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Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

International Journal of Greenhouse Gas Control

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijggc

CO2 emissions from Polish cement industry

Jan Deja a , Alicja Uliasz-Bochenczyk b, , Eugeniusz Mokrzycki b
a
AGH University of Science and Technology, Mickiewicza 30 av., 30-059 Krakow, Poland
b
Mineral and Energy Economy Research Institute of the Polish Academy of Sciences, Wybickiego 7, 31-261 Krakow, Poland

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The cement industry is one of the most signicant sources of anthropogenic emissions of CO2 . It is con-
Received 1 December 2008 nected with the specic character of the production processes, during which great quantities of CO2 are
Received in revised form 1 February 2010 produced. Basic actions to reduce CO2 emissions recommended by the European Unions, Reference Docu-
Accepted 11 February 2010
ment on Best Available Techniques in the Cement and Lime Manufacturing Industries, include: reduction
Available online xxx
of fuel consumption, selection of raw materials with low content of organic compounds and fuels with
low coal contribution to heating value. All actions connected with the improvement of energy conversion
Keywords:
efciency of the cement production process cause CO2 emissions reduction. The use of at most acceptable
CO2 emissions
Cement industry
by the valid standards amounts of waste as raw materials and additives for cement production, also brings
CO2 emissions reduction about the reduction of signicant part of CO2 emissions. These measures have been and continue to be
Poland pursued by the cement factories in Poland. This article describes the evolution of the cement industry in
Emissions trading Poland over the period 19982008 and the resulting changes in CO2 emissions and explores the drivers
for these changes. The sources of CO2 emissions in cement industry have been presented in this article
as well as a discussion of potential ways to reduce Polish cement industry emissions even further.
2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
The cement industry is one of the most signicant sources of
anthropogenic emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2 ), amounting to
around 7% of worldwide emissions (IPCC, 2005).
The high emissions of CO2 are connected with cement produc-
tion technology. The elementary sources of CO2 emissions from
cement industry are: raw material calcination and fuel combustion.
It has been estimated that, on average for cement plants around
the world, CO2 emissions from the process of calcination amounts
to about 50%, while from fuel combustion about 40% of total emis-
sions (Humphreys and Mahasenan, 2002). Currently for the cement
plants in Poland the emissions from calcination process amounts
to 62%, and from fuel combustion 38%. Emissions of CO2 from these
two processes are called direct emissions. The sources of indi-
rect emissions (around 10% of emissions from cement plant) from
cement industry result from transportation, electricity used within
the cement plant as well as upstream extraction of fossil fuels and
mineral raw materials (Vanderborght and Brodmann, 2001). Emis-
sions of CO2 in the process of cement production depends mainly
from: type of production process, type of the used fuel as well as the
clinker/cement ratio that is the proportional content of additives
(Hendriks et al., 1998).
Corresponding author. Tel.: +48 126323300; fax: +48 124233624.
E-mail address: aub@min-pan.krakow.pl (A. Uliasz-Bochenczyk).
Poland has signed the Kyoto Protocol that commits all the coun-
tries that ratify this protocol, to reduce their greenhouse gases
emissions in the period of 20082012 by 5% below their 1990 levels.
The reductions have been specied for each country and vary from
8% for European Union and associated countries (except Poland
and Hungary), 7% for the United States, 6% for Japan, Canada, Hun-
gary and Poland, 0% for Russia and Ukraine. In this way, Poland has
committed to reduce its CO2 emissions.
The problem of reduction of CO2 emissions from cement
industry is particularly important when considering recent rapid
economic development in Poland and noticeable, and the result-
ing growing demand for growing need for cement, coupled
with the limitation of allowances for CO2 emissions in the
period of 20082012 introduced by the European Commis-
sion.
The reduction of pollution emissions, especially of CO2 , is
a great challenge for Poland. The CO2 emissions rate in 2005
per Gross Domestic Product (GDP) for Poland amounted to
1196.6 tonnes/mln Euro, and for the EU27360.5 tonnes/mln
Euro, thus, it was more than 230% greater than in the Euro-
pean Union. Whereas, CO2 emissions rate per primary energy unit
amounts to 3.09 tonnes/toe, and in EU272.18 tonnes/toe, thus, it
was 42% greater than in the European Union (EETT, 2008).
Reduction of CO2 emission factor per tonne of cement by in the
period of 19882008 amounted to 28%. Emission factor in 1988
amounted to 0.879 tonnes of CO2 /tonne of cement and 1.1 tonnes
of CO2 /tonne of clinker. Emission factor in 2008 amounted to 0.631

1750-5836/$ see front matter 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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Table 1
Owners and characteristic of cement plants in Poland (PCA, 20012009).

Plants Characteristic Cement company/owner Share in Polish market for

cement sales in 2008 [%]

ze
Grazd Cement S.A. Cement plant HeidelbergCement 25
Cementownia Grazd ze
Grinding plant
Ekocem Sp. z o.o.
Lafarge Cement Cement plants Lafarge 22
Cementownia Maogoszcz
Cementownia Kujawy

Grupa Ozarw S.A. Cement plants CRH 18

Grupa Ozarw
Cementownia Rejowiec
Dyckerhoff Polska Sp. z o.o. Cement plant Dyckerhoff 8
Cementownia Nowiny
Cemex Polska sp. z o.o. Cement plants Cemex 16
Cementownia Chem
Cementownia Rudniki
Cementownia Odra SA Cement plant Miebach 3
Grka Cement Cement plant (producer of aluminous cement) Mapei
Cementownia Warta Cement plant Polen Cement 7
Cementownia Nowa Huta Cement plant 1

tonnes of CO2 /tonne of cement and 0.865 tonnes of CO2 /tonne of
clinker (PCA, 20012009).
2. Cement industry in Poland
The cement industry in Poland is one of the most signicant
cement producers in Europe. In 2005 in Poland 12.3 million tonnes
of cement were produced, which amounted to 0.49% of worldwide
production of cement amounting to 2293 milliard tonnes. In 2006
14.6 million tonnes were produced, and in 2008 the production
increased to almost 17 million tonnes (PCA, 20012009).
In 2008, in Poland, 36 cement types were produced, with the
most important being: CEM II 32.5 and CEM I 42.5.
The cement industry in Poland dates back 150 years. At present,
in Poland, there are 11 cement plants producing cement in a com-
plete manufacturing cycle, 1 cement grinding plant and 1 factory
of alumina cement, belonging to: HeidelbergCement, Lafarge, CRH,
Cemex, Dyckerhoff, Miebach, Polen Cement, Mapei (Table 1).
The location of these cement plants has been presented in Fig. 1.
In Poland there are 17 modern dry method kilns as well as 6
kilns of wet method.
A number of investment has recently been initiated which in
the period of 34 years will increase the production an additional

Fig. 1. Location of cement plants (PCA, 20012009).

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possibilities to 2.5 mln tonnes of cement over current levels of 5. Possibilities of emissions reduction in cement industry
approximately 18.5 mln tonnes (PCA, 20012009). in the light of the measures of Polish cement industry

The elementary measures recommended by Best Available

3. CO2 emissions from cement industry
CO2 emissions from cement industry make up to about 7% (IPCC,
2005) of global emissions and are estimated to 0.91.0 tonnes of
CO2 /tonne of clinker, with heat demand of 35005000 MJ per tonne
of clinker and depends on the type of combusted fuel (IPPC, 2001).
The average emissions of CO2 have been estimated at 0.79 tonnes
of CO2 /per tonne of cement (IPCC, 2005).
CO2 in the processes of cement production is emitted in two
primary direct sources: calcination of calcium carbonate and
fuel combustion as well as two indirect sources: electric energy
production used in cement plant and for the means of trans-
port.
3.1. CO2 emissions from calcination of a raw material
The technological process in cement industry, where the most
CO2 is produced is the process of conversion (calcination) of calcium
carbonate CaCO3 into calcium oxide CaO (Worell et al., 2001).
Taking into consideration the emissions of CO2 from calcination,
CO2 emissions from clinker production and the cement kiln dust
(CKD) is also included (Vanderborght and Brodmann, 2001).
3.2. CO2 emissions from fuel combustion
Practically the whole fuel is combusted during the process of
clinker burning. The amount of emitted CO2 during this process is
dependent on the fuel type. Hard coal is the traditional fuel used
in cement industry. Other types of fuels are also used such as:
petroleum coke, natural gas, fuel oil, as well as some other types
of alternative fuels obtained from waste as well as biomass. CO2
emissions from the combustion of the carbon content of the fuel
are directly proportional to the specic heat demand as well as
the ratio of carbon content to the caloric value of the fuel (IPPC,
2001).
4. CO2 emissions from Polish cement industry
Growing demand for cement forces cement industry to take
actions in order to reduce CO2 emissions (Table 2). Presently, the
so-called branch emissions index for cement industry in Poland
amounts to 0.662 tonnes CO2 per tonne of produced cement. The
value of this index is already close to the lowest practically achiev-
able emissions level (PCA, 20012009).
Techniques in the Cement and Lime Manufacturing Industries
are: reduction of fuel consumption, the selection of raw materi-
als with low organic compounds content as well as fuels with low
carbon proportion to heating value (IPPC, 2001). All actions con-
nected with the improvement of energy efciency of the cement
production process cause the reduction of CO2 emissions. The
use of maximum, acceptable by the binding standards amounts
of waste as raw materials and additions for cement production
substituting natural raw materials and clinker, also brings about
the reduction of signicant part of CO2 emissions (Roskovic and
Bjegovic, 2005; Hendriks et al., 1998; Worell et al., 2001; Gartner,
2004; Humphreys and Mahasenan, 2002). In recent years, research
has been carried out on the possibility of separation and cap-
ture of CO2 from exhaust gas from cement plants (Baker et al.,
2009; Davison, 2006; Gartner, 2004; Hegerland et al., 2006; IEA,
2008). Another trend is the production of calcium carbonate from
the captured CO2 (Romeo et al., 2006) or via mineral carbon-
ation of metallurgical slag with the use of acetic acid, which,
thanks to substitution of natural raw materials, decreases CO2
emissions (Teir et al., 2007). The possibilities of CO2 emissions
reduction are estimated as follows (Price, 2006): reduction of emis-
sions via improvement of energy efciency828%; the use of
fuels from waste616%; the use of waste as raw materials and
additives713%.
Polish cement industry endeavours to reduce CO2 emissions,
most of all, through modernization of cement plants and improve-
ment of energy efciency, maximum, acceptable increase of waste
use as raw materials as well as alternative fuels.
5.1. Reduction of emissions through improvement of energy
efciency
Cement industry is aiming at reduction of CO2 emissions thanks
to the limitation of energy consumption, through replacement
of the old equipment with new one, less energy-consuming,
improvement of cement kiln efciency as well as replacement of
energy-consuming wet method with dry and semi-dry methods.
Also, the improvement of fuel combustion processes in the kiln may
contribute to savings of about 210% of fuel, depending on the kiln
type (Venkateswaran and Lowitt, 1988).
An important aspect of CO2 emissions reduction thanks to low-
ering energy consumption is the production of blended cements
with the use of waste substituting clinker portion, which decreases
consumption of unit thermal energy.
Cement industry in Poland takes actions to modernize its facto-
ries as well as to substitute the energy-consuming wet method
with the dry one (Table 3), limiting the energy consumption

Table 2 Table 3
Emission from Polish cement industry in kt (PCA, 20012009). Share of wet and dry process of clinker production in Poland in % (PCA, 20012009;
Uliasz-Bochenczyk et al., 2007).
Years Clinker production Cement production CO2 emission
Year Wet method Dry method
1998 11974.00 14970.0 11165.6
1999 11679.00 15403.0 11889.6 1989 61 39
2000 11566.0 15116.0 11359.1 1999 44 56
2001 9335.10 12264.8 8696.0 2000 33 67
2002 8751.1 11345.3 7824.0 2001 17 83
2003 8518.0 11009 7640.4 2002 11 89
2004 9354.9 11413.4 8171.6 2003 2 98
2005 9237.8 12268.3 8114.0 2004 2 98
2006 11163.1 14630.9 9705.5 2005 2 98
2007 13109.4 16796.7 11472.3 2006 2 98
2008 12380.3 16973.5 10456.6 2007 5 95

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Table 4 Table 6
Consumption of unit gross heat energy in Polish cement industry in kJ/tonne of Total of waste used as raw materials for cement production in Polish cement industry
clinker (PCA, 20012009). in kt (PCA, 20012009).

Year Consumption of unit gross heat energy Year Waste type

1990 5.72 Fly ashes Slags

2000 4.10
2001 3.889 Total Additives for clinker Additives for
2002 3.770 production cement production
2003 3.480 1999 1194.4 249.6 944.8 1117.6
2004 3.405 2000 1407.8 345.5 1062.3 1249.7
2005 3.455 2001 1204.3 266.4 937.9 1201.7
2006 3.499 2002 1193.4 N/A N/A 1145.9
2007 3.641 2003 1193.4 N/A N/A 1145.9
2008 3.639 2004 1257.2 N/A N/A 1083.2
2005 1292.0 N/A N/A 1209.5
2006 1505.1 N/A N/A 1767.8
(Tables 4 and 5), and as a result of that achieves CO2 emissions
2007 1949.9 N/A N/A 2058.8
reduction. 2008 1973.4 N/A N/A 2038.2
One of the examples of actions limiting the energy consump-
tion and, at the same time, reducing CO2 emissions is the building
of a modern dry technological line, completed in 2003 in Kujawy
Cement Plant, that replaced the 3 older lines of wet process of of the total consumed energy when producing cement (Martin et al.,
cement production. This line is characterized by 60% lower fuel 1999), at the same time causes the greatest CO2 emissions (Worell
consumption and 30% smaller energy consumption (Lafarge, 2003). et al., 2001).
Another example of actions allowing to reduce CO2 emissions One of the basic methods of CO2 emissions reduction is the
is the modernization of kiln no. 1 (completed in 2003) and kiln production of blended cements. According to a denition by ACI
no. 2 (planned completion in 2010) in Grazd ze
Cement Plant 116, Cement and Concrete Terminologyblended cements are
(HeidelbergCement, 2008). Kiln modernization has signicantly hydraulic cements produced by intergrinding portland cement
reduced the consumption of unit thermal energy (18%) and elec- clinker with the other materials or by blending portland cement
tricity (10%). At the same time, thanks to these improvements, with the other materials or a combination of intergrinding and
production of cement with the use of wet method has been blending (SCA, 2003).
stopped in Strzelce Opolskie Cement Plant, which combined with The limitation of clinker production via its replacement with
decrease of heat energy consumption has reduced CO2 emissions. waste raw materials, leads to reduction of direct CO2 emissions
Modernization of kiln no. 2 production line includes moderniza- from calcination process of the raw material and fuel combustion.
tion of systems for clinker burning together with its grinder and the Additionally, CO2 emissions related to production of energy
construction of new machines, among othersnew cement grinder needed for extraction and processing of natural raw materials
and new slag drying house. The increase of cement production with undergoes reduction as well.
blast-furnace slag addition allows to decline the indicator of clinker Mineral waste is successfully employed by Polish cement indus-
content in cement, and in fact, reduces use of natural raw materials try as the component of raw materials combination for cement
and CO2 emissions per tonne of cement. clinker production and as additives to cement (Table 6). However,
It is also worth to mention the fact of building the biggest and the total amount of waste that can be used is limited, and its permis-

modern rotary kiln in Ozarw Cement Plant (PCA, 20012009). sible amount as additives in cement production is determined by
The average electric energy consumption has decreased the standardPNEN 1971 Cement. Part 1: Composition, require-
signicantly from more than 105 kW h/tonnes of cement to ments and criteria of accordance on cements of general use. This
94.5 kW h/tonnes of cement (Table 5). What has caused this change norm (PNEN 1971) allows the use of mineral supplements that
is the fact that the grinding takes place in the mills operating in the is in the case of Poland-mineral wasteeven to 55%.
so-called closed circuit. At present, in cement industry in Poland, Cement industry in Poland is advantaged as it has great pos-
there are working two high tech installations for cement grinding sibilities to use y ash for cement production, because national
equipped with roller press (PCA, 20012009). professional power industry is based on coal combustion, and the
At present, the average electric energy demand in Europe for prevailing combustion technology in professional energetics is fuel
production of cements CEM I is estimated at 105 kW h/tonnes. combustion in pulverized-fuel boilers.
In the cement plants, there is also used the valuable waste
5.2. Use of waste as raw materials and additives in cement of the iron and steel industryground granulated blast-furnace
production slag. Cement industry in Poland for many years has been trying
to increase the used waste, and, at the same time, limit the energy
The most energy-consuming process in cement production is consumption and CO2 emissions (Table 6).
the production of clinker. Energy consumption constitutes over 90% The increased amounts of waste used for cement produc-
tion in 2008 combined with reduction of clinker production by
Table 5 5.3% compared to 2007, have resulted in the reduction of CO2
Consumption of unit electric energy in Polish cement industry in kW h/tonne of emissions and at the same time, increase of cement production
cement (PCA, 20012009).
(Table 2).
Year Consumption of electric energy

2002 105.0 5.3. Emissions trading

2003 105.0
2004 102.6
2005 101.0 One of the economic mechanisms of CO2 emissions reduction
2006 101.0 is the Emission Trading Scheme introduced in Poland in 2005. In
2007 95.0 Poland the Emission Trading Scheme is regulated according to three
2008 94.5
elementary acts:

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Transfer of allowances act for emissions of greenhouse gases and
other substances on 22 December 2004 (JL, 2004).
Regulation of the Council of Ministers, 1st July 2008, on approval
of the National Allocation Plan for CO2 emissions, in the period
of 20082012, for the European Union Emission Trading Scheme
(JL, 2008).
Regulation of Minister of the Environment on 12 January 2006
on the methods of monitoring the quantities of emissions of sub-
stances included in the Community Emission Trading Scheme (JL,
2006).
Polish cement industry has participated in the Scheme since
2005 and received 4.76% of emission trading allowances in the years
20052007. In the rst phase of ETS 20052007 the total allocation
for the cement sector amounted to 33.639 million of allowances
for emissions, that is an average of 11.231 million of allowances
a year. In this period the emissions from industry (Table 2) con-
stituted, respectively: in 200572.2% of allocated allowances, in
200686.0% of allocated allowances, in 2007101.4% of allocated
allowances.
On 14 November 2008, in Journal of Laws No. 202, item 1248
the Regulation of Council of Ministers was published dated on 1 July
2008 on National Plan on Dividing Allowances for CO2 emissions for
the period of 20082012 in the Community Scheme of Emissions
Trading.
The total amount of allowances for CO2 emissions for the period
of 20082012 in the cement industry comes to 54.5 million (exactly
54,509,555) (annex to the Regulation of Council of Ministers dated
on 1st July, item 1248).
The number of allowances as credits for CO2 emissions in
cement industry has been reduced compared to the plan dated
on 12 February 2008 providing for the installations for cement
clinker production in rotary kilns 57.8 million (exactly 57,831,210)
allowances.
5.4. Reduction of emissions as a result of capture of the emitted
CO2
One of the possibilities of CO2 emissions reduction is its removal
from exhaust gases. CO2 may be captured in calcination and fuel
combustion processes, and then stored or utilized.
Due to high CO2 content in the exhaust gases from calcination,
oxy-fuel combustion (combustion in CO2 /O2 atmosphere) or cap-
ture after combustion with the use of amine absorption (Baker et
al., 2009; Bosoaga et al., 2009; Davison, 2006; Hegerland et al.,
2006; IEA, 2008; Price, 2006; Zeman, 2009) may be used for CO2
removal from cement production processes. Research conducted
by Hegerland et al. (2006) indicated that for the operating cement
plants the best method is the capture after combustion with the
employment of amine absorption. The issue of capture of CO2 from
exhaust gases from cement plants is being studied, and so far an
economically and energetically protable method has not been
developed.
5.5. Binding of CO2 in concrete
Taking into consideration the emissions of CO2 in cement indus-
try another aspect needs to be considered as well. From the
produced cement by the cement plants concrete is manufactured,
which in natural conditions binds CO2 from the atmosphere (Martin
et al., 1999). In this way, to some extent, the product of cement plant
indirectly causes emissions reduction.
6. Summary
Polish cement industry is taking large-scale measures allowing
the CO2 emissions reduction. These actions are concerned with eco-
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5
nomic as well as ecological aspects. Economic aspects are mainly:
limitation of energy and fuel costs thanks to the introduction on
a large-scale (98%) of less energy-consuming dry method, mod-
ernization of installations, introduction of alternative fuels, which
consumption in recent years has considerably increased and the
use of waste as raw materials and additives to cement. Owing to
these measures CO2 emissions are also reduced.
Polish cement industry reduced signicantly the emissions fac-
tor per tonne of cement in the period of 19882008 by 28%. In
1988 the factor amounted to 0.879 tonnes CO2 /tonnes of cement
and 1.1 tonnes CO2 /tonnes of clinker, while in 2008, respectively
0.631 tonnes CO2 /tonnes of cement and 0.865 tonnes CO2 /tonnes of
clinker.
Additionally, the introduction of Emission Trading Scheme
forces cement industry to take actions, so as to limit the emissions
of CO2 . That is why, studies on different CO2 emissions reduction
technologies are carried out. They include: research on the possi-
bility of separation and capture of CO2 from exhaust gases from
cement plants (Hegerland et al., 2006), studies on production of
calcium carbonate captured from CO2 (Romeo et al., 2006) or via
mineral carbonation of metallurgical slag with the use of acetic acid
(Teir et al., 2007).
However, the basic method of emissions reduction still remains
the same, that is the decrease of energy consumption of the whole
process as well as clinker replacement, as its calcination process
constitutes the majority of CO2 emissions, in cement contents with
mineral supplements.
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