X-ray Production, Tubes and Generators - Chapter 5 31 July and 7 August 2008

X-rays the Basic Radiological Tool

November 8, 1895
X-ray Production, X-
X-ray Tubes Roentgen
Roentgens experimental apparatus (Crookes tube)
that led to the discovery of the new radiation.
and Generators Roentgen demonstrated that the radiation was not
due to charged particles, but due to an as yet
Bushberg Chapter 5 unknown source, hence x radiation or x-rays.
rays.

Ren
Rene Dickinson, MS
Medical Physicist, Diagnostic Physics

a copy of this lecture may be found at:

http://courses.washington.edu/radxphys/PhysicsCourse.html
Known as the radiograph of Bera Roentgen
Roentgens
hand
hand taken December 22, 1895

UW and Ren
Rene Dickinson, MS 1 2
UW and Ren
Rene Dickinson, MS

Objectives Chapter 5 Lecture Review Interaction with Matter (Ch. 3)

o How x-
x-rays are produced,
produced, what spectrum results and o X-ray and -ray interactions
how do radiographic technique factors and target atomic Rayleigh scatter
number (Z) affect the spectrum? Compton scatter
o What elements comprise an x-ray tube and how do they Photoelectric absorption
work together to generate x-
x-rays? Pair production

o How are x-
x-rays collimated and the exposure timed? o Particle interactions
o What is an x-
x-ray generator,
generator, how does it assist in the Excitation
production of x-
x-rays and how does its design affect the Ionization
resulting output spectrum and patient dose? Radiative losses Bremsstrahlung

o How does the x-x-ray tube heat loading and cooling affect
the duration and number of radiographic exposures?

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Rene Dickinson, MS UW and Ren
Rene Dickinson, MS

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X-ray Production, Tubes and Generators - Chapter 5 31 July and 7 August 2008

Basic X-
X-ray Production Basic X-
X-ray Production

o Electron source cathode o Electron interactions with the anode (target) produce:
o Target Anode
Heat the kinetic energy (KE) of the electron deposits its energy
o Evacuated path for the e-s to travel through x-ray tube
in the form of heat
insert o Collision-
Collision-like interactions with atoms (KE incident e- < BE orbital e-)
o External energy source to accelerate the e-s generator o Accounts for the majority of the interactions with the target (~99%)
(~99%)

Only ~1% of the electron interactions result in x-

x-rays production
o Bremsstrahlung continuous energy spectrum
Coulomb interactions
o Characteristic x-
x-rays discrete energies
Incident e- collision with orbital e- (KE incident e- > BE orbital e-)

c.f.: Bushberg, et al., The Essential Physics

5 6
of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 98. UW and Ren
Rene Dickinson, MS UW and Ren
Rene Dickinson, MS

X-ray Production: X-ray Production:

The Bremsstrahlung Process The Bremsstrahlung Process

-
o Cathode source of e-s; negatively charged electrode o e-s released from the cathode gain KE as they are
o Anode target for e-s; positively charged electrode accelerated towards the anode
Energy of the e-s is expressed in keV
o A large potential difference (kilovoltage potential kVp)
The KE of the e- is proportional to kVp (e.g. energies of electrons
is applied across the two electrodes in an evacuated
accelerated by potential differences of 20 and 100 kVp are 20
envelope (x-
(x-ray tube insert) and 100 keV, respectively)

c.f.: Bushberg, et al., The Essential Physics c.f.: Bushberg, et al., The Essential Physics
7 8
of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 98. UW and Ren
Rene Dickinson, MS of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 98. UW and Ren
Rene Dickinson, MS

UW and Renee Dickinson, M.S. 2

X-ray Production, Tubes and Generators - Chapter 5 31 July and 7 August 2008

X-ray Production: X-ray Production:

The Bremsstrahlung Process The Bremsstrahlung Process
- -
o Target nucleus positive charge (Z
(Zp+) attracts incident e
(Coulomb interaction)
-
o Deceleration of an incident e occurs in the proximity of
the target atom nucleus
o Conservation of Energy (Law of Physics)
-
E lost by e- gained by the photon (x-
(x-ray) generated
2
( 1/r )
Coulomb force of attraction varies strongly with distance (

o X-rays that are produced by the conversion of the

incident electron KE into radiation is known as
Bremsstrahlung (German: braking radiation
radiation)

c.f.: Bushberg, et al., The Essential Physics

9 10
UW and Ren
Rene Dickinson, MS of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 35. UW and Ren
Rene Dickinson, MS

X-ray Production: X-ray Production:

The Bremsstrahlung Process The Bremsstrahlung Process

o Coulomb force of attraction varies strongly with distance Creates a polychromatic spectrum
2
( 1/r )

o Impact parameter distance the closest approach to the

-
nucleus by the e determines the amount of energy lost
by the incident electron

distance amount of E lost by incident e- and photon E

Atom diameter 10-10 m
Direct impact on the nucleus (rarest event) determines the
Nucleus diameter 10-14 m
maximum x- (Emax)
x-ray E (E
Volume Ratio 1:1012

c.f.: Bushberg, et al., The Essential Physics

11 12
UW and Ren
Rene Dickinson, MS of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 99. UW and Ren
Rene Dickinson, MS

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X-ray Production, Tubes and Generators - Chapter 5 31 July and 7 August 2008

X-ray Production: X-ray Production:

The Bremsstrahlung Process The Bremsstrahlung Process

o The unfiltered energy spectrum is polychromatic

Contains a large number of very low E photons
The spectrum approximately linearly as photon E due to the
higher probability of a large impact parameter distance
The peak voltage (kVp) applied across the electrodes of the x-
x-
ray tube determines the highest x- x-ray E (Emax)
The lowest E of the unfiltered x-
x-ray spectrum is not easily
determined, due to severe attenuation of these photons by the
material and thickness of the x-x-ray tube envelope
Eavg - kVp
o All diagnostic x-
x-ray equipment have filters
Preferentially remove low-
low-energy x-x-rays (dose contribution)
Average x-
x-ray energy is ~ 1/3 to 1/2 Emax

c.f.: Bushberg, et al., The Essential Physics

13 14
UW and Ren
Rene Dickinson, MS of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 99. UW and Ren
Rene Dickinson, MS

X-ray Production: X-ray Production:

The Bremsstrahlung Process Characteristic X-
X-ray Spectrum

o X-ray production efficiency is influenced by the target o Recall: orbital e- binding energy (BE) depend on Z
atomic number (Z) and acceleration potential (kVp) BEK Z2
Efficiency is the ratio of the radiative energy loss to collisional Additionally, BEK > BEL > BEM > ...
energy loss o If e-(KE) incident on the target exceeds the target atom
X-ray efficiency Emax Z 10-6 e-(BE), it
its energetically possible for a collisional
interaction to eject the bound electron and ionize the
I(Ei) = k Z (Emax-Ei)
atom
o Example:
Diagnostic 100-
100-keV electrons impinging on tungsten (Z = 74)
o X-ray production ~ 0.7%
Therapeutic 6-MeV electrons, tungsten target
o X-ray production ~ 44%

c.f.: Bushberg, et al., The Essential Physics

15 16
UW and Ren
Rene Dickinson, MS of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 22. UW and Ren
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X-ray Production, Tubes and Generators - Chapter 5 31 July and 7 August 2008

X-ray Production: X-ray Production:

Characteristic X-
X-ray Spectrum Characteristic X-
X-ray Spectrum

o Unfilled inner shells are

energetically unstable
o An outer shell e- with lesser BE
fills inner shell vacancy
o As e- transitions to a lower E
state, the excess E can be
released as a characteristic x-
x-
ray photon with E equal to the
difference between the BE of
the e- shells
o As BE are unique to a given o Characteristic x-
x-rays are shown as discrete E lines superimposed on
element (Z), the emitted x-
x-rays the continuous bremsstrahlung spectrum
have discrete energies o Example shown: The filtered energy spectrum, 90 kVp potential
characteristic of that element (Eavg = 30-
difference (E 30-45 keV) and tungsten target.
A variety of E transitions occur from adjacent (
() and non-
non-adjacent (
() e-
shells K x-rays are more energetic than K x-rays
c.f.: Bushberg, et al., The Essential Physics c.f.: Bushberg, et al., The Essential Physics
17 18
of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 101. UW and Ren
Rene Dickinson, MS of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 101. UW and Ren
Rene Dickinson, MS

X-ray Production: X-ray Production:

Characteristic X-
X-ray Spectrum Characteristic X-
X-ray Spectrum

o Characteristic x-
x-rays other than those generated through K-
K-shell
transitions are not important in Dx imaging
Other transitions characteristic x-
x-ray energies almost entirely
attenuated by the x-
x-ray tube window or added filtration
o K-shell characteristic x-
x-rays only occur if the KE of the incident e- is
greater than the BE of the e-s in the K-
K-shell (e.g. kVp > 69.5 for W)
o The target materials used in x-
x-ray tubes for diagnostic medical
imaging include: o As the E of the incident e- increases above the threshold E for
W (Z=74) general radiography characteristic x-
x-ray production, the % of characteristic x-
x-rays
Mo (Z=42) mammography Example: for W target: 5% @ 80 kVp vs. 10% @ 100 kVp
Rh (Z=45) mammography
o Within each shell (other than K) there are discrete E orbitals ( = 0,
1, ... , n-
n-1) resulting in a fine E splitting of the characteristic x-
x-rays

c.f.: Bushberg, et al., The Essential Physics c.f.: Bushberg, et al., The Essential Physics c.f.: Bushberg, et al., The Essential Physics
19 20
of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 100. UW and Ren
Rene Dickinson, MS of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 102. UW and Ren
Rene Dickinson, MS of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 101.

UW and Renee Dickinson, M.S. 5

X-ray Production, Tubes and Generators - Chapter 5 31 July and 7 August 2008

Raphex 2000 General Question Raphex 2000 General Question

o G36. The ratio of heat to x-

G36. x-rays (heat : x-
x-rays) produced o G37. Consider an atom with the following binding energies: K-
G37. K-shell,
in a typical diagnostic target is: 30 keV; M-
M-shell, 0.7 keV. An electron with a kinetic energy of 25.3
A. 1 : 99 keV is ejected from the M-
M-shell as an Auger electron following L to K
B. 10 : 90 transition. The binding energy of the L- L-shell electron is _______ keV.
C. 50 : 50 A. 1.4 e- 25.3 keV

D. 90 : 10 B. 4.0
M -0.7 keV
E. 99 : 1 C. 4.7
L ? keV
D. 15.0
? keV
E. 29.3
K -30 keV

E = 25.3 + 0.7 = 26 keV where E is equal to the difference

between the binding energies of the K-
K- and L-
L-shells.
26 keV = BEK - BEL = 30 keV - BEL; BEL = 4 keV.

21 22
UW and Ren
Rene Dickinson, MS UW and Ren
Rene Dickinson, MS

Raphex 2002 General Question X-rays the Basic Radiological Tool

o G40. Tungsten has the following binding energies: K = 69 keV, L = o Each part of the x-
x-ray tube is
12 keV, M = 2 keV. A 68 keV electron striking a tungsten target essential to create the
could cause emission of which of the following photons? environment necessary to produce
x-rays via
1. 66 keV characteristic x-
x-ray. Bremsstrahlung
2. 57 keV bremsstrahlung. Characteristic x-
x-rays
3. 57 keV characteristic x-
x-ray.
4. 10 keV characteristic x-
x-ray. o The potential difference (kVp),
tube current (mA), and exposure
A. 1, 2, 3 and 4 time (sec) are selectable
B. 1, 3 parameters to determine the x-
x-ray
C. 2, 4 spectrum characteristics (quality
D. 4 only and quantity of x-
x-ray photons

23 24
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Rene Dickinson, MS UW and Ren
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X-ray Production, Tubes and Generators - Chapter 5 31 July and 7 August 2008

X-ray Tube:
X-ray Tube
Cathode Filament

o Cathode e- source
Helical tungsten wire filament
o Traces of thorium prolong filament life and increase electron
emission efficiency
Filament is surrounded by a focusing cup
o Filament circuit: 10V, 7A
o Electrical resistance heats the filament and releases e-
via thermionic emission (
(electron cloud
cloud)
Lights up incandescence light bulb

o Tube insert cathode, anode, rotor assembly, support structures o Filament current adjustments controls tube current (rate
Tube housing oil bath (heat conduction, electrical insulation), bellows (oil
o
of e- flow from cathode to anode - mA)
expansion), lead shielding (leakage radiation < 100 mR/hour @ 1 m when
operated at max. settings)
c.f.: Bushberg, et al., The Essential Physics
25 26
of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 103. UW and Ren
Rene Dickinson, MS UW and Ren
Rene Dickinson, MS

X-ray Tube: X-ray Tube:

Cathode Focusing Cup Cathode Focusing Cup

o Cathode block shapes e- o Focusing cup slot width determines

distribution (unbiased) the focal spot (FS) width
Same circuit as filament
o Filament length determines FS length
o Biased x-
x-ray tubes
Circuit for the focusing cup is
o Small and large FS filaments (power
isolated from filament
loading)
Application of a negative bias V
Typical Dx focal spot sizes 0.6 mm
constrains e- distribution further and 1.2 mm
(typically -100 volts)
Choice in FS usually predetermined
Tighter electrical field around the threshold
threshold technique that the FS size
filament reduces the spread of switches
electrons
Smaller focal spot width

c.f.: Bushberg, et al., The Essential Physics c.f.: Bushberg, et al., The Essential Physics
27 28
of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., pp. 104. UW and Ren
Rene Dickinson, MS of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., pp. 104. UW and Ren
Rene Dickinson, MS

UW and Renee Dickinson, M.S. 7

X-ray Production, Tubes and Generators - Chapter 5 31 July and 7 August 2008

X-ray Tube: X-ray Tube:

Cathode Space Charge Limitation Anode Configuration

o Filament current (A) o High melting point (heat

Electrical resistance heats the production) & high atomic number
filament (T ) increases (bremsstrahlung production)
thermionic emission rate Gen rad tungsten (W, Z = 74)
(10% rhenium)
o If kVp = 0 applied, an e- cloud Mammo Molybdenum (Mo, Z =
forms around the filament 42) and Rhodium (Rh
(Rh,, Z = 45)
(space charge cloud)
o If kVp applied tube current forms b/c e-s attracted to anode o Fixed anode
For 40 kVp: space charge cloud shields the electric field only some W target embedded in Cu
e- are accelerated towards the anode: space charge limited (upper limit Dental x-
x-ray, portables, c-
c-arms
on tube current)
For > 40 kVp: space charge cloud effect overcome by applied kVp o Rotating anode better heat dissipation
tube current only limited by the emission of e- from the filament: o Induction motor stator (series of electromagnets) and rotor
emission-
emission-limited operation Rotor bearings are heat sensitive; Mo stem (poor heat conductor)
o Tube current (usually mA) about 5-5-10 times less than the filament isolates anode anodes cools through radiative emission, heat
current in the emission-
emission-limited range transfers to oil bath of tube insert
c.f.: Bushberg, et al., The Essential Physics c.f.: Bushberg, et al., The Essential Physics
29 30
of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., pp. 105. UW and Ren
Rene Dickinson, MS of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 107. UW and Ren
Rene Dickinson, MS

X-ray Tube:
X-ray Tube
Anode Configuration Angle and Focal Size

o Anode angle (() range : 7

7 - 20
20
o Actual focal spot (FS) defined by
filament length and focusing cup
(width)
FS width not affected by anode
angle, therefore effective FS width
= actual FS width
Effective FS length < actual FS
length

o Foreshortening of FS length (line focus principle)

Effective FS size = length and width of the FS
projected along the central axis of the x-
x-ray field x xcos()

Effective FS = Actual FS sin

xsin()
o Smaller FS improved spatial resolution
c.f.: Bushberg, et al., The Essential Physics c.f.: Bushberg, et al., The Essential Physics
31 32
of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 103. UW and Ren
Rene Dickinson, MS of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 108-
108-109. UW and Ren
Rene Dickinson, MS

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X-ray Production, Tubes and Generators - Chapter 5 31 July and 7 August 2008

X-ray Tube: X-ray Tube:

Anode Configuration Angle and Focal Size Anode Configuration Heel Effect

o Reduction of x-
x-ray beam intensity
towards the anode side of the x-
x-ray
field

x xcos()
o Although x-
x-rays generated
isotropically at depth on interaction
xsin() Self-
Self-filtration by the anode
Anode bevel causes greater
intensity on the cathode side of the
x-ray field

o Use to advantage
o apparent focal spot size (B and C) PA chest exposure orient chest to
o heat loading anode and abdomen to cathode
o field coverage (compare B and C) Mammo orient nipple to anode
and chest wall to cathode
7-9 degrees small FOV clinical apps (fluoro
(fluoro II size and SID limitations)
12-
12-15 degrees gen rad apps w/short FS-
FS-to-
to-image distance (e.g. 40
40) o Less pronounced as SID
c.f.: Bushberg, et al., The Essential Physics c.f.: Bushberg, et al., The Essential Physics
33 34
of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 108-
108-109. UW and Ren
Rene Dickinson, MS of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 112. UW and Ren
Rene Dickinson, MS

X-ray Tube: X-ray Tube:

Filtration Collimation

o Filtration: x-
x-ray attenuation as
beam passes through a layer of
material
o Inherent filtration
Glass or metal insert at x-
x-ray tube
port (attenuate < 15 keV)
o Added filtration
Sheets of metal intentionally placed in the beam (in x-
x-ray tube housing)
o Common Al, Cu, plastic, Mo, Rh
o Collimators adjust size and shape of x-x-ray beam
Absorb low-
low-energy x-
x-rays, reduce patient dose
o Parallel-
Parallel-opposed lead shutters
beam quality
o Light field mimics x-
x-ray field (CFR Title 21 Regs)
Regs)
o Reduces dose to patient; ALARA: as low as reasonably achievable
o HVL half value layer (mm Al) o Limited irradiated field reduced scatter radiation to image receptor
Indirect measure of effective energy of x-
x-ray beam improved image contrast
US CFR Title 21 compliance minimum HVL o Positive beam limitation (PBL) auto beam collimation (CFR Title 21 Regs)
Regs)
c.f.: Curry, et al., Christensen
Christensens Physics of c.f.: Bushberg, et al., The Essential Physics
35 36
Diagnostic Radiology, 4th ed., pp. 89, 91. UW and Ren
Rene Dickinson, MS of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 115. UW and Ren
Rene Dickinson, MS

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X-ray Production, Tubes and Generators - Chapter 5 31 July and 7 August 2008

Raphex 2003 General Question X-ray Generators Function

o G35. Two filaments are found in some x-

x-ray tubes. The o We need to power our x-
x-ray tube need kVp power to initialize
bremsstrahlung production
purpose is to:
A. Function as a spare in case one filament burns out. o Alternating currents (AC) vs direct currents (DC)
B. Produce higher tube currents by using both filaments 1880
1880s War of Currents
Currents
simultaneously. Thomas Edison (inventor)
vs
C. Double the number of heat units that the target can accept.
George Westinghouse (entrepreneur)
D. Enable the smallest focal spot to be used, consistent with the
the o Nikola Tesla (inventor basic design of modern AC power system)
kVp/mA setting.
o AC (current reverses direction cyclically) electricity
Sinusoidal wave
Transformers

37 38
UW and Ren
Rene Dickinson, MS c.f.: http://www.ukradioamateur.org/full/gfx/dwg/f2-
http://www.ukradioamateur.org/full/gfx/dwg/f2-3.gif UW and Ren
Rene Dickinson, MS

X-ray Generators Components & Design

X-ray Generators Function
Electromagnetic (EM) Induction

o US outlets o EM induction is a reciprocal b/w

120 volts (V), 60 Hertz (Hz where Hz = cycles per second) electric and magnetic fields
o To make x-
x-rays, we need KILOVOLTAGE,
KILOVOLTAGE, plus those CYCLES are
a problem too
too Normal power supply just won
wont cut it for efficient
efficient o A changing magnetic field induces
x-ray production! (120 v kVp to make x-
x-rays) a potential difference in a coil of
wire which causes a current (I) to
o Generator parts: flow in the coil
Input power supply
I is also proportional to B
Transformers V to kV
o Autotransformers fine kV
selection o An electrical current (I) produces a
Diodes and Triodes magnetic field (B)
o Current control The magnitude and polarity of B is
o Rectifier circuit to utilize both proportional to magnitude and
positive and negative of direction of I
alternating current NO X-RAYS
Multi-
Multi-phase inputs
inputs
c.f.: Bushberg, et al., The Essential Physics of c.f.: Bushberg, et al., The Essential Physics
39 40
Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 98. (MODIFIED) UW and Ren
Rene Dickinson, MS of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 117. UW and Ren
Rene Dickinson, MS

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X-ray Production, Tubes and Generators - Chapter 5 31 July and 7 August 2008

X-ray Generators Components & Design X-ray Generators Components & Design
Electromagnetic (EM) Induction Voltage Transformation (EM Induction)
o Maxwells equations
From Maxwell o Transformation
Transformation of an alternating input
voltage into an alternating output voltage
(using the principles of EM induction)
o A time changing magnetic field EM induction occurs when AC current in
(dB/dt) induces a potential primary winding induces B in the iron core
difference (voltage) in a coil of B permeates the core and induces a
current in the secondary winding
wire (solenoid) which causes a
current (I) to flow in the coil: o Alternating voltages are sinusoidal
I dB/d
B/dt Faraday
Faradays Law sin(2ft) and
Vp(t) = Vpsin(2
B(t) = B sin(2ft)
Bsin(2

o Causing a potential (voltage)
difference between the ends of
the solenoid causes a current
(I) to flow which produces a
static magnetic field (B):
B I Ampere
Amperes Law
c.f.: http://www.physics.hmc.edu
http://www.physics.hmc.edu//
courses/Ph51/maxwell.gif
courses/Ph51/maxwell.gif
o Magnitudes of Vp and Vs depend on the ratio of the number of primary (N
(Np)
and secondary (Ns) transformer windings
Superimposition of B from adjacent turns
Law of Transformers dictates output voltage/current
o Step-
Step-up transformer NP < NS
VP N P
o Step-
Step-down transformer NP > NS =
o Isolation transformer NP = NS VS N S
c.f.: Bushberg, et al., The Essential Physics
41 42
UW and Ren
Rene Dickinson, MS of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 117. UW and Ren
Rene Dickinson, MS c.f.: http://www.ukradioamateur.org/full/gfx/dwg/f2-
http://www.ukradioamateur.org/full/gfx/dwg/f2-3.gif

X-ray Generators Components & Design X-ray Generators Components & Design
Voltage Transformation (EM Induction) Diodes and Triodes (current control in a circuit)

o Ideal transformers power input equals power output o Diodes e- flow in only a single direction
C J Vacuum tube (e.g. x-
x-ray tube) or solid-
solid-state device (silicon or
P[watt ] = I V
s C germanium with impurities)
Therefore, 1 watt = 1
J Two electrodes (cathode, anode)
s
o Triodes e- flow in single direction with on/off function
VP I P = VS IS
e.g. cathode cup
o Center tapping to ground limits max voltage to the peak voltage; Two electrodes PLUS additional electrode used as a switch
switch
reduces electrical insulation requirments and improves electrical safety

o Autotransformers iron core wrapped with a

o Note : current flows in direction of positive
single wire; self-
self-induction rather than mutual charge, therefore, the direction of e- flow
charge,
induction is opposite of current flow in an electrical
Conducting taps allow the input to output circuit
turns to vary, resulting in small incremental
change between input and output voltages o Recall x-ray tube is a diode; during
A switching autotransformer allows a greater negative cycle, NO x-
x-rays!
range of input to output values
c.f.: Bushberg, et al., The Essential Physics
43 c.f.: Bushberg, et al., The Essential Physics of Current flow 44
of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 117. UW and Ren
Rene Dickinson, MS c.f.: http://www.ukradioamateur.org/full/gfx/dwg/f2-
http://www.ukradioamateur.org/full/gfx/dwg/f2-3.gif Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 121. UW and Ren
Rene Dickinson, MS

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X-ray Production, Tubes and Generators - Chapter 5 31 July and 7 August 2008

X-ray Generators Components

Single-
Single-Phase, Two-
Two-Pulse Rectifier Circuit
Diodes and Triodes (current control in a circuit)

o Rectifier Circuit utilize both positive and negative cycle of input voltage

low voltage,
high current high voltage,
low current

c.f.: Bushberg, et al., The Essential Physics of c.f.: Bushberg, et al., The Essential Physics
45 46
Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 125. UW and Ren
Rene Dickinson, MS of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 126. UW and Ren
Rene Dickinson, MS

X-ray Generators Circuit Design X-ray Generators Circuit Design

Single and Three Phase Generators (rectified) High Frequency Inverter Generator

o Single- (1) generator

Single-phase (1 o Contemporary, state-
state-of-
of-the art
Tube current for specific filament o High frequency alternative waveform (up to 50 kHz)
current non-
non-linear below 40 keV o Most efficient, more compact and less costly to manufacture
due to space charge effect
Cable capacitance smoothes o Induced voltage in a transformer also a function of the frequency
frequency
Minimum exposure time = 1/120th V (dB/dt) fNarea
sec not as many windings
needed smaller form factor

o Three- (3) generator

Three-phase (3
Three single phase waveforms o Also constant-
onstant-potential generator
Out of phase by 120 degrees Provides nearly constant
Higher effective voltage voltage to the x-
x-ray tube
Greater control over exposure Replaced with high
timing frequency, inverter generator

c.f.: Bushberg, et al., The Essential Physics c.f.: Bushberg, et al., The Essential Physics
47 48
of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., pp. 127-
127-128. UW and Ren
Rene Dickinson, MS of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 130. UW and Ren
Rene Dickinson, MS

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X-ray Production, Tubes and Generators - Chapter 5
X-ray Generators Circuit Design
Voltage Ripple and Root-
Root-Mean-
Mean-Square Voltage
o % voltage ripple (VR) = (Vmax - Vmin)/ Vmax 100%
o Root-
Root-mean-
mean-square voltage: (Vrms)
The constant voltage that would
deliver the same power as the
time-
time-varying voltage waveform
o As %VR , the Vrms
o High ripple factor generators:
Low voltage low E x-
x-rays
patient dose
exposure time
c.f.: Bushberg, et al., The Essential Physics of
Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., pp. 132 and 138.
Operator Console
Phototimers
o Although a technologist can manually
time the x-
x-ray exposure (set filament
mA and exposure time or the mAs),
phototimers help provide a consistent
exposure to the image receptor
o Ionization chambers produce a
current that induces a voltage
difference in an electronic circuit
o Tech chooses kVp; the x-x-ray tube
current terminates when induced
voltage equals a reference voltage
o Phototimers are set for only a limited
number of exposure levels, thus +/-
+/-
settings
c.f.: Bushberg, et al., The Essential Physics
of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 134.
UW and Renee Dickinson, M.S.
31 July and 7 August 2008
Operator Console
Technologist
o The operator selects the peak kilovoltage (kVp), the tube current
current
(mA), the exposure time (sec) and focal spot size**
o The kVp determines the x- x-ray beam quality (penetrability) which
plays a role in subject contrast
o The x-
x-ray tube current (mA) determines the x-
x-ray fluence rate
(photons/cm2-sec) emitted by the x-
x-ray tube at a given kVp
mAs = mA sec (exposure time) photons/cm2 (fluence)
o **Low mA selections allow the small focal spot size to be used and
and
higher mA settings require the use of large focal spot size due to
anode heating considerations
49 50
UW and Ren
Rene Dickinson, MS UW and Ren
Rene Dickinson, MS
Factors Affecting X-
X-ray Emission
Quality and Quantity
o Quantity = number of x-
x-rays in beam
Ztarget (kVp)2 mAs
o Quality = penetrability of x-
x-ray beam
and depends on:
kVp
generator waveform (%VR)
tube filtration (mm Al)
o Exposure depends on both quantity
and quality
Changes in kVp can be
compensated by changes in mAs to
maintain the same exposure:
kVp15 mAs1 = kVp52 mAs2
c.f.: Bushberg, et al., The Essential Physics of
51 52
UW and Ren
Rene Dickinson, MS Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., pp. 136 and 137. UW and Ren
Rene Dickinson, MS
13
X-ray Production, Tubes and Generators - Chapter 5 31 July and 7 August 2008

Factors Affecting X-
X-ray Emission Raphex 2000 General Question
Quality and Quantity

o Change from 60 kVp to 80 kVp:

kVp: o G41. All of the following affect the shape of the x-
G41. x-ray
except:
spectrum except:
2
kVp2 80
2

kVp = 60 1.78
1
Increases the dose 78%
A. The added filtration.
B. The type of rectification used in the x-
x-ray circuit.
o Adjust the technique to maintain the
C. The speed of rotation of the anode.
same exposure (i.e. dose) as the
original technique (60 kVp,
kVp, 40 mAs):
mAs): D. The energy of the electrons hitting the target.
kVp2
5
80 kVp
2 E. The composition of the x-x-ray target.
mAs1 = 40 mAs 9.5 mAs
kVp1 60 kVp

kVp15 mAs1 = kVp52 mAs2

c.f.: Bushberg, et al., The Essential Physics of
53 54
Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., pp. 136 and 137. UW and Ren
Rene Dickinson, MS UW and Ren
Rene Dickinson, MS

Raphex 2003 General Question Power Ratings and X-

X-ray Tube Focal Spots

o G41. The quality of an x-ray beam cannot be o Describes the energy per unit time that the generator can supply
characterized only in terms of the kVp, because beams
with the same kVp may have different _________ . o Power (kW) = 100 kVp Amax (for a 0.1 second exposure)
A. Filtration 100 kW = 100 kVp 1000 mA @ 100 ms exposure
Amax (tube current) limited by the focal spot: focal spot power rating
B. Half-
Half-value layers
C. Maximum wavelengths
o Generally range between 10 kW to 150 kW
D. Target materials
E. All of the above
o Typical focal spots
Radiography: 0.6 and 1.2 mm
Mammography: 0.1 and 0.3 mm

c.f., Bushberg, et al., The Essential Physics of

55 56
UW and Ren
Rene Dickinson, MS Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 139. UW and Ren
Rene Dickinson, MS

UW and Renee Dickinson, M.S. 14

X-ray Production, Tubes and Generators - Chapter 5 31 July and 7 August 2008

X-ray Tube Heat Loading Exposure Rating Charts

o Energy deposition on anode (during x-

x-ray production, 99% heat o Determine operational limits and permissible heat load of anode and
production) tube housing

o Heat Unit (HU) o Charts show the limitation and safe techniques for operation of the
HU = kVp mAs factor* system
o factor* = 1.00 for single-
single-phase generator
factor* = 1.35 for three-
three-phase and high-
high-frequency generators
o
o Parameters affecting rating charts:
o factor* = 1.40 for constant potential generator
Focal spot size
Anode rotation speed
o Energy (J) = Vrms mA sec
Anode angle
Vrms = 0.71 (1-
(1-phase),
phase), 0.95-
0.95-0.99 (3
(3-phase & HF) and 1.0 (CP)
Anode diameter
Generator type (single-
(single-phase, 3-
3-phase, high-
high-frequency)
o Heat input (HU) 1.4 Heat input (J)
* fudge-factor due to % voltage ripple (V
Vrms)
* NOTE: HU values originally set for 1 generators

57 58
UW and Ren
Rene Dickinson, MS UW and Ren
Rene Dickinson, MS

Single-
Single-exposure Rating Chart Anode Heat Input and Cooling Chart

4
Stefan-Boltzmann law: radiance T
Stefan-

0.3 mm focal spot,

0.3 mm focal spot,
10 kW power rating,
10 kW power rating,
10,000 rpm anode rotation
3000 rpm anode rotation

1.2 mm focal spot, 1.2 mm focal spot,

120 kW power rating, 120 kW power rating,
3000 rpm anode rotation 10,000 rpm anode rotation

c.f.: Bushberg, et al., The Essential Physics c.f.: Bushberg, et al., The Essential Physics
59 60
of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 141. UW and Ren
Rene Dickinson, MS of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 142. UW and Ren
Rene Dickinson, MS

UW and Renee Dickinson, M.S. 15

X-ray Production, Tubes and Generators - Chapter 5 31 July and 7 August 2008

Housing Cooling Chart Raphex-

Raphex-like Diagnostic Question

o A CT scanner is operated at 120 kVp and 200 mA. Scans are 1

second in duration. If the anode heat storage capacity of the x-
x-ray
tube is 2.4 MJ, how many consecutive CT slices can be taken safely
safely
without overheating the tube?

A. 40
B. 60
C. 80
D. 100
E. 120

o 1 slice = 120 kVp 200 mA 1 sec = 24,000 J = 24 kJ

o 2.4 MJ = 2400 kJ; 2400 kJ/24kJ = 100 slices

c.f.: Bushberg, et al., The Essential Physics

61 62
of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 144. UW and Ren
Rene Dickinson, MS UW and Ren
Rene Dickinson, MS

Raphex 2002 General Question

o G39. In an x-
G39. x-ray machine with a tungsten target,
increasing the kVp from 100 to 125 will increase all of
the following except:
except:
A. The total number of x-
x-rays emitted.
B. The maximum energy of the x- x-rays.
C. The average energy of the spectrum.
D. The energy of the characteristic x-
x-rays.
E. The heat units generated (for the same mAs).

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Rene Dickinson, MS

UW and Renee Dickinson, M.S. 16