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The nature versus nurture debate is one that can arise in many capacities when examining
human behaviour. Gender, is a human expression that has largely been assumed to be product of
nature. As of recent, the concept of gender as a natural occurrence has been scrutinized, with
advocates asserting that Western views of gender expression are not natural and in fact, socially
constructed. The purpose of this paper is to examine gender from a social constructivist
perspective and consider the rigidity of the gender binary system as a societal concept that
perpetuates oppression and cisnormativity. Within this paper, various types of gender non-
conforming identities and the impact of the gender binary will be explored. A connection will
also be made between strict concepts of gender and ethical considerations for social work
Gender
The concept of gender is widely regarded as a natural and inherent quality related to
biological sex. Traditional gender assignment relies on three fundamental assumptions. One,
psychological and behavioural propensities, three, only female and male genders exist (Burdge,
2007, p. 245). According to Sheppard & Mayo (2013), it is common that gender is often
confused with biological sex (p. 261). Realistically, gender actually refers to the social
construction of personality characteristics that are referred to as masculine and feminine and not
the biological characteristics that suggest an individual is male and female (Sheppard & Mayo,
the sum of a persons non-psychical and non-biological characteristics that determine their sense
of male, female, or neither or any combination (as cited in Markman, 2011, p. 316).
Unlearning Gender 3
The gender binary is recognized as the two strict categories assigned within Western
society that define individuals as either masculine or feminine. The gender binary affects all
people, as all people have gender identities. It is asserted by Lober and Moore (2007) that the
two categories of gender, masculine and feminine, have been shaped, legitimatized and
constrained by social constructs (p. 13). Other critics contend that the strictly imposed, male or
female gender binary simply fails to reflect the diversity of gender and biological sex that exists
(Markman, 2011, p. 318). It is stated by Lorber and Moore (2007) that human beings show a
continuum of physiological and behavioural patterns that are not clearly and neatly divided into
female and male (p. 15). The social construction explanation of gender is furthered by the
fact that gender characteristics can actually change over time and are different between cultures,
pointing to the non-biological component of gender (Sheppard & Mayo, 2013, p. 261). It is also
interesting to note that gender a-typicality has been observed throughout history and across
cultures (Sennott, 2010, p. 96). Despite evidence suggesting that there are more than two
gendered categories, the gender binary is enforced in various ways within societys contexts. For
example, it is common to observe only male and female gender identification categories
available on many official forms. Another example can be observed in public spaces as it is most
common to see exclusively male and female washrooms. We can also see the cultural
expectations of gender built into the English language, with gender dependent pro-nouns used to
refer to an individual as a he or she, Mr. or Mrs., his or hers. The use of gendered pronouns is so
engrained that referring to someone without implying gender can be a strenuous exercise of the
mind. It is through strict cultural adherence within multiple aspects of life, that the gender binary
Unlearning Gender 4
controls gender expression, indicating un-mistakenly that there are only two legitimate types of
gender.
Cisnormativity
The term, cisgender is used to describe individuals whose personal gender identity is the
same as the sex they were assigned at birth (Worthen, 2016, p. 31). Through the prevalence of
the gender binary and cisgender system, the concept of cisnormativity emerges. Cisnormativity
highlights the assumption that it is normal to be cisgender, and implicitly abnormal to identity
which cisgender individuals are privileged above non-cisgender individuals (Worthen, 2016, p.
31). Cisnormativity is not only about prejudices based on cisgender assumptions, but also
represents an aversion to anything that goes against the conventions that hold that there are two
genders (Worthen, 2016, p. 31). Cisnormativity is a form of oppression that can be considered
the systematic mistreatment of people within a social identity group, supported and enforced by
the society and its institutions, solely based on the persons membership in the social identity
group (Mullaly, 2010, p. 55). As a result, those who do not conform to the expectations imposed
by cisnormativity are viewed as the problem. The act of locating the solution to the problem
within the non-conforming individual, ensures that the problems that lie within societal
If gender is not inherent to biological sex and external genitalia, then from this
perspective, men and womens, identity, behaviour and subsequent expectations of femininity
Unlearning Gender 5
and masculinity are also a product of social construction (Payne, Swami, & Stanistreet, 2008, p.
25). When adopting the perspective that gender is something that is constructed rather than
innate, gender can be seen in this context as something that one does within interactions with
others (Payne et al, 2008, p. 25). This concept is explained well from a social constructionist
perspective.
other people. Through such performance, gender becomes accountable, and something
that takes place in the context of assessment by others, so that certain aspects of gendered
identity are normalized or legitimated. As men and women do gender in various ways,
The dominant norms of gender surround us from a young age, making it important to critically
examine the messages that are being received. Young people, whether boy or girl, are exposed to
countless messages from society as to how to perform their gender. Growing up, we face family
and peer pressure, media, school counsellors, and the gender typing of jobs (Lorber & Moore,
2007, p. 12). Even children receive societal messages regarding the toys that are acceptable to
play with, the colors they are allowed to wear, and appropriate behaviour to engage in amongst
their gendered friends. It is simply not logical to omit socialization factors as not having an
influence on gender.
The idea that gender identity has been shaped by society and is performed rather than
innate and biological, points to a need to examine discrepancies between the two gender
Unlearning Gender 6
concepts of masculinity and femininity. It is stated that gender is used as a classification system
that ascribes qualities of masculinity and femininity to people (Sheppard & Mayo, 2013, p.
261). When incorporating a social constructivist lens, it is important to begin to analyze gender
stereotypes, and gender related attributes. This concept introduces an important question, why do
stereotypical male and female expressions exist and what purpose do they serve? It is clear that
our Western society does have an impact in forming gender norms and this undoubtedly shapes
gendered culture. Schilt (2009), asserts that gender norms are an oppressive mechanism used to
maintain difference and hierarchy between men and women (p. 443). It is continued that this
hierarchical gender system is in fact designed to privilege masculinity and that the hierarchy is
maintained through the cultural devaluation of femininity (Schilt, 2009, p. 443). Payne et al.
The traditional male gender-role is characterised by a set of definitions and attributes that
stress robustness and strength. In western societies, masculinity is associated with the
desire for power and dominance, and men are expected to display courage, independence,
some forms of emotional expression are less valued or denied, male emotion in the form
of aggression and anger is accepted. Traditional masculinity does not deny men a family
role, but locates men as breadwinners rather than as primary carers (p. 26).
Females fall into opposite roles, where femininity is enacted through weakness both physically
and emotionally. It is argued by this author that gender inequality is further maintained by these
perceptions, and the perceived biological differences of the sexes that perpetuate gender
expectations. This has a huge impact on the socialization of men in women, as behaviours of
men and women become constrained by what are considered socially acceptable forms of
Unlearning Gender 7
gender expression. The influence of gender expectations, impacts career and life choices,
interactions between men and women, and influences opportunities for obtaining positions of
power within society. It can be argued that observed differences between men and womens
behaviour and discrepancies within social positions are produced and maintained by gender
expectations that perpetuate power inequities and hierarchies (Lorber & Moore, 2007, p. 13).
Feminists have critiqued the underlying assumptions about the universality and immutability of
masculine and feminine behaviour, and particularly for its legitimation of mens dominance of
Gender Non-Conforming
The impact of gender expectations for men and women are only one aspect of the
influence of the gender binary and cisnormative expectations. It is also important to examine the
impact of gender on those individuals who fall into gender non-conforming categories. The
following are descriptions of some gender-non conforming categories that individuals may
identify with. The various non-conforming identities mentioned are not intended to be exhaustive
Transgender
The term transgender is used to describe individuals who move away from the gender/sex
they were assigned at birth (Worthen, 2016, p. 31). Burdge (2007), clarifies that transgender is an
umbrella term applicable to a range of individuals who express their gender in non-traditional
ways (p. 244). The term transgender is a self-assigned label, chosen and owned by those to
whether the individual has undergone gender reassignment surgery or has plans to undergo this
Unlearning Gender 8
surgery. Individuals who identify as transgender cross the boundaries constructed by their culture
to define and contain that gender (Worthen, 2016, p. 31).According to Schilt (2009), the action
taken by these individuals is said to disrupt cultural expectations that gender identity is an
Two Spirted
Another gender non-confirming group with long standing historical roots are the two
spirited people. The term two spirit refers broadly to the Native Americans who were born with
masculine and feminine spirits in one body (Sheppard & Mayo, 2013, p. 262). According to
Sheppard and Mayo (2013), traditionally, many Native cultures acknowledged and accepted
greater variation in how individuals expressed gender identification, which is in contrast with the
Western tradition of adhering to a strict binary conceptualization of gender (p. 262). In Native
cultures, two spirt individuals were traditionally revered as a gifted people who performed highly
respected spiritual, medical and economic duties (Sheppard & Mayo, 2013, p. 262).
Not conforming to the gender binary can have various impacts. Oppressive forces such as
cisnormativity and the gender binary perpetuate oppression and fear of those who do not
conform to traditional gender norms. People who do not subscribe to gender norms experience
shunning and punishment including harassment, social and familial rejection, workplace
discrimination, denial of parental rights, and physical and sexual assault (Burdge, 2007, p. 244).
In some cases, people experience transphobia or even homophobia when the concept of gender
acceptable ways are currently available to achieve full status as a person who identifies as
According to Markman (2011) medical and mental health sciences have long been
labeling, classifying and regulating the lives of transgender and gender-norm conforming
people (p. 318). The pervasive nature of cisnormativty serves to justify the intervention of
medical and mental health services as deviation from gender is seen as abnormal and in some
cases a diagnosable mental health disorder. In fact, the newest version of the Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual, DSM 5, classifies those who identify as being transgender as potentially
qualifying for a diagnosis of gender dysphoria (GD). The diagnosis of gender non-conforming
individuals is considered controversial, with some advocates arguing that these diagnosis should
be removed from the DSM (Sennott, 2010, p. 98). Those who oppose the diagnosis state that the
diagnostic criteria relies on stereotypes about men and masculinity and women and femininity
(Sennott, 2010, p. 97). Some critics also assert that diagnoses related to individuals who identify
as transgender were added to the DSM when homosexuality was removed as a way to continue
policing atypical gender expressions (Sennott, 2010, p. 97). One of the strongest arguments for
the removal of GD from the DSM is based on the premise that gender a-typicality is a natural
phenomenon that has been observed throughout history and across cultures (Sennott, 2010, p.
96). Some critics further assert that it is the diagnosis itself, once given, could be the cause of the
disorder, as mental illness labeling carries tremendous stigma in contemporary Western societies
(Sennott, 2010, p. 97). Butler (2004), states that gender non-conforming diagnosis are seen as
agents of social control used to ensure sociopolitical homeostasis and maintain disciplinary
People who are born intersex are also greatly impacted by the gender binary. Although
the term intersex does not reflect a form of gender expression, the occurrence of intersex people
in nature highlights the rigidity of the two gender categories. People who are defined as
intersexed have genitalia and procreative organs that are both biologically female and male
(Lorber & Moore, 2007, p. 137). About 1.7 percent of all infants are born with sexual
anonymities that qualify them as intersex at birth (Lorber & Moore, 2007, p. 149). The
occurrence of intersex people, presents a challenge to the binary sex and gender system since
western society recognizes no third genders or sex type (Lorber & Moore, 2007, p. 137). It is due
to these binaries that intersex children and their families are typically pressured to surgically
modify an infant born intersexed in order to fit the gender binary. According to Lorber & Moore
(2007) despite the chromosomal, organ, or genital evidence of intersexuality, the pressures of
the binary sex/gender system encourage early surgical alteration of the puzzling genitalia into
what most closely conforms to a female/male appearance (p. 138). An intersex child being born
is considered a psychosocial emergency (Lorber & Moore, 2007, p. 137). The pressure to fit
into the binary system often results in genital surgeries performed at a young age, and a lifelong
sentence of hormone injections to assimilate to individual the right sex (Lorber & Moore,
2007, p. 138). It is believed by Lorber & Moore (2007) that the intersexed child undergoing
clarifying genital surgery is actually undergoing social control that perpetuates the conditions
It is common to feel pressured by systemic forces to fit into the two gender categories
despite other instincts. Another motivation to conform can be the fear of the violence, prejudice
Unlearning Gender 11
and discrimination that could be faced for disturbing the natural order of gender. It is
demonstrated that those who do not conform to the gender binary are at higher risk of
experiencing violence and discrimination. The violence that gender non-conforming individuals
experience can be seen in this context as a disciplinary force on bodies that transgress the
seemingly natural gender binary (Schilt, 2009, p. 444). Gender non-conforming individuals are
also at a higher risk of suicide. According to Grant et al. (2011), recent research with 6,450
transgender and gender nonconforming study participants determined that a staggering 41%
reported having attempted suicide, compared to 1.6% of the general population, and 90%
Worthen, 2016, p. 31). In many of these reported cases, the problem is seen as a personal
problem for that individual. All too often the calls to change the violence and discrimination are
focused on the individual circumstances, rather than examining the social conditions that
Social issues regarding oppression inevitably overlap with social work practice. As social
justice advocates, social workers must examine their own beliefs, and consider the oppression
that is inherent to the socially constructed male and female gender binary (Markman, 2011, p.
315). Markman (2011), asserts that is the ethical responsibility for social workers to explore and
advocate for the elimination of medical diagnosis that pathologize gender non-conforming
individuals (Markman, 2011, p. 314-315). When referring to the National Association of Social
Worker Code of Ethics (2008) it is considered an ethical obligation for social workers to obtain
education about and seek to understand the nature of social diversity and oppression with respect
to gender identity and expression (as cited in Markman, 2011, p. 318). Social workers should be
Unlearning Gender 12
aware of the oppressive influence of as strict gender binary. It is stated by Markman (2011), that
social workers are ethically obligated to serve as allies of transgender and gender non-
conforming communities and thus should critically examine the diagnosis of gender related
314). Social workers should also consider the oppression inherent in the socially constructed
gender binary that is the root of the perceived psychosis in gender non-conformance and should
fight against oppression and therefore, against the binary (Markman, 2011, p. 314).
Unlearning Gender
While learning about the nature of the gender binary, the institutional oppression
maintained by this system becomes apparent. What is less apparent, is what can be done about it.
The idea of eradicating, subverting, or progressing beyond the binary gender is an idealistic goal
(Markman, 2011, p. 318). Preferably, the aim of challenging the gender binary system would be
to work towards a world where many genders are recognized as healthy, a world in which
everyones gender, no matter how they choose to perform it would be accepted as an equal part
of the human experience (Markman, 2011, p. 318). To achieve this, we must unlearn gender as
rigid binary, and adopt the perspective that gender can exist within a fluid spectrum of gender
expression possibilities. By honoring gender as a spectrum, we can advocate for a world that
recognizing gender as a spectrum would likely lead to self-acceptance at earlier ages, and would
produce fewer challenges for individuals who are currently unable or unwilling to fit into the
binary (Austin, 2016, p. 228). As advocates, we can work to unpack the assumptions of
cisnormativity and acknowledge those who do not fit neatly into the binary categories as a part of
a fluid gender spectrum (Sennott, 2010, p. 103). It is stated by Burdge (2007) that language can
Unlearning Gender 13
also be a target for social change (p. 246). Small acts such asking all individuals, whether gender
conforming or not, their preferred pronoun can open up space for gender non-conforming
individuals to exist and for conversations about gender diversity to be had. Reframing the
concept of a gender continuum or spectrum, allows for gender to be assigned, chosen, and
Conclusion
To indicate that the gender binary is natural phenomenon is simply inaccurate. This
paper has examined the societal forces that influence and work to maintain the gender binary and
the detrimental impacts that this has. The gender binary and cisnormativity work simultaneously
within Western society to oppress and marginalize individuals who do not conform to the
gendered expectations. Stigma is further perpetuated through the view of gender non-conforming
individuals as unnatural and in some cases mentally ill. Learning about the true nature of gender
as a social construct, allows for a new and more flexible perspective. Realizing the binary is the
unnatural influence, allows members of society to begin to unlearn gender as two strict
References
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Lorber, J., & Moore, L. J. (2007). Gendered bodies: feminist perspectives. Los Angeles, CA:
Markman, R. E. (2011).Gender identity disorder, the gender binary and transgender oppression:
Implications for ethical social work. Smith College Studies in Social Work, 81 (4), 314-
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Payne, S., Swami, V, & Stanistreet, L. D. (2008). The social construction of gender and its
Schilt, K. (2009). Doing gender, doing heteronormativity: Gender normal, transgender people
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10.1177/0891243209340034
Unlearning Gender 15
Sheppard, M., & Mayo, J. B. (2013). The social construction of gender and sexuality: learning
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