Running Head: Unlearning Gender

Unlearning Gender: A New Perspective

SOWK 697- David Este

By: Melissa Degenhardt

Student # 10126670

April 14th, 2017

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Unlearning Gender: A New Perspective

The nature versus nurture debate is one that can arise in many capacities when examining

human behaviour. Gender, is a human expression that has largely been assumed to be product of

nature. As of recent, the concept of gender as a natural occurrence has been scrutinized, with

advocates asserting that Western views of gender expression are not natural and in fact, socially

constructed. The purpose of this paper is to examine gender from a social constructivist

perspective and consider the rigidity of the gender binary system as a societal concept that

perpetuates oppression and cisnormativity. Within this paper, various types of gender non-

conforming identities and the impact of the gender binary will be explored. A connection will

also be made between strict concepts of gender and ethical considerations for social work

practice. In addition, proactive strategies to promote gender inclusion will be reviewed.

Gender

The concept of gender is widely regarded as a natural and inherent quality related to

biological sex. Traditional gender assignment relies on three fundamental assumptions. One,

anatomy determines identity, two, reproductive functions accurately predict distinctive

psychological and behavioural propensities, three, only female and male genders exist (Burdge,

2007, p. 245). According to Sheppard & Mayo (2013), it is common that gender is often

confused with biological sex (p. 261). Realistically, gender actually refers to the social

construction of personality characteristics that are referred to as masculine and feminine and not

the biological characteristics that suggest an individual is male and female (Sheppard & Mayo,

2013, p. 261). A progressive explanation of gender is offered by Zandyliet (2000), [Gender]is

the sum of a persons non-psychical and non-biological characteristics that determine their sense

of male, female, or neither or any combination (as cited in Markman, 2011, p. 316).
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The Gender Binary

The gender binary is recognized as the two strict categories assigned within Western

society that define individuals as either masculine or feminine. The gender binary affects all

people, as all people have gender identities. It is asserted by Lober and Moore (2007) that the

two categories of gender, masculine and feminine, have been shaped, legitimatized and

constrained by social constructs (p. 13). Other critics contend that the strictly imposed, male or

female gender binary simply fails to reflect the diversity of gender and biological sex that exists

(Markman, 2011, p. 318). It is stated by Lorber and Moore (2007) that human beings show a

continuum of physiological and behavioural patterns that are not clearly and neatly divided into

female and male (p. 15). The social construction explanation of gender is furthered by the

fact that gender characteristics can actually change over time and are different between cultures,

pointing to the non-biological component of gender (Sheppard & Mayo, 2013, p. 261). It is also

interesting to note that gender a-typicality has been observed throughout history and across

cultures (Sennott, 2010, p. 96). Despite evidence suggesting that there are more than two

gendered categories, the gender binary is enforced in various ways within societys contexts. For

example, it is common to observe only male and female gender identification categories

available on many official forms. Another example can be observed in public spaces as it is most

common to see exclusively male and female washrooms. We can also see the cultural

expectations of gender built into the English language, with gender dependent pro-nouns used to

refer to an individual as a he or she, Mr. or Mrs., his or hers. The use of gendered pronouns is so

engrained that referring to someone without implying gender can be a strenuous exercise of the

mind. It is through strict cultural adherence within multiple aspects of life, that the gender binary
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controls gender expression, indicating un-mistakenly that there are only two legitimate types of

gender.

Cisnormativity

The term, cisgender is used to describe individuals whose personal gender identity is the

same as the sex they were assigned at birth (Worthen, 2016, p. 31). Through the prevalence of

the gender binary and cisgender system, the concept of cisnormativity emerges. Cisnormativity

highlights the assumption that it is normal to be cisgender, and implicitly abnormal to identity

otherwise (Worthen, 2016, p. 31). Cisnormativity represents a hierarchical system of prejudice in

which cisgender individuals are privileged above non-cisgender individuals (Worthen, 2016, p.

31). Cisnormativity is not only about prejudices based on cisgender assumptions, but also

represents an aversion to anything that goes against the conventions that hold that there are two

genders (Worthen, 2016, p. 31). Cisnormativity is a form of oppression that can be considered

institutional or systemic in nature (Mullaly, 2010, p. 55). Institutional oppression is described as

the systematic mistreatment of people within a social identity group, supported and enforced by

the society and its institutions, solely based on the persons membership in the social identity

group (Mullaly, 2010, p. 55). As a result, those who do not conform to the expectations imposed

by cisnormativity are viewed as the problem. The act of locating the solution to the problem

within the non-conforming individual, ensures that the problems that lie within societal

expectations will continue to go unaddressed (Markman, 2011, p. 318).

Traditional Gender Norms

If gender is not inherent to biological sex and external genitalia, then from this

perspective, men and womens, identity, behaviour and subsequent expectations of femininity
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and masculinity are also a product of social construction (Payne, Swami, & Stanistreet, 2008, p.

25). When adopting the perspective that gender is something that is constructed rather than

innate, gender can be seen in this context as something that one does within interactions with

others (Payne et al, 2008, p. 25). This concept is explained well from a social constructionist

perspective.

Gender is something that is performed in a range of settings and activities in relation to

other people. Through such performance, gender becomes accountable, and something

that takes place in the context of assessment by others, so that certain aspects of gendered

identity are normalized or legitimated. As men and women do gender in various ways,

this defines them as gendered beings, contributing to social conventions of gender. In

addition, the accountability of doing gender encourages conformity to dominant norms

of masculinity and femininity (Payne et al, 2008, p. 25).

The dominant norms of gender surround us from a young age, making it important to critically

examine the messages that are being received. Young people, whether boy or girl, are exposed to

countless messages from society as to how to perform their gender. Growing up, we face family

and peer pressure, media, school counsellors, and the gender typing of jobs (Lorber & Moore,

2007, p. 12). Even children receive societal messages regarding the toys that are acceptable to

play with, the colors they are allowed to wear, and appropriate behaviour to engage in amongst

their gendered friends. It is simply not logical to omit socialization factors as not having an

influence on gender.

The Impact of Gender Expectations

The idea that gender identity has been shaped by society and is performed rather than

innate and biological, points to a need to examine discrepancies between the two gender
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concepts of masculinity and femininity. It is stated that gender is used as a classification system

that ascribes qualities of masculinity and femininity to people (Sheppard & Mayo, 2013, p.

261). When incorporating a social constructivist lens, it is important to begin to analyze gender

stereotypes, and gender related attributes. This concept introduces an important question, why do

stereotypical male and female expressions exist and what purpose do they serve? It is clear that

our Western society does have an impact in forming gender norms and this undoubtedly shapes

gendered culture. Schilt (2009), asserts that gender norms are an oppressive mechanism used to

maintain difference and hierarchy between men and women (p. 443). It is continued that this

hierarchical gender system is in fact designed to privilege masculinity and that the hierarchy is

maintained through the cultural devaluation of femininity (Schilt, 2009, p. 443). Payne et al.

(2008) provides a relevant example of this phenomenon,

The traditional male gender-role is characterised by a set of definitions and attributes that

stress robustness and strength. In western societies, masculinity is associated with the

desire for power and dominance, and men are expected to display courage, independence,

rationality, and competiveness, while concealing vulnerability and weakness. Although

some forms of emotional expression are less valued or denied, male emotion in the form

of aggression and anger is accepted. Traditional masculinity does not deny men a family

role, but locates men as breadwinners rather than as primary carers (p. 26).

Females fall into opposite roles, where femininity is enacted through weakness both physically

and emotionally. It is argued by this author that gender inequality is further maintained by these

perceptions, and the perceived biological differences of the sexes that perpetuate gender

expectations. This has a huge impact on the socialization of men in women, as behaviours of

men and women become constrained by what are considered socially acceptable forms of
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gender expression. The influence of gender expectations, impacts career and life choices,

interactions between men and women, and influences opportunities for obtaining positions of

power within society. It can be argued that observed differences between men and womens

behaviour and discrepancies within social positions are produced and maintained by gender

expectations that perpetuate power inequities and hierarchies (Lorber & Moore, 2007, p. 13).

Feminists have critiqued the underlying assumptions about the universality and immutability of

masculine and feminine behaviour, and particularly for its legitimation of mens dominance of

women (Lorber & Moore, 2007, p. 19).

Gender Non-Conforming

The impact of gender expectations for men and women are only one aspect of the

influence of the gender binary and cisnormative expectations. It is also important to examine the

impact of gender on those individuals who fall into gender non-conforming categories. The

following are descriptions of some gender-non conforming categories that individuals may

identify with. The various non-conforming identities mentioned are not intended to be exhaustive

but a general synopsis of subtypes found within the literature.

Transgender

The term transgender is used to describe individuals who move away from the gender/sex

they were assigned at birth (Worthen, 2016, p. 31). Burdge (2007), clarifies that transgender is an

umbrella term applicable to a range of individuals who express their gender in non-traditional

ways (p. 244). The term transgender is a self-assigned label, chosen and owned by those to

whom it applies (Markman, 2011, p. 316). Identifying as transgender is not dependent on

whether the individual has undergone gender reassignment surgery or has plans to undergo this
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surgery. Individuals who identify as transgender cross the boundaries constructed by their culture

to define and contain that gender (Worthen, 2016, p. 31).According to Schilt (2009), the action

taken by these individuals is said to disrupt cultural expectations that gender identity is an

immutable aspect of biology (p. 440).

Two Spirted

Another gender non-confirming group with long standing historical roots are the two

spirited people. The term two spirit refers broadly to the Native Americans who were born with

masculine and feminine spirits in one body (Sheppard & Mayo, 2013, p. 262). According to

Sheppard and Mayo (2013), traditionally, many Native cultures acknowledged and accepted

greater variation in how individuals expressed gender identification, which is in contrast with the

Western tradition of adhering to a strict binary conceptualization of gender (p. 262). In Native

cultures, two spirt individuals were traditionally revered as a gifted people who performed highly

respected spiritual, medical and economic duties (Sheppard & Mayo, 2013, p. 262).

Oppression and Gender Non-Conformity

Not conforming to the gender binary can have various impacts. Oppressive forces such as

cisnormativity and the gender binary perpetuate oppression and fear of those who do not

conform to traditional gender norms. People who do not subscribe to gender norms experience

shunning and punishment including harassment, social and familial rejection, workplace

discrimination, denial of parental rights, and physical and sexual assault (Burdge, 2007, p. 244).

In some cases, people experience transphobia or even homophobia when the concept of gender

non-conformity is misinterpreted (Worthen, 2016, p. 31). This concept is articulated well by

Markman (2011) one is defined by traditional theories and environmental expectations, no

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acceptable ways are currently available to achieve full status as a person who identifies as

transgender (p. 317).

Gender Diversity as Mental Illness

According to Markman (2011) medical and mental health sciences have long been

labeling, classifying and regulating the lives of transgender and gender-norm conforming

people (p. 318). The pervasive nature of cisnormativty serves to justify the intervention of

medical and mental health services as deviation from gender is seen as abnormal and in some

cases a diagnosable mental health disorder. In fact, the newest version of the Diagnostic and

Statistical Manual, DSM 5, classifies those who identify as being transgender as potentially

qualifying for a diagnosis of gender dysphoria (GD). The diagnosis of gender non-conforming

individuals is considered controversial, with some advocates arguing that these diagnosis should

be removed from the DSM (Sennott, 2010, p. 98). Those who oppose the diagnosis state that the

diagnostic criteria relies on stereotypes about men and masculinity and women and femininity

(Sennott, 2010, p. 97). Some critics also assert that diagnoses related to individuals who identify

as transgender were added to the DSM when homosexuality was removed as a way to continue

policing atypical gender expressions (Sennott, 2010, p. 97). One of the strongest arguments for

the removal of GD from the DSM is based on the premise that gender a-typicality is a natural

phenomenon that has been observed throughout history and across cultures (Sennott, 2010, p.

96). Some critics further assert that it is the diagnosis itself, once given, could be the cause of the

disorder, as mental illness labeling carries tremendous stigma in contemporary Western societies

(Sennott, 2010, p. 97). Butler (2004), states that gender non-conforming diagnosis are seen as

agents of social control used to ensure sociopolitical homeostasis and maintain disciplinary

authority (as cited in Sennott, 2010, p. 95).

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Unnaturally Forcing the Natural

People who are born intersex are also greatly impacted by the gender binary. Although

the term intersex does not reflect a form of gender expression, the occurrence of intersex people

in nature highlights the rigidity of the two gender categories. People who are defined as

intersexed have genitalia and procreative organs that are both biologically female and male

(Lorber & Moore, 2007, p. 137). About 1.7 percent of all infants are born with sexual

anonymities that qualify them as intersex at birth (Lorber & Moore, 2007, p. 149). The

occurrence of intersex people, presents a challenge to the binary sex and gender system since

western society recognizes no third genders or sex type (Lorber & Moore, 2007, p. 137). It is due

to these binaries that intersex children and their families are typically pressured to surgically

modify an infant born intersexed in order to fit the gender binary. According to Lorber & Moore

(2007) despite the chromosomal, organ, or genital evidence of intersexuality, the pressures of

the binary sex/gender system encourage early surgical alteration of the puzzling genitalia into

what most closely conforms to a female/male appearance (p. 138). An intersex child being born

is considered a psychosocial emergency (Lorber & Moore, 2007, p. 137). The pressure to fit

into the binary system often results in genital surgeries performed at a young age, and a lifelong

sentence of hormone injections to assimilate to individual the right sex (Lorber & Moore,

2007, p. 138). It is believed by Lorber & Moore (2007) that the intersexed child undergoing

clarifying genital surgery is actually undergoing social control that perpetuates the conditions

of gender conformity (p. 151).

Violence and Discrimination

It is common to feel pressured by systemic forces to fit into the two gender categories

despite other instincts. Another motivation to conform can be the fear of the violence, prejudice
Unlearning Gender 11

and discrimination that could be faced for disturbing the natural order of gender. It is

demonstrated that those who do not conform to the gender binary are at higher risk of

experiencing violence and discrimination. The violence that gender non-conforming individuals

experience can be seen in this context as a disciplinary force on bodies that transgress the

seemingly natural gender binary (Schilt, 2009, p. 444). Gender non-conforming individuals are

also at a higher risk of suicide. According to Grant et al. (2011), recent research with 6,450

transgender and gender nonconforming study participants determined that a staggering 41%

reported having attempted suicide, compared to 1.6% of the general population, and 90%

reported experiencing harassment, mistreatment, or discrimination in the workplace (as cited in

Worthen, 2016, p. 31). In many of these reported cases, the problem is seen as a personal

problem for that individual. All too often the calls to change the violence and discrimination are

focused on the individual circumstances, rather than examining the social conditions that

maintain the abuse.

Connection to Social Work Practice

Social issues regarding oppression inevitably overlap with social work practice. As social

justice advocates, social workers must examine their own beliefs, and consider the oppression

that is inherent to the socially constructed male and female gender binary (Markman, 2011, p.

315). Markman (2011), asserts that is the ethical responsibility for social workers to explore and

advocate for the elimination of medical diagnosis that pathologize gender non-conforming

individuals (Markman, 2011, p. 314-315). When referring to the National Association of Social

Worker Code of Ethics (2008) it is considered an ethical obligation for social workers to obtain

education about and seek to understand the nature of social diversity and oppression with respect

to gender identity and expression (as cited in Markman, 2011, p. 318). Social workers should be
Unlearning Gender 12

aware of the oppressive influence of as strict gender binary. It is stated by Markman (2011), that

social workers are ethically obligated to serve as allies of transgender and gender non-

conforming communities and thus should critically examine the diagnosis of gender related

disorders and oppression inherent in pathologizing gender non-conformity (Markman, 2011, p.

314). Social workers should also consider the oppression inherent in the socially constructed

gender binary that is the root of the perceived psychosis in gender non-conformance and should

fight against oppression and therefore, against the binary (Markman, 2011, p. 314).

Unlearning Gender

While learning about the nature of the gender binary, the institutional oppression

maintained by this system becomes apparent. What is less apparent, is what can be done about it.

The idea of eradicating, subverting, or progressing beyond the binary gender is an idealistic goal

(Markman, 2011, p. 318). Preferably, the aim of challenging the gender binary system would be

to work towards a world where many genders are recognized as healthy, a world in which

everyones gender, no matter how they choose to perform it would be accepted as an equal part

of the human experience (Markman, 2011, p. 318). To achieve this, we must unlearn gender as

rigid binary, and adopt the perspective that gender can exist within a fluid spectrum of gender

expression possibilities. By honoring gender as a spectrum, we can advocate for a world that

honors self-knowledge, self-awareness and authentic expressions of self. The impact of

recognizing gender as a spectrum would likely lead to self-acceptance at earlier ages, and would

produce fewer challenges for individuals who are currently unable or unwilling to fit into the

binary (Austin, 2016, p. 228). As advocates, we can work to unpack the assumptions of

cisnormativity and acknowledge those who do not fit neatly into the binary categories as a part of

a fluid gender spectrum (Sennott, 2010, p. 103). It is stated by Burdge (2007) that language can
Unlearning Gender 13

also be a target for social change (p. 246). Small acts such asking all individuals, whether gender

conforming or not, their preferred pronoun can open up space for gender non-conforming

individuals to exist and for conversations about gender diversity to be had. Reframing the

concept of a gender continuum or spectrum, allows for gender to be assigned, chosen, and

developed in many forms (Sennott, 2010, p. 103).

Conclusion

To indicate that the gender binary is natural phenomenon is simply inaccurate. This

paper has examined the societal forces that influence and work to maintain the gender binary and

the detrimental impacts that this has. The gender binary and cisnormativity work simultaneously

within Western society to oppress and marginalize individuals who do not conform to the

gendered expectations. Stigma is further perpetuated through the view of gender non-conforming

individuals as unnatural and in some cases mentally ill. Learning about the true nature of gender

as a social construct, allows for a new and more flexible perspective. Realizing the binary is the

unnatural influence, allows members of society to begin to unlearn gender as two strict

categories, and embrace gender within a spectrum of expression possibilities.

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References

Austin, A. (2016).There I am: Ag grounded theory study of young adults navigating a

transgender or gender nonconforming identity within a context of oppression and

invisibility. Springer 75, 215-230. doi: 10.1007/s11199-016-0600-7

Burdge, J. B. (2007). Bending gender, ending gender: Theoretical foundations for social work

practice with the transgender community. National Association of Social Workers, 52 (3),

243- 250.

Lorber, J., & Moore, L. J. (2007). Gendered bodies: feminist perspectives. Los Angeles, CA:

Roxbury Publishing Company.

Markman, R. E. (2011).Gender identity disorder, the gender binary and transgender oppression:

Implications for ethical social work. Smith College Studies in Social Work, 81 (4), 314-

327. doi: 10.1080/00377317.2011.616839

Mullaly, B. (2010). Challenging oppression and confronting privilege. Oxford Ontario: CA

University Press.

Payne, S., Swami, V, & Stanistreet, L. D. (2008). The social construction of gender and its

influence on suicide: A review of literature. JMH. 5 (1), 23- 35.

Schilt, K. (2009). Doing gender, doing heteronormativity: Gender normal, transgender people

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10.1177/0891243209340034
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Sheppard, M., & Mayo, J. B. (2013). The social construction of gender and sexuality: learning

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10.1080/00377996.2013.788472

Sennott, L. S. (2010). Gender disorder as gender oppression: A transfeminist approach to

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113. doi: 10.1080/02703149.2010.532683

Worthen, G.M. (2016). Hetero-cis-normativity and the gendering of transphobia. International

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