Handout on

Sanitation for low income communities;

On-site sanitation for rural communities
8.1 SANITATION

"Sanitation generally refers to the provision of facilities and services for the safe disposal of
human urine and feces. The word 'sanitation' also refers to the maintenance of hygienic
conditions, through services such as garbage collection and wastewater disposal."

Sanitation includes all four of these engineering infrastructure items (even though often only the
first one is strongly associated with the term "sanitation"): Excreta management systems,
wastewater management systems (included here are wastewater treatment plants), solid waste
management systems, drainage systems for rainwater, also called storm water drainage.

There are some slight variations on the definition of sanitation in use. For example, for many
organizations, hygiene promotion is seen as an integral part of sanitation. For this reason, the
Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council defines sanitation as "The collection,
transport, treatment and disposal or reuse of human excreta, domestic wastewater and solid
waste, and associated hygiene promotion."

Despite the fact that sanitation includes wastewater treatment, the two terms are often use side by
side as "sanitation and wastewater management". The term sanitation has been connected to
several descriptors so that the terms sustainable sanitation, improved sanitation, unimproved
sanitation, environmental sanitation, on-site sanitation, ecological sanitation, dry sanitation are
all in use today. Sanitation should be regarded with a systems approach in mind which includes
collection/containment, conveyance/transport, treatment, disposal or reuse.

The overall purposes of sanitation are to provide a healthy living environment for everyone, to
protect the natural resources (such as surface water, groundwater, soil), and to provide safety,
security and dignity for people when they defecate or urinate.

Effective sanitation systems provide barriers between excreta and humans in such a way as to
break the disease transmission cycle (for example in the case of fecal-borne diseases). This
aspect is visualized with the F-diagram where all major routes of fecal-oral disease transmission
begin with the letter F: feces, fingers, flies, fields, fluids, food.

8.2 TYPES OF SANITATION

1. On-site sanitation.

2. Off-site sanitation.

8.2.1 ON-SITE SANITATION

On-site sanitation, also called decentralized sanitation, is a system where the treatment of excreta
or sewage takes place at the same location where it is generated. Examples are pit latrines, septic
tanks, and Inhofe tanks. A septic tank and drain field combination is the oldest and most
common type of on-site sewage facility in the U.S., although newer aerobic and biofilter units
exist which represent scaled down versions of municipal sewage treatment plants.

8.2.2 TYPES OF ON-SITE SANITATION

On-site sanitation systems are of different kinds. They may be:

Simple Pit Latrine

Ventilated Improved Pit (VIP) Latrine
Reed Odorless Earth Closet (ROEC)
Compost Latrine
Pour-Flush Sanitation Technology
Aqua Privy
Septic Tank System
Communal Sanitation System

8.2.2.1 Pit latrine

A pit latrine or pit toilet is a type of toilet that collects human feces in a hole in the ground. They
use either no water or one to three liters per flush with pour-flush pit latrines. When properly
built and maintained they can decrease the spread of disease by reducing the amount of human
feces in the environment from open defecation. This decreases the transfer of pathogens between
feces and food by flies. These pathogens are major causes of infectious diarrhea and intestinal
worm infections. Infectious diarrhea resulted in about 0.7 million deaths in children under five
years old in 2011 and 250 million lost school days. Pit latrines are the lowest cost method of
separating feces from people.

A pit latrine generally consists of three major parts: a hole in the ground, a slab or floor with a
small hole, and a shelter. The shelter is often known as an outhouse. The pit is typically at least 3
meters (10 feet) deep and 1 m (3.2 feet) across. The World Health Organization recommends
they be built a reasonable distance from the house balancing issues of easy access versus that of
smell. The distance from groundwater and surface water should be as large as possible to
decrease the risk of groundwater pollution. The hole in the slab should not be larger than 25
centimeters (9.8 inches) to prevent children falling in. Light should be prevented from entering
the pit to reduce access by flies. This may require the use of a lid to cover the hole in the floor
when not in use. When the pit fills to within 0.5 meters (1.6 feet) of the top, it should be either
emptied or a new pit constructed and the shelter moved or re-built at the new location. The
management of the fecal sludge removed from the pit is complicated. There are both
environment and health risks if not done properly.
A basic pit latrine can be improved in a number of ways. One includes adding a ventilation pipe
from the pit to above the structure. This improves airflow and decreases the smell of the toilet. It
also can reduce flies when the top of the pipe is covered with mesh (usually made out of
fiberglass). In these types of toilets a lid need not be used to cover the hole in the floor. Other
possible improvements include a floor constructed so fluid drains into the hole and a
reinforcement of the upper part of the pit with bricks, blocks, or cement rings to improve
stability.

As of 2013 pit latrines are used by an estimated 1.77 billion people. This is mostly in the
developing world as well as in rural and wilderness areas. In 2011 about 2.5 billion people did
not have access to a proper toilet and one billion resort to open defecation in their surroundings.
Southern Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa have the poorest access to toilets. In developing countries
the cost of a simple pit toilet is typically between 25 and 60 USD. Ongoing maintenance costs
are between 1.5 and 4 USD per person per year which are often not taken into consideration. In
some parts of rural India the "No Toilet, No Bride" campaign has been used to promote toilets by
encouraging women to refuse to marry a man who does not own a toilet.

Figure 8.1: Pit latrine

Advantages

Advantages of pit latrines may include:

Can be built and repaired with locally available materials

Low (but variable) capital costs depending on materials and pit depth
Small land area required

Measures to improve access to safe water, sanitation and better hygiene, which includes the use
of pit latrines instead of open defecation, is believed to be able to prevent nearly 90% of deaths
due to infectious diarrhea.

Disadvantages

Disadvantages of pit latrines may include:

Flies and odours are normally noticeable to the users

The toilet has to be outdoors with the associated security risks if the person is living in an
insecure situation
Low reduction in organic matter content and pathogens
Possible contamination of groundwater with pathogens and nitrate
Costs to empty the pits may be significant compared to capital costs
Pit emptying is often done in a very unsafe manner
Sludge (called fecal sludge) requires further treatment and/or appropriate discharge
Pit latrines are often relocated or re-built after some years (when the pit is full and if the
pit is not emptied) and thus need more space than urine-diverting dry toilets for example
and people are less willing to invest in a nice high-quality super-structure as it will have
to be dismantled at some point.

8.2.2.2 Ventilated improved pit

The ventilated improved pit latrine (VIP), is a pit latrine with a black pipe (vent pipe) fitted to
the pit, and a screen (flyscreen) at the top outlet of the pipe. VIP latrines are an improvement to
overcome the disadvantages of simple pit latrines, i.e. fly and mosquito nuisance and unpleasant
odors. The smell is carried upwards by the chimney effect and flies are prevented from leaving
the pit and spreading disease.

The principal mechanism of ventilation in VIP latrines is the action of wind blowing across the
top of the vent pipe. The wind creates a strong circulation of air through the superstructure, down
through the squat hole, across the pit and up and out of the vent pipe. Unpleasant fecal odors
from the pit contents are thus sucked up and exhausted out of vent pipe, leaving the
superstructure odor-free. In some cases solar-powered fans are added giving a constant outwards
flow from the vent pipe.

Flies, searching for an egg-laying site are attracted by fecal odors coming from the vent pipe, but
they are prevented from entering by the flyscreen at the outlet of the vent pipe. Some flies may
enter into the pit via the squat hole and lay their eggs there. When new adult flies emerge they
instinctively fly towards light. However, if the latrine is dark inside the only light they can see is
at the top of the vent pipe. Since the vent pipe is provided with a fly screen at the top, flies will
not be able to escape and eventually they will die and fall back into the pit.

To ensure that there is a flow of air through the latrine there must be adequate ventilation of the
superstructure. This is usually achieved by leaving openings above and below the door, or by
constructing a spiral wall without a door.

Covering the feces with an absorbent decreases smell and discourages flies. These may include
soil, sawdust, ash or lime among others. In developing countries, the use of absorbents in pit
toilets is not commonly practiced.

Figure 8.2: Ventilated improved pit latrine

Advantages

Controls odors and insects.

Minimum health risk.
Low cost.
Easy construction, maintenance.
Minimum water requirement.
Twin-pit VIP latrine system offers a long-term solution.
Disadvantages

Potential groundwater pollution.

Lack of space for relocating the pit in densely populated areas.
Difficult construction in rocky and high water tables.

8.2.2.3 Pourflush pit latrine

A pour flush toilet is like a regular Cistern Flush Toilet (U.5) except that the water is poured in
by the user, instead of coming from the cistern above. When the water supply is not continuous,
any Cistern Flush Toilet can become a pour flush toilet. In a pourflush pit latrine, a squatting
toilet with a water seal (U-trap or siphon) is used over one or two offset pits instead of a plain
hole or seat. Therefore, these types of toilets do required water for flushing but otherwise have
many of the same characteristics as simple pit latrines and are for this reason subsumed under the
term "pit latrine". The fecal sludge that is removed from the full pits of twin-pit pour-pour flush
pit latrines is somewhat safer to handle and reuse than the fecal sludge from single pit pour-flush
latrines, although significant health risks remain in either case and are a cause for concern.

Figure 8.3: Pourflush pit latrine

Advantages

The water seal effectively prevents odors.

The excreta of one user are flushed away before the next user arrives.
Suitable for all types of users (sitters, squatters, wipers and washers).
Low capital costs; operating costs depend on the price of water.

Disadvantages/limitations

Requires a constant source of water (can be recycled water and/or collected rainwater).
Requires materials and skills for production that are not available everywhere.
Coarse dry cleansing materials may clog the water seal.

8.2.2.4 Reed odorless earth closet (ROEC)

The Reed odorless earth closet (ROEC) is a variation on the ventilated improved pit (VIP) toilet
where the pit is fully off-set from the Outhouse and is connected to the squatting plate by a
curved chute.

The ROEC is fitted with a vent pipe to control odor and insect nuisance. It is claimed that the
chute, in conjunction with the ventilation stack, encourages vigorous air circulation down the
toilet, thereby removing odors and discouraging flies.

Advantages

As the pit is offset from the squatting hole excreta will not be seen, thus convenient to the
users.
ROEC pit can be made larger as the superstructure is fully off-set and thus can have a
longer life than VIP latrine.
Pit can be easily emptied without disturbing the superstructure and it can bea permanent
facility.
There is no danger of users particularly children falling into it.
It may be more acceptable to users because the excreta cannot be seen.

Disadvantages

The ROEC chute easily becomes fouled with excreta, thereby providing a possible site
for fly breeding and odour nuisance.
The chute has to be regularly cleaned with a long-handled brush or a small amount of
water.

8.2.2.5 Composting toilet

A composting toilet is a type of dry toilet that uses a predominantly aerobic processing system to
treat human excreta, by composting or managed aerobic decomposition. These toilets generally
use little to no water and may be used as an alternative to flush toilets.They have found use in
situations where no suitable water supply or sewer system and sewage treatment plant is
available to capture the nutrients in human excreta. They are in use in many roadside facilities
and national parks in Sweden, Canada, US, UK and Australia. They are used in rural holiday
homes in Sweden and Finland.

The human excreta is usually mixed with sawdust, coconut coir or peat moss to facilitate aerobic
processing, liquid absorption, and odor mitigation. Most composting toilets use slow, cold
composting conditions, sometimes connected to a secondary external composting step.

Composting toilets produce a compost that may be used for horticultural or agricultural soil
enrichment if the local regulations allow this. A curing stage is often needed to allow mesophilic
composting to reduce potential phytotoxins.

Figure 8.4: Composting toilet

Four main factors affect the decomposition process

Sufficient oxygen is necessary for aerobic composting

Moisture content from 45 to 70 percent (heuristically, "the compost should feel damp to
the touch, with only a drop or two of water expelled when tightly squeezed in the hand.")
 Temperature between 40 and 50 C (achieved through proper chamber dimensioning and
possibly active mixing)
Carbon-to-nitrogen ratio (C:N) of 25:1

Advantages

Appropriate for use in areas where there is a tradition of using human excreta on the land.

Can be useful in areas where there is a need for soil conditioner.

Need no water for flushing because composting is most efficient if the material is moist
but not wet.

Need not to penetrate the subsoil and can be built on rock, pose a low pollution risk,
particularly if they are completely sealed units and they can be used to prevent
contamination of a vulnerable water supply.

Disadvantages

Need organic waste to correct the C/N ratio of the excreta and a substantial amount of
biodegradable organic matters must be locally available.

Need care in their operation and should be applied where users are keen to operate the
system carefully to obtain compost for field or gardens.

This type of latrine is not very suitable for areas where people prefer water for anal
cleansing.

If correct measures are not taken, the contents of the larine can easily become too wet and
fly breeding will result.

If the wastes are not stored for a long enough period of time, pathogenic organism will
persist in the compost, resulting in health risks.

8.2.2.6 Aqua privy

The conventional aqua privy is essentially a small septic tank located directly below a squatting
plate which has a drop pipe extending below the liquid level in the tank to form a simple water
seal. To prevent odor, fly and mosquito nuisance in the toilet, the water seal has to be maintained
by adding sufficient water per toilet visit to the tank via the drop-pipe to replace any losses. The
excreta are deposited directly into the tank where they are decomposed anaerobically similar to a
septic tank. A housing or shed is built over the tank. A vent pipe with a fly screen at the top end
is attached to the housing. A water-tight tank is desirable to minimize losses. An effluent
(overflow) pipe is installed above the level of the drop-pipe.

Advantages

No danger of clogging by bulky anal cleansing materials.

Low odor and insect problems.
Potential for upgrading.
Minimal risks to health.

Disadvantages

Water seal is often broken particularly during cleaning.

Needs small but significant amount of water to maintain water level.
The tank requires desludging, usually every 2-3 years.
Requires water tight tank, hence more expensive and needs skills to construct.

8.2.2.7 Septic tank

A septic tank is a key component of the septic system, a small-scale sewage treatment system
common in areas that lack connection to main sewage pipes provided by local governments or
private corporations. Other components, generally controlled by local governments, may include
pumps, alarms, sand filters, and clarified liquid effluent disposal methods such as a septic drain
field, ponds, natural stone fiber filter plants or peat moss beds.

Septic systems are a type of onsite sewage facility (OSSF). In North America, approximately 25
percent of the population relies on septic tanks, including some suburbs and small towns as well
as rural areas. Indianapolis is one example of a large city where many of the city's neighborhoods
still rely on separate septic systems. In Europe, septic systems are generally limited to rural
areas. Since septic systems require large drainfields, they are not suitable for densely built cities.

The term "septic" refers to the anaerobic bacterial environment that develops in the tank which
decomposes or mineralizes the waste discharged into the tank. Septic tanks can be coupled with
other onsite wastewater treatment units such as biofilters or aerobic systems involving artificially
forced aeration.

Periodic preventive maintenance is required to remove solids that remain and gradually fill the
tank, reducing its efficiency. Maintenance requires regular pumping to remove these. According
to the US Environmental Protection Agency, in the United States it is the home owners'
responsibility to maintain their septic systems. Those who ignore this requirement will
eventually be faced with costly repairs when solids escape the tank and clog the clarified liquid
effluent disposal system. A properly maintained system will likely not need replacement during
the homeowner's lifetime.
Advantages

Can be built and repaired with locally available materials.

No real problems with flies or odour if used correctly.
Simple and robust technology.
No electrical energy is required.
Little space required due to underground construction.
Low operating costs.
Long service life.
Small land area required (can be built underground).

Disadvantages

High cost compared to dry or composting toilet systems.

Constant and sufficient amounts of piped water required to bring the waste to the
treatment unit.
Low reduction in pathogens, solids and organics.
Regular desludging must be ensured.
Only suitable for low-density housing in areas with low water table and not prone to
flooding.
Manual cleaning of the tank is highly hazardous and an inhumane task, while mechanical
cleansing (vacuum trucks) requires sophisticated instruments.
Effluent and sludge require further treatment and/or appropriate discharge.

8.2.2.8 Communal Sanitation System

A communal sanitation system consists of a number of squatting facilities with a common

disposal system. Communal sanitation facilities are provided where sewerage systems are not
feasible both technically and economically and where on-site individual sanitation systems are
not possible due to housing density and ground conditions.

Advantages

The option is suitable for a densely populated slum areas where individual on site system
is technically and economically unfeasible.
 The users can share total costs of communal sanitation facilities leading to low per capita
cost compared to the high technical standard of the facility.
Communal sanitation facilities, if connected to a biogas plant, may provide significant
amount of energy required for cooking and lighting.

Disadvantages

There is a lack of commitment by individual users to keep the communal facilities clean
and operating properly.
There is a lack of privacy particularly for women.
They are difficult to use at night and in bad weather, especially for children, the sick and
the elderly.
They require for scarce public land, which in a crowded shanty town maybe up to 10% of
the total land area available.
Communal sanitation facilities cannot be upgraded to individual household sanitation
facilities.