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Culture Documents
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V. Ganapathy
Departmentof Biochemistryand MolecularBiology, MedicalCollege of Georgia,
Augusta, Georgia 30912-2100
KEYWORDS:
trophoblast, fetal nutrition, membranetransport, amino acids, vitamin and
mineral transport, ion transport, sugar transport
CONTENTS
183
0199-9885/92/0715-0183 $02.00
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184 SMITH, MOE& GANAPATHY
INTRODUCTION
ORGANIC NUTRIENTS
Monosaccharides
Glucose is a major fetal and placental fuel whosemetabolismaccounts for a
substantial fraction of fetal oxygenconsumption(9, 103). The stereospecific-
ity and saturability of transplacental glucose transfer indicates that it is a
mediated process. Transfer mechanismsmediating the facilitated diffusion of
glucose have been characterized in microvillous and basal plasma membranes
in our ownand other laboratories (67, 71, 73). The transporters interact
strongly with D-aldohexosesand other sugars that can assume the C-1 chair
configuration. The placental microvillous and basal membrane carriers differ
from those of the apical surface of intestine and kidney, which possess
sodium-dependentconcentrative glucose transporters. Thus, while kidney and
intestine mayconcentrate glucose against a concentration gradient, the
placental syncytiotrophoblast lacks such ability. Some(but not all) studies
have reported regulation of microvillous membraneglucose uptake by insulin
under certain conditions and at concentrations (10-9M)somewhatabove the
high physiologic range (24, 71).
CytochalasinB-labelling in two laboratories has identified the microvillous
membranetransporter as a protein of approximately 50 kDa (68, 72). More
recent molecular studies have suggested that the humanplacenta contains
either the isoform GLUT1 or a mixture of GLUT1 and GLUT3 (10).
values for placental glucose transporters have been reported as 25 mM(71,
73) and 3-5 mM(67), a range more in keeping with the Kmof GLUT1
GLUT3. The higher Kmvalues were found in studies using equilibrium
exchange, a procedure that maymore closely parallel in vivo conditions and
that in general results in higher K,~ and Vmaxvalues than a zero trans
procedure. Indeed the lack of saturation of the overall maternal-fetal transfer
process at glucose concentrations severalfold higher than in maternal blood
(66) is in agreement with the higher range of Kmvalues.
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186 SMITH, MOE& GANAPATHY
Amino Acids
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system (99). At least three mediated processes are present: (a) a sodium-
dependent A-like system shared by MeAIBthat is similar to the system
employed by microvillous membrane;(b) a second sodium-dependent ASC-
like systemthat interacts with alanine, serine, and apparently cysteine but is
resistant to MeAIB;(c) a sodium-independent system that interacts with
leucine, phenylalanine, and BCHand resembles system L (61) and potentially
another sodium-independent system that transports tyrosine (88). To our
knowledge, basal membranehas not been investigated for system N. Some
rather ambitious investigations attempted to elucidate a broad scope of
transporters on either membrane using a small numberof inhibitors employed
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Transporters in the two membranes must act in concert to bring about the
concentrative transfer of aminoacids from motherto fetus. The physiological
sodium gradient drives the sodium-dependent systems of the two plasma
membranes toward uptake of aminoacids from maternal and fetal circulations
into the syncytium.With the larger surface area of the microvillous membrane
(140) and its higher systemA transport activity, the Asystemof microvillous
membraneis likely to be responsible for generating the high syncytial
concentration of alanine (74) (estimated as 7-fold greater than the concentra-
tion in maternalbloodand 4-fold greater than the concentrationin fetal blood)
(108).
Transport from the trophoblast to the fetus across the basal membrane may
occur via both system L and nonmediated pathways (61). The roles of the
sodium-dependentsystems in basal membraneare not established. They may,
as suggested for similar systems in the intestine (99), provide mechanisms for
trophoblast nutrition or for aminoacids to leave the fetus undersomemetabol-
ic conditions.
Cellular regulation of amino acid transport must involve regulation of
transport systems of either of the two surface membranes.SystemA is known
to be regulated by two mechanismsin placental tissue. One requires protein
synthesis and provides a threefold or greater increase in Vmax(127), and the
other, transinhibition, is a feedbackprocess by whichintracellular substrate
can inhibit uptake (129). The high trophoblast concentration of A system
substrates established by microvillous membraneuptake could reduce uptake
by system A in basal membrane.Both of these regulatory mechanismsare
specific to system A and do not affect system L or system ASC.Transinhibi-
tion may serve to maintain a constancy of trophoblast amino acid con-
centrations with variation in maternal metabolic environment. Insulin, an-
other regulator, is knownto increase systemA activity in muscle. Insulin is
apparently without effect in placental villous tissue (128), although recent
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188 SMITH, MOE& GANAPATHY
CATIONIC AMINO ACIDSThe cationic amino acids lysine and arginine are
concentrated in the fetal circulation and within the placenta. Their transport
by apical microvillous membranehas not been investigated in detail, but we
do knowfrom perfusion studies that they are taken up from both surfaces into
the trophoblast (152). In our laboratory two sodium-independent systems
were found in basal membrane (50). One of these is the ubiquitous y+ system,
which is a relatively high-capacity, low-affinity transporter and probably
serves as the major transporter of cationic amino acids across the basal
membrane.The other transporter resembles the b+ system, which has been
described in developing mouseblastocysts (148). Both systems interact with
lysine and arginine but have different specificities and widely different con-
centration dependenceproperties. This investigation provided the first known
evidence of the existence of a systemresembling b outside of the develop-
ing mouseblastocyst. The very low Kmand Vmaxof this transporter suggests
that in the placenta it mayserve a particular function other than bulk transport
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PLACENTALNUTRIENTTRANSPORT 189
Placental transport of fatty acids and triglycerides along with related metabo-
lites including choline, inositol, ethanolamine,carnitine, cholesterol, steroid
hormones, and fat-soluble vitamins has been expertly reviewed by Coleman
(34). Essentially, lipoprotein lipase on the maternal surface of the syn-
cytiotrophoblast hydrolyzestriacylglycerol carried by maternal very low den-
sity lipoprotein (VLDL).The free fatty acids are taken up by the trophoblast
by unknownmechanismsthat are presumably similar to those of other cells
and that utilize specific membrane proteins. The trophoblast mayuse the fatty
acids or transfer themto the fetus. The rate of fatty acid synthesis in the
placenta is also quite high. LDLcholesterol is taken up by receptor-mediated
endocytosis and released in lysosomes (34). Apolipoprotein E, which pro-
motes receptor-mediated lipoprotein uptake, is synthesized and secreted by
the trophoblast (111). Recently, an anion exchanger that mediates taurocho-
late uptake has been described in the basal membranefrom humantropho-
blast. The transporter is electroneutral and presumablydriven by bicarbonate
exchange (45, 97). This system may provide an important route for fetal
excretion of bile acids.
Water-Soluble Vitamins
ASCORBATEVitamin C under physiologic conditions exists in an oxidized
(dehydroascorbate) or reduced form (ascorbate). Dehydroascorbateis taken
up more rapidly by syncytiotrophoblast microvillous membranevesicles (69)
and placental fragments(30) than is ascorbate. Uptakeis sodiumindependent,
and evidence has been reported both for and against mediation by the
placental glucose transporter (30, 69, 70). The studies showingan effect
glucose on ascorbate transport (69, 70) used substrate concentrations one
more orders of magnitude higher than ascorbate concentrations found in
maternal plasma, whereas physiologic concentrations were used in the study
that failed to find a glucose interaction (30). The dehydroascorbateentering
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associated folate-binding proteins that have recently been cloned (110). These
placental folate-binding proteins mayderive from different cell or membrane
locations or possible contamination by maternal tissue (110).
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with the studies of vitamins discussed previously and with the idea that
water-soluble vitamins in general are transported across the placenta by
mediated processes (3). In addition, humanplacental tissue concentrates
vitamin B12 (105), presumably by interaction with saturable high-affinity
binding sites for the transcobalamin-vitamin B12 complex, on the plasma
membrane(49). Recently a high affinity (Km in low /xM range) -
stimulated biotin transporter has been found in microvillous membranevesi-
cles and placental trophoblast (77).
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Lipid-Soluble Vitamins
PLACENTALNUTRIENTTRANSPORT 193
Nucleosides
Nucleosidesare precursors of nucleotides, which form the building blocks of
nucleic acids but additionally maybe involved in other biological functions.
In particular, adenosine has been shownto be a vasoconstrictor in placenta
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INORGANIC NUTRIENTS
Macro Minerals and Ions
CALCIUM Increasingly large quantities of calcium are required to support
the mineralization of the growingfetal skeleton (7 mmolper day in the third
trimester). Concentrations of total and ionic calcium in cord blood exceed
those in maternalblood, indicating that placental transfer is an active process
(109). While large quantities of calcium pass through the placenta, the
syncytiotrophoblast maintains a cytosolic free calcium in the nano- to micro-
molar range, several orders of magnitude lower than the circulating con-
centrations (86). By analogy with other calcium-transporting epithelia, three
types of mechanismsare likely to be used by the syncytiotrophoblast to
accomplish this task: (a) an entry mechanismat the microvillous membrane,
(b) a cytoplasmic mechanismfor accomplishing transplacental flux while
maintaining low free intracellular calcium concentrations, and (c) an exit
mechanismto deliver calcium to the fetal circulation (20).
Recentwork in our laboratory has demonstratedthat mediated transport in
humanplacental microvillous membrane possesses properties similar to those
found in intestine and kidney (75). The Kmvalue of the higher capacity
system is in the low millimolar range and suggests partial saturation at
physiologic concentrations of maternal blood. The millimolar Km,the lack of
inhibition by knowncalcium channel blockers, and other characteristics
suggest that the identified mechanism(s) are facilitated diffusion transporters
rather than channels or pores. Calciumalso binds to the microvillous mere-
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PLACENTALNUTRIENTTRANSPORT 195
only in the placenta but in general--is primarily due to the lack of a long
half-lived radioisotope. Tworecent studies using the perfused rat placenta
indicate that maternal-fetal Mg2+ transfer is transcellular, Na+-dependent,
and independent of Ca2+ transport (118, 119). Perfusion with the carbonic
anhydrase inhibitor acetazolamide did not affect maternal-fetal Mg2+ clear-
ance, which suggests that intracellular HCO~-or H+ concentrations do not
alter Mg 2 transport (119).
Na+ +influx from the maternal circulation into the syncytiotrophoblast with H
efflux in the opposite direction (5, 29). The recent demonstration of the
presence of a C1 -HCO~exchanger in the placental brush border membrane
(56, 63) suggests the possibility of a functional coupling betweenit and the
Na-H + exchanger. Therefore, in addition to participating in the transport of
Na , the activity of the Na+-H+exchangeris likely to contribute to CI- entry
+
and HCO~- exit from the syncytiotrophoblast. The external substrate-binding
site of the Na+-H + exchanger can interact with Na+ as well as with other
cations such as Li+, NH~-, and H. The Kmfor Na+ is approximately 10
mM,which implies that under physiologic conditions the exchanger normally
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histidyl, carboxyl, and thiol groups of the exchangerprotein are essential for
the catalytic activity (53, 93).
Twodistinct types of Na+-H + exchangers are knownto be present in the
animal cell plasma membraneand are referred to as the "housekeeping"
(NHE-1) and "epithelial" (NHE-2) types. The Na+-H+ exchanger of the
placental brush border membrane belongs to the "housekeeping"type (91).
other cells, this type has been shownto be involved in the regulation of
intracellular pHand in the mediationof at least someof the biological actions
of several mitogens and growth factors. These findings indicate that the
Na+-H exchanger of the placental brush border membranemay participate
in functions that are essential to the normal growth and developmentof the
placenta. The recent finding that the brush border exchanger possesses an
allosteric activator site for Ht on the cytosolic side (64) suggests that the
removal of H+ from the cell by the exchanger can be finely controlled in
response to changesin the intracellular concentration of H+. The exchangeris
thus an ideal systemto participate in the regulation of intracellular pH.
Cotransportwith other moleculesalso contributes significantly to the entry
of Na+ into the syncytiotrophoblast, because a numberof transport systems in
the placental brush border membrane utilize a transmembraneNa+ gradient as
the driving force. Various amino acid transporters (156), dicarboxylate
transporter (55), serotonin transporter (7), and phosphatetransporter (22)
a few examples. The third mechanismfor the entry of Na+ into the syn-
cytiotrophoblast is a conductive pathway(29) in which + moves down its
electrochemical gradient.
The exit of Na+ from the syncytiotrophoblast into the fetal circulation
occurs across the basal membrane.The primary mechanismresponsible for
this process is the Na+-K t pump, which is localized predominantly in the
basal membrane(82). Active extrusion of t vi a th e Nat-Kt pump gener-
ates an inwardly directed Na+ gradient across the brush border membrane,
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PLACENTALNUTRIENTTRANSPORT 197
which in turn facilitates the Na+ entry mechanisms. Thus, the vectorial
movementof Na in the direction of matemalto fetal circulation is made
possible by the differential localization of the entry and the exit mechanisms
for Na+ at the two poles of the syncytiotrophoblast.
Our most recent studies have shown that the basal membraneof the
syncytiotrophoblast also contains Na+-H exchanger activity (unpublished
data). Interestingly, this exchangeris pharmacologicallydistinguishable from
the exchangeridentified in the brush border membrane of this cell. The brush
border membraneNa+-H+ exchanger belongs to the "housekeeping" type
(NHE-1), whereas the basal membraneNa+-H exchanger belongs to the
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IRONThe fetus obtains its supply of iron from the matemalcirculation (48).
The probablefirst step in placental iron transfer is receptor-mediatedendocy-
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(32). Monovalentanions such as CI-, I-, and SCN-do not interfere with
SO4~- ~-
transfer
, by this system(18). In contrast, divalent anions such as SeO4
CrO4 z-, and MoOn2- interact significantly (19), suggesting that the essential
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CONCLUSIONS
Substantial progress has been made in elucidating the cellular transport
mechanismsof placental trophoblast. Three principal model systems have
recently served as tools: placental perfusion, isolated maternal- and fetal-
facing surface membranes,and, most recently, isolated trophoblast and
trophoblast-derived cells. Most of the major transport systems are analagous
to those of other epithelial and nonepithelial cells, and yet their distinctive
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200 SMITH, MOE & GANAPATHY
fetus.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
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