For this type of support structure,
solution where there is a need to restrict and simply-supported rafters rather than bracings in both directions are required
Co
eaves spread. a full-span portal frame (see Figure3.11). in the roof as well as in the walls in order
If the building is to be extended later, to provide stability for horizontal loads.
Curved rafter portal frame aportal frame of the same size as the For that reason, it is often used for
Curved rafter portals (see Figure3.9 and internal frames should be provided. predominantly enclosed halls (i.e. no
Figure 2.8) are often used for architectural Incases in which the stability of the gable substantial openings). This fact also has
17
/20
/02
Hangers may be
03
required on long spans
on
.au
m
Tie
.co
m
iu
Figure 3.7 Tied portal frame
od
op
lyc
@
ng
n.
oo
Figure 3.8 Mansard portal frame

eb
se
to
ed
ns
Figure 3.9 Curved rafter portal frame

ice
.L
ial
er
at
Figure 3.10 Cellular beam used in

m
portal frame
d
Industrial door
e
ht
rig
Gable
bracing
py
Co
Finished
floor level
Personnel door
Figure 3.11 End gables in a frame structure
17
/20
/02
Eaves Frame Required
03
Snow load Span Roof pitch
height spacing crosssection
on
[kN/m] [m] [m] [] [m] Column Beam
30.0 6.0 6.0 5.0 IPE 270 HEA 550
.au
25.0 6.0 6.0 5.0 IPE 270 IPE 600
0.75 20.0 6.0 6.0 5.0 IPE 240 IPE 500
m
15.0 5.0 6.0 5.0 IPE 200 IPE 360
.co
12.0 4.0 6.0 5.0 IPE 160 IPE 300
m
30.0 6.0 6.0 5.0 IPE 300 HEA 700
iu
25.0 6.0 6.0 5.0 IPE 300 HEA 550
od
1.20 20.0 6.0 6.0 5.0 IPE 270 IPE 550
15.0 5.0 6.0 5.0 IPE 220 IPE 450
op
12.0 4.0
lyc 6.0 5.0 IPE 180 IPE 360
30.0 6.0 6.0 5.0 IPE 330 HEA 900
25.0 6.0 6.0 5.0 IPE 300 HEA 700
@
2.00 20.0 6.0 6.0 5.0 IPE 300 HEA 500

ng
15.0 5.0 6.0 5.0 IPE 240 IPE 500

n.
Table 3.2 Pre-design table for column and 12.0 4.0 6.0 5.0 IPE 200 IPE 450
beam structures
oo
Sheet thickness 1.5 - 3 mm

eb
se
H
H
to
ed
Height H 175 mm 195 mm 210 mm 240 mm 260 mm

ns
Z-shape
ice

max. 350 mm
.L
Height H
ial
min. 80 mm
er
at
0
m
min. 30 mm depending on H max. 10 0 mm

d
C-shape
e
ht

max. 350 mm
rig
Height H
py
min. 80 mm
Co
min. 30 mm depending on H max. 10 0 mm
Figure 3.12 Cold-formed sections typically U-shape

used for purlins
17
/20
/02
to be taken into account during stiffness acts in both directions, and the Purlins
03
the installation stage by providing structure is stable after installation Purlins transfer the forces from the
on
temporary bracings. without additional bracing. roof cladding to the primary structural
elements, i.e. rafters. Furthermore, they
Column & beam structures with Secondary components can act as compression members as part
.au
fixed column bases & bracing of the bracing system and provide limited
When using fixed-ended columns,
m
A typical steel portal frame structure with restraint against lateral torsional buckling
larger foundations are required as a its secondary components is shown in of the rafter. For frame spacings up to
.co
result of the additional bending moment. Figure 3.14. Similar systems are provided 7m, it can be economic to span the
As the columns have low axial forces, for beam and column splices. profiled sheeting between the rafters
m
the required size of the foundation without the use of purlins. Larger frame
iu
will be large and possibly uneconomic. The bracing systems shown in Figure3.1 spacings reduce the number of primary
od
Large columns for industrial buildings are generally achieved by bracing structural elements and foundations,
with a crane may be designed as (usually circular members) in the plane but require the use of heavier purlins.
op
lattice structures. of the roof or wall. Purlins and side In industrial buildings, hot-rolled
Isections as well as cold-formed profiles
lyc
rails support the roof and wall cladding,
Compared to portal frames, internal and stabilise the steel framework against with Z-, C, U- or custom-made shapes
@
moments in the beams and lateral lateral buckling. Alternatively, panels are used, as shown in Figure3.12.
deformations are greater. The providing shear stiffness or steel profiled
ng
advantages of this system are its sheeting used in diaphragm action When cold-formed purlins are used,
n.
insensitivity to settlement and, in the can be used to provide sufficient out-of- they are usually located at spacings
case of the fixed supports, the base
oo
plane stability. of approximately 1.5m to 2.5m.

eb
se
to
ed
ns
ice
.L
ial
er
at
(a) Support for continuous (b) Support for single-span

m
hot-rolled purlin hot-rolled purlin

e d
ht
rig
py
Co
(c) Support for continuous (d) Support for continuous cold-formed

cold-formed Z-shaped purlin custom-shaped purlin Figure 3.13 Possible solutions for
purlin-rafter connections
17
/20
/02
Purlins
03
Cold rolled Rafter
eaves beam
5
on
Apex haunch
Side 4
rails 3
1 Eaves haunch
.au
Positions of restraint
2 to inner flange of Column
column and rafter
m
Dado wall Base plate
FFL
.co
Tie rod (optional
but not common)
Foundation
m
iu
(a) Cross-section showing the portal frame and its restraints
od
op
lyc
@
ng
Cold rolled
n.
purlins
oo
Sag bars if
necessary
eb
se
Cold-rolled
eaves beam
to
Eaves beam
ed
strut
Plan
bracing
ns
ice
.L
ial
(b) Roof steelwork plan

er
at
m
e d
Sag rod
ht
Side rails Diagonal

rig
ties
py
Co
Side wall
bracing
Figure 3.14 Overview of secondary

structural components in (c) Side elevation
a portal frame structure
17
/20
/02
03
Tension flange welds
Rib (tension) stiffener
(if needed)
on
.au
hot-rolled I-section
m
.co
Eaves haunch
m
iu
Bolts Grade 8.8 or 10.9
od
End-plate
op
lyc
Compression stiffener (if needed)
@
ng
hot-rolled I-section
n.
oo
Figure 3.15 Typical eaves connections

in a portal frame
eb
Thespacing between the purlins is In order to reduce manufacturing costs,

se
reduced in zones of higher wind and it is preferable to design the eaves

snow load, and where stability of the connection without the use of stiffeners.
to
rafter is required, e.g. close to the eaves In some cases, the effects of the reduced
ed
and valley. Often manufacturers provide joint stiffness on the global structural
approved solutions for the connections to behaviour may have to be considered,
ns
the rafter section using pre-fabricated i.e. effects on the internal forces and
deflections. EN199318 provides a
ice
steel plates, as shown in Figure 3.13.

design procedure, which takes these
Connections semi-rigid effects into account.
.L
The three major connections in a single

ial
bay portal frame are those at the eaves, The apex connection is often designed
er
the apex and the column base. similarly, see Figure3.16. If the span of
the frame does not exceed transportation
at
For the eaves, bolted connections are limits (about 16m), the on-site apex con-
m
mostly used of the form shown in nection can be avoided, thus saving costs.
Figure3.15. A haunch can be created
d
by welding a cutting to the rafter to

e
The base of the column is often kept simple

ht
increase its depth locally and to make with larger tolerances in order to facilitate
the connection design more efficient.
rig
the interface between the concrete and

The cutting is often made from the steelwork. Typical details are presented
py
same steel section as the rafter. in Figure3.17. Pinned connections are

often preferred in order to minimize
Co
In some cases, the column and the foundation sizes although stability during
haunched part of the beam are construction must be considered.
constructed as one unit, and the High horizontal forces may require the
constant depth part of the beam is use of fixed based connections.
bolted using an end plate connection.
17
/20
/02
03
Bolts Grade 8.8 or 10.9 End-plates
on
hot-rolled rafter section
.au
Figure 3.16 (Right) Typical apex
connections in a portal frame
m
Apex haunch
.co
Figure 3.17 (Below) Typical examples (if needed)
of nominally pinned column
m
bases in a portal frame
iu
od
op
lyc
@
ng
n.
oo
eb
se
to
ed
ns
ice
.L
ial
er
at
m
e d
ht
rig
py
Co
Roof & Wall Systems 04
17
/20
/02
04 Roof & Wall Systems
03
on
.au
This section describes common systems for roofing and cladding that
m
serve as the building envelope and may at the same time provide stability
.co
for the main support structure. Also, mainly architectural aspects for
industrial building such as service integration and lighting are discussed.
m
iu
Roof systems Generally steel sheeting is made of Roof systems
od
There are a number of proprietary types galvanised steel grades S280G, S320G
of cladding that may be used in industrial or S275G to EN10326. Due to the wide
op
buildings. These tend to fall into some range of product forms, no standard
Wall systems
lyc
broad categories, which are described in dimensions for sheeting exist, although
the following sections. there are strong similarities between
@
products and shapes. The steel sheets

Single-skin trapezoidal sheeting are usually between 0.50 and 1.50mm
ng
Single-skin sheeting is widely used in thick (including galvanisation).

n.
agricultural and industrial structures

Double skin system
oo
where no insulation is required. It can

generally be used on roof slopes down Double skin or built-up roof systems
eb
to as low as 4 provided that the laps usually use a steel liner tray that is
and sealants are as recommended by fastened to the purlins, followed by a
se
the manufacturers for shallow slopes. spacing system (plastic ferrule and
The sheeting is fixed directly to the spacer or rail and bracket spacer),
to
purlins and side rails, and provides insulation and an outer sheet. Because
ed
positive restraint (see Figure4.1). the connection between the outer and
In some cases, insulation is suspended inner sheets may not be sufficiently stiff,
ns
directly beneath the sheeting. the liner tray and fixings must be chosen
ice
.L
ial
er
at
m
e d
ht
rig
py
Co
Figure 4.1 Single-skin trapezoidal sheeting
17
/20
/02
so that they provide the level of restraint boundary. Alternatively, an impermeable that significantly less restraint is provided
03
to the purlins. Alternative forms of membrane on top of the liner tray may to the purlins than with a conventionally
fixed system. Nevertheless, a correctly
on
construction using plastic ferrule and Z- be provided.
or rail and bracket spacers are shown in fixed liner tray will provide adequate
Figure 4.2 and Figure 4.3. Standing seam sheeting restraint to the purlins.
.au
Standing seam sheeting has concealed
fixings and can be fixed in lengths of up Composite or sandwich panels
m
As insulation depths have increased to
provide greater insulation performance, to 30m. The advantages are that there Composite or sandwich panels are
.co
there has been a move towards rail are no penetrations directly through the formed by creating a foam insulation
and bracket solutions, as they provide sheeting that could lead to water leakage, layer between the outer and inner layer of
m
greater stability. and fixing is rapid. The fastenings are in sheeting. Composite panels have good
iu
the form of clips that hold the sheeting spanning capabilities due to composite
od
With adequate sealing of joints, the liner down but allow it to move longitudinally action in bending. Both standing seam
trays may be used to form an airtight (see Figure4.4). The disadvantage is (see Figure4.5) and direct fixing systems
op
lyc
@
Outer sheeting
ng
n.
oo
eb
Insulation
se
Z spacer
Liner tray
to
ed
ns
Hot-rolled rafter or purlin Plastic ferrule

ice
Figure 4.2 Double-skin construction using

plastic ferrule and Z spacers
.L
ial
Sheeting
er
at
m
e d
ht
Rail Insulation
rig
Liner tray
py
Co
Bracket
Figure 4.3 (Bottom right) Double-skin
construction using rail and
bracket spacers
17
/20
/02
are available. These will clearly without or with few joints. The basic Requirements for corrosion protection of
03
provide widely different levels of material for the outer layers is usually sandwich or composite panels are the
on
restraint to the purlins. galvanised coated steel sheeting with same as for trapezoidal steel sheets.
thicknesses of 0.4 to 1.0mm. For foam insulation, the following
Sandwich elements for roofs generally solutions have been developed:
.au
have a width of 1000mm with thicknesses The inner layers of sandwich panels are Polyurethane PUR rigid foam;
Mineral fibre insulating material;
m
between 70 and 110mm, depending on often lined or slotted; special designs
the required insulation level and structural are available with plane surfaces. Polystyrene (only used in exceptions
.co
demands. Despite being relatively Closepitch flutings have also been due to its lower insulation behaviour).
thick elements, the self-weights are established, which are fully profiled,
m
comparatively low. Thus the elements yet appearing as a plane surface from The steel skin and the insulating foam
iu
are easy to handle and assemble. acertain distance. Some patterns for are physiologically harmless during
od
Component lengths of up to 20m for external surfaces of sandwich panels production and assembly as well as in
roofs and walls permit constructions are shown in Figure 4.6. the permanent use in the building.
op
lyc
@
Sheeting
ng
n.
oo
eb
Insulation
se
Standing seam clip

to
ed
Hot-rolled rafter or purlin

ns
ice
Figure 4.4 Standing seam panels

with liner trays
.L
ial
er
Sheeting
at
m
e d
ht
Insulation
Standing
rig
seam clip
py
Co
Figure 4.5 Composite or sandwich panels

with clip fixings
17
/20
/02
03
Flat
on
Wide profiled
.au
Narrow profiled
m
Micro-profiled
.co
Trapezoidal
m
iu
Corrugated
od
Figure 4.6 Types of external surfaces for
sandwich panels
Composite or sandwich op
lyc
Thecore insulation is odourless, free buckling of the panel. The darker
panels offer numerous from rot and mould-resistant. Further- the colour of the panel, the higher are
@
advantages: more it offers good recycling possibilities. the compression forces. Therefore,
for continuous panels, checks for
ng
Panel manufacturing A key factor to be taken into account for temperature in summer and
provides short
n.
the design of sandwich panels is the temperature in winter design

construction time and
oo
temperature difference across the element. situations have to be performed,

The separation of the inner and outer skins taking into account the colour of the
cost-efficiency
eb
leads to heating and therefore extension panel. At a European level, EN 14509

of the outer sheet due to solar radiation. (in preparation) defines the structural
Good building physics
se
design method as well as the production

performance For single span panels, this results in and quality principles of sandwich and
to
a flexure of the panel. Even though composite panels.

Can be installed in
ed
this does not lead to additional internal

nearly all weather forces, it might influence the appearance Manufacturers should be consulted for
ns
conditions of the envelope. more information.

ice
Long-span capabilities For continuous panels, restaint of flexure Special roofing systems
which minimise the A flat roof of an industrial building spans
.L
leads to bending and to compressive

support structure forces in the skins, which can lead to a large area and is exposed to solar effects.
ial
er
at
m
e d
ht
rig
py
Co
Figure 4.7 Solar cells and water cooling

Source: Corus
17
/20
/02
03
Sandwich Sandwich Profile sheet long. joint transv. joint Type of fastening
Steel Sub- Timber Sub- Steel Sub- sheets/sheet sheets/sheet element
structure structure structure
on
.au
m
.co
A A
Z
m
iu
od
op
lyc
Stahl-Informations-Zentrum: Dach und Fassadenelemente aus Stahl - Erfolgreich Planen und Konstruieren, Figure 4.8 Range of application for
Dokumentation 588, Dsseldorf, 2005 fastening elements in
various claddings
@
ng
Advantage can be taken from this exposure For the fastening of steel sheeting, Wall Systems
n.
by integrating a membrane with photo- (self-tapping) screws or rivets are used. Numerous systems exist for the
For profiled sheeting, at least every
oo
conductive cells into the roof to capture design of external walls for industrial
solar energy. There are economic

and second rib has to be fixed to the supporting buildings. Cladding types made of
eb
easy to process products on the market. structure. If sheets are used as a stressed steel sheeting are most frequently
skin diaphragm, the number of fixings used, because they offer high-quality
se
Another steel roof cladding system has have to be designed so that they resist standards, short construction time and
been developed with an integrated system the applied shear flow. cost-efficiency. Generally, steel sheet
to
of water channels in order to collect and wall cladding follows the same generic
ed
use the heat (a solar thermal collector). For sandwich elements, the designer has types as roof cladding, and the main
to consider the influence of the fastening types are:
ns
Fastening elements method on the strength of the panel. Sheeting, orientated vertically and
ice
Fastening techniques include the supported on side rails;

connections of the sheets to the Figure 4.8 shows the different types of Sheeting or structural liner trays
.L
supporting structure and the fastening elements depending on the spanning horizontally between
connections between sheets. support structure. primary frame;
ial
er
at
m
e d
ht
rig
py
Co
Figure 4.9 Horizontal spanning sheeting
17
/20
/02
03
on
.au
m
.co
m
iu
Figure 4.10 Horizontally orientated
od
composite panels and long
ribbon corridors.
op
lyc
@
ng
n.
oo
eb
se
to
Figure 4.11 Large window and composite

panels with dado brick wall
ed
Composite or sandwich panels with a thickness of 40 to 120mm, and in For the completion of the facades,
ns
spanning horizontally between the some cases up to 200mm for elements special formed components for the
ice
columns, eliminating side rails; used in cold stores. transitions between wall and roof have
Metallic cassette supported been developed. For high quality facades,
.L
by side rails. To achieve a good appearance of the manufacturers offer angled or rounded
building, the following aspects are important: components for the roof or corner
ial
Different forms of cladding may be used Texture of the surface. sections. These special components
er
together for visual effect in the same Colour. have to be of the same quality and colour
facade. Some examples are illustrated Detailing of joints. as the adjacent elements.
at
in Figure 4.9 to Figure 4.11. Type of fixing.

m
Fire design of walls

Brickwork is often used as a dado In addition, for a modern construction Where buildings are close to a site
e d
wall for impact resistance, as shown system, the client expects practically boundary, national building regulations
ht
in Figure4.11. invisible fixings and clean transitions at usually require that the wall is designed
the buildings corners. Nevertheless, to prevent spread of fire to adjacent
rig
Sandwich or composite panels through fixings are still commonly used. property. Fire tests have shown that a
py
Sandwich or composite panels are The details comprise either hidden fixings number of types of panels can perform
double skin continuously produced or elements with additional clip fasteners; adequately, provided that they remain
Co
elements with various types of core as shown in Figure4.5 and Figure4.12. fixed to the structure. Further guidance
insulation. They are the most common By the use of additional clip fasteners, should be sought from the manufacturers.
choice of wall cladding for industrial slight dents that may occur at the fixings
buildings in Europe. For walls, sandwich due to improper assembly or temperature It is often considered necessary to
elements have widths of 600 to 1200mm influence can be avoided. provide slotted holes in the side rail
17
/20
/02
connections to allow for thermal The use of this architectural high-quality colours for the faade. A variety of
03
expansion. In order to ensure that this faade does not automatically lead to colours, including pastel shading and
metallic finishes, are available from many
on
does not compromise the stability of the higher costs. In the example shown in
column by removing the restraint under Figure4.14, hot-rolled sections are used sheeting suppliers. Figure 4.15 shows
normal conditions, the slotted holes are for the structure as well as a standardised an example of a building well integrated
.au
fitted with washers made from a material faade-system. By integrating solar gains with its surroundings by the use of
m
that will melt at high temperatures and into the thermal balance, running costs coloured facades.
allow the side rail to move relative to are also reduced significantly. The structure
.co
the column under fire conditions only. supporting the faade and the detailing As an additional feature, photovoltaic
An example of this type of detail is can be adapted from solutions for multi- panels may be integrated in the faade.
m
shown in Figure4.13. storey buildings, where these kinds of Despite the fact that the angle to the sun
iu
building envelopes are common practice. is not optimal, the use of multi-layer
od
Other types of faades coatings makes the solar cells less
Many other types of faade materials Another modern way of designing dependent on the angle of incidence of
op
may be used for industrial buildings, for industrial buildings in an architecturally
lyc the suns rays. An example of this
example glass, as shown in Figure4.14. appealing way is of the use of different technology is shown in Figure4.16.
@
with hidden bolts

ng
n.
oo
eb
with additional element fastener

se
to
ed
(a) Through fixings (b) Invisible fixings

ns
Figure 4.12 (Above) Examples of fixing

ice
methods for walls made

of sandwich panels.
.L
Stahl-Informations-Zentrum: Dach und

Cladding rail Fassadenelemente
aus Stahl - Erfolgreich Planen und
ial
Konstruieren, Dokumentation 588,

Dsseldorf, 2005
er
at
m
e d
ht
Slotted
hole for
rig
expansion
py
Cleat Splice
Co
plate
Figure 4.13 Typical fire wall details showing

slotted holes for expansion in fire
17
/20
/02
03
on
.au
m
.co
m
iu
od
Figure 4.14 Industrial building with a
op
lyc
glazed faade
Bauen mit Stahl e.V.
@
ng
n.
oo
eb
se
to
ed
ns
ice
Figure 4.15 Industrial building with a

.L
coloured faade
www.tks-bau-photos.com
ial
er
at
m
e d
ht
rig
py
Co
Figure 4.16 Faade with integrated

solar panels
www.tks-bau-photos.com
National Practice 05
17
/20
/02
05 National Practice
03
on
.au
In this section, some national practices are given for several countries.
m
The construction systems have been identified as good practice in the
.co
countries concerned, although they may not be widely used in Europe.
m
Current Practice in It is equally common for the sheeting
iu
Germany to span between rafters and between Germany
od
Structure purlins. About 40% of purlins are hot
In Germany, industrial buildings are rolled and 60% are cold formed, with the
op
typically constructed as portal frames cold formed proportion rising.
with pinned column bases. The span of
The Netherlands
lyc
the frames varies from 12m to 30m The design is almost exclusively carried
when hot-rolled or welded I-sections are
@
out by using elastic calculation of the

used, and spans are most commonly internal forces and moments, and
ng
between 15m and 20m. Lattice trusses

are a typical solution for spans greater
comparing these with either elastic or
Spain
n.
plastic resistances of the cross section.

than 30 m. If there are no restrictions in
oo
The current design standard is

the building usage, multi-bay portal DIN18800, Parts 1-5, which is similar
eb
frames using I-sections are often used to European standard EN199311.

with spans of up to 20m. Sweden
se
Roofing
Other load-bearing structures, such as Roofs of industrial buildings in Germany
to
simply-supported beams on columns, are usually trapezoidal steel sheeting

UK
ed
arches, grids, shells, etc. are less often spanning directly between the portal
used, except for some architecturally frames or supported by the purlins.
ns
expressive buildings.
ice
Currently the single-layer, insulated steel

The column spacing usually ranges sheeting roof, as shown in Figure5.1 (left)
.L
between 5m and 8m, while up to 10m is is the most widely used type of roof
possible. The eaves height of the frame cladding in industrial buildings in
ial
is about 4.5m in standard cases, Germany. For this type of cladding,

er
increasing to 8m and more, if overhead the slope should be not less than 2
cranes are provided. in order to ensure sufficient drainage.
at
This type of roof is comparatively low in

m
The columns of portal frames made of cost, but is susceptible to mechanical

IPE- or HE-sections are often designed damage of the weather-proofing layer.
e d
with rafters which are haunched in the

ht
highly stressed regions. Bolted connections Sandwich panel construction, as shown

rig
are mostly used with continuous columns in Figure5.1(right), has gained more
combined with beams having end-plates, importance, because it is easy to
py
as shown in Figure3.15. In some cases, maintain and achieves longer useful life.
the haunched part of the beam is Further advantages are a higher
Co
attached to the column in the fabrication resistance to damage and good acoustic
shop and the part of the beam with insulation and fire resistance. Often the
constant height is then connected on site waterproofing layer is fixed to the load-
using a bolted connection. bearing layer by a clamped joint with
17
/20
/02
water-proofing layer
03
sliding system
on
.au
m
sealing trapezoidal sheeting
insulation synthetic coating insulation beam or purlin
Figure 5.1 Common roofing system for
.co
vapour barrier purlin or beam of frame vapour barrier load-bearing layer
(if needed) industrial buildings in Germany
using trapezoidal steel sheeting
m
special sliding system, so that the transmission losses through the The easier the calculation method,
iu
waterproofing layer does not need building envelope have to be satisfied. the more conservative is the result.
od
to be penetrated. The heating installation does not have
to be considered. There are also fewer Using the simplified calculation method1,
op
External walls restrictions concerning the thermal lyc single-storey industrial buildings can be
For industrial buildings in Germany, many insulation, which leads to smaller designed in unprotected steel up to a
types of walls are used depending on the thicknesses of insulation. plan area of 1,800m without providing
any active fire-fighting measures. By use
@
building use, building physics require-

ments and the fire boundary conditions. Fire safety of automatic sprinkler units, the maximum
ng
In March 2000, a new guideline compartment size can reach 10,000m.

n.
Systems of profiled, lightweight and concerning the fire protection of Iffire-walls are provided, the size of the
oo
large-sized sandwich panels are gaining industrial buildings came into effect, building can be increased by adding all
importance as fire protection requirements taking into account results of recent the compartments together.
eb
are reduced with the introduction of research projects dealing with natural
the Muster-Industriebau-Richtlinie. fires. In combination with DIN18230, Single-storey buildings used as retail
se
These panels can be installed rapidly it regulates the use of fire-protection premises also have similar low
and easily and are not affected by in industrial buildings in terms of the requirements in the fire resistance of the
to
weather conditions. They also offer fire resistance period of structural structural components, if sprinklers are
ed
high levels of thermal insulation. components, the size and arrangement provided. The maximum size of the
of fire compartments, location and length compartments is 10,000m also.
ns
Thermal behaviour of escape routes.

In Germany, the Energy Saving Act
ice
The more precise calculation method2 is

(ENEV 2002) differentiates between The guideline provides three calculation based on DIN182301, which determines
buildings with normal internal temperature an equivalent fire-duration. This value
.L
methods, of increasing level of complexity:

and buildings with low internal temperature 1. Simplified calculation method. relates the parametric heating curve
ial
(below 19C) which can very often be 2. More precise calculation method with considering the specific parameters for
determination of the fire-load density,
er
found in the industrial sector. For buildings the project to the ISO-curve. It takes into
with low internal temperature, only the based on DIN 18230-1. account project-specific parameters like
at
requirements concerning the heat 3. Fire-engineering methods. ventilation conditions, etc. By this method,
m
d
Fire-fighting measures No requirements F30

e
ht
No active fire fighting measures (K1) 1,800 m * 3,000 m

rig
Automatic fire detection system (K2) 2,700 m * 4,500 m

py
Automatic fire detection system and

Co
3,200-4,500 m * 6,000 m
plant fire brigade (K3)
Automatic fire-extinguishing system (K4) 10,000 m 10,000 m
*Area of heat extraction surfaces 5% and width of building 40 m Table 5.1 Allowable size of fire compart-
ments for industrial buildings
17
/20
/02
compartment areas up to 30,000m can Lightweight; For single-storey buildings higher
03
be designed using unprotected steel. Pre-fabricated systems; than 6m, a steel frame with hinged
on
Industrially produced components; connections and wind bracing is more
In addition to the two simplified calculation Flexibility in use; economic. In this case, the connections
methods, fire-engineering analysis can Easily demountable; are more complex but material use is
.au
also be used. The guideline formulates Reusability at three levels: material, more efficient.
m
basic principles for appropriate checks to element and building.
satisfy the aims of the regulations. A common industrial building in the
.co
Construction Netherlands consists of portal frames
Current Practice in the The vast majority of industrial buildings of hot-rolled sections. The columns are
m
Netherlands are single-storey, single-bay sheds. HEA180 and the roof beams are IPE500
iu
For many years in the Netherlands, These sheds are sometimes combined at 5.4m spacing. Cold-formed profiled
od
steel has been the most commonly with offices. Multi-bay structures are roof elements of typically 106mm depth
used material for structural, roof and a minority. are popular. Wall elements are commonly
op
faade systems for industrial and 90mm deep liner trays with cladding
profiles fixed to the outside.
lyc
agricultural buildings. The attributes For single-storey buildings with a span
of steel construction are beneficial to up to approximately 25m and a height
@
single-storey buildings with long spans: up to approximately 6m, portal frames For single-storey buildings with spans
Speed of construction; with fixed connections are the preferred longer than 25m, trussed beams are
ng
Economic building cost; solution (Figure5.2). preferred (Figure5.3). Castellated and

n.
oo
eb
se
to
ed
ns
ice
.L
Figure 5.2 For free spans up to 25m, hot-

rolled sections are preferred
ial
er
at
m
e d
ht
rig
py
Co
Figure 5.3 For longer spans trussed

beams are a popular alternative
17
/20
/02
cellular beams are becoming a popular the Netherlands, except for barns and
03
non-steel
10%
sandwich alternative to solid web sections. stables in the agricultural sector.
45%
on
Suspended and cable-stayed Approximately 80% of the roofs on
constructions can be economic for industrial buildings consist of roll-formed
.au
cladding
45%
extremely long spans and for profiled sheet fixed directly to the roof
m
Figure 5.4 Market shares of steel faade suspending heavy installations. beams or to intermediary beams. About
systems in industrial buildings in 15% are sandwich elements and 5%
.co
the Netherlands (2006)
Faades are non-steel.
In the year 2007, Bouwen met Staal
m
carried out a market survey of the use of Ponding on flat roofs
iu
faade and roof elements in industrial A point of interest is the ponding of large
od
buildings in the Netherlands. It showed amounts of water on flat roofs. On one
that steel cladding has a market share of day in 2002, six roofs collapsed due to
op
approximately 90%. The remaining 10%
lyc heavy rainfall. In response to these
comprise largely of masonry walls below problems, the Ministry of Housing,
the window sill. Spatial Planning and the Environment
@
set up a research team. One of the

Approximately half of the steel faades results is the practical guideline NPR
ng
in industrial buildings consist of trapezoi- 6773, which is published as an amend-

n.
dal profiled sheet fixed to liner trays. ment to NEN6702: Technical principles
oo
Figure 5.5 Trapezoidal roll-formed profiled The other half comprise steel sandwich for building structures. Loadings and
sheet fixed to liner trays panels. With respective outputs of 2 and deformations. This simpler and more
eb
1.5 million m2 per year, these two faade robust calculation method, in combination
systems are, together with brickwork, with more accurate supervision and
se
the most commonly used products for control, has led to a significant decrease
exterior walls. in problems caused by flat roofs.
to
ed
Roofs
Unlike other European countries, the
ns
vast majority of industrial buildings in the

Netherlands have flat roofs. Pitched roofs
ice
are very rare in single-storey buildings in

.L
ial
er
at
m
e d
ht
rig
Figure 5.6 Sandwich panels

py
Co
Figure 5.7 (Right) The majority of industrial

buildings are single-storey,
single-bay sheds combined
with offices. Most industrial
buildings have flat roofs.
Pitched roofs are common in
agricultural buildings (Inset)
17
/20
/02
03
on
Figure 5.8 (a) Parking next to the building,
(b) Under the building, (a) (b) (c) (d)
.au
(c) On top of the building,
(d) Below ground level
m
Fire protection will be renovated, and it is encouraged to industrial buildings can be identified as:
.co
The main reason for the high market find a parking solution inside the building Built-up I shaped sections for the
share of steel products in industrial envelope to decrease the pressure on primary structure of portal frames
m
buildings is the requirement for fire public space (Figure5.8). (tapered columns and rafters from
iu
resistance. In the Netherlands, these 750mm deep to 1280mm deep,
od
requirements are relatively low in Energy usually from steel grade S275JR).
comparison to other European countries. In 2012, all new industrial buildings will Cold-formed Z and C shaped
op
have to be energy neutral. This means
lyc sections for the secondary structural
For single-storey buildings and most that the energy consumption has to be members (roof purlins, side walls, etc.).
industrial buildings with a small office, equal to or less than the energy produced. Roof and wall cladding systems in
there are no requirements for fire compliance with new fire regulations.
@
In the town of Zaandam, an experimental

resistance from the construction. In some zero-energy shed has been built with
ng
cases, 30 or 60 minutes is required for promising results, and this technology Generally, tapered rafters have spans of
n.
escape routes, for fire compartments or is potentially useable more widely. 25-50m but it is possible to design spans
for prevention of fire spread between
oo
of 60-70m without intermediate supports.

spaces and to adjacent buildings. These Current Practice in Spain On the other hand, the typical spacings
eb
requirements are usually easy to meet Structure between portal frames are 9-10m, and
with simple fire protection measures. Most industrial buildings in Spain are columns are of 7-12m height.
se
constructed from builtup sections,

Parking although hot rolled sections are often The complementary subsystems consist
to
At the moment about 70,000 hectares of used for bespoke shed designs. of mezzanine floors, crane runway beams,
ed
land is in use as an industrial development Construction components include crane beams, roof platforms, canopies,
area. This is approximately 2% of the structural systems, roof and wall cladding parapets, and all accessories needed for
ns
total area of the Netherlands. The Dutch systems. The pre-engineered systems a complete and functional building.
ice
government is trying to stop the rapidly are delivered on site ready to be

increasing area zoned for economic assembled. This complete process is The foundation requirements of these
quick, efficient and economic. steel buildings are reduced significantly
.L
activities. Increasingly, industrial and

commercial buildings in these districts Thestructural elements in many Spanish because of the open spaces provided by
ial
er
at
m
e d
ht
rig
py
Co
Figure 5.9 Single portal frames with

tapered columns and rafters
under construction in Spain
17
/20
/02
03
on
.au
m
.co
m
iu
Figure 5.10 Interior structure of an industrial
od
building with tapered columns
op
Table 5.2 Regulations affecting the design lyc
of industrial buildings in Spain
@
Code Description
ng
Spanish Structural Steel Design Code (Instruccin de Acero Estructural). This regulation will be
EAE
compulsory in 2009.
n.
oo
Spanish Technical Building Code (Cdigo Tcnico de la Edificacin): Basic Documents: Basis of design
CTE
(DB-SE), actions (DBSEAE) and design of steel structures (DBSEA).
eb
EN 1993-1-1 Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures. Part1-1: General rules and regulations for buildings.
se
Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures. Part 1-3: Supplementary rules for cold formed thin gauge members
EN 1993-1-3
to
and sheeting.
ed
Spanish Regulation of Fire Security in Industrial Building (RSCIEI - Reglamento de Seguridad Contra
RSCIEI Incendios en los Establecimientos Industriales) The RSCIEI is a compulsory document for the fire safety
ns
design of industrial buildings.

ice
the clear span system, the longer bay The use of tapered built-up primary Public and private companies,
contractors and designers benefit as a
.L
lengths and the lower weight of the structure. structural members (columns and
rafters) results in up to a 40% weight result of the cost savings and from the
ial
Steel industrial buildings use a variety of advantage for the main rigid frames faster construction process.
er
materials that satisfy a wide range of when compared to the use of

structural requirements. This flexibility conventional hot rolled sections. Regulations
at
provides an unlimited range of building The use of Z shaped secondary The main regulations affecting the design
m
configurations and applications. structural members (roof purlins and of industrial buildings in Spain are given
side rails), particularly the overlapping in Table5.2.
d
of the Z shaped purlins at the frames,

e
Structural advantages
ht
This structural system offers many results in up to a 25% weight saving Fire safety engineering
rig
advantages compared to traditional for the secondary members. The Spanish Fire Safety Regulation for
construction. Advanced design and Generally, all the components are industrial buildings (RSCIEI) requires an
py
fabrication methods help to reduce costs factory-produced on automated assessment of the fire resistance of the
through faster construction and production lines, saving many building according to the expected fire
Co
minimised labour on site. problems in installation. loads, compartment size and

The steel scrap from the manufacture neighbouring buildings.
Structural systems, walls, roofs and of built-up plate members and cold
compatible accessories have the formed Z sections is reduced. Although it is possible to design industrial
following advantages: All steel is structurally efficient. buildings without additional structural fire
17
/20
/02
03
on
.au
m
.co
m
iu
od
op
lyc
@
ng
n.
Figure 5.11 (Above) Exterior appearance of

oo
industrial building in Spain

eb
se
to
ed
ns
ice
.L
Figure 5.12 Full scale model in fire

conditions showing collapse
ial
mechanism
er
resistance, i.e. detached sheds with low Current practice inSweden 150mm of mineral wool. The buildings
at
fire load, fire safety engineering offers a A typical Swedish industrial building often comprise an office space in parts of
m
more competitive approach in the case of Open plan buildings, such as industrial the building using an intermediate floor.
high fire loads or layouts requiring larger
d
buildings, are a very important market for

e
compartment sizes. An example of a steel in Sweden (SBI, 2004). Common The most common and often most
ht
model used to determine structural dimensions for light industrial buildings economic way of stabilising an open
rig
performance and time to collapse of a are spans between 15 and 25m with a plan building is to insert wind bracing
steel framed industrial building in fire is height of 5 to 8m. Building plan areas at the ends and in the long sides and
py
given in Figure5.12. of 1500-2000m are common. Often to utilise the profiled sheeting in the
companies specialising in these systems roof as a stiff stressed skin diaphragm,
Co
Acknowledgements deliver the building as a turnkey product. as shown in Figure5.13. The columns
The images shown have been provided are designed as pinned. The wall
by Prado Transformados Metlicos S.A. Modern buildings of this type are usually sheeting may also be used as a
(www.pradotm.com). insulated with approximately 120 to stressed skin diaphragm.
17
/20
/02
03
N
on
qah/2 qah/2+N
N
.au
h
m
.co
qah/2 b
a
m
iu
Figure 5.13 (Above) Industrial building
od
stabilised by wind bracing in
the walls and diaphragm of
op
trapezoidal sheetin in the roof.
SBI Publication 174, 2002
lyc
@
ng
n.
oo
eb
se
to
ed
ns
Figure 5.14 A light insulated industrial

ice
building
SBI Publication 130
.L
A typical open plan building is shown in considered as pin-ended at the base, Roof cladding
ial
Figure 5.14. Often a gabled roof with an four bolts are recommended in order to There are a number of products for
roofs, mainly profiled sheeting and tiles.
er
angle of 3.6 or 5.7 is used. The spacing provide column stability during erection.
between rafters is typically 6 to 10m. The profiled sheeting is typically of the
at
The walls are made from composite panels For non-insulated industrial buildings, form shown in Figure5.15. Roof tiles
m
or profiled sheeting placed on light steel the profiled sheeting is supported by may be used for roof slopes of 14 and
side rails. The insulation is placed on top purlins, and Zprofiles are often used more. Roofing tiles use traditional colours
d
of the profiled sheeting and covered with and are significantly lighter than ceramic
e
as purlins up to 12m span.

ht
a suitable roof material. A plastic membrane or concrete tiles.

rig
is used for air and moisture-tightness. Using pinned columns, it is essential to

stabilise the building during erection. Deep profiled sheeting may be used for
py
Lattice trusses are generally used for It is often necessary to brace columns insulated roofs with spans up to around
the rafters. Spans up to 45m can be and sometimes the rafters too. As bracing 11m and the longer spans are achieved
Co
achieved with standard sections. of the columns is necessary during erection, with sheeting stiffened in both directions.
The columns are typically HEA-sections, it is common to design the bracing as Shorter spans, up to 8m, are achieved
fastened with four anchor bolts on a permanent, thus not considering with more traditional profiles.
base plate. Although the columns are diaphragm action of the walls.
17
/20
/02
03
on
.au
m
.co
m
iu
Figure 5.15 Example of different products
od
on the Swedish market for
roofs andwalls
op
lyc
@
ng
Figure 5.16 Plannja 40 roof cladding (for

use on low sloping roofs from
n.
3-6O)
oo
www.plannja.se
eb
se
to
ed
ns
ice
Figure 5.17 Fasetti faade lamella

www.ruukki.com
.L
ial
er
at
m
de
ht
rig
py
Co
Figure 5.18 Composite panel

Left: Plannja panel
Right: Liberta Grande
faade cassette
Ruukki
17
/20
/02
The roof is usually designed to also act as There are products on the Swedish the high value activities for which these
03
a stressed skin diaphragm which enables market that can satisfy and exceed the buildings are employed. The introduction
on
it to be constructed without bracing. Swedish building regulations as to the of a revised PartL, with its more onerous
heat insulation of industrial buildings. requirements, and the European Energy
Profiled sheeting is used as load bearing Typical U-values for a 150mm composite Performance of Buildings Directive in
.au
elements for insulated roofs. The height panel are 0.24-0.28W/mK and there are April 2006 have led to the following
of the profile is chosen depending on the
m
standard solutions for U-values down to requirements:
span. Insulation in the form of mineral 0.17W/mK. The need to achieve a saving of
.co
wool is used in two layers with plastic foil around 23 to 28% in CO2 emissions
as a damp proof layer and an air barrier. Current Practice in the UK when measured against the equivalent
m
General Issues building to 2002 Regulations;
iu
Trapezoidal sheeting is used as the The construction of large single-storey The introduction of energy passports
od
external roof material. A minimum roof industrial buildings, widely known as for many types of buildings.
angle of 3.6 is required. sheds, is a significant part of the UK
op
steel construction sector. They are used
lyc Selection of Steel for Single-storey
Uvalues of below 0.3 W/mK can be as retail stores, distribution warehouses, Industrial Buildings
achieved, dependant on the thickness of manufacturing facilities and leisure centres. The following criteria can affect the
@
the insulation. This meets the Swedish value that the building brings to the
building regulations. Examples of innovations are the use of clients and users:
ng
plastic design of portal frames, ITsystems

n.
Cladding for design and manufacture, cold formed Architectural Design

Profiled sheeting used as cladding is Architects have a strong influence on
oo
components, such as purlins, and highly

often the same as the sheeting used efficient cladding systems. the choice of building form and its
eb
for roofing. appearance, as well as issues such as

The single-storey industrial sector in the thermal performance. Although the
se
Composite or sandwich panels provide UK has an annual value of approximately structural form is still the province of the
thermal insulation, fire protection and 1billion for frames (1.4billion Euros) structural engineer and steel fabricator,
to
appearance. Panels have steel sheeting and 1.5billion (2.1billion Euros) for the use of modern forms of structural
ed
on both sides with an insulation of mineral associated envelope systems. systems is adopted by architects, who
wool or EPS in between. Depending on are increasingly involved in the industrial
ns
the thickness of the insulation, U-values The architectural design of industrial building sector. Examples of the
ice
can be typically from 0.18 to 0.3W/mK. buildings and other enclosures has architectural use of steel are illustrated in
The systems include air and water resisting developed considerably over the last Figures2.9 and 5.20.
.L
systems between panels. If mineral wool 10-15years, since major architectural

is used, the system provides good fire practices have been involved in iconic Speed of Construction
ial
integrity and acoustic performance. buildings such as the Renault Distribution For logistics or similar businesses,
er
The panels can be delivered as large Centre, Swindon and the Schlumberger speed of construction is vital. This can
units up to 10m long. factory, Cambridge. affect the design in many ways, i.e. layout
at
and components can be designed so

m
The steel panels may be combined Steel portal frames, nevertheless, still that parallel rather than sequential
with other material as stone, timber, account for the majority of the industrial construction can take place.
e d
glass, stucco and concrete. The panel building market. However, many variants
ht
can be delivered with different surface of this simple manufacturing technique Flexibility in Use
finish, with deep and shallow profiling.
rig
are employed, such as use of cellular The long spans and minimal use of
beams or curved sections, as illustrated columns typical of steel construction offer
py
There are systems for refurbishment of in Figure5.19. the maximum opportunity for the building
facades. The refurbishment is usually to be able to accommodate different
Co
combined with an insulation of the faade. Today there are many more demands on processes and change of use.
There are slotted separators for fastening envelope systems, in particular related to
of the profiled sheeting, allowing for the energy conservation demands of The client may at some point wish to sell
mineral wool as insulation. PartL of the UK Building Regulations and the building to an investment
17
/20
/02
03
on
.au
m
.co
m
iu
od
op
Figure 5.19 Curved steel sections used
in a modern industrial
lyc
building in the UK
@
organisation. To facilitate this option, quality materials with a longer life Value for money
criteria such as minimum height and expectancy and reduced maintenance Steel has achieved a large market share
ng
higher imposed loads are often specified costs are encouraged. in this sector because of responsiveness
n.
to maintain the asset value and provide to client demand. With the increasing
flexibility for future uses.
oo
Sustainability complexity in design, there is also an

Energy costs and the reduction of CO2 increased inter-dependency between the
eb
Maintenance emissions are becoming increasingly various elements and a high degree of
Many buildings are constructed for important and sustainability is now a cooperation and coordination.
se
owner occupation. Where a building is key issue within the planning process.
let, full repairing 25year leases In the future, it is likely that planning Design Issues
to
(where the tenant is responsible for permission will be easier to obtain with Steel construction is one of the most
efficient sectors in the construction
ed
maintenance), are being replaced by sustainable, environmentally friendly

shorter leases, where the owner carries solutions. Many clients, potential clients industry. Leading suppliers manufacture
ns
maintenance responsibility. Where the and occupiers have sustainability the components offsite, using computer
ice
original owner has responsibility for policies against which their performance controlled equipment driven directly by
maintenance, the choice of better is monitored. information contained in 3D computer
.L
ial
er
at
m
ed
ht
rig
py
Co
Figure 5.20 Curved cellular beams for a

leisure centre
Westok
17
/20
/02
models used for detailing. Inaddition to Energy performance the interfaces between the various
03
informing the manufacturing process, Reductions in Uvalues over recent years specialist systems. This task is traditionally
on
the information in the model is also used for have lead to a considerable increase in undertaken by the architect, but better
ordering, scheduling, delivery and erection. insulation thickness, with implications for coordination is achieved if the main
stability (particularly of built-up systems), contractor is responsible for the design.
.au
Choice of primary frame cladding weight and consequential
m
The most popular choice of structural handling requirements. However, the Design process
form for single-storey buildings with point has now been reached where Attributes that should be considered,
.co
spans of 25 to 60m is the portal frame further increases in insulation thickness in addition to those required by the
because of its structural efficiency and are unlikely to lead to significant Regulations, include:
m
ease of fabrication and erection. Portal improvements in energy performance. Overall geometrical considerations.
iu
frames may be designed using elastic or Minimum height (clearance for crane
od
plastic analysis techniques. Elastically For many applications, roof lights are beams, depth of haunch, etc.).
designed portal frames are likely to be important because they reduce the amount Achieving maximum lettable area
op
heavier, but are simpler to design and of artificial lighting that is needed and,
lyc according to the conventions for
detail using nonspecialist design software. consequently, the energy demands of the measurement.
building. However, they also increase Column layouts to give appropriate
future flexibility of use.
@
For longer spans, lattice trusses may be solar gain, which can lead to overheating
used as an alternative to portal frames. in summer and increase cooling demand. Loading and future loading
ng
Trusses are likely to be more efficient for requirements.

n.
spans over 60m and in buildings of Heat loss through thermal bridging Selection of purlins and side rails
shorter spans where there is a significant also becomes more significant as Control of deflections.
oo
amount of mechanical plant. the insulation thickness increases, Cladding system and available
eb
requiring the use of enhanced details guarantees.

Interdependence of frames & envelopes and specialised components. Adequate access for possible future
se
The structural efficiency of portal frames vehicle needs.

is achieved partly due to the provision of Air-tightness Tolerances of the floor slab.
to
restraint to the rafters and columns by the The introduction of air-tightness testing Potential for reuse/recycling of
ed
purlins and side rails respectively. Similarly, has highlighted the importance of materials.
the efficiency of the purlins is dependent designing and delivering a building that End of useful life requirements.
ns
on restraint provided by the cladding. is not subject to excessive heat loss. Energy consumption and reduction of
Stressed skin action may also be utilised
ice
Recent studies have demonstrated that CO2 emissions.

in the design, if only to reduce deflections. controlling airtightness is a very effective
.L
way of improving energy conservation. The effects of the site conditions on

The design methods for the steel the structural solution, together with
ial
structure are now well understood and As an example, while the current minimum the engineering design of external works,
er
the focus of attention has turned to the standard for airtightness testing of buildings will normally require the appointment of
building envelope. There are three major is 10m3/m2/hr at 50Pascals, levels of a consulting engineer to work alongside
at
reasons for this: airtightness as low as 2m3/m2/hr are the architect prior to letting the Design
m
The use of steel structures is possible with standard construction, and Build contract. The duties will include
common in industrial and but achieving this level depends on a the selection and design of a suitable
e d
commercial applications. high quality of construction and detailing. foundation system. In the majority of
ht
The need to promote client image and For buildings with floor areas less than buildings, the structural frame has
rig
public access has meant more 5,000m2, achieving good levels of air- pinned bases.
attention has been given to planning tightness becomes difficult to achieve,
py
and aesthetics. due to the higher proportion of openings Sustainable Construction

The focus on the energy saving of the relative to the clad area. The requirement for sustainable
Co
envelope and the increased significance construction is being encouraged in many

of the Energy Performance of Design Coordination ways, ranging from EUDirectives on
Buildings Directive (EPBD) with its A significant part of the design process of thermal efficiency to the increasing
requirement for energy labelling. the actual building is the coordination of adoption of Corporate Social
17
/20
/02
Responsibility policies by companies. Summary of Industrial Building
03
The ability to demonstrate a sustainable Trends in the UK
on
approach is becoming an essential part Table 5.3 below shows a summary of
of obtaining planning permission. The trends in modern industrial warehouse
concept of sustainability is under-pinned design, which is adapted from a report by
.au
by the need to balance the triple bottom the Steel Construction Institute.
line of economic, social and
m
environmental viability. Modern steel Table 5.3 Summary of trends in modern
.co
industrial warehouse design
construction should meet all three criteria. in the UK
m
iu
Aspect of Design Current Designs Future Designs (in addition to current practice)
od
Multispan rectangular plan buildings
of up to 90m 150m plan area
15m height to haunch
op812m height to haunch
lyc
Portal frames of 3035m span with 6 roof slope Steel portal frames with 2 slope
@
Building form and

structure 68m bay width with internal columns
ng
at 1216m spacing
n.
Fibre reinforced 200mm concrete ground slab Posttensioned concrete ground slab
oo
Adjoining steel framed office of 13.5m

depth in 6 and 7.5m spans
eb
se
Composite panels (sandwich panels)

Composite panels for roof
for roof and upper walls
Green roof in selective areas over
to
marshalling area (approx 20m)

ed
Precast concrete panels for lower part of walls Tilt up precast concrete panels for walls
ns
Cladding Composite slab over distribution area

ice
2
Uvalues of 0.35 W/m K for walls Uvalues of 0.25 W/m2K for walls
and 0.25 W/m2K for roof and 0.20 W/m2K for roofs
.L
15% roof light area for natural lighting 15% roof lights (triple layer)
ial
Fibre reinforced plastictimber beam and purlin

Good airtightness sought (10m3/hr/m2 at 50 Pa)
er
system considered for 16m span

at
m
Jet nozzle heating Greater use of Photovoltaics (PVs) on roof

d
Wind turbines to generate primary

Selective use of Photovoltaics (PV) on roof
e
energy may be considered

ht
Firewet suppression system Greater use of solar thermal hot water

rig
Services and Sprinklers to control fire spread, their installation

maintenance Fitout of services by end user
py
depends on client requirement

Design life of 40years
Co
25years to first maintenance

Pervious paviours in car park to assist drainage
Rainwater collection from roof
17
/20
/02
03
on
.au
m
.co
m
iu
od
op
lyc
@
ng
n.
oo
eb
se
to
ed
ns
ice
.L
ial
er
at
m
e d
ht
rig
py
Co
Case Studies 06
17
/20
/02
06 Case Studies
03
on
.au
A series of Case Studies are presented in this Section to illustrate the
m
design and construction principles discussed earlier. The Case Studies
.co
cover a range of building forms and locations throughout Europe.
m
The Case Studies and their structural Netto Supermarket, Sweden. Cargo Hub,
iu
systems are summarised as follows: Lightweight column and beam
East Midlands Airport
od
Cargo Hub, East Midlands Airport, UK. structure using stressed skin action.
Two bay portal frame and cellular Distribution Centre,
op
beams for mezzanine floor and
adjacent office area.
Waghusel, Germany. lyc
Rack-supported storage system
Airbus Industrial Hall,
Airbus Industrial Hall, Toulouse, France. with cassette walls and a green roof Toulouse
@
Long-span lattice trusses using steel sheeting for economical

for flexibility of space and fast- warehouse construction.
ng
track construction. Cactus Shopping Centre,

n.
Cactus Shopping centre, Esch/Alzette

oo
Esch/Alzette, Luxembourg.
Portal frames using curved cellular
Netto Supermarket,
eb
beams for column free internal space

and maximum transparency.
Sweden
se
to
Distribution Centre,
ed
Waghusel
ns
ice
.L
ial
er
at
m
e d
ht
rig
py
Co
17
/20
Air Cargo hub at East Midlands Airport, UK
/02
03
A new distribution warehouse and office has been
on
built for DHL at Nottinghams East Midlands Airport.
The warehouse is constructed from 40m span portal
.au
frames and the offices use 18m span cellular beams.
m
The total building cost was 45million Euros.
.co
m
iu
od
Application Benefits:
op
Simple portal frame
solution provides
lyc
efficient use of space
@
Mezzanine floor using

ng
cellular beams supports

n.
handling equipment
oo
3storey office uses 18m

eb
span cellular beams

se
DHL has operated at Nottingham East 95m by effective smoke control and by
18aircraft stands Midlands Airport in the UK for 25years. use of smoke vents and smoke curtains.
to
provided With business volume increasing, the

existing hub was unable to cope and a The office area provides 9,000m2 of
ed
30truck bays below a new major facility was designed, capable additional space for 650 staff and is
ns
22.5m span canopy of handling shipping volumes of over 3storeys high. The structure also uses
ice
1,000tonnes per year. The 40,000m2 cellular beams spanning 18m. All internal
facility comprises two distinct parts: walls are lightweight and demountable,
permitting flexibility in current and future
.L
a warehouse distribution area and

an office area. use. The first floor office space also had
ial
to span over the service road and the

second floor was suspended from the
er
The distribution area uses a structural

grid that was dictated by the modular roof transfer trusses.
at
mechanical handling system and allowed

m
for future expansion. A double bay steel A 22.5m span canopy was also
portal frame was adopted with spans of included to give maximum flexibility
e d
40m. The mechanical handling system in arrangement of the loading area.

ht
was placed on a mezzanine level which

rig
was constructed after the building A curved roof was chosen for visual
envelope had been completed. The reasons and used a standing seam
py
mezzanine level was constructed using cladding system based on an on-site

cellular beams which allow for incorpo- rolling process to speed up installation.
Co
ration of services within the structure.

The whole project was completed in
Due to the building size, a fire only 18months and provided DHL with
engineering strategy had to be adopted in efficient space that meets its current and
order to extend the escape distance to future demands.
Case Studies 06
17
/20
/02
03
on
.au
m
.co
m
iu
od
Project Team Construction Details The fire engineering strategy was also
Client: Roof and roof trusses key to the whole building concept and the
op
DHL The two bay portal frame structures
lyc floor of the mezzanine was designed with
Architect: were designed plastically to achieve the an open steel grillage in order to allow for
Burkes Green most efficient solution for the 40,000 m2 smoke extraction at high level.
@
Consultant: warehouse building. Mechanical handling

Burkes Green equipment was supported by an The 2 bay portal frame was designed
ng
Contractor: independent mezzanine structure with a stiff line of columns and was
n.
Howard Associates which used cellular steel beams. constructed before the design of the
oo
Steelwork mechanical handling system had been

Westcol The same technology was used for the completed. The flexible design of the
eb
Services: 9,000 m2 office building, which had to be steel structure made installation of this
Couch Perry Wilkes flexible in its use, as the predicted system easier in dry internal conditions.
se
lifespan in its current format was only

15years. Cellular beams were chosen to The open sided canopy was also proble-
to
provide services integration through the matical, being 22.5m span and 45m
ed
600mm diameter openings. The design wide between supports. The canopy
of the office area was further complicated projected at 45O and was connected to
ns
by the need to span over a service road, the portal frame structure for its stability.
which necessitated supporting the floors The roof of the office comprised curved
ice
from a long span truss of roof level. steel beams of 150m radius.
.L
ial
er
at
m
e d
ht
rig
py
Co
17
/20
Airbus Industrial Hall in Toulouse, France
/02
03
Steel construction provides efficient long span and
on
low weight structural frame for large industrial halls
that will produce the next generation A380 Airbus
.au
aeroplane for intercontinental flights.
m
.co
m
iu
od
op
Fast track construction lyc
Efficient use of
steel components
@
ng
Flexibility of
n.
space organisation
oo
Sustainable design
eb
approach
se
High crane facilities

This industrial building covers Two parallel industrial rolling cranes,
to
200,000m of floor space, is 45m high 35m span, 30tonnes capacity for
ed
and provides spans of more than 115m. fuselage transportation.

Criteria to be met were efficient space Two dual loads 2x4 suspended
ns
occupancy and flexibility in arrangement cranes for normal service.

ice
of the internal space.

The winglifting cranes roll on rails
.L
Due to the expected change in the suspended on the truss of the frame of
industrial process after several years of the roof. Sliding doors provide a
ial
production, a reconfiguration/refurbishing 117x32m opening. They are supported

er
approach design was considered, taking by their own structural frame. This huge
count of rapid financial return. structure was designed and installed
at
Architectural and structural appearance economically using fabricated sections

m
were intended to be an attractive and a trussed upper beam.

reflection of the company performance.
e d
ht
The largest hall, which is 115m long by

rig
250m wide, is equipped with the

following heavy cranes:
py
Two parallel industrial rolling cranes,

50m span, 22tonnes capacity for
Co
lifting of the wings.
Internal view of the building

during construction
Case Studies 06
17
/20
/02
03
on
.au
m
.co
m
iu
od
Project Team Construction Details asimple operation and fast construction
Client: Roof and roof trusses process. The joints between the truss
op
EADS The roof trusses span 117m. The height
lyc elements and the top of the columns
Architect: of the trusses varies from 8m at the are pinned.
ADPI supports up to 13.5m at mid span.
Design office:
@
The main roof elements are composed This simple method provides the
Cooperation: ADPI & Jaillet-Rouby of two parallel truss frames of 33m span following advantages:
ng
Contractor: along the building and made of rectan- Rapid connection operations in a
n.
URSSA (Spain), CIMOLAI (Italy), gular hollow steel sections. Each roof critical erection phase.
CASTEL et FROMAGET, JOSEPH
oo
element comprises a pair of front and No welding operation during assembly.

PARIS, RICHARD DUCROS (France), rear trusses, roof structure, roof service The truss upper flange element is
eb
BUYCK (Belgium) equipments, fire safety network, etc., and connected and simply sits on a short
Control Office: when completed at ground level is lifted span beam on top of the column.
se
SOCOTEC and VERITAS and positioned at the top of the columns

in one piece. The vertical deflection of the trusses was
to
limited to span/2000 due to crane

Columns are rigidly fixed to the ground
ed
operation requirements.
and have equal slenderness ratio in each
ns
direction to avoid any horizontal buckling The elements of the main truss spanning
ice
phenomenon during lifting operations. across the building were I shape

fabricated sections and bolted on joints.
.L
Assembly of the trusses at ground level Each column was made of two separate
has the advantage of achieving safe fabricated sections jointed by a
ial
construction, limited use of scaffolding, continuous truss web.

er
at
m
e d
ht
rig
py
Co
Source of all images in this case study:

Cabinet JailletRouby, France
17
/20
Cactus shopping centre in Esch/Alzette
/02
03
This urban project in Esch/Alzette, Luxembourg,
on
provides a modern steel structure using curved
cellular beams and a glazed faade. The building
.au
highlights the lightness of the exposed steel structure
m
achieved by a modern fire engineering approach.
.co
m
iu
od
op
Column-free internal
space provides
lyc
maximum flexibility
@
Attractive appearance
ng
due to use of curved

n.
cellular beams
oo
Unprotected steel
eb
justified by a fire
se
engineering approach
to
ed
ns
ice
.L
ial
er
at
m
e d
ht
This medium size supermarket is situated Due to the location of the supermarket in
rig
in the city centre of Esch/Alzette and it a city centre, the local authorities required
replaces an older structure. The owner a fire resistance of 90 minutes for the
py
wanted to have a modern bright shopping steel structure supporting the roof.
centre and opted for an open space with The Natural Fire Safety Concept was
Co
huge glazed surface for two of the applied to calculate the development of
faades. It was a requirement that the the fire in the supermarket. Using this
steel structure, with its long span curved concept, the opportunity for a building
cellular beams, should be visible. with a fully glazed faade and visible
steel structure has been retained.
Case Studies 06
17
/20
/02
03
on
.au
m
.co
m
iu
od
Project Team Construction Details EN199112 (Characteristic fire load for
Client: Structure office building 730 MJ/m) and took into
op
Cactus S.A. The structure comprises a series of
lyc account active fire fighting measures
Architect: portal frames using steel columns and (automatic alarm & transmission to the
Paczowski Fritsch Associs curved cellular beams. The frames are fire brigade, smoke exhaust systems, etc.).
@
Strucural Engineer: interconnected by means of steel roof

Schroeder & Associs S.A. purlins and a bracing system. The frame No sprinklers were required due to
ng
Contractor: has a single 20m span. The column the small size of the building. The fire
n.
MABILUX S.A. height is 7.5m and the maximum height temperature was calculated using the
oo
Fire Engineering: in the middle of the curved beam is 2-zone software Ozone and localised
ArcelorMittal 9.1m. The distance between adjacent temperatures were calculated using the
eb
main frames is 7.5m. Hasemi methodology. A set of simulations

was performed to analyse the breaking of
se
Building Facts Frames are connected by continuous the glazed walls (front and back faades
Construction period: 2003 purlins (IPE200). The roofing is made are completely glazed).
to
Total height: 9.13 m with a steel decking (HOESCH TR44A),

insulation and waterproofing. The beams
ed
Ground-plan: 28.5 x 48.0 m As the maximum resulting steel

are ArcelorMittal Cellular Beams made temperatures in the columns were
ns
from HEB450 in S235 steel. The height of 880C, a 3-D finite element analysis
ice
the beam is 590mm, the diameter of the was performed, taking into account the
openings is 400mm and the distance whole structure of the building at this
.L
between the openings is 600mm. temperature. One complete model of the

building in 3dimensions was analysed.
ial
Natural Fire Safety Concept All the simulations were made using the
FE software SAFIR. The result of this fire
er
ArcelorMittal was asked to perform the

fire engineering of the structure and the engineering approach was the decision
at
authorities accepted the application of the that the steel structure did not require
m
Natural Fire Safety Concept. The fire any passive fire protection.
design was based on the prescriptions of
e d
ht
rig
py
Co
17
/20
Netto Supermarket, Sweden
/02
03
This is an example of a typical Swedish lightweight
on
industrial building consisting of columns,
rooftrusses and roof sheeting, designed for
.au
stressed skin action.
m
.co
m
iu
od
op
Rapid building method lyc
High level of
prefabrication
@
ng
Minimum size of load-

n.
bearing structure
oo
Few internal supports

eb
providing large open

spaces with easy use for
se
other activities
to
ed
Lightweight single-storey buildings with a The small differences between the

ns
steel structure have a dominant position structures depend on the geographical

ice
in Sweden among buildings used as location, which gives varying snow loads
industrial or warehouse facilities. and wind actions. The snow load varies
.L
between 1 and 3 kN/m and the wind

In Sweden, all Netto shops are designed speed between 21 and 26 m/s.
ial
in a similar way, which makes the

er
building process exceptionally fast The structure consists of pinned columns,

and very economical. rafters and trapezoidal sheeting on the
at
roof together with wind bracings in the

m
Nettos new store in Smlandsstenar walls for stability. The roof sheeting is
demonstrates this simple and cost- designed as a stressed skin diaphragm,
d
efficient construction solution.

e
which transfers horizontal loads to the

ht
wind bracing.
rig
py
Co
Case Studies 06
17
/20
/02
03
on
.au
m
.co
m
iu
od
Project Team Construction Details possible to use vertical wind bracings in
Client: The trapezoidal sheeting is between the walls, portal frames can be
op
Netto Marknad AB 0.65mm and 1.2mm thick. The sheeting
lyc considered due to the use of smaller
Architect: transfers both vertical and horizontal steel sections, and hence savings
GL Consult actions, such as dead load, snow and wind in steelcost.
@
Structural Engineer: loads, as well as inclined loads to the

EAB AB foundation through the columns and The time needed to assemble columns,
ng
Steel Constructor: bracings, mainly HEA-profiles. HEA- trusses and roof sheeting was about
n.
EAB AB profiles are also used as gable beams. one week, which was done after the
oo
For single span ceiling joists with a casting of the foundation. The next step
maximum span of 10m, IPE-profiles was to assemble walls and to install the
eb
Building Facts are used. roofing. Finally, the services and the
Shopping area: 750 m interior work were completed in a
se
Steel use: 20 tonnes When it is important to keep the building weather-proof building.
Roof sheeting: 1000 m2 height to a minimum, or when it is not
to
Total erection time: 5 weeks

ed
Total project time: 17 weeks

ns
ice
.L
ial
er
at
m
(Above) 3D-model used for

d
structural calculations
e
ht
rig
py
(Right) The construction site showing roofing

and intermediate floors in place
Co
17
/20
Distribution Centre in Waghusel, Germany
/02
03
The third distribution centre of dm-drogerie markt
on
was completed in 2004 with a storage area of
20,000m2. By using the rack-supported building
.au
system, time and money was saved compared to
m
traditional solutions.
.co
m
iu
od
op
Maximum storage density lyc
Building use is unaffected
by the structure
@
ng
Cheapest construction
n.
method for high-

oo
bay warehouse
eb
Short construction period

se
Fast return of
capital investment
to
ed
Dm-drogerie markt one of the leading The commissioning store was a rack-
drugstore chains in Europe operates supported storage system, named because
ns
over 1,500 retail outlets and employs the construction of the steel racks also acts
ice
some 20,000 people. With a turnover of as the main support structure for roof and
almost 3billion Euros, dm-drogerie markt wall. Roof and wall cladding were rapidly
.L
offers a range of some 12,000 product attached to the racking construction parallel
lines. In 2003, dm-drogerie markt decided to the assembly. Compared to traditional
ial
to build a further logistics facility in solutions comprising a main support

er
Waghusel, located in southern Germany structure and racks that only support
between Karlsruhe and Mannheim. themselves, the construction period was
at
significantly shorter, thus achieving an

m
The distribution centre is divided into earlier return of the investment.

four main parts. While the building for
e d
incoming and outgoing goods, servicing Apart from the short construction period
ht
rooms, as well as offices, social rooms and the comparatively low cost, the
significantly shorter amortization period is
rig
and canteen were built in reinforced

concrete, the heart of the complex, an additional advantage. However, the
py
the commission store, is built in steel. racking system had to be designed taking
The commission store is 90m long, into account the additional load cases due
Co
125m wide and 20m high and it to the self-weight of the building envelope
provides space for 24,024 commissioning and imposed wind and snow loads.
and storage bins.
Case Studies 06
17
/20
/02
03
on
.au
m
.co
m
iu
od
Project Team Construction details of steel serve as connecting bridges
Client: The steel construction of the rack- to the stairway towers.
op
dm- drogerie markt GmbH & Co. KG supported structure of the commissioning
store was erected on a floor slab of
lyc
Architects: Fire protection
BFK + Partner Freie reinforced concrete. The commissioning store, hall for
@
Architekten BDA, Stuttgart incoming/outgoing goods and servicing

General Contractor: The wall cladding was designed using rooms are separated by fire walls.
ng
Swisslog AG, Buchs, Switzerland isolated cassette elements. The interior The fire walls reach up to 0.5m above
n.
Steel Construction: cassettes were attached to the gable the roof of the ingoing/outgoing goods
Nedcon Magazijninrichting B.V,
oo
columns and the columns of the long- store. Furthermore, an impact resistant
Doetinchem, Netherlands itudinal walls. The roof beams were roof strip made of reinforced concrete
eb
Fire Engineering: arranged in accordance with the division was erected to prevent the fire spread
Brandschutz Hoffmann, Worms of the racks in the longitudinal direction at between commissioning store and hall
se
Building Services: a spacing of 3.14m. An extensive green for incoming/outgoing goods.

AXIMA GmbH, Karlsruhe roof was achieved using steel sheeting,
to
100mm of thermal insulation, a sealant Both the commissioning store and the
ed
layer and soil covering. incoming/outgoing goods store are

Building Facts equipped with full sprinkler systems,
ns
Construction period: There are a total of 5stair towers with additional in-rack sprinklers in the
2003-2004 in reinforced concrete with a fire
ice
commissioning store. In addition, an

Site area: resistance of 90minutes. At the rear automatic fire alarm system was installed.
70,000 m
.L
wall, external escape catwalks made

Commissioning store:
ial
200,000 m
er
Hall for incoming/ outgoing goods:

4,500 m
at
m
e d
ht
rig
py
Co
Inside view of commissioning store Sectional elevation Plan
17
/20
/02
ArcelorMittal
03
Long Carbon, Research and Development,
66, rue de Luxembourg, L - 4009 Esch/Alzette, Luxembourg
www.arcelormittal.com
on
Bouwen met Staal
.au
Boerhaavelaan 40, NL - 2713 HX Zoetermeer,
Postbus 190, NL - 2700 AD Zoetermeer, The Netherlands
m
www.bouwenmetstaal.nl
.co
Centre Technique Industriel de la Construction Mtallique (CTICM)
m
Espace Technologique, Lorme Des Merisiers - Immeuble Apollo
iu
F - 91193 Saint-Aubin, France
www.cticm.com
od
op
Forschungsvereinigung Stahlanwendung (FOSTA)
Sohnstrae 65, D - 40237 Dsseldorf,
lyc
Germany
www.stahlforschung.de
@
ng
Labein - Tecnalia
C/Geldo Parque Tecnolgico de Bizkaia Edificio 700,
n.
48160 Derio, Bizkaia, Spain

www.labein.es
oo
eb
SBI
Vasagatan 52, SE - 111 20 Stockholm,
se
Sweden
www.sbi.se
to
The Steel Construction Institute (SCI)

ed
Silwood Park, Ascot, Berkshire,

ns
SL5 7QN, United Kingdom

www.steel-sci.org
ice
Technische Universitt Dortmund

.L
Fakultt Bauwesen - Lehrstuhl fr Stahlbau

August-Schmidt-Strasse 6, D - 44227 Dortmund, Germany
ial
www.uni-dortmund.de
er
at
m
de
ht
rig
py
Co

Why Buildings Fall Down How Structures Fail

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Why Buildings Fall Down How Structures Fail

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Co

technologies used in industrial buildings, and is aimed at architects and other

members of the design team in the early stages of planning an industrial

dissemination project Euro-Build in Steel (Project n RFS2-CT-2007-00029).

The projects objective is to present design information on best practice in steel,

publications cover best design practice in commercial and residential buildings.

The Euro-Build project partners are: 04 Roof & Wall Systems

Centre Technique Industriel de la Construction Mtallique (CTICM)

The Steel Construction Institute (SCI) 05 National Practice

Technische Universitt Dortmund

matters of fact or accepted practice or matters of opinion at the time of publication,

any errors in or misinterpretations of such data and/or information or any loss or

damage arising from or related to their use.

2008. The Steel Construction Institute.

Front cover: Mors company building, Opmeer / Netherlands

installation effort. Increasingly, buildings

to achieve a high degree of sustainability. This publication describes the common

forms of industrial buildings and large

are adaptable as demand changes. are presented in Section5.

architectural quality and sustainability. to a range of building types, including

supermarkets and other enclosures.

Figure 1.1 Leisure building using a steel

base. The types of structures most

expressive structure have been used

when heavy cranes are used, as they Concept Design

A single large hall is the main feature

The construction and appearance foundations and simple base

of an industrial building provides the connections. In examples (c) and (d),

building, and so details concerning the

functional requirements. Generally, be designed carefully. The complex detail

an industrial building has a rectangular in these types of structure also serve

long direction. The design of the building

has to be coordinated with functional In Figure2.2, different structures consisting

concept, including lighting. Figure2.2 (a) shows an example of a

structure without purlins, that is stiffened

architectural and constructional solutions. purlins are used, leading to a simple

(a ) Structure without purlins, roof (b) Structure with purlins

(c) Lattice girder with purlins (d) Cable suspended

beams with purlins Figure 2.2 Examples of column

examples of spatial structures. (see Figures2.6 and 2.7).

(a ) Girder grid on columns (b) Suspended girder grid

with fixed bases

(c) Space frame on columns (d) Curved space frame on

with fixed bases columns with fixed bases

(e) Two bay portal frame

(g) Mansard portal frame

Figure 2.6 Linked single bay portal frame

Figure 2.7 Two bay portal frame with

purlins and roof bracing

Figure 2.8 Curved beams used in a portal

Figure 2.10 Installation process for a

Barrett Steel Buildings Ltd

mobile cranes, as illustrated in Figure2.10. inplane stability. against lateral loads.

Lattice trusses Using lattice structures, a comparatively Suspended structures

configurations of lattice trusses are predominantly subject to either tension

(g) Articulated bow-string (h) Mono-pitch lattice girder with canopy

Figure 2.11 (Above) Various forms of lattice

Figure 2.12 (Left) Lattice truss using

may be very complex and more time be addressed: design calculations:

consuming to construct and install. Means of escape (number of

based on the parameters influencing fire effective insulation. This is particularly

fire load, severity of fire, etc.). it is true to a lesser extent for

Even though the general context of fire