The Crusades

Contents

1 Crusades 1
1.1 Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Eastern Mediterranean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.2 First Crusade (10961099) and aftermath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.3 12th century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.4 13th century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.5 Finance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.6 Military orders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.7 Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.8 Historiography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3 European campaigns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3.1 Northern Crusades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3.2 Albigensian Crusade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3.3 Bosnian Crusade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.3.4 Reconquista . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.4 Aftermath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.6 Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.8 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.9 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.9.1 Historiography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.9.2 Primary sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

2 Military order (monastic society) 18

2.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.2 Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.3 List of military orders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.3.1 International . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.3.2 National . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.3.3 Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.4 Modern development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

i
ii CONTENTS

2.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

2.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.7 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

3 Siege of Constantinople (1203) 22

3.1 The siege . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.2 After the 1203 siege . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

4 Siege of Constantinople (1204) 24

4.1 Before the siege . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4.2 Siege . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4.3 Capture of the city . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4.4 Sack of Constantinople . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4.5 Aftermath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4.6 Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

5 Siege of Constantinople (1235) 28

5.1 Prelude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
5.2 The siege . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
5.3 Afterwards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
5.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
5.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
5.6 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
5.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

6 Siege of Belgrade (1456) 30

6.1 Preparations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
6.2 Siege . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
6.3 Battle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
6.4 Aftermath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
6.5 Noon Bell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
6.6 Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
6.7 Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
6.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
6.8.1 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
6.9 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
6.9.1 Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
CONTENTS iii

6.9.2 Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
6.9.3 Content license . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Chapter 1

Crusades

This article is about the medieval religious military cam-

paigns. For other uses, see Crusades (disambiguation).
Crusaders redirects here. For other uses, see Crusaders
(disambiguation).

A battle of the Second Crusade (illustration of William of Tyre's

Histoire d'Outremer, 1337)

The Crusades were a series of religious wars sanctioned

by the Latin Church in the medieval period, especially the
campaigns in the Eastern Mediterranean with the aim of
recovering the Holy Land from Islamic rule. The term
crusades is also applied to other campaigns sanctioned
by the Church, fought to combat paganism and heresy or
to resolve conict among rival Roman Catholic groups,
or to gain political or territorial advantage. The term cru-
sades itself is early modern, modelled on Middle Latin
cruciatae, and has in more recent times been extended
to include religiously motivated Christian military cam-
paigns in the Late Middle Ages.
The First Crusade arose after a call to arms in a 1095
sermon by Pope Urban II. Urban urged military support
for the Byzantine Empire and its Emperor, Alexios I,
who needed reinforcements for his conict with west-
ward migrating Turks in Anatolia. One of Urbans stated
aims was to guarantee pilgrims access to the holy sites
in the Eastern Mediterranean that were under Muslim
control, but scholars disagree whether this was the pri-
mary motivation for Urban or the majority of those who
heeded his call. Urbans wider strategy may have been to
unite the Eastern and Western branches of Christendom,
which had been divided since their split in the EastWest
Map of the Eastern Mediterranean in 1135. The Frankish
Crusader states are indicated with a red cross : Kingdom of
Jerusalem, County of Tripoli, Principality of Antioch, County
of Edessa. The Principality of Armenian Cilicia was a cru-
sader state under Armenian (Rubenid) rule. The remnant of the
Byzantine Empire is visible in the west; the (nascent) Seljuq Em-
pire and Fatimid Egypt are shown in green.
Schism of 1054, and establish himself as head of the
unied Church. The response to Urbans preaching by
people of many dierent classes across Western Europe
established the precedent for later crusades. Volunteers
became crusaders by taking a public vow and receiving
plenary indulgences from the church. Some were hoping
for apotheosis at Jerusalem, or forgiveness from God for
all their sins. Others participated to satisfy feudal obli-
gations, gain glory and honour, or nd opportunities for
economic and political gain.
Historians have polarised opinions of the Crusaders be-
haviour under Papal sanction. To some it was incongru-

1
2 CHAPTER 1. CRUSADES

ous with the stated aims and implied moral authority of Traditionalists restrict their denition of crusades to
the papacy and the crusades, in one case to the extent the Christian campaigns in the Holy Land, either
that the Pope excommunicated crusaders.[1] Crusaders to assist the Christians there or to liberate Jerusalem
often pillaged as they travelled, while their leaders re- and the Holy Sepulcher, during 10951291.[5]
tained control of much captured territory rather than re-
turning it to the Byzantines; During the Peoples Crusade Pluralists use the term crusade of any campaign
thousands of Jews were murdered in what is now called explicitly sanctioned by the reigning Pope.[6] This
the Rhineland massacres; and Constantinople was sacked reects the view of the Roman Catholic Church
during the Fourth Crusade rendering the reunication of (including medieval contemporaries such as Saint
Christendom impossible. Bernard of Clairvaux) that every military campaign
given Papal sanction is equally valid as a crusade,
The crusades had a profound impact on Western civil- regardless of its cause, justication, or geographic
isation: they reopened the Mediterranean to commerce location. This broad denition subsumes attacks on
and travel (enabling Genoa and Venice to ourish); con- paganism and heresy, such as the Albigensian Cru-
solidated the collective identity of the Latin Church un- sade, the Northern Crusades and the Hussite Wars,
der papal leadership; and were a wellspring for accounts and wars for political or territorial advantage, such
of heroism, chivalry and piety. These tales consequently as the Aragonese Crusade in Sicily, a crusade de-
galvanised medieval romance, philosophy and literature. clared by Pope Innocent III against Markward of
The crusades also reinforced the connection between Anweiler in 1202,[7] one against the Stedingers, sev-
Western Christendom, feudalism, and militarism. eral (declared by several popes) against Emperor
Frederick II and his sons,[8] two crusades against op-
ponents of King Henry III of England,[9] and the
1.1 Terminology Christian re-conquest of Iberia.[10]
Generalists see crusades as any and all holy wars con-
Further information: Historiography of the Crusades nected with the Latin Church and fought in defence
of their faith.
Crusade is not a contemporaneous term: instead the Popularists limit the crusades to only those that were
terms iter for journey or peregrinatio for pilgrimage were characterised by popular groundswells of religious
used. Not until the word crucesignatus for one who was fervour that is, only the First Crusade and perhaps
signed with the cross was adopted at the close of the the Peoples Crusade.[11]
twelfth century was specic terminology developed.[2]
The Oxford English Dictionary links the etymology of Medieval Muslim historiographers such as Ali ibn al-
the word crusade to the modern French croisade, Old Athir refer to the Crusades as the Frankish Wars (urb
French croisee, Provenal crozada, Spanish cruzada, Ital- al-farana) . The term used in modern Ara-
ian/medieval Latin crociata based on the verb to cross, bic, albiyya amalt , lit. "campaigns of the
a being crossed, a crossing or marking with the cross", is a loan translation of the term crusade as used in
cross, a taking the cross. The Middle English equiv- Western historiography.[12]
alents were derived from old French; croiserie in the
13th15th centuries and croisee in the 1517th century.
Croisade appeared in English c1575, and continued to 1.2 Eastern Mediterranean
be the leading form till c1760.[3] By convention historians
adopt the term for the Christian holy wars from 1095 but
this does lead to a misleading impression of coherence in 1.2.1 Background
the early Crusades.[2]
Further information: Muslim conquests, Great Seljuk
The Crusades in the Holy Land are traditionally counted Empire, ByzantineSeljuk wars, ArabByzantine wars,
as nine distinct campaigns, numbered from the First Cru- Council of Clermont, and Reconquista
sade of 109599 to the Ninth Crusade of 1271/2. This In the seventh and eighth centuries, Islam was intro-
convention is used by Charles Mills in his History of theduced in the Arabian Peninsula by the Islamic prophet
Crusades for the Recovery and Possession of the Holy Muhammad and a newly unied polity. This led to a
Land (1820), and is often retained for convenience, even rapid expansion of Arab power, the inuence of which
though it is somewhat arbitrary: The Fifth and Sixth Cru-stretched from the northwest Indian subcontinent, across
sades led by Frederick II may be considered a single cam-Central Asia, the Middle East, North Africa, southern
paign, as can the Eight Crusade and Ninth Crusade led by Italy, and the Iberian peninsula, to the Pyrenees.[13][14][15]
Louis IX.[4] Tolerance, trade, and political relationships between the
Usage of the term crusade may dier depending on the Arabs and the Christian states of Europe waxed and
author. Giles Constable describes four dierent perspec- waned. For example, the Fatimid caliph al-Hakim bi-
tives among scholars: Amr Allah destroyed the Church of the Holy Sepulchre
1.2. EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN
Islamic expansion under Muhammad, 622632
... during the Rashidun Caliphate, 632661
... and during the Umayyad Caliphate, 661750
in Jerusalem, but his successor allowed the Byzantine
Empire to rebuild it.[16] Pilgrimages by Catholics to sa-
cred sites were permitted, Christians resident in Mus-
lim territories were given certain legal rights and pro-
tections under Dhimmi status, were allowed to main-
tain their churches and interfaith marriages were not
uncommon.[17] Cultures and creeds coexisted and com-
peted, but Catholic pilgrims and merchants reported that
the frontier conditions between the Syrian ports and
Jerusalem were increasingly inhospitable.[18]
The Reconquista, the recapture of the Iberian peninsula
from the Muslims, began during the 8th century, reach-
ing its turning point in 1085 when Alfonso VI of Len and
[19]
Castile retook Toledo from Muslim rule. The Byzan-
tine Empire also regained territory at the end of the 10th
century, with Basil II spending most of his half-century
reign in conquest. In Northern Europe, the Germans used
crusading as a method to expand Christianity and their
territories at the expense of the non-Christian Slavs,[20]
and Muslim Sicily was conquered by Norman adventurer
Roger De Hauteville in 1091.[21]
Europe in this period was immersed in power struggles on
many dierent fronts. In 1054, centuries of attempts by
the Latin Church to assert supremacy over the Patriarchs
of the Eastern Empire led to a permanent division in the
Christian church called the EastWest Schism.[22] Fol-
lowing the Gregorian Reform an assertive, reformist pa-
pacy attempted to increase its power and inuence. Be-
ginning around 1075 and continuing during the First Cru-
sade, the Investiture Controversy was a power struggle be-
tween Church and state in medieval Europe over whether
the Catholic Church or the Holy Roman Empire held the
right to appoint church ocials and other clerics.[23][24]
Antipope Clement III was an alternative pope for most
of this period, and Pope Urban spent much of his early
ponticate in exile from Rome. The result was intense
piety, an interest in religious aairs, and religious pro-
paganda advocating a just war to reclaim Palestine from
the Muslims. The majority view was that non-Christians
could not be forced to accept Christian baptism or be
physically assaulted for having a dierent faith, although
a minority believed that vengeance and forcible conver-
sion were justied for the denial of Christian faith and
3
government.[25] Participation in such a war was seen as a
form of penance that could counterbalance sin.[26]
The status quo was disrupted by the invading Turks. His-
torians once, but no longer, consider the 1071 victory
over the Byzantine army at the Battle of Manzikert as a
decisive moment but it did presage signicant expansion
of Great Seljuk Empire into nearly all of Anatolia.[27] One
year later the Turks wrested control of Palestine from the
Fatimids.[28]
1.2.2 First Crusade (10961099) and af-
termath
Main articles: First Crusade, Peoples Crusade, Siege of
Jerusalem (1099), Crusade of 1101, Norwegian Crusade,
Bohemond I of Antioch Wars between Antioch and the
Byzantine Empire, Siege of Nicaea, Battle of Dorylaeum
(1097), Siege of Antioch, First Crusade: March down the
Mediterranean coast, and Siege of Jerusalem (1099)
See also: Persecution of Jews in the First Crusade
In 1095 at the Council of Piacenza, Byzantine Em-
1071
1040
The Great Seljuk Empire at its greatest extent (1092)
peror Alexios I Komnenos requested military aid from
Pope Urban II to ght the Turks, probably in the form
of mercenary reinforcements. It is likely he exagger-
ated the danger facing the Eastern Empire while mak-
ing his appeal.[29] At the Council of Clermont later that
year, Urban raised the issue again and preached for a cru-
sade. Historian Paul Everett Pierson asserts that Urban
also hoped that aiding the Eastern Church would lead to
its reunion with the Western under his leadership.[30]
Almost immediately thereafter Peter the Hermit began
preaching to thousands of mostly poor Christians, whom
he led out of Europe in what became known as the
Peoples Crusade.[31] Peter had with him a letter he
claimed had fallen from heaven instructing Christians to
seize Jerusalem in anticipation of the apocalypse.[32] In
addition to the motivations of the landed classes, aca-
demic Norman Cohn has identied a "messianism of
the poor inspired by an expected mass apotheosis at
Jerusalem.[33] In Germany the Crusaders massacred Jew-
ish communities. The Rhineland massacres were the rst
major outbreak of European antisemitism.[34] In Speyer,
4 CHAPTER 1. CRUSADES

Worms, Mainz and Cologne the range of anti-Jewish ac- at Dorylaeum. The Normans resisted for hours before
tivity was broad, extending from limited, spontaneous the arrival caused a Turkish withdrawal. After this the
violence to full-scale military attacks.[35] Despite Alex- normadic Seljuks avoided the crusade.[40] The factional-
ios advice to await the nobles, the Peoples Crusade ad- ism amongst the Turks that followed the death of Malik
vanced to Nicaea and fell to a Turkish ambush at the Shah meant they did not provide a united opposition.
Battle of Civetot, from which only about 3,000 crusaders Instead Aleppo and Damascus had competing rulers.[41]
escaped.[36] The three month march to Antioch was arduous with
numbers reduced by the attrition of staravation, thirst
and disease, combined with the decision of Baldwin to
leave with 100 knights in order to carve out his own
territory in Edessa.[42] The crusaders embarked on an
eight-month siege of Antioch but lacked the resources
to fully invest the city while the residents lacked the re-
sources to repel the invaders. Eventually, Bohemond per-
suaded a tower guard in the city to open a gate and the
crusaders entered, massacring the inhabitants and pil-
laging the city.[43] Sunni Islam had now recognised the
threat and the sultan of Baghdad sent a relief force led by
the Iraqi general Kerbogha. No assistance was provided
by the Byzantines who had been told by the deserting
Stephen of Blois that the cause was lost. Losing numbers
Route of the First Crusade through Asia through desertion and starvation in the besieged city the
crusaders attempted to negotiate surrender but this was
Both Philip I of France and Emperor Henry IV were rejected by Kerbogha who wanted to destroy them per-
in conict with Urban and did not participate. How- manently. Morale within the city was boosted when Peter
ever, members of the high aristocracy from France, west- Bartholomew claimed to have discovered the Holy Lance.
ern Germany, the Low countries and Italy were drawn Bohemond recognised that the only option now was for
to the venture, commanding their own military contin- open combat and launched a counterattack against the
gents in loose, uid arrangements based bonds of lord- besiegers. Despite superior numbers Kerboghas army,
ship, family, ethnicity and language. Foremost amongst which was divided into factions and surprised by the
these was the elder statesman, Raymond IV, Count of motivation of the Franks, retreated and abandoned the
Toulouse. He was rivalled by the relatively poor but mar- siege.[44] The Crusaders then delayed for months while
tial Bohemond of Taranto and his nephew Tancred from they argued over who would have the captured terri-
the Norman community of southern Italy. They were tory. This only ended when news arrived that the Fatimid
joined by Godfrey of Bouillon and his brother Baldwin I Egyptians had taken Jerusalem from the Turks and it be-
of Jerusalem leading a loose conglomerate from Lorraine, came imperative to attack before they could consolidate
Lotharingia and Germany. These ve Princes were piv- their position. Bohemond remained in Antioch, retain-
otal to the campaign which was also joined by a Northern ing the city, despite his pledge that this would return to
French army led by Robert Curthose, Stephen, Count of Byzantine control, while Raymond led the remaining cru-
Blois and Robert II, Count of Flanders.[37] sader army rapidly south along the coast to Jerusalem.[45]
The armies including non-combatants may have con- The Jewish and Muslim inhabitants fought together to
tained as many as 100,000 people, travelled eastward defend Jerusalem, but the crusaders entered the city on
by land to Byzantium where they were cautiously wel- 15 July 1099. They proceeded to massacre the inhab-
comed by the Emperor.[38] Alexius persuaded many of itants and pillage the city.[46] In his Historia Francorum
the princes to pledge allegiance to him and that their rst qui ceperunt Iherusalem, Raymond D'Aguilers exalted ac-
objective should be Nicaea, which Kilij Arslan I had de- tions a modern viewpoint would consider atrocities.[47]
clared the capital of the Sultanate of Rum. Having al- The First Crusade established the rst four crusader
ready destroyed the earlier Peoples Crusade, the over states in the Eastern Mediterranean: the County of
condent Sultan left the city to resolve a territorial dis-
Edessa (10981149), the Principality of Antioch (1098
pute enabling its capture after a Crusader siege and a 1268), the Kingdom of Jerusalem (10991291), and the
Byzantine navel assault. This marked a high point in Latin
County of Tripoli (1104Tripoli was not conquered un-
and Greek co-operation and also the start of Crusader at-
til 1109to 1289). The Armenian Kingdom of Cili-
tempts to take advantage of political and religious dis-cia originated before the Crusades, but it received king-
unity in the Muslim world. Crusader envoys sent to Egyptdom status from Pope Innocent III and later became fully
seeking an alliance.[39] Westernised by the House of Lusignan. According to his-
The Crusades rst experience of the Turkish tactics of torian Jonathan Riley-Smith, these states were the rst ex-
lightly armoured mounted archers was when an advanced amples of Europe overseas. They are generally known
party led by Bohemond and Duke Roberts was ambushed as outremer, from the French outre-mer (overseas in
1.2. EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN
English).[48][49]
On a popular level, the First Crusade unleashed a wave
of impassioned, pious Catholic furyexpressed in the
massacres of Jews that accompanied the crusades[50] and
the violent treatment of the "schismatic" Orthodox Chris-
tians of the east.[51] A second, less successful crusade
known as the Crusade of 1101 followed in which Turks
led by Kilij Arslan defeated the crusaders in three sepa-
rate battles.[52]
1.2.3 12th century
Main articles: Second Crusade, Third Crusade, and Crusade,[62] although no ocial papal bulls were issued
German Crusade authorising new crusades.[63] The Wends were nally de-
Under the papacies of Calixtus II, Honorius II, Eugenius feated in 1162.[64]
III and Innocent II smaller scale crusading continued
around the Crusader States in the early 12th century. The
third decade saw campaigns by Fulk V of Anjou, the
Venetians, Conrad III of Germany and the foundation of
the Knights Templar.[53] The period also saw the inno-
vation of granting indulgences to those who opposed pa-
pal enemies, and this marked the beginning of politically
motivated crusades.[54] The loss of Aleppo in 1128 and
Edessa (Urfa) in 1144 to Imad ad-Din Zengi, governor
of Mosul led to preaching for what subsequently became
known as the Second Crusade.[55][56][57] King Louis VII
and Conrad III led armies from France and Germany to
Jerusalem and also Damascus without winning any major
victories.[58] Bernard of Clairvaux, who had encouraged
the Second Crusade in his preaching, was upset with the
violence and slaughter directed towards the Jewish popu- 1.2.4
lation of the Rhineland.[59]
Christian princes continued to make gains In the Iberian
peninsula such as the King of Portugal, Afonso I, retaking
Lisbon and Raymond Berenguer IV of Barcelona con-
quering the city of Tortosa[60][61] In Northern Europe the
Saxons and Danes fought against Wends in the Wendish
5
Detail of a miniature of King Philip II of France arriving in the
Eastern Mediterranean (mid 14th century)
Saladin united the enemies of the Crusader States, retook
Jerusalem and won the Battle of Hattinin 1187.[65][66]
According to Benedict of Peterborough, Pope Urban III
died of deep sadness on 19 October 1187 on hearing
of the defeat.[67] His successor, Pope Gregory VIII, is-
sued a papal bull named Audita tremendi that proposed
a further crusade later numbered the third to recapture
Jerusalem. Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor died en
route to Jerusalem, drowning in the Saleph River, and few
of his men reached the Eastern Mediterranean.[68]
In transit to crusade, Richard I of England conquered
Cyprus in 1191 in response to his sister and ancee, who
were travelling separately, being taken captive by the is-
lands ruler, Isaac Komnenos.[69] On arrival in the East,
Richard quarreled with Philip II of France who returned
home, leaving most of his forces behind and Leopold V,
Duke of Austria. Richard recaptured Acre after a long
siege, traveled south along the Mediterranean coast, de-
feated the Muslims near Arsuf and recaptured the port
city of Jaa. He twice advanced to within a days march
of Jerusalem before judging that he lacked the resources
to successfully capture the City. This marked the end of
Richards crusading career and was a calamitous blow to
Frankish morale.[70] A three-year truce was negotiated
that allowed Catholics unfettered access to Jerusalem.[71]
Illness and politics in England forced Richards depar-
ture, never to return, but Emperor Heny VI initiated the
German Crusade to full the promises made by his fa-
ther, Frederick. Led by Conrad, Archbishop of Mainz,
the army captured the cities of Sidon and Beirut. How-
ever, most of the crusaders returned to Germany when
Henry died.[72]
13th century
Fourth Crusade & aftermath
Main articles: Fourth Crusade, Latin Empire,
Frankokratia, Siege of Constantinople (1203), Siege of
Constantinople (1204), Battle of Adrianople (1205), and
6 CHAPTER 1. CRUSADES
Siege of Zara
The thirteenth century saw popular outbursts of ecstatic Main articles: Fifth Crusade, Sixth Crusade, Barons
piety in support of the Crusades such as the Childrens Crusade, Siege of Jerusalem (1244), and Seventh Cru-
Crusade in 1212. Large groups of young adults and chil- sade
dren spontaneously gathered believing their innocence Following Innocent IIIs Fourth Council of the Lateran,
would enable success where their elders had failed. Lit-
tle reliable evidence survives but these events. However,
they provide an indication of how hearts and minds could
be engaged for the cause.[73]
Innocent III also began preaching what became the
Fourth Crusade in 1200, primarily in France, but also
in England and Germany.[74] After gathering in Venice
the crusade was used by Doge Enrico Dandolo and Philip
of Swabia to further their secular ambitions. Dandolos
aim was expand Venices power in the Eastern Mediter-
ranean and Philip intended to restore his exiled nephew,
Alexios IV Angelos, to the throne of Byzantium.[75] The
crusaders were unable to pay the Venetians for a eet
when too few knights arrived in Venice, so they agreed to
divert to Constantinople and share what could be looted
as payment. As collateral the crusaders seized the Chris-
tian city of Zara; Innocent was appalled, and excommuni-
cated them.[1] They also conquered Constantinople twice,
after the initial success in taking the city, the original pur-
pose of the campaign was defeated by the assassination
of Alexios IV Angelos. In response the crusaders cap-
tured the Constantinople again and this time sacked it,
pillaging churches and killing many citizens. The Fourth
Crusade never came within 1,000 miles of its objective
of Jerusalem.[76]
The Latin and Byzantine Empires in 1205
The Fourth Crusade established a Latin Empire in the
east and allowed the partition of Byzantine territory
by its participants. The Latin emperor controlled one-
fourth of the Byzantine territory, Venice three-eighths
(including three-eighths of the city of Constantinople),
and the remainder was divided among the other cru-
sade leaders. This began the period of Greek history
known as Frankokratia or Latinokratia (Frankish [or
Latin] rule), when Catholic Western European nobles
primarily from France and Italyestablished states on
former Byzantine territory and ruled over the Orthodox
Byzantine Greeks.[77][upper-alpha 1] In the long run, the sole
beneciary was Venice.[78]
Further Eastern Crusades
Frederick II (left) meets al-Kamil (right) in a manuscript illumi-
nation from Giovanni Villani's Nuova Cronica
crusading resumed in 1217 against Saladins Ayyubid
successors in Egypt and Syria for what is classied the
Fifth Crusade. Led by Andrew II of Hungary and
Leopold VI, Duke of Austria, forces drawn mainly from
Hungary, Germany, Flanders, and Frisia achieved lit-
tle. Leopold and John of Brienne besieged and cap-
tured Damietta but an army advancing into Egypt was
compelled to surrender.[79][80] Damietta was returned and
an eight-year truce agreed.[81] Frederick II, Holy Roman
Emperor was excommunicated for breaking treaty obli-
gations with the Pope to crusade. However his marriage
to Isabella II of Jerusalem gave him a claim to the king-
dom of Jerusalem and he nally arrived at Acre in 1228.
Frederick was a most Muslim of Christian monarchs hav-
ing grown up in Sicily, having a Muslim bodyguard and
even a harem. His great diplomatic skills meant that
the Sixth Crusade was largely negotiation supported by
force.[82] A peace treaty was agreed giving Latin Chris-
tians most of Jerusalem and a strip of territory from
Acre, while the Muslims controlled their sacred areas.
In return, an alliance was made with Al-Kamil, Sultan
of Egypt, against all of his enemies of whatever religion.
The treaty and suspicions about Fredericks ambitions in
the region made him unpopular and was forced to re-
turn to his domains when they were attacked by Pope
Gregory IX.[83] While the Empire and Papacy were in
conict it often fell to secular leaders to campaign. What
is sometimes known as the Barons Crusade was led by
Theobald I of Navarre and Richard of Cornwall combin-
ing forceful diplomacy and the playing of rival Ayyubid
factions o against each other.[84] This brief renaissance
for Frankish Jerusalem was illusory, being dependent on
Ayyubid weakness and division following the death of Al-
Kamil.[85]
1.2. EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN 7

In 1244 a band of Khwarezmian mercenaries travelling to
Egypt to serve As-Salih Ismail, Emir of Damascus, seem-
ingly of their own volition, captured Jerusalem en-route
and defeated a combined Christian and Syrian army at
the La Forbie.[86] Louis IX, king of France, organised a
crusade, classied as the Seventh Crusade to attack Egypt
in response, arriving in 1249.[87] This was not a success.
Louis was defeated at Mansura and captured as he re-
treated back to Damietta.[88] Another truce was agreed
for a ten-year period and Louis was ransomed. Louis re-
mained in Syria until 1254 to consolidate the Crusader
states.[89] From 1265 to 1271, Baibars drove the Franks
to a few small coastal outposts.[90]
Byzantium politically through the Treaty of Viterbo. The
heirs of Baldwin II of Constantinople and William II
Villehardouin married Charles children. If there were
no ospring Charles would receive the empire and prin-
cipality. Charles executed Conradin, great-grandson of
Isabella I of Jerusalem and principal pretender to the
throne of Jerusalem, when he seized Sicily from the
Holy Roman Empire. When he purchased the rights to
Jerusalem from Maria of Antioch, the surviving grand-
child of Queen Isabella, he created a claim to rival that
of Isabellas great grandson, Hugh III of Cyprus. Charles
planned crusade to restore the Latin Empire alarmed
Michael VIII Palailogos. He delayed Charles by begin-
ning negotiations with Pope Gregory X for union of the
Greek and the Latin churches with Charles and Philip of
Courtenay compelled to form a truce with Byzantium.
Michael also provided Genoa with funds to encourage re-
volt in Charles northern Italian territories.[92]

Conquest of the Eastern Orthodox city of Constantinople by the

Crusaders in 1204

Division and failure

Main articles: War of Saint Sabas, Eighth Crusade,

Ninth Crusade, Sicilian Vespers, Fall of Tripoli (1289),
and Siege of Acre (1291)

Late thirteenth century politics in the Eastern Mediter-

ranean were complex with a number of powerful inter- The city of Acre fell in 1291 and its Latin Christian population
ested parties. The Mamluk sultan Baibars had three key was killed or enslaved
objectives: the prevention of an alliance between the
Latins and the Mongols, cause dissention between the In 1270, Charles turned his brother King Louis IXs last
Mongols particularly between the Golden Horde and the crusade to his own advantage, persuading Louis to ig-
Persian Ilkhanate, and to maintain access to a supply of nore his advisers and direct the Eighth Crusade against
slave recruits from the Russian steppes. In this he devel- Charles rebel Arab vassals in Tunis. Louis army was
oped diplomatic ties with Manfred, King of Sicily sup- devastated by disease in the hot-summer Mediterranean
porting him against the Papacy and Louis IXs brother climate, and Louis himself died at Tunis on 25 August.
Charles. The Crusader states were not unied and various This ended the last signicant crusading eort in the
powers competed for inuence. Genoa and Venice fought Eastern Mediterranean.[93]
the War of Saint Sabas. The Genoese were expelled from The 1281 election of a French pope, Martin IV, brought
Acre and relocated to Tyre where they continued to trade the full power of the papacy into line behind Charles.
happily with Baybers Egypt. Indeed Baibers negotiated He prepared to launch a crusade with 400 ships carrying
free passage for the Genoese with Michael VIII Palaiol- 27,000 mounted knights against Constantinople. But the
ogos, Emperor of Nicaea who was newly restored to the eet was destroyed in an uprising fomented by Michael
rule of Constantinople.[91] VIII Palailogos and Peter III of Aragon. Peter was pro-
The French, led by Louis IXs brother Charles of An- claimed king, and the House of Charles of Anjou was
jou, similarly sought to expand their inuence. In 1266, exiled from Sicily. Martin excommunicated Peter and
he seized Sicily, parts of the eastern Adriatic, Corfu, called for a crusade against Aragon before Charles died in
Butrinto, Avlona, and Suboto. He attempted to gain 1285, allowing Henry II of Cyprus to reclaim Jerusalem.
8 CHAPTER 1. CRUSADES

Charles had spent his life trying to amass a Mediterranean Crusades began.[99] The Poor Knights of Christ (Tem-
empire, and he and Louis saw themselves as Gods instru- plars) and their Temple of Solomon were founded around
ments to uphold the papacy.[94] 1119 by a small band of knights who dedicated them-
[100]
One factor in the crusaders decline was the disunity and selves to protecting pilgrims en route to Jerusalem.
conict among Latin Christian interests in the eastern The Hospitallers and the Templars became supranational
Mediterranean. Martin compromised the papacy by sup- organisations as Papal support led to rich donations of
porting Charles of Anjou, and tarnished its spiritual lus- land and revenue across Europe. This in turn led to a
tre with botched secular crusades against Sicily and steady ow of new recruits and the wealth to maintain
Aragon. The collapse of the papacys moral authority multiple fortications across the Outremer. In time this
and the rise of nationalism rang the death knell for cru- developed into autonomous power in the region.[101]
sading, ultimately leading to the Avignon Papacy and the After the fall of Acre the Hospitallers rst relocated
Western Schism. The mainland Crusader states of the to Cyprus, conquered and ruled Rhodes (13091522),
outremer were extinguished with the fall of Tripoli in Malta (15301798) and continue in existence to the
1289 and Acre in 1291.[95] Most remaining Latin Chris- present day. In 1322 the king of France suppressed
tians left for destinations in the Frankokratia or were the Knights Templar, ostensibly for sodomy, magic
killed or enslaved.[96] and heresy, but probably for nancial and political
reasons.[102]
1.2.5 Finance
1.2.7 Legacy
Further information: Islamic contributions to Medieval
Europe, Protestantism and Islam, Reception of Islam in
Early Modern Europe, and Latin translations of the 12th
century
According to Jonathan Riley-Smith the Kingdom of

Christian dirham with Arabic inscriptions (12161241)

Crusades were expensive; as the number of wars in-

creased, their costs escalated. Pope Urban II called upon
the rich to help First Crusade lords such as Duke Robert
of Normandy and Count Raymond of St. Gilles, who sub-
sidised knights in their armies. The total cost to King
Louis IX of France of the 128485 crusades was esti-
mated at six times the kings annual income. Rulers de-
manded subsidies from their subjects,[97] and alms and
bequests prompted by the conquest of Palestine were ad-
ditional sources of income. The popes ordered that col-
lection boxes be placed in churches and, beginning in the Saladin and Guy de Lusignan after battle of Hattin in 1187 by
mid-twelfth century, granted indulgences in exchange for Said Tahsine (19041985)
donations and bequests.[98]
Jerusalem was the rst experiment in European colo-
nialism creating a 'Europe Overseas or Outremer.[75]
1.2.6 Military orders The raising, transportation and supply of large armies
led to ourishing trade between Europe and the out-
Main article: Military order (monastic society) remer. The Italian city states of Genoa and Venice our-
ished, creating protable trading colonies in the eastern
[103]
The military orders such as the Knights Hospitaller and Mediterranean. This trade was sustained through the
the Knights Templar, provided Latin Christendoms rst middle Byzantine and Ottoman eras, and the communi-
professional armies in support of the Latin Kingdom of ties were often assimilated and known as Levantines or
[upper-alpha 2][105]
Jerusalem and the other Crusader states. The Hospi- Franco-Levantines.
tallers (Order of Knights of the Hospital of Saint John The Crusades consolidated the papal leadership of the
of Jerusalem) had been founded in Jerusalem before the Latin Church, reinforcing the link between Western
First Crusade but greatly enlarged its mission once the Christendom, feudalism and militarism manifesting itself
1.2. EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN 9

in the habituating of the clergy to violence.[75] This led to

the legitimisation of seizing land and possessions from
pagans on religious grounds and was debated through to
the Age of Discovery in the 15th and 16th centuries.[106]
In addition the growth of the system of indulgences
later was a catalyst for the Protestant Reformation in the
early 16th century.[107] The crusades also had a role in
the creation and institutionalisation of the military and
Dominican orders as well as the Medieval Inquisition.[108]
This assertiveness and the behaviour of the crusaders ap-
palled the Greeks and Muslims providing a lasting barrier
between the Latin world and both the Islamic and Ortho-
dox religions. This made the reunication of the Chris-
tian church impossible and created a perception of the
Westerners of being both aggressors and losers.[75]
Helen Nicholson argues that the increased contact be-
tween cultures the Crusades instigated improved the per-
ception of Islamic culture.[109] Alongside contact in Sicily Illustration of the Council of Clermont (Jean Colombe, Les Pas-
and Spain the crusades led to knowledge exchange with sages d'Outremer, BnF Fr 5594, ca. 1475)
Christians learning new ideas from the Muslims in litera-
ture and hygiene. The Muslims also had classical Greek
and Roman texts in their libraries, allowing Europe to those waiting in Flanders" that the Turks, in addition to
rediscover pre-Christian philosophy.[110] In contrast the ravaging the churches of God in the eastern regions,
Muslim world took little from the Crusaders beyond mil- seized the Holy City of Christ, embellished by his pas-
itary tactics and did not take any real interest in European sion and resurrectionand blasphemy to say ithave
culture until the 16th century. Indeed, the Crusades were sold her and her churches into abominable slavery. Al-
of little interest to the Muslim world: there was no history though the pope did not explicitly call for the reconquest
of the crusades translated into Arabic until 1865 and no of Jerusalem, he called for military liberation of the
published work by a Muslim until 1899.[111] Eastern Churches.[113] After the 1291 fall of Acre, Euro-
Jonathan Riley-Smith considers that much of the popular pean support for the Crusades continued despite criticism
understanding of the crusades derives from the novels of by contemporaries, such as Roger Bacon, who believed
Walter Scott and the French histories by Joseph Franois them ineective: Those who survive, together with their
Michaud. The crusades provided an enormous amount children, are more and more embittered against the Chris-
of source material, stories of heroism and interest that tian faith.[114]
underpinned growth in medieval literature, romance and During the 16th-century Reformation and Counter-
philosophy.[75] Reformation, Western historians saw the crusades
through the lens of their own religious beliefs. Protestants
saw them as a manifestation of the evils of the pa-
1.2.8 Historiography pacy, and Catholics viewed them as forces for good.[115]
Eighteenth-century Enlightenment historians tended to
Further information: Historiography of the Crusades view the Middle Ages in general, and the crusades in
Five major sources of information exist on the Coun- particular, as the eorts of barbarian cultures driven by
cil of Clermont that led to the First Crusade: the anony- fanaticism.[116] These scholars expressed moral outrage at
mous Gesta Francorum (The Deeds of the Franks, the conduct of the crusaders and criticised the crusades
dated about 110001); Fulcher of Chartres, who at- misdirectionthat of the Fourth in particular, which at-
tended the council; Robert the Monk, who may have tacked a Christian power (the Byzantine Empire) instead
been present, and the absent Baldric, archbishop of Dol of Islam. The Fourth Crusade had resulted in the sacking
and Guibert de Nogent. These retrospective accounts of Constantinople, eectively ending any chance of rec-
dier greatly.[112] In his 110607 Historia Iherosolimi- onciling the EastWest Schism and leading to the fall of
tana, Robert the Monk wrote that Urban asked western the Byzantine Empire to the Ottomans. In The History
Roman Catholic Christians to aid the Orthodox Byzan- of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire Edward
tine Empire because "Deus vult" (God wills it) and Gibbon wrote that the crusaders eorts could have been
promised absolution to participants; according to other more protably directed towards improving their own
sources, the pope promised an indulgence. In these ac- countries.[4] By the early Romantic period in the 19th
counts, Urban emphasises reconquering the Holy Land century, that harsh view of the Crusades and their era had
more than aiding the emperor and lists gruesome of- softened;[117] scholarship later in the century emphasised
fences allegedly committed by Muslims. Urban wrote to specialisation and detail.[118]
10 CHAPTER 1. CRUSADES

The 20th century produced three important histories of

the crusades: by Steven Runciman, Rene Grousset and a
multi-author work edited by Kenneth Setton.[119] Histo-
rians in this period often echoed Enlightenment-era crit-
icism: Runciman wrote during the 1950s, High ide-
als were besmirched by cruelty and greed ... the Holy
War was nothing more than a long act of intolerance
in the name of God.[77] According to Norman Davies,
the crusades contradicted the Peace and Truce of God
supported by Urban and reinforced the connection be-
tween Western Christendom, feudalism, and militarism.
The formation of military religious orders scandalised
the Orthodox Byzantines, and crusaders pillaged coun-
tries they crossed on their journey east. Violating their
oath to restore land to the Byzantines, they often kept
the land for themselves.[120][121] David Nicolle called
the Fourth Crusade controversial in its betrayal of
Byzantium.[122] Similarly, Norman Housley viewed the
persecution of Jews in the First Crusadea pogrom in
the Rhineland and the massacre of thousands of Jews
in Central Europeas part of the long history of anti-
Semitism in Europe.[123] Nineteenth-century depiction of two Livonian Knights
With the increasing focus on gender studies in the early
21st century, studies have been published on the topic
of "Women in the Crusades" specically. An essay col-
lection on the topic was published in 2001, under the in 1198, he led a large army to defeat and his death.
title Gendering the Crusades. In an essay on Women In response Innocent III issued a bull declaring a cru-
Warriors, Caspi-Reiseld comes the conclusion that the sade and Hartwig of Uthlede, Bishop of Bremen along
most signicant role played by women in the West was in with the Brothers of the Sword brought all of the north-
[127]
maintaining the status quo", in the sense of noble women east Baltic under Catholic control. Konrad of Maso-
acting as regents of feudal estates while their husbands via gave Chelmno to the Teutonic Knights in 1226 as a
[127][128]
were campaigining.[124] The presence of individual noble base for crusade against the local Polish princes.
women in crusades has been noted, such as Eleanor of The Livonian Knights were defeated by the Lithuanians
Aquitaine (who joined her husband, Louis VII).[125] The so Gregory IX merged the remainder of the order into
[129]
presence of non-noble women in the crusading armies, as the Teutonic Order as the Livonian Order. By the
in medieval warfare in general, was mostly in the role of middle of the century the Teutonic Knights completed
logistic support (such as washerwomen),[124] while the their conquest of the Prussians before conquering and
[130]
occasional presence of women soldiers was recorded by converting the Lithuanians in the subsequent decades.
Muslim historians. [126] The order also came into conict with the Eastern Or-
thodox Church, Pskov Republic and Novgorod Republic.
In 1240 the Novgorod army defeated the Swedes in the
Battle of the Neva, and two years later they defeated the
1.3 European campaigns Livonian Order in the Battle on the Ice.[131]

1.3.1 Northern Crusades

Main articles: Northern Crusades, Wendish Crusade,

Livonian Crusade, and Prussian Crusade
The success of the First Crusade inspired 12th-century
popes such as Celestine III, Innocent III, Honorius III and
Gregory IX to call for military campaigns with the aim of
Christianization of the more remote regions of northern
and northeastern Europe. These campaigns are known
as the Northern Crusades.[127] The Wendish Crusade of
1147 saw Saxons, Danes and Poles enforce Catholic con-
trol over the tribes of Mecklenburg and Lusatia, Polabian
Slavs (or Wends). Celestine III called for a crusade in
1193, but when Bishop Berthold of Hanover responded
1.3.2 Albigensian Crusade
Main article: Albigensian Crusade
The Albigensian Crusade (12091229) was a campaign
against heretics that Innocent III[132] launched to eradi-
cate Catharism, which had gained a substantial follow-
ing in southern France. The Cathars were driven under-
ground, and the County of Toulouse passed under the di-
rect control of Capetian France with the Treaty of Paris
of 1229.[133]
1.4. AFTERMATH
Pope Innocent III excommunicating the Albigensians (left), and
an Albigensian massacre by crusaders
1.3.3 Bosnian Crusade
Main article: Bosnian Crusade
The Bosnian Crusade (12351241) was a campaign
against the Bosnian church, depicted as a campaign
against Catharism (Bogomilism) although possibly mo-
tivated by a Hungarian territorial expansion. In 1216 a
mission was sent to convert Bosnia to Rome but failed.
In 1225, Honorius III called the Hungarians to under-
take the Bosnian Crusade that failed when the Hungar-
ians retreated following defeat by the Mongols at the
Battle of Mohi. From 1234 Gregory IX encouraged
The Battle of Nicopolis in a miniature by Jean Colombe (Les
further crusading but again the Bosniaks repelled the Passages d'Outremer, BnF Fr 5594, ca. 1475)
[134]
Hungarians.
1.3.4 Reconquista
Main article: Reconquista
In the Iberian peninsula Crusader privileges were given
to those aiding the Templars, Hospitallers and the Iberian
orders that merged with the orders of Calatrava and Santi-
ago. The papacy declared frequent Iberian crusades and
from 1212 to 1265, and the Christian kingdoms drove
the Muslims back to the Emirate of Granada, which held
out until 1492 when the Muslims and Jews were expelled
from the peninsula.[135]
1.4 Aftermath
Main article: Ottoman Wars in Europe
Further information: Crusade of Nicopolis, Crusade of
Varna, Alexandrian Crusade, Savoyard Crusade, Hussite
Wars, and European wars of religion
Minor crusading eorts lingered into the 14th century;
Peter I of Cyprus captured and sacked Alexandria in
1365 in what became known as the Alexandrian Crusade;
his motivation was as much commercial as religious.[136]
Louis II led the 1390 Barbary Crusade against Muslim
pirates in North Africa; after a ten-week siege, the cru-
saders signed a ten-year truce.[137]
11
Several crusades were launched during the 14th and
15th centuries to counter the expansion of the Ottoman
Empire. The rst, in 1396, was led by Sigismund
of Luxemburg, king of Hungary; many French nobles
joined Sigismunds forces, including the crusades mili-
tary leader, John the Fearless (son of the Duke of Bur-
gundy). Sigismund advised the crusaders to focus on de-
fence when they reached the Danube, but they besieged
the city of Nicopolis. The Ottomans defeated them in
the Battle of Nicopolis on 25 September, capturing 3,000
prisoners.[138] In 1309, as many as 30,000 peasants gath-
ered from England, northeastern France and Germany
proceeded as far as Avignon but disbanded there.[139]
There were many minor crusades, or attempted crusades,
in the context of the Ottoman conquest of the Balkans
in the late 14th to early 15th centuries. A failed cru-
sade against Ottoman Tunisia was undertaken in 1390.
After their victory at the Battle of Kosovo in 1389, the
Ottomans had conquered most of the Balkans, and had
reduced the Byzantine inuence to the area immediately
surrounding Constantinople, which they later proceeded
to besiege. In 1393 the Bulgarian tsar Ivan Shishman
had lost Nicopolis to the Ottomans. In 1394, Pope Boni-
face IX proclaimed a new crusade against the Turks, al-
though the Western Schism had split the papacy. The
enterprise culminated disastrously at Nicopolis. As the
Ottomans pressed westwards Sultan Murad II destroyed
the last Papal funded crusade at Varna on the Black Sea
12 CHAPTER 1. CRUSADES

in 1444 and four years later crushed the last Hungarian tion in the Kingdom of Bohemia and the followers of
expedition.[140] early Czech church reformer Jan Hus, who was burned
John Hunyadi and Giovanni da Capistrano organised a at the stake in 1415. Crusades were declared ve times
1456 crusade to lift the siege of Belgrade.[141] neas during that period: in 1420, 1421, 1422, 1427, and 1431.
Sylvius and John of Capistrano preached the crusade, the These expeditions forced the Hussite forces, who dis-
princes of the Holy Roman Empire in the diets of Ratis- agreed on many doctrinal points, to unite to drive out the
bon and Frankfurt promised assistance, and a league was invaders. The wars ended in 1436 with the ratication of
formed between Venice, Florence and Milan, but nothing the compromise Compacts of Basel by the Church and
the Hussites.[144]
eventually came of it. In April 1487, Pope Innocent VIII
called for a crusade against the Waldensians of Savoy,
the Piedmont, and the Dauphin in southern France and
northern Italy. The only eorts undertaken were in the 1.5 See also
Dauphin, resulting in little change.[142] Venice was the
only polity to continue to pose a signicant threat to Crusade cycle - Old French cycle of epic poems con-
the Ottomans in the Mediterranean, but it pursued the cerning the First Crusade
crusade mostly for its commercial interests, leading to
the protracted OttomanVenetian Wars, which contin- List of principal Crusaders
ued, with interruptions, until 1718. The nal end of the List of Crusader castles
Crusades as an at least nominal eort of Catholic Eu-
rope against Muslim incursion comes in the 16th century, Art of the Crusades
when the Franco-imperial wars assumed continental pro-
portions. Francis I of France sought allies from all quar- History of the Jews and the Crusades
ters, including with German Protestant princes. In 1536 Miles Christianus (Christian soldier)
Francis entered into one of the capitulations of the Ot-
toman Empire with Suleiman the Magnicent also mak- Religious war
ing common cause with the Sultans North African vassals
ArabByzantine wars (6341050s)
including Hayreddin Barbarossa.[143]
ByzantineOttoman Wars (12651479)
Ottoman Wars in Europe (14531922)

1.6 Footnotes
[1] The Partitio terrarum imperii Romaniae is a valuable
record of early-13th-century Byzantine administrative di-
visions (episkepsis) and family estates.

[2] (Frankolevantini; French Levantins, Italian Levantini,

Greek , and Turkish Levantenler or
Tatlsu Frenk leri). The term Levantine was used pe-
joratively for inhabitants of mixed Arab and European
descent and for Europeans who adopted local dress and
customs.[104]

1.7 References
[1] Lock 2006, pp. 158159

[2] Asbridge 2012, p. 40

[3] Crusade. Oxford English Dictionary (3rd ed.). Oxford

University Press. September 2005. (Subscription or UK
public library membership required.)
Hussite victory in the Battle of Domalice (c. 1500, Jena Codex
fol. 56r) [4] Davies 1997, p. 358

[5] Constable 2001, p. 12

The Hussite Wars, also known as the Hussite Crusade,
involved military action against the Bohemian Reforma- [6] Riley-Smith 2009, p. 27
1.7. REFERENCES 13

[7] Lock 2006, pp. 255256 [45] Asbridge 2012, pp. 146153

[8] Lock 2006, pp. 172180 [46] Tyerman 2006, pp. 156158

[9] Lock 2006, p. 167 [47] Sinclair 1995, pp. 5556

[10] Davies 1997, pp. 362364 [48] Outremer. Oxford English Dictionary (3rd ed.). Oxford
University Press. September 2005. (Subscription or UK
[11] Constable 2001, pp. 12&ndas;15
public library membership required.)
[12] Determann 2008, p. 13
[49] Riley-Smith 2005, pp. 5051
[13] Wickham 2009, p. 280
[50] Riley-Smith 2005, pp. 2324
[14] Lock 2006, p. 4
[51] Tyerman 2006, pp. 192194
[15] Hindley 2004, p. 14
[52] Housley 2006, p. 42
[16] Pringle 1999, p. 157
[53] Lock 2006, pp. 144145
[17] Findley 2005, p. 73
[54] Lock 2006, pp. 146147
[18] Asbridge 2012, p. 28
[55] Riley-Smith 2005, pp. 104105
[19] Bull 1999, pp. 1819
[56] Lock 2006, p. 144
[20] Housley 2006, p. 31
[57] Hindley 2004, pp. 7174
[21] Mayer 1988, pp. 1718
[58] Hindley 2004, pp. 7785
[22] Mayer 1988, pp. 23
[59] Hindley 2004, p. 77
[23] Rubenstein 2011, p. 18
[60] Hindley 2004, pp. 7577
[24] Cantor 1958, pp. 89
[61] Villegas-Aristizabal 2009, pp. 63129
[25] Riley-Smith 2009, pp. 1011
[62] Lock 2006, p. 148
[26] Riley-Smith 2005, pp. 810
[63] Lock 2006, p. 213
[27] Asbridge 2012, p. 27
[64] Lock 2006, pp. 5556
[28] Hindley 2004, p. 15
[65] Holt 1983, pp. 235239
[29] Mayer 1988, pp. 67
[66] Asbridge 2011, pp. 343357
[30] Pierson 2009, p. 103
[67] Asbridge 2011, p. 367
[31] Hindley 2004, pp. 2021
[68] Tyerman 2007, pp. 3536
[32] Slack 2013, pp. 228230
[69] Asbridge 2012, pp. 429430
[33] Cohn 1970, pp. 61, 64

[34] Slack 2013, pp. 108109 [70] Asbridge 2012, p. 509

[35] Chazan 1996, p. 60 [71] Asbridge 2012, pp. 512513

[36] Hindley 2004, p. 23 [72] Lock 2006, p. 155

[37] Asbridge 2012, pp. 4347 [73] Asbridge 2012, pp. 533535

[38] Hindley 2004, pp. 3031 [74] Tyerman 2006, pp. 502508

[39] Asbridge 2012, pp. 5256 [75] Davies 1997, pp. 359360

[40] Asbridge 2012, pp. 5759 [76] Asbridge 2012, p. 530

[41] Asbridge 2012, pp. 2122 [77] Runciman 1951, p. 480

[42] Asbridge 2012, pp. 5961 [78] Davies 1997, p. 360

[43] Asbridge 2012, pp. 7071 [79] Lock 2006, pp. 168169

[44] Asbridge 2012, pp. 7282 [80] Riley-Smith 2005, pp. 179180
 14 CHAPTER 1. CRUSADES

[81] Hindley 2004, pp. 561562 [117] Lock 2006, p. 261

[82] Asbridge 2012, pp. 566571 [118] Lock 2006, p. 266

[83] Asbridge 2012, p. 569 [119] Lock 2006, p. 269

[84] Asbridge 2012, p. 573 [120] Kolbaba 2000, p. 49

[85] Asbridge 2012, p. 574 [121] Vasilev 1952, p. 408

[86] Asbridge 2012, pp. 574576 [122] Nicolle 2011, p. 5

[87] Tyerman 2006, pp. 770775 [123] Housley 2006, pp. 161163

[88] Hindley 2004, pp. 194195 [124] Caspi-Reiseld 2002, p. 98

[89] Lock 2006, p. 178 [125] Owen 1993, p. 22

[90] Tyerman 2006, pp. 816817 [126] Nicholson 1997, p. 337

[91] Asbridge 2012, pp. 628-630 [127] Davies 1997, p. 362

[92] Baldwin 2014 [128] Lock 2006, p. 96

[93] Strayer 1969, p. 487 [129] Lock 2006, p. 103

[94] Runciman 1958, p. 88 [130] Lock 2006, pp. 221222

[95] Lock 2006, p. 122 [131] Lock 2006, pp. 104, 221

[96] Tyerman 2006, pp. 820822 [132] Riley-Smith 1999, p. 4

[97] Riley-Smith 2009, pp. 4344 [133] Lock 2006, pp. 163165

[98] Riley-Smith 2009, p. 44 [134] Lambert 1977, p. 143

[99] Nicholson 2001 [135] Lock 2006, p. 211

[100] Asbridge 2012, p. 168 [136] Lock 2006, pp. 195196

[101] Asbridge 2012, pp. 16970 [137] Lock 2006, p. 199

[102] Davies 1997, p. 359 [138] Lock 2006, p. 200

[103] Housley 2006, pp. 152154 [139] Lock 2006, pp. 187188

[104] Levantine. Oxford English Dictionary (3rd ed.). Oxford [140] Davies 1997, p. 448
University Press. September 2005. (Subscription or UK
[141] Lock 2006, pp. 202203
public library membership required.)
[142] Lock 2006, p. 204
[105] Krey 2012, pp. 280281
[143] Davies 1997, pp. 544545
[106] Housley 2006, pp. 146147
[144] Lock 2006, pp. 201202
[107] Housley 2006, pp. 147149

[108] Strayer 1992, p. 143

[109] Nicholson 2004, p. 96

1.8 Bibliography
[110] Nicholson 2004, pp. 9394 Asbridge, Thomas (2012). The Crusades: The War
[111] Nicholson 2004, p. 95
for the Holy Land. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-
1-84983-688-3.
[112] Strack 2012, pp. 3045
Asbridge, Thomas (2011). The Crusades: The Au-
[113] Riley-Smith & Riley-Smith 1981, p. 38 thoritative History of the War for the Holy Land.
Ecco. ISBN 978-0-06-078729-5.
[114] Rose 2009, p. 72

[115] Lock 2006, p. 257

Baldwin, Philip B. (2014). 'Pope Gregory X and
the crusades. Boydell & Brewer Ltd. ISBN 978-
[116] Lock 2006, p. 259 1-84383-916-3.
1.8. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bull, Marcus (1999). Origins. In Riley-Smith,
Jonathan. The Oxford History of the Crusades. Ox-
ford University Press. ISBN 0-19-280312-3.
Cantor, Norman F (1958). Church. Kingship, and
Lay Investiture in England: 10891135. Princeton
University Press. ISBN 1-4008-7699-0.
Caspi-Reiseld, Keren (2002). Women Warriors
during the Crusades 10951254. In Edington,
Susan B.; Lambert, Sarah. Gendering the Cru-
sades. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-
231-12598-7.
Chazan, Robert (1996). European Jewry and the
First Crusade. U. of California Press. p. 60. ISBN
978-0-520-91776-7. Retrieved 2016-10-04.
Cohn, Norman (1970). The Pursuit of the Millen-
nium. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-
500456-4.
Constable, Giles (2001). The Historiography of the
Crusades. In Laiou, Angeliki E.; Mottahedeh, Roy
P. The Crusades from the Perspective of Byzantium
and the Muslim World. Dumbarton Oaks. pp. 122.
ISBN 978-0-88402-277-0. Retrieved 2016-10-04.
Davies, Norman (1997). Europe A History. Pim-
lico. ISBN 0-7126-6633-8.
Determann, J. (2008). The Crusades in Arabic
Schoolbooks. Islam and Christian-Muslim Rela-
tions. Routledge. ISSN 0959-6410.
Findley, Carter Vaughan (2005). The Turks in
World History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-
19-516770-8.
Hindley, Georey (2004). The Crusades: Islam and
Christianity in the Struggle for World Supremacy.
Carrol & Graf. ISBN 0-7867-1344-5.
Holt, P. M. (1983). Saladin and His Ad-
mirers: A Biographical Reassessment. Bul-
letin of the School of Oriental and African Stud-
ies, University of London. 46 (2): 235
239. doi:10.1017/S0041977X00078824. JSTOR
615389.
Housley, Norman (2006). Contesting the Crusades.
Blackwell Publishing. ASIN 1405111895. ISBN 1-
4051-1189-5.
Kolbaba, T. M. (2000). The Byzantine Lists: Errors
of the Latins. University of Illinois. ISBN 0-252-
02558-X.
Krey, August C. (2012). The First Crusade: The Ac-
counts of Eye-Witnesses and Participants. Arx Pub-
lishing. ISBN 978-1-935228-08-0.
15
Lambert, Malcolm D. (1977). Medieval Heresy:
Popular Movements from Bogomil to Hus. Holmes
& Meier Publishers. ISBN 978-0-8419-0298-5.
Lock, Peter (2006). Routledge Companion to the
Crusades. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-39312-4.
Marshall, Christopher (1994). Warfare in the Latin
East, 11921291. Cambridge University Press.
ISBN 978-0-521-47742-0.
Mayer, Hans Eberhard (1988). The Crusades (Sec-
ond ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-
873097-7.
Nicholson, Helen (1997). Women on the Third
Crusade. Journal of Medieval History. 23 (4): 335.
doi:10.1016/S0304-4181(97)00013-4.
Nicholson, Helen J. (2001). The Knights Hospitaller.
Boydell & Brewer. ISBN 978-0-85115-845-7. Re-
trieved 2016-10-04.
Nicholson, Helen (2004). The Crusades. Green-
wood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-313-32685-
1.
Nicolle, David (2011). The Fourth Crusade 1202
04: The Betrayal of Byzantium. Osprey Publishing.
ISBN 1-84908-821-7.
Owen, Roy Douglas Davis (1993). Eleanor of
Aquitaine: Queen and Legend. Blackwell Publish-
ing. ISBN 90-474-3259-2.
Pierson, Paul Everett (2009). The Dynamics of
Christian Mission: History Through a Missiological
Perspective. WCIU Press. ISBN 978-0-86585-006-
4. Retrieved 2016-10-04.
Pringle, Denys (1999). Architecture in Latin East.
In Riley-Smith, Jonathan. The Oxford History of
the Crusades. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-
280312-3.
Riley-Smith, Jonathan (1973). The Feudal Nobility
and the Kingdom of Jerusalem, 11741277. Archon
Books. ISBN 978-0-208-01348-4.
Riley-Smith, Jonathan (1999). Riley-Smith,
Jonathan, ed. The Crusading Movement and Histo-
rians. The Oxford History of the Crusades. Oxford
University Press. ISBN 0-19-280312-3.
Riley-Smith, Jonathan (2005). The Crusades: A
Short History (Second ed.). Yale University Press.
ISBN 0-300-10128-7.
Riley-Smith, Jonathan (2009). What Were the Cru-
sades?. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-230-
22069-0.
16
Riley-Smith, Louise; Riley-Smith, Jonathan (1981). 1.9 Further reading
The Crusades: Idea and Reality, 10951274. Doc-
uments of Medieval History. 4. E. Arnold. ISBN Further information: Historiography of the Crusades and
0-7131-6348-8.
Rose, Karen (2009). The Order of the Knights
Templar. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Plat-
form. ISBN 978-1-4486-5190-0.
Rubenstein, Jay (2011). Armies of Heaven: The
First Crusade and the Quest for Apocalypse. Basic
Books. ISBN 0-465-01929-3.
Runciman, Steven (1951). A History of the Cru-
sades: The Kingdom of Acre and the Later Crusades
(reprinted 1987 ed.). Cambridge University Press.
ISBN 978-0-521-06163-6.
Runciman, Steven (1958). The Sicilian Vespers.
A History of the Mediterranean World in the Later
Thirteenth Century (reprinted 1987 ed.). Cambridge
University Press. ISBN 0-521-43774-1.
Sinclair, Andrew (1995). Jerusalem: The Endless
Crusade. Crown Publishers.
Slack, Corliss K (2013). Historical Dictionary of
the Crusades. Scarecrow Press. pp. 10809. ISBN
978-0-8108-7831-0. Retrieved 2016-10-04.
Strack, Georg (2012). The Sermon of Urban II
in Clermont and the Tradition of Papal Oratory
(PDF). Medieval Sermon Studies. 56 (30#1): 30
45. doi:10.1179/1366069112Z.0000000002.
Strayer, Joseph R. (1969). The Crusades of Louis
IX. In Wol, R. L.; Hazard, H. W. The Later Cru-
sades, 11891311. pp. 487521. Retrieved 2016-
10-04.
Strayer, Joseph Reese (1992). The Albigensian Cru-
sades. University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-
06476-2.
Tyerman, Christopher (2006). Gods War: A New
History of the Crusades. Belknap Press. ISBN 978-
0-674-02387-1.
Tyerman, Christopher (2007). The Crusades. Ster-
ling Publishing Company, Inc. pp. 111. ISBN
978-1-4027-6891-0. Retrieved 2016-10-04.
Vasilev, Aleksandr Aleksandrovich (1952). History
of the Byzantine Empire: 3241453. University of
Wisconsin Press.
Villegas-Aristizabal, L (2009). Anglo-Norman in-
volvement in the conquest of Tortosa and Settlement
of Tortosa, 11481180. Crusades (8): 63129.
Wickham, Chris (2009). The Inheritance of Rome:
Illuminating the Dark Ages 4001000. Penguin
Books. ISBN 978-0-14-311742-1.
CHAPTER 1. CRUSADES
Recueil des historiens des croisades
Asbridge, Thomas (2005). The First Crusade: A
New History: The Roots of Conict between Chris-
tianity and Islam. ISBN 0-19-518905-1.
Daniel, Norman (1979). The Arabs and Mediaeval
Europe. Longman Group Limited. ISBN 0-582-
78088-8.
Hodgson, Natasha (2007). Women, Crusading and
the Holy Land in Historical Narrative. Boydell.
Kahf, Mohja (1999). Western Representations of the
Muslim Women: From Termagant to Odalisque. U
of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-74337-3.
Maier, Christoph T. (March 2004). The roles
of women in the crusade movement: a survey.
Journal of Medieval History. 30 (1): 6182.
doi:10.1016/j.jmedhist.2003.12.003.
Phillips, Jonathan. Holy Warriors: A Modern His-
tory of the Crusades (2010)
Riley-Smith, Jonathan (ed.) The Oxford Illustrated
History of the Crusades Paperback, Oxford Univer-
sity Press (2001).
Riley-Smith, Jonathan. The crusades: A history
(Bloomsbury Publishing, 2014)
Runciman, Steven. A History of the Crusades (3
vols. 19511954)
Setton, Kenneth ed., A History of the Crusades,
University of Wisconsin Press (6 vols., 19691989;
online edition (wisc.edu))
Includes: The rst hundred years
(2nd ed. 1969); The later Crusades,
11891311 (1969); The fourteenth
and fteenth centuries (1975); The
art and architecture of the crusader
states (1977); The impact of the
Crusades on the Near East (1985);
The impact of the Crusades on Eu-
rope (1989).
Tolan, John; Veinstein, Gilles; Henry, Laurens
(2013). Europe and the Islamic World: A His-
tory. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-
14705-5.
1.9. FURTHER READING 17

1.9.1 Historiography
Constable, Giles. The Historiography of the Cru-
sades in Angeliki E. Laiou, ed. The Crusades from
the Perspective of Byzantium and the Muslim World
(2001) Extract online.

Powell, James M. The Crusades in Recent Re-

search, The Catholic Historical Review (2009)
95#2 pp. 31319 in Project MUSE
Rubenstein, Jay. In Search of a New Crusade: A
Review Essay, Historically Speaking (2011) 12#2
pp. 2527 in Project MUSE

von Gttner-Sporzyski, Darius. Recent Issues

in Polish Historiography of the Crusades in Judi
Upton-Ward, The Military Orders: Volume 4, On
Land and by Sea (2008) available on Researchgate,
available on Academia.edu

1.9.2 Primary sources

Barber, Malcolm, Bate, Keith (2010). Letters from
the East: Crusaders, Pilgrims and Settlers in the 12th
13th Centuries (Crusade Texts in Translation Vol-
ume 18, Ashgate Publishing Ltd)

Bird, Jessalynn, et al. eds. Crusade and Christen-

dom: Annotated Documents in Translation from In-
nocent III to the Fall of Acre, 11871291 (2013)
excerpts

Housley, Norman, ed. Documents on the Later Cru-

sades, 12741580 (1996)

Shaw, M. R. B. ed.Chronicles of the Crusades (1963)

Villehardouin, Georey, and Jean de Joinville.
Chronicles of the Crusades ed. by Sir Frank Marzials
(2007)
Chapter 2

Military order (monastic society)

This article is about the medieval Catholic chivalric mil-

itary orders. For modern military orders of merit, see
Military orders, awards and decorations.
A military order (Latin: Militaris ordinis) is a

Reconquista of the main towns (per year) (in Spanish).

Indications of presence of military orders associated with the

Kingdom of Jerusalem and the Holy Land during the Crusades
(in German). Extent of the Teutonic Order in 1410.

chivalric order with military purpose originally estab-

lished as Catholic religious societies during the medieval such, it was in the military orders that the Medieval con-
Crusades for protection of Christians against violent cept of chivalry reached its apogee in an exceptionate
persecution of the Islamic conquests (623) in the Holy fusion under Just war theory of military discipline and
Land and the Iberian Peninsula, as well as by Baltic pa- Christian virtues.
ganism in Eastern Europe. Prominent examples include the Knights Hospitaller, and
Most members, often titled Knights, were and still are the Knights Templar in[1]Outremer, as well as the Teutonic
laymen, and not prelates, yet cooperating with the clergy, Knights in the Baltics.
sometimes even taking religious vows such as poverty, Many military orders were suppressed by the Holy See in
chastity, and obedience, according to monastic ideals. As Rome around the end of the Middle Ages, with few new

18
2.3. LIST OF MILITARY ORDERS 19

recognised establishments afterwards. However, some
persisted longer in its original functions, only later evolv-
ing into purely honoric and/or ceremonial chivalric or-
ders with charitable aims in modern times, such as the
Sovereign Military Order of Malta and the Order of the
Holy Sepulchre, both Papal orders of knighthood con-
ferred still today. Notably, the Teutonic Order became
exclusively monastic except a limited associated confra-
ternity of honorary Knights.
Today a Western cultural heritage and legacy, besides
those ocially recognised by the Holy See, parallel hon-
oric institutions of unilateral Catholic adherence exist
in continuous or revived forms among a few current and
former European royal houses.
These traditions in turn eventually inuenced honoric
orders of modern states today, including that of secu-
lar republics, such as orders of merit, and other parts of
honour systems and phaleristics.
them, like the Knights Hospitaller and the Knights of
Saint Thomas, also had charitable purposes and cared for
the sick and poor. However, they were not purely male
institutions, as nuns could attach themselves as convents
of the orders. One signicant feature of the military or-
ders is that clerical brothers could be, and indeed often
were, subordinate to non-ordained brethren.
In 1818, the orientalist Joseph von Hammer compared
the Catholic military orders, in particular the Knights
Templar, with certain Islamic models such as the Shia
Islamic sect of Assassins. In 1820, Jos Antonio Conde
suggested they were modeled on the ribat, a fortied re-
ligious institution which brought together a religious or
hospital way of life with ghting the enemies of Islam.
However popular such views may have become, others
have criticised this view, suggesting there were no such
ribats around the Outremer until after the military orders
had been founded.

Moreover, it inspired many subsequent modern era sec- Yet, the innovation of the role and function of the military
ular Western cultural phenonomens, such as fraternities, orders has sometimes been obscured by the concentration
or brotherhoods, such as the Freemasonry. on their military exploits in the Holy Land, Prussia, and
the Baltics. In fact, they had extensive holdings and sta
throughout Western Europe. The majority were laymen.
They provided a conduit for cultural and technical innova-
2.1 History tion, for example the introduction of fulling into England
by the Knights Hospitaller, or the banking facilities of the
Already in 1053, for the Battle of Civitate the Knights of Knights Templars.
Saint Peter (Milites Sancti Petri) was founded as a militia Because of the necessity to have a standing army, the mil-
by Pope Leo IX to counter the Normans.[2] itary orders were founded, being adopted as the fourth
The larger threat that would denitively establish the tra- monastic religious vows.
dition, however, came from the east. In response to the
Islamic conquests of the former Byzantine Empire and
Christianity in the Holy Land, numerous Catholic mili-
tary orders were set up following the First Crusade. The
founding of such orders suited the Catholic churchs plan
of channelising the devotion of the European nobility,
and also complemented the Peace and Truce of God.[1]
The foundation of the Knights Templar in 1118 provided
the rst in a series of tightly organised military forces
for the purpose of ghting invading Islamic conquests in 2.3 List of military orders
the Holy Land and in the Iberian Peninsula see the
Reconquista as well as Islamic invaders and pagan
tribes in Eastern Europe.
These are military orders listed chronologically accord-
The rst secularised military order was the Order of Saint ing to their dates of foundation and extinction, sometimes
George, founded in 1326 by the King Charles I of Hun- approximate due to scarce sources, and/or repeated sup-
gary, on which he made all the Hungarian nobility swear pressions by Papal or royal authourities. Their militari-
loyalty to him. The next secular order which is known sation may vary from case to case, the foundation of an
to appear was the Order of the "Knights of the Band", order, its ecclesiastical approval, and occurring on dier-
founded in 1332 by the King Alfonso XI of Castile. Both ent times and for dierent purposes. Presently active in-
orders existed only for about a century.[3] stitutions are listed in consideration with their legitimacy
according to the International Commission on Orders of
Chivalry.
2.2 Purpose They are divided into international and national according
to their adherence, mission, and enrolment, disregarding
The original features of the military orders were the com- the extent of eventual gradual geographical distribution
bination of religious and military ways of life. Some of outside of their region of concern.
20 CHAPTER 2. MILITARY ORDER (MONASTIC SOCIETY)

2.3.1 International 2.4 Modern development

2.3.2 National A few of the institutions survived into honoric and/or
charitable organisations, including the papal orders of
2.3.3 Other knighthood.
While other contemporary Catholic societies may share
Chivalric and/or military orders that could qualify de- some military organisational features and ideology, such
pending on denition. as the Society of Jesus (1540),[30] they dier from the
medieval military orders in absence of military purposes
Confraternity of Belchite, experimental confrater- or potential.
nity of knights founded in 1122 by King Alfonso the As for several national, state and even dynastic mili-
Battler of Aragon tary orders of merit, such as the Dutch Military Order
of William and the Austrian Military Order of Maria
Order of Saint Blaise, founded in the 12th century Theresa, they are not military orders other than nomi-
in Armenia to defend the country against the attacks nally.
of the Muslims
Echoing the medieval institutions, however, it is possi-
ble for modern orders to be founded explicitly as a mil-
Order of Saint George (Kingdom of Hungary), itary order, for instance the Military Order of Loyalty
worlds rst secular chivalric order founded in 1326 (Spanish: Orden Militar de la Constancia), founded in
by King Charles I of Hungary 1946 by the Spanish protectorate in Morocco. Awarded
to both Spanish and Moroccan military ocers and
Knights of the Band, early honoric military order soldiers, the single-class order was abolished in 1956.
founded c. 1330 by King Alfonso XI of Castile
In contrast, inspired by the legacy of the original mili-
Order of the Most Holy Annunciation, military or- tary orders, besides legitimate chivalric orders, in addi-
der founded in 1350 by Duke Amadeus VI, Count tion, vast modern imitations ourish, referred to as "self-
of Savoy, the rst called the Order of the True styled orders".
Lovers Knots in memory of a bracelet of hair pre-
sented to the founder by a lady, but upon the elec-
tion of Amadeus VIII to the ponticate in 1439, it 2.5 See also
changed its name for that of the Annunciation of an-
gel Gabriel Spanish knights orders

Order of the Dove, short-lived (one year) and con- Chivalric order
troversial order founded in 1379 by King Juan I of
Order (honour)
Castile

Order of Saint Anthony (Bavaria), Bavarian military

order founded in 1382 by Duke Albert I, Duke of
Bavaria
Military Order of Cross-bearers with the Red Star
on a Blue Field, hospitaller and/military order active
from the 12th century until suppressed in 1656 by
Pope Alexander VII.
Order of Saint Hubert, early honoric military order
founded in 1444 or 1445 by Gerhard VII, Duke of
Jlich-Berg
Blood of Jesus Christ (military order), founded in
Mantua, Italy, by Vincenzo I Gonzaga, Duke of
Mantua, approved on 25 May 1608 by Pope Paul
V
2.6 References
[1] Crawford, Paul (1996). The Military Orders: Introduc-
tion. The ORB: On-line Reference Book for Medieval
Studies. Archived from the original on 6 October 2014.
[2] Template:Ref-Demurger-Templiers
[3] Michael Jones ed., The New Cambridge Medieval History,
vol. 6: c. 1300 - c. 1415, (Cambridge, 1998), p. 209.
[4] Beyond the Craft by Keith B Jackson, published 1980 by
Lewis Masonic (Terminal House, Shepperton, Middlesex,
TW17 8AS, England), and subsequent later revised edi-
tions. Current (5th) edition (2005) is ISBN 0-85318-248-
5.
[5] The Orders of Saint John Joint Declaration dated 14 Oc-
tober 1987.

Order of the Knights of Concrdia, founded in 1246 [6] Equestrian Order of the Holy Sepulchre of Jerusalem.
by King Ferdinand III of Castile Retrieved 24 January 2015.
2.7. FURTHER READING
[7] Robert Ferguson (26 August 2011). The Knights Templar
and Scotland. History Press Limited. p. 39. ISBN 978-
0-7524-6977-5.
[8] Jochen Burgtorf; Paul F. Crawford; Helen J. Nicholson
(28 June 2013). The Debate on the Trial of the Templars
(13071314). Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 298. ISBN
978-1-4094-8102-7.
[9] Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Order of the Knights
of Christ". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert
Appleton Company.
[10] Matthew Anthony Fitzsimons; Jean Bcarud (1969). The
Catholic Church today: Western Europe. University of
Notre Dame Press. p. 159.
[11] Helen J. Nicholson (1 January 2004). The Crusades.
Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 98. ISBN 978-0-313-
32685-1.
[12] Jos Vicente de Bragana, The Military Order of Christ
and the Papal Croce di Cristo
[13] Martin, pp. 140142.
[14] Note of Clarication from the Secretariat of State.
news.va. Pontical Council for Social Communication.
16 October 2012. Retrieved 27 November 2012. Vatican
City,(VIS)-
[15] Noonan, Jr., James-Charles (1996). The Church Visible:
The Ceremonial Life and Protocol of the Roman Catholic
Church. Viking. p. 196. ISBN 0-670-86745-4.
[16] Moeller, Charles. The Military Orders. The Catholic
Encyclopedia Vol. 10. New York: Robert Appleton
Company, 1911. 22 Jun. 2015
[17] Anderson, James (1732). Royal genealogies: or, The
genealogical tables of emperors, kings and princes, from
Adam to these times; in two parts. London: James Betten-
ham. pp. ix. Retrieved 9 December 2011. St Michaels
Wing in Portugal founded by the said King Alphonse 1165
or 1171 after his obtaining a notable Victory over Moors
and Alberto King of Seville in which Battle MICHAEL
the Arch Angel is said to appear on the right Side of
Alphonse and ght against them. This Order is now out
of use. (1732)
[18] Almeida, Gomes Abrunhosa Marques de and Manuel n-
gelo (2007). Precedentes histrico-tericos dos regional-
ismos dos Aores e da Galiza. Santiago de Compostela:
Univ Santiago de Compostela. p. 187.
[19] Cheke, Marcus (1969). Carlota Joaquina, queen of Por-
tugal. (Reprinted. ed.). Freeport, N.Y.: Books for Li-
braries Press. p. 195. ISBN 978-0-8369-5040-3.
[20] Jenks, George C (1911). Monarchs in Exile, The Book-
man vol. 32. New York: Dodd, Mead and Co. p. 273.
[21] Sainty, Guy Stair (2006-11-22). Royal Order of Saint
Michael of the Wing. rec.heraldry. Retrieved 2011-01-
21. While the Duke of Braganza is the unquestioned heir
and successor of Dom Miguel, the institution of the Royal
Brotherhood of St Michael of the Wing is better seen as
a modern memorial revival of the original institution than
any kind of continuation of the Miguelist award.
21
[22] Orders of the Holy Ghost - Catholic Encyclopedia article
[23] Besse, Jean. Bethlehemites. The Catholic Encyclopedia
Vol. 2. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1907. 23
Jun. 2015
[24] Trollope, Thomas Anthony. An encyclopdia ecclesias-
tica, 1834
[25] Pasquale Villari, '"The Medici (1911). Hugh Chisolm,
ed. The Encyclopaedia Britannica: a dictionary of arts,
sciences, literature and general information, Volume 18 (11
ed.). New York: Encyclopaedia Britannica. p. 36.
[26] Woodhouse, Frederick Charles (1879). The military reli-
gious orders of the Middle Ages: the Hospitallers, the Tem-
plars, the Teutonic knights, and others. With an appendix
of other orders of knighthood: legendary, honorary, and
modern. New York: Society for Promoting Christian
Knowledge. p. 338. The members followed the rule of St
Benedict and the Popes granted them the same privileges
as those enjoyed by the Knights Hospitallers
[27] Carmichael, Montgomery (1901). In Tuscany: Tuscan
Towns, Tuscan Types and the Tuscan Tongue. New York:
E P Dutton. p. 173. The Order was swept away by the
French Revolution but was revived again in a modied
form in 1817. The Italian Revolution once more swept
it away beyond hope of revival on 16 November 1859 and
its Church and property became the property of the State.
Alas that modern Italy should not be a little more tender
of the memories of her past glories.
[28] Bernardini, Rodolfo (1990). Il Sacro Militare Ordine di
Santo Stefano Papa e Martire (in Italian). Pisa: Familiare
della Casa Asburgo Lorena.
[29] Cardinale, Hyginus Eugene (1983). Orders of knighthood
awards and the Holy See. Gerrards Cross: Van Duren. p.
157. ISBN 978-0-905715-13-1.
[30] Harro Hp (2004), Jesuit Political Thought: The Society
of Jesus and the State, c. 15401630, Cambridge; p. 25
2.7 Further reading
Military Orders in Catholic Encyclopedia (1911)
Nicholson, Helen J. The Knights Hospitaller (2001).
Riley-Smith, Jonathan. Hospitallers: The History of
the Order of St John (1999).
Morten, Nicholas Edward. The Teutonic Knights in
the Holy Land 1190-1291 (Woodbridge: Boydell
Press, 2009)
Burman, Edward (1988). The Templars: Knights of
God. Inner Traditions/Bear.
Forey, Alan John. The Military Orders: From the
Twelfth to the Early Fourteenth Centuries. *(Bas-
ingstoke: Macmillan Education, 1992)
Chapter 3

Siege of Constantinople (1203)

For other sieges of the city, see list of sieges of Con- 20,000 people homeless.[7][8]
stantinople. Alexius III nally took oensive action, and led 17 divi-
sions from the St. Romanus Gate, vastly outnumbering
The Siege of Constantinople in 1203 was a Crusader the Crusaders. Alexius IIIs army of about 8,500 men
siege of the capital of the Byzantine Empire, in support of faced the Crusaders 7 divisions (about 3,500 men), but
the deposed emperor Isaac II Angelos and his son Alexios his courage failed, and the Byzantine army returned to the
IV Angelos. It marked the main outcome of the Fourth city without a ght.[9]
Crusade. On 18 July 1203 the Crusaders launched an assault on the
city, and Alexios III immediately ed into Thrace. The
next morning, the Crusaders were surprised to nd that
the citizens had released Isaac II from prison and pro-
3.1 The siege claimed him emperor, despite the fact that he had been
blinded to make him ineligible to rule. The Crusaders
To take the city by force, the Crusaders rst needed forced Isaac II to proclaim his son Alexios IV co-emperor
to cross the Bosphorus. About 200 ships, horse trans- on 1 August, eectively ending the siege.
ports and galleys would undertake to deliver the crusad-
ing army across the narrow strait, where Alexius III had
lined up the Byzantine army in battle formation along
the shore, north of the suburb of Galata. The Crusaders 3.2 After the 1203 siege
knights charged straight out of the horse transports, and
the Byzantine army ed south. The Crusaders followed Following the end of the rst siege of Constantinople in
south, and attacked the Tower of Galata, which held one 1203, on 1 August 1203, the pro-Crusader Alexios An-
end of the chain that blocked access to the Golden Horn. gelos was crowned Emperor Alexios IV of the Byzantine
As they laid siege to the Tower, the Greeks counterat- Empire, who then tried to stabilize the city. But riots
tacked with some initial success. However, when the Cru- between anti-Crusader Greeks and pro-Crusader Latins
saders rallied and the Greeks retreated to the Tower, the broke out later that month and lasted until November,
Crusaders were able to follow the soldiers through the during which most of the populace began to turn against
Gate, and the Tower surrendered.[5] The Golden Horn Emperor Alexios IV.
now lay open to the Crusaders, and the Venetian eet en- On 25 January 1204, the death of co-Emperor Isaac II
tered. set o rioting in Constantinople in which the people de-
On 11 July the Crusaders took positions opposite the posed Alexios IV, who turned to the Crusaders for help
Blachernae palace on the northwest corner of the city. but was imprisoned by the imperial chamberlain, Alex-
Alexios IV was paraded outside the walls, but the citi- ios Doukas, who declared himself Emperor Alexios V on
zens were apathetic, as Alexios III, though a usurper and 5 February. Emperor Alexios V then attempted to ne-
illegitimate in the eyes of the westerners, was an accept- gotiate with the Crusaders for a withdrawal from Byzan-
able emperor for the Byzantine citizens. The siege began tine territory, but they refused to abandon their old treaty
in earnest on 17 July, with four divisions attacking the with Alexios IV. When Alexios V ordered Alexios IVs
land walls, while the Venetian eet attacked the sea walls execution on 8 February, the Crusaders declared war
from the Golden Horn. The Venetians took a section of on Alexios V. In March 1204, the Crusader and Vene-
the wall of about 25 towers, while the Varangian guard tian leadership decided on the outright conquest of Con-
held o the Crusaders[6] on the land wall. The Varangians stantinople, and drew up a formal agreement to divide
shifted to meet the new threat, and the Venetians retreated the Byzantine Empire between them. By the end of
under the screen of re. The re lasted for 3 days and that month, the combined Crusader armies had begun
destroyed about 440 acres (1.8 km2 ) of the city, leaving the 1204 Siege of Constantinople as Emperor Alexios V

22
3.5. EXTERNAL LINKS 23

began to strengthen the citys defences while conducting

more active operations outside the city. [10]

3.3 See also

Siege of Constantinople (1204)

Siege of Constantinople (1235)

3.4 References
[1] S. Blondal, The Varangians of Byzantium, 164

[2] J. Phillips, The Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Con-

stantinople, 159

[3] J. Phillips, The Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Con-

stantinople, 269

[4] J. Phillips, The Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Con-

stantinople, 106

[5] Sack of Constantinople, 1204. Agiasoa.com. Re-

trieved 2008-12-30.

[6] The Fourth Crusade and the Fall of Constantinople.

Geocities.com. Archived from the original on 2009-08-
08. Retrieved 2008-12-30.

[7] J. Phillip The Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Con-

stantinople, 208-209

[8] J. Phillips, The Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Con-

stantinople, 176

[9] J. Phillips, The Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Con-

stantinople, 177

[10] David Nicolle, The Fourth Crusade 1202-04; The betrayal

of Byzantium. Osprey Campaign Series #237. Osprey
Publishing.

3.5 External links

The Latin Occupation in the Greek Lands - The Latin
Empire, from the Foundation of the Hellenic World

Coordinates: 410100N 285837E / 41.0167N

28.9769E
Chapter 4

Siege of Constantinople (1204)

For other sieges of the city, see list of sieges of Con-

stantinople.

The Sack of Constantinople or Siege of Constantino-

ple occurred in 1204 and marked the end of the Fourth
Crusade. Mutinous Crusader armies captured, looted,
and destroyed parts of Constantinople, the capital of the
Byzantine Empire. After the capture, the Latin Empire
was created and Baldwin of Flanders was crowned Em-
peror Baldwin I of Constantinople in the Hagia Sophia.
After the citys sacking, a number of territories of the
Empire went under the control of the Crusaders. Others
formed independent states under Byzantine aristocracy,
one of them being the Empire of Nicaea, which recap-
tured Constantinople in 1261 proclaiming the reinstate-
ment of the Empire. However, the weakened state would
never return to its former territorial or economic status, Map showing Constantinople and its walls during the Byzantine
and would eventually see all its territories in Anatolia and era
Southeastern Europe conquered by a rising Ottoman Sul-
tanate, who carried out the 1453 Siege of Constantinople. that month and lasted until November, during which most
For this reason, the events of 1204 are sometimes seen as of the populace began to turn against Emperor Alexios
marking the nal stage of the Byzantine Empires decline. IV.
On 25 January 1204, the death of co-Emperor Isaac II
set o rioting in Constantinople in which the people de-
4.1 Before the siege posed Alexios IV, who turned to the Crusaders for help
but was imprisoned by the imperial chamberlain, Alex-
The Massacre of the Latins (Italian: Massacro dei La- ios Doukas, who declared himself Emperor on 5 Febru-
tini; Greek: ), a large-scale mas- ary. Emperor Alexios V then attempted to negotiate with
sacre of the Roman Catholic or Latin inhabitants of the Crusaders for a withdrawal from Byzantine territory,
Constantinople by the Eastern Orthodox population of but they refused to abandon their old treaty with Alex-
the city in May 1182,[5][6] had a dramatic eect on ios IV. When Alexios V ordered Alexios IVs execution
the schism between the Western and Eastern Christian on 8 February, the Crusaders declared war on Alexios
churches.[7] The massacre also further worsened the im- V. In March 1204, the Crusader and Venetian leadership
age of the Byzantines in the eyes of the Western pow- decided on the outright conquest of Constantinople, and
ers, and, although regular trade agreements were soon re- drew up a formal agreement to divide the Byzantine Em-
sumed between Byzantium and Latin states, the underly- pire between them.
ing hostility would remain, leaving many westerners seek-
ing some form of revenge.
Following the siege of Constantinople in 1203, on 1 4.2 Siege
August 1203, the pro-Crusader Alexios Angelos was
crowned Emperor Alexios IV of the Byzantine Empire, By the end of March, the combined Crusader armies were
who then tried to pacify the city. But riots between anti- besieging Constantinople as Emperor Alexios V began to
Crusader Greeks and pro-Crusader Latins broke out later strengthen the citys defences while conducting more ac-

24
4.4. SACK OF CONSTANTINOPLE
tive operations outside the city. By the rst week of April,
the Crusaders had begun their siege from their encamp-
ment in the town of Galata across the Golden Horn from
Constantinople.[8]
On 9 April 1204, the Crusader and Venetian forces began
an assault on the Golden Horn fortications by crossing
the waterway to the northwest wall of the city, but, be-
cause of bad weather, the assault forces were driven back
when the troops that landed came under heavy archery
re in open ground between Constantinoples fortica-
tions and the shore.[8]
4.3 Capture of the city
The siege of Constantinople in 1204, by Palma il Giovane.
On 12 April 1204 weather conditions nally favoured the
Crusaders as the weather cleared and a second assault on
the city was ordered. A strong north wind aided the Vene-
tian ships near the Golden Horn to come close to the city
wall, which enabled the attackers to seize some of the
towers along the wall. After a short battle approximately
70 Crusaders managed to enter the city. Some Crusaders
were eventually able to knock holes in the walls large
enough for a few knights at a time to crawl through; the
Venetians were also successful at scaling the walls from
the sea, although there was extremely bloody ghting with
the Varangians. The Crusaders captured the Blachernae
section of the city in the northwest and used it as a base to works of art, which they would later take to Venice to
attack the rest of the city, but while attempting to defend
themselves with a wall of re they ended up burning down
even more of the city. Emperor Alexios V ed from the
city that night through the Polyandriou (Rhegium) Gate
and escaped into the countryside to the west.
4.4 Sack of Constantinople
The Crusaders looted, terrorized, and vandalized Con- of Constantinople exacted their own retribution for the
stantinople for three days, during which many ancient Massacre of the Latins of 1182.[12]
25
The Horses of Saint Mark displayed on the facade of St Marks
Basilica in Venice
and medieval Roman and Greek works were either stolen
or destroyed. The famous bronze horses from the
Hippodrome were sent back to adorn the faade of St
Marks Basilica in Venice, where they remain. As well
as being stolen, works of immeasurable artistic value
were destroyed merely for their material value. One
of the most precious works to suer such a fate was a
large bronze statue of Hercules, created by the legendary
Lysippos, court sculptor of Alexander the Great. Like so
many other priceless artworks made of bronze, the statue
was melted down for its content by the Crusaders. The
great Library of Constantinople was destroyed as well.[9]
Despite their oaths and the threat of excommunication,
the Crusaders systematically violated the citys holy sanc-
tuaries, destroying or stealing all they could lay hands on;
nothing was spared, not even the tombs of the emperors
inside the St Apostles church.[10] The civilian population
of Constantinople were subject to the Crusaders ruthless
lust for spoils and glory; thousands of them were killed in
cold blood. Women, even nuns, were raped by the Cru-
sader army,[11] which also sacked churches, monasteries
and convents. The very altars of these churches were
smashed and torn to pieces for their gold and marble by
the warriors.[10] Although the Venetians engaged in loot-
ing too, their actions were far more restrained. Doge
Dandolo still appeared to have far more control over his
men. Rather than wantonly destroying all around like
their comrades, the Venetians stole religious relics and
adorn their own churches.
It was said that the total amount looted from Constantino-
ple was about 900,000 silver marks, or 600,000 troy
pounds. The Venetians received 150,000 silver marks
that was their due and the Crusaders received 50,000 sil-
ver marks. A further 100,000 silver marks were divided
evenly between the Crusaders and Venetians. The re-
maining 500,000 silver marks were secretly kept back
by many Crusader knights. Meanwhile, Latin residents
26 CHAPTER 4. SIEGE OF CONSTANTINOPLE (1204)

4.5 Aftermath 4.6 Legacy

Eight hundred years after the Fourth Crusade, Pope John
According to a prearranged treaty the empire was appor-
Paul II twice expressed sorrow for the events of the Fourth
tioned between Venice and the crusades leaders, and the
Crusade. In 2001 he wrote to Christodoulos, Archbishop
Latin Empire of Constantinople was established. Boni-
of Athens, saying, It is tragic that the assailants, who
face was not elected as the new emperor, although the
set out to secure free access for Christians to the Holy
citizens seemed to consider him as such; the Venetians
Land, turned against their brothers in the faith. The fact
thought he had too many connections with the former em-
that they were Latin Christians lls Catholics with deep
pire because of his brother, Renier of Montferrat, who
regret.[17] In 2004, while Bartholomew I, Patriarch of
had been married to Maria Comnena, empress in the
Constantinople, was visiting the Vatican, John Paul II
1170s and 80s. Instead they placed Baldwin of Flanders
asked, How can we not share, at a distance of eight
on the throne. He was crowned Emperor in the Hagia
centuries, the pain and disgust?"[18][19] This has been re-
Sophia as Baldwin I of Constantinople.[13][14] Boniface
garded as an apology to the Greek Orthodox Church for
went on to found the Kingdom of Thessalonica,[15] a vas-
the slaughter perpetrated by the warriors of the Fourth
sal state of the new Latin Empire. The Venetians also
Crusade.[20]
founded the Duchy of the Archipelago in the Aegean Sea.
In April 2004, in a speech on the 800th anniversary of the
Most of the Byzantine aristocracy ed the city. Amongst
capture of the city, Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew I
the ordinary people of the former empire there was no
formally accepted the apology. The spirit of reconcilia-
sympathy for the Byzantine elite, who were seen as hav-
tion is stronger than hatred, he said during a liturgy at-
ing ruled the empire with increasing incompetence.[16]
tended by Roman Catholic Archbishop Philippe Barbarin
The contemporary Byzantine historian and eye-witness
of Lyon, France. We receive with gratitude and respect
Nicetas Choniates closed his account of the fall of the
your cordial gesture for the tragic events of the Fourth
city with the following description of a column of aristo-
Crusade. It is a fact that a crime was committed here in
cratic refugees, including the Patriarch, making their way
the city 800 years ago. Bartholomew said his acceptance
to Selymbria:
came in the spirit of Pascha. The spirit of reconciliation
of the resurrection... incites us toward reconciliation of
our churches.[21]

The peasants and common ri-ra jeered

at those of us from Byzantium and were 4.7 See also
thick-headed enough to call our miserable
poverty and nakedness equality...Many were Siege of Constantinople (1203)
only too happy to accept this outrage, saying
Blessed be the Lord that we have grown Siege of Constantinople (1235)
rich, and buying up for next to nothing the
property that their fellow-countrymen were Fall of Constantinople (1453)
forced to oer for sale, for they had not yet List of sieges
had much to do with the beef-eating Latins
and they did not know that they served a wine
as pure and unmixed as unadulterated bile, nor
that they would treat the Byzantines with utter 4.8 References
contempt.[16]
Nicetas Choniates [1] S. Blondal, The Varangians of Byzantium, 164

[2] J. Phillips, The Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Con-

stantinople, 159

[3] J. Phillips, they were also milarty campaigns The Fourth

Byzantine aristocratic refugees founded their own
successor states, the most notable of these being the
Empire of Nicaea under Theodore Lascaris (a relative of
Alexius III), the Empire of Trebizond and the Despotate
of Epirus.
The sack weakened the Byzantine Empire, which al-
lowed neighboring (or neighbouring) groups such as the
Sultanate of Rum, and later the Ottoman Turks, to gain
inuence (see the ByzantineOttoman Wars).
Crusade and the Sack of Constantinople, 269
[4] J. Phillips, The Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Con-
stantinople, 106
[5] The Cambridge Illustrated History of the Middle Ages:
950-1250. Cambridge University Press. 1986. pp. 506
508. ISBN 978-0-521-26645-1.
[6] Gregory, Timothy (2010). A History of Byzantium.
Wiley-Blackwell. p. 309. ISBN 978-1-4051-8471-7.
4.9. EXTERNAL LINKS 27

[7] Vasiliev, Aleksandr (1958). History of the Byzantine Em-

pire. 2, Volume 2. University of Wisconsin Press. p. 446.
ISBN 978-0-299-80926-3.

[8] David Nicolle, The Fourth Crusade 1202-04; The betrayal

of Byzantium. (2011) Osprey Campaign Series #237. Os-
prey Publishing.

[9] Preface. Clir.org. Retrieved 30 December 2008.

[10] Victor Roudometof, Globalization and Orthodox Chris-

tianity: The Transformations of a Religious Tradition,
(Routledge, 2014), 47.

[11] Memory and ideology: the image of the crusades in Byzan-

tine historiography, eleventh-thirteenth century, Aphrodite
Papayianni, The Crusader World, ed. Adrian Boas, (Rout-
ledge, 2016), 284.

[12] Jean Richard, The Crusades, c.1071-c.1291, 251

[13] , . . , 1895,
. 359-360

[14] Gerland, . Geschichte des lateinischen Kaiserreiches von

Konstantinopel. 1. Teil: Geschichte des Kaisers Balduin I
und Heinrich. Homburg v. d. Hhe 1905. p. 1-10

[15] The Latin Occupation in the Greek Lands. Fhw.gr. Re-

trieved 29 December 2008.

[16] Angold, Michael (1997). The Byzantine Empire 1025-

1204. pp. 327328. ISBN 0 582 29468 1.

[17] In the Footsteps of St Paul: Papal Visit to Greece, Syria

& Malta - Words. Ewtn.com. Retrieved 18 May 2009.

[18] Pope Expresses Sorrow Over Sacking of Constantino-

ple. Atheism.about.com. 30 June 2004. Retrieved 18
May 2009.

[19] Connolly, Kate (30 June 2004). Pope says sorry for cru-
saders rampage in 1204. The Telegraph. Retrieved 1
January 2017.

[20] Phillips, The Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Constantino-

ple, intro., xiii).

[21] In Pascha messages, Patriarchs address question of vio-

lence. Incommunion.org. Retrieved 18 May 2009.

4.9 External links

The Latin Occupation in the Greek Lands - The Latin
Empire, from the Foundation of the Hellenic World

Coordinates: 410100N 285837E / 41.0167N

28.9769E
Chapter 5
Siege of Constantinople (1235)
For other sieges of the city, see list of sieges of Con-
stantinople.
The Siege of Constantinople (1235) was a joint
Bulgarian-Nicaean siege on the capital of the Latin Em-
pire. Latin emperor John of Brienne was besieged by the
Nicaean emperor John III Doukas Vatatzes and Tsar Ivan
Asen II of Bulgaria. The siege remained unsuccessful.
5.1 Prelude
After Robert of Courtenay died in 1228, a new regency
under John of Brienne was set up. After the disastrous
Epirote defeat by the Bulgarians at the Battle of Klokot-
nitsa,[1][2] the Epirote threat to the Latin Empire was re-
moved, only to be replaced by Nicaea, which started ac-
quiring territories in Greece. Emperor John III Doukas
Vatatzes of Nicaea concluded an alliance with Bulgaria,
which in 1235 resulted in joint campaign against the Latin
Empire.
5.2 The siege
In 1235, Angelo Sanudo sent a naval squadron for the
defense of Constantinople, where the Emperor John of
Brienne was being besieged by John III Doukas Vatatzes,
Emperor of Nicaea, and Ivan Asen II of Bulgaria. The
joint Bulgarian-Nicaean siege was unsuccessful.[3] The
allies retreated in the autumn because of the incoming
winter. Ivan Asen II and Vatatzes agreed to continue the
siege in the next year but the Bulgarian Emperor refused
to send troops. With the death of John of Brienne in 1237
the Bulgarians broke the treaty with Vatatzes because of
the possibility that Ivan Asen II could become a regent of
the Latin Empire.
By Angelos further intervention, a truce was signed be-
tween the two empires for two years.
28
5.3 Afterwards
By 1247, the Nicaeans had eectively surrounded Con-
stantinople, with only the citys strong walls holding them
at bay, and the Battle of Pelagonia in 1258 signaled the
beginning of the end of Latin predominance in Greece.
Thus, on July 25, 1261, with most of the Latin troops
away on campaign, the Nicaean general Alexios Strate-
gopoulos[4] found an unguarded entrance to the city, and
entered it with his troops, restoring the Byzantine Empire
for his master, Michael VIII Palaiologos.
5.4 See also
Siege of Constantinople (1203)
Siege of Constantinople (1204)
Siege of Constantinople (1260)
5.5 References
[1] Turnovo inscription of Tsar Ivan Asen II in the Holy 40
Martyrs Church in honour of the victory at Klokotnitsa on
9 March 1230
[2] Battle of Klokonista. badley.info. Retrieved 2008-12-
29.
[3] John III Ducas Vatatzes. NNDB.com. Retrieved 2009-
05-18.
[4] Nicol (1993), p. 34.
5.6 Sources
Langdon, John S. (1985). The Forgotten
Byzantino-Bulgarian Assault and Siege of Con-
stantinople 1235-1236 and the Breakup of the 'En-
tente Cordiale' Between John III Ducas Vatatzes and
John Asen II in 1236 as Background to the Gene-
sis of the Hohenstaufen-Vatatzes alliance of 1242.
Byzantine Studies in Honor of Milton V. Anastos.
Malibu. pp. 105136.
5.7. EXTERNAL LINKS 29

5.7 External links

The Latin Occupation in the Greek Lands - The Latin
Empire, from the Foundation of the Hellenic World

Coordinates: 410030N 285830E / 41.0083N

28.9750E
Chapter 6

Siege of Belgrade (1456)

This article is about the 1456 siege of Belgrade. For cruits were ill-armed, many with only slings and scythes,
other uses, see Siege of Belgrade. but they were highly motivated. The recruits came under
Hunyadis banner, the core of which consisted of smaller
The Siege of Belgrade, or Battle of Belgrade or Siege bands of seasoned mercenaries and a few groups of mi-
nor knights. All in all, Hunyadi managed to build a force
of Nndorfehrvr. occurred from July 422, 1456.
After the fall of Constantinople in 1453, the Ottoman of 2530,000 men.
Sultan Mehmed II rallied his resources in order to sub-
jugate the Kingdom of Hungary. His immediate objec-
tive was the border fort of the town of Belgrade (in old 6.2 Siege
Hungarian Nndorfehrvr). John Hunyadi, the Voivode
of Transylvania, who had fought many battles against the
Before Hunyadi could assemble his forces, the army of
Turks in the previous two decades, prepared the defenses
Mehmed II (160,000 men in early accounts, 60-70,000
of the fortress.
according to newer research) arrived at Belgrade. The
The siege eventually escalated into a major battle, during siege began on July 4, 1456. Szilgyi could rely on a
which Hunyadi led a sudden counterattack that overran force of only 5,000-7,000 men in the castle. Mehmed
the Ottoman camp, ultimately compelling the wounded set up his siege on the neck of the headland and started
Mehmed II to lift the siege and retreat. The battle had sig- heavily bombarding the citys walls on June 29. He ar-
nicant consequences, as it stabilized the southern fron- rayed his men in three sections: The Rumelian corps had
tiers of the Kingdom of Hungary for more than half a cen- the majority of his 300 cannons, while his eet of 200
tury and thus considerably delaying the Ottoman advance river war vessels had the rest of them. The Rumelians
in Europe. were arrayed on the right wing and the Anatolian corps
The Pope celebrated the victory as well, as he previously were arrayed on the left. In the middle were the personal
ordered all Catholic kingdoms to pray for the victory of guards of the Sultan, the Janissaries, and his command
the defenders of Belgrade. This led to the noon bell rit- post. The Anatolian corps and the Janissaries were both
ual that is still undertaken in Catholic and old Protestant heavy infantry troops. Mehmed posted his river vessels
churches nowadays. The day of the victory, 22 July, has mainly to the northwest of the city to patrol the marshes
been a memorial day in Hungary ever since.[10] and ensure that the fortress was not reinforced. They also
kept an eye on the Sava river to the southwest to avoid
the infantry from being outanked by Hunyadis army.
The zone from the Danube eastwards was guarded by the
6.1 Preparations Sipahi, the Sultans feudal heavy cavalry corps, to avoid
being outanked on the right.
At the end of 1455, John Hunyadi began preparations for When Hunyadi was informed of this, he was in the south
the defence of Belgrade. At his own expense, he provi- of Hungary recruiting additional light cavalry troops for
sioned and armed the fortress with a strong garrison under the army, with which he would intend to lift the siege.
the command of his brother-in-law Mihly Szilgyi and Although relatively few, his fellow nobles were willing to
his own eldest son Lszl. Hunyadi then proceeded to provide manpower, and the peasants were more than will-
form a relief army and an additional eet of two hundred ing to do so. Cardinal Capistrano had been sent to Hun-
corvettes. The barons feared Hunyadis growing power gary by the Vatican both to preach against heretics and to
more than the Ottoman threat and left him entirely to his preach a crusade against the Ottomans. Capistrano man-
own devices. aged to raise a large, albeit poorly trained and equipped,
An Italian Franciscan friar allied to Hunyadi, Giovanni peasant army, with which he advanced towards Belgrade.
da Capistrano, preached a crusade to attract peasants and Capistrano and Hunyadi traveled together though com-
local countryside landlords to Hunyadis cause. The re- manding the army separately. Both of them had gathered

30
6.3. BATTLE 31

Gothic fresco of the Siege of Belgrade from 1468, in a Church in

Olomouc (Czech Republic). Probably the oldest depiction of the
battle; shows Giovanni da Capistrano and John Hunyadi.

around 40,000-50,000 troops altogether.

The outnumbered defenders relied mainly on the strength
of the formidable castle of Belgrade, which was at the The heroism of Titusz Dugovics
time one of the best engineered in the Balkans. Bel-
grade had been designated as the capital of the Serbian
to transport his troops and much-needed food into the
Despotate by Stefan Lazarevi 53 years prior.
city. The forts defense was also reinforced.
But Mehmed II was not willing to end the siege and after
a week of heavy bombardment, the walls of the fortress
were breached in several places. On July 21 Mehmed
ordered an all-out assault that began at sundown and con-
tinued all night. The besieging army ooded the city and
then started its assault on the fort. As this was the most
crucial moment of the siege, Hunyadi ordered the de-
fenders to throw tarred wood and other ammable ma-
terial, and then set it are. Soon a wall of ames sepa-
rated the Janissaries ghting in the city from their fellow
soldiers trying to breach through the gaps into the upper
town. The erce battle between the encircled Janissaries
Fortress of Belgrade as it looked in the Middle Ages. The lower and Szilgyis soldiers inside the upper town was turning
and upper town with the palace are visible. in favour of the Christians, and the Hungarians managed
to beat o the erce assault from outside the walls. The
The fortress was designed in an elaborate form with three Janissaries remaining inside the city were thus massacred
lines of defense: the inner castle with the palace, a huge while the Ottoman troops trying to breach the upper town
upper town with the main military camps, four gates and suered heavy losses.
a double wall, as well as the lower town with the cathe-
dral in the urban center and a port at the Danube. This
building endeavor was one of the most elaborate military 6.3 Battle
architecture achievements of the Middle Ages. After the
Siege, the Hungarians reinforced the north and eastern The next day something unexpected happened. By some
side with an additional gate and several towers, one of accounts, the peasant crusaders started a spontaneous ac-
which, the Nebojsa tower, was designed for artillery pur- tion, and forced Capistrano and Hunyadi to make use of
poses. the situation. Despite Hunyadis orders to the defenders
On July 14, 1456, Hunyadi arrived to the completely en- not to try to loot the Ottoman positions, some of the units
circled city with his otilla on the Danube, while the crept out from demolished ramparts, took up positions
Ottoman navy lay astride the Danube River. He broke the across from the Ottoman line, and began harassing en-
naval blockade on July 14, sinking three large Ottoman emy soldiers. Ottoman Sipahis tried without success to
galleys and capturing four large vessels and 20 smaller disperse the harassing force. At once, more defenders
ones. By destroying the Sultans eet, Hunyadi was able joined those outside the wall. What began as an isolated
32 CHAPTER 6. SIEGE OF BELGRADE (1456)

North wall of the Belgrade Fortress from the 17th century

incident quickly escalated into a full-scale battle.

John of Capistrano at rst tried to order his men back
inside the walls, but soon found himself surrounded by
about 2,000 peasant levymen. He then began leading
them toward the Ottoman lines, crying, The Lord who
made the beginning will take care of the nish!" Capis-
trano led his crusaders to the Ottoman rear across the
Sava river. At the same time, Hunyadi started a desperate
charge out of the fort to take the cannon positions in the
Ottoman encampment.
Taken by surprise at this strange turn of events and, as
some chroniclers say, seemingly paralyzed by some in-
explicable fear, the Ottomans took ight.[11] The Sultans
bodyguard of about 5,000 Janissaries tried desperately to
stop the panic and recapture the camp, but by that time
Hunyadis army had also joined the unplanned battle, and
the Ottoman eorts became hopeless. The Sultan him- Siege of Belgrade (in Hungarian: Nndorfehrvr) 1456. Hn-
self advanced into the ght and killed a knight in sin- ername 1584
gle combat, but then took an arrow in the thigh and was
rendered unconscious. After the battle, the Hungarian
reinforced by the Zindan gate and the heavy Neboja
raiders were ordered to spend the night behind the walls
tower. This was the last of the great modications to
of the fortress and to be on the alert for a possible renewal
the fortress until 1521, when Mehmeds great-grandson
of the battle, but the Ottoman counterattack never came.
Suleiman eventually captured it.
Under cover of darkness the Ottomans retreated in haste,
bearing their wounded in 140 wagons. They withdrew to
Constantinople.
6.5 Noon Bell

6.4 Aftermath
However, the Hungarians paid dearly for this victory.
Plague broke out in the camp, from which John Hunyadi
himself died three weeks later (August 11, 1456). He
was buried in the Cathedral of Gyulafehrvr (now Alba
Iulia), the capital of Transylvania.
As the design of the fortress had proved its merits dur-
ing the siege, some additional reinforcements were made
by the Hungarians. The weaker eastern walls, where
the Ottomans broke through into the upper town were
Pope Callixtus III ordered the bells of every European
church to be rung every day at noon, as a call for believers
to pray for the defenders of the city.[12][13] The practice of
the noon bell is traditionally attributed to the international
commemoration of the victory at Belgrade and to the or-
der of Pope Callixtus III, since in many countries (like
England and the Spanish Kingdoms) news of the victory
arrived before the order, and the ringing of the church
bells at noon was thus transformed into a commemora-
tion of the victory.[14][15][16] The Pope didn't withdraw
the order, and Catholic and the older Protestant churches
still ring the noon bell to this day.[13][15][16][17]
6.7. LITERATURE
This custom still exists also among Protestant and Or-
thodox congregations. In the history of Oxford univer-
sity, the victory was welcomed with the ringing of bells
and great celebrations in England. Hunyadi sent a special
courier, Erasmus Fullar, among others to Oxford with the
news of the victory.[18]
6.6 Legacy
Part of Belgrade Fortress from the 17th century
Battle of Nndorfehrvr, Hungarian painting from the 19th tinued with menacing success until the Siege of Vienna
century. In the middle Giovanni da Capistrano with the cross in 1529, although Ottoman power in Europe remained
in his hand.
The victory stopped the Ottoman advance towards
Europe for 70 years, though they made other incursions
such as the taking of Otranto between 1480 and 1481; and
the raid of Croatia and Styria in 1493. Belgrade would 6.7 Literature
continue to protect Hungary from Ottoman attacks until
the fort fell to the Ottomans in 1521.
After the Siege of Belgrade stopped the advance of
Mehmed II towards Central Europe; Serbia and Bosnia
were absorbed into the Empire. Wallachia, the Crimean
Khanate, and eventually Moldavia were merely converted
into vassal states due to the strong military resistance to
33
Stone in the Kalemegdan park, in Belgrade, with engraved in-
scription on the place where Christian forces under command of
John Hunyadi won the battle against the Ottomans in 1456.
Mehmeds attempts of conquest. There were several rea-
sons of why the Sultan did not directly attack Hungary
and why he gave up the idea of advancing in that direc-
tion after his unsuccessful siege of Belgrade. The mishap
at Belgrade indicated that the Empire could not expand
further until Serbia and Bosnia were transformed into a
secure base of operations. Furthermore, the signicant
political and military power of Hungary under Matthias
Corvinus in the region surely inuenced this hesitation
too. Moreover, Mehmed was also distracted in his at-
tempts to suppress insubordination from his Moldovan
and Wallachian vassals.
With Hunyadis victory at Belgrade, both Vlad III the Im-
paler and Stephen III of Moldavia came to power in their
own domains, and Hunyadi went himself to great lengths
to have his son Matthias placed on the Hungarian throne.
While erce resistance and Hunyadis eective leadership
ensured that the daring and ambitious Sultan Mehmed
would only get as far into Europe as the Balkans, the Sul-
tan had already managed to transform the Ottoman Em-
pire into what would become one of the most feared pow-
ers in Europe (as well as in Asia) for centuries. Most of
Hungary was eventually conquered in 1526 at the Battle
of Mohcs. Ottoman Muslim expansion into Europe con-
strong and still threatening to Central Europe at times un-
til the Battle of Vienna in 1683.
It is claimed that, after the defeat and while he and his
army were retreating into Bulgaria, this sound defeat as
well as the ensuing loss of no less than 24.000 of his
best soldiers, angered Mehmed in such a manner that,
in an uncontrollable t of fury, he wounded a number
of his generals with his own sword, just before getting
34
them executed.[19] The Sultan later came into conict
with Stephen III of Moldavia, resulting in an even worse
defeat at Battle of Vaslui and later a pyrrhic victory at the
Battle of Valea Alb.
A ctional account from the viewpoint of a Christian
mercenary is Christian Cameron, Tom Swan and the Siege
of Belgrade (Orion,2014-2016).
6.8 References
[1] Kenneth M. Setton (1984). The Papacy and the Levant,
1204-1571, Vol. 3: The Sixteenth Century to the Reign of
Julius III. p. 177. ISBN 978-0871691613.
[2] Kenneth M. Setton (1984). The Papacy and the Levant,
1204-1571, Vol. 3: The Sixteenth Century to the Reign of
Julius III. p. 177. ISBN 978-0871691613.
[3] Stanford J. Shaw (1976). History of the Ottoman Empire
and modern Turkey, Volume 1, Empire of the Gazis: The
Rise and Decline of the Ottoman Empire 1280-1808. p.
63. ISBN 978-0521291637.
[4] Kenneth M. Setton (1984). The Papacy and the Levant,
1204-1571, Vol. 3: The Sixteenth Century to the Reign of
Julius III. p. 174. ISBN 978-0871691613.
[5] Andrew Ayton; Leslie Price (1998). The Military Revo-
lution from a Medieval Perspective. The Medieval Mili-
tary Revolution: State, Society and Military Change in Me-
dieval and Early Modern Society. London, England: I.B.
Tauris. ISBN 1-86064-353-1. Retrieved 1 October 2010.
[6] John Julius Norwich (1982). A History of Venice. Lecture
notes in mathematics 1358. New York, United States: Al-
fred B. Knopf. p. 269. ISBN 0-679-72197-5.
[7] Kenneth M. Setton (1984). The Papacy and the Levant,
1204-1571, Vol. 3: The Sixteenth Century to the Reign of
Julius III. p. 175. ISBN 978-0871691613.
[8] Norman Housley (1992). The Later Crusades, 1274-
1580: From Lyons to Alcazar (First ed.). p. 104. ISBN
978-0198221364.
[9] Tom R. Kovach (1992). The 1456 Siege of Belgrade. Mil-
itary History, August 1996, Vol. 13, Issue 3. p. 34. Re-
trieved March 6, 2015.
[10] Anniversary of 1456 victory over Ottomans becomes
memorial day politics.hu
[11] Friedrich W.D. Brie (2012). The Brut; Or, the Chronicles
of England. p. 524. ISBN 978-1407773421.
[12] Thomas Henry Dyer (1861). The history of modern Eu-
rope: From the fall of Constantinople. J. Murray. p. 85.
[13] Istvn Lzr: Hungary: A Brief History (see in Chapter
6)
[14] Kerny, Terzia (2008). The Renaissance - Four Times
Over. Exhibitions Commemorating Matthiass Accession
to the Throne. The Hungarian Quarterly. Budapest,
CHAPTER 6. SIEGE OF BELGRADE (1456)
Hungary: Society of the Hungarian Quarterly. pp. 79
90. On July 22, 1456, John Hunyadi won a decisive vic-
tory at Belgrade over the armies of Sultan Mehmed II.
Hunyadis featcarried out with a small standing army
combined with peasants rallied to ght the indel by the
Franciscan friar St John of Capistrano had the eect of
putting an end to Ottoman attempts on Hungary and West-
ern Europe for the next seventy years. The bells ringing
at noon throughout Christendom are, to this day, a daily
commemoration of John Hunyadis victory.
[15] http://www.hungarianhistory.com/lib/hunyadi/hu01.htm
[16] http://nq.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/CLXVII/sep08/
171-d
[17] Kerny, Terzia (2008). The Renaissance - Four Times
Over. Exhibitions Commemorating Matthiass Accession
to the Throne. The Hungarian Quarterly. Budapest,
Hungary: Society of the Hungarian Quarterly. pp. 7990.
On July 22, 1456, John Hunyadi won a decisive victory at
Belgrade over the armies of Sultan Mehmed II. Hunyadis
featcarried out with a small standing army combined
with peasants rallied to ght the indel by the Franciscan
friar St John of Capistrano had the eect of putting an
end to Ottoman attempts on Hungary and Western Europe
for the next seventy years, and is considered to have been
one of the most momentous victories in Hungarian mili-
tary history. The bells ringing at noon throughout Chris-
tendom are, to this day, a daily commemoration of John
Hunyadis victory.
[18] Imre Lukinich: A History of Hungary in Biographical
Sketches (page: 109.)
[19] Radu R Florescu; Raymond T. McNally (1989). Dracula,
Prince of Many Faces: His Life and His Times. p. 80.
ISBN 978-0316286558.
6.8.1 Bibliography
Kenneth M. Setton (1984). The Papacy and the Lev-
ant, 1204-1571, Vol. 3: The Sixteenth Century to the
Reign of Julius III. ISBN 978-0871691613.
Stanford J. Shaw (1976). History of the Ottoman
Empire and modern Turkey, Volume 1, Empire of the
Gazis: The Rise and Decline of the Ottoman Empire
1280-1808. ISBN 978-0521291637.
Andrew Ayton; Leslie Price (1998). The Me-
dieval Military Revolution: State, Society and Mili-
tary Change in Medieval and Early Modern Society.
London, England: I.B. Tauris. ISBN 1-86064-353-
1. Retrieved 1 October 2010.
John Julius Norwich (1982). A History of Venice.
Lecture notes in mathematics 1358. New York,
United States: Alfred B. Knopf. ISBN 0-679-
72197-5.
Norman Housley (1992). The Later Crusades,
1274-1580: From Lyons to Alcazar (First ed.).
ISBN 978-0198221364.
6.8. REFERENCES 35

Thomas Henry Dyer (1861). The history of modern

Europe: From the fall of Constantinople. J. Murray.
p. 85.
36 CHAPTER 6. SIEGE OF BELGRADE (1456)

6.9 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

6.9.1 Text
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Rosenzweig, Wesley, The Anome, Jeronimo, Clasqm, Ffaker, RK, Amillar, Andre Engels, DavidLevinson, Ben-Zin~enwiki, Isis~enwiki,
Olivier, Paul Ebermann, Stevertigo, Nealmcb, Patrick, Infrogmation, JohnOwens, Michael Hardy, Paul Barlow, Llywrch, Fred Bauder,
Dan Koehl, Menchi, Ixfd64, IZAK, Flamurai, Dori, ArnoLagrange, Ahoerstemeier, DavidWBrooks, Anders Feder, Docu, Snoyes, Plop,
Jebba, Error, Andres, Deisenbe, Cherkash, Efghij, John K, Conti, Hike395, Jengod, Loren Rosen, Uriber, Charles Matthews, Adam
Bishop, Dysprosia, Jstanley01, Andrewman327, Zoicon5, Selket, Tpbradbury, Imc, Saltine, Tempshill, Dogface, Paul-L~enwiki, Sab-
but, EikwaR, Shizhao, Joy, Fvw, Wetman, Jason M, Michael Rawdon, Jusjih, Owen, Dimadick, Nufy8, Robbot, Juro, TomPhil, As-
tronautics~enwiki, PBS, Alrasheedan, Altenmann, Peak, Stephan Schulz, Romanm, Lowellian, Mayooranathan, Chris Roy, Wjhonson,
Tit4tat, TimR, Desmay, Humus sapiens, Hippietrail, Roscoe x, Budo, Hadal, Cautious, Pablo-ores, Ncox, Centrx, Dominick, MaGioZal,
Gtrmp, Wizzy, Jhf, Amorim Parga, TOttenville8, Tom harrison, Ferkelparade, Angmering, Everyking, No Guru, Zora, Curps, Malbear,
MingMecca, Skyshadow, Lurker, DO'Neil, Beardo, Dsmdgold, Gilgamesh~enwiki, Per Honor et Gloria, Beryllium, AdamJacobMuller,
Tagishsimon, Gugganij, Barneyboo, Fishal, Utcursch, Sca, Alexf, J. 'mach' wust, Geni, Gdr, GeneralPatton, Antandrus, Beland, Onco
p53, MistToys, LERK, Ro4444, Jossi, Sean Heron, MacGyverMagic, Rdsmith4, Xandar, Kmweber, Maastrictian, Crazyeddie, Austin
Hair, Creidieki, Gary D, Neutrality, Legionas, Joyous!, Shalamza, Klemen Kocjancic, Clemwang, Grm wnr, Adashiel, Trevor MacIn-
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Apalsola, CALR, Dceck, EugeneZelenko, Blanchette, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, Cacycle, Cnyborg, Vsmith, Florian
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ton~enwiki, Mjk2357, Gnomz007, CJWilly, Shanes, Alereon, RoyBoy, Adambro, Rpresser, Bobo192, Vervin, Illuvatar,, Tburns, W8TVI,
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Mark Arsten, Hosseiniran, Montalban, ZhangYuu, Koyegbeke, Gorthian, Dainomite, Arminden, Eemstewart, Darkjudah, The Almightey
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George Chabrov, Derpy123321, Flicock, Coin Collecting John, Bubbat7, Pariah24, Umm1234, KH-1, Dry man 1, CaptainCow01, Crys-
tallizedcarbon, MATIAZ453, Maymichael2, Nozavex, PizzaMeLove, Loraof, FireLover13, Biggthatsme, Knowledgebattle, Apperlja,
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38 CHAPTER 6. SIEGE OF BELGRADE (1456)

FiftyFiveHundred, Jeremyhanna1012345, JeremiahY, Vladimere putin on the ground, 5050500a, My Chemistry romantic, LordCalle, Mc-
jagger, Brockstarr4131313, Frank55221598, CAPTAIN RAJU, Coolz5, MBlaze Lightning, NY Frogman, Hooray4rob, Nameless5522,
Dcmarvelahmadanonymas, CLCStudent, Eperoton, Mr rnddude, Bobbycameltoe, Ymiki001, Kat Wu Lee, Wubbada, Mateoski06, Peter
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2002, Iambic Pentameter, Acopyeditor, Tomnguyen6688, Thanhtue44, Eabdal22, C0Ha47, TheWorldsEditor, Natanwigan11, DJ Spooky
Jim, Jonas III PhD in math, Notapotatoe, JonathonTordilla and Anonymous: 2018

Military order (monastic society) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_order_(monastic_society)?oldid=768329271 Contrib-

utors: Hephaestos, Michael Hardy, Dan Koehl, Nixdorf, Den fjttrade ankan~enwiki, John K, Harry Potter, Uriber, Adam Bishop, Choster,
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Eteq, Kane5187, WehrWolf, Koavf, CristianChirita, Jerey Henning, Olessi, FlaBot, NeoFreak, Robert Prummel, YurikBot, Noclador,
RussBot, Wiki alf, Nirvana2013, Welsh, Rjensen, Stijn Calle, Fastifex, Exit2DOS2000, CrniBombarder!!!, Jade Knight, Brvynky, Smack-
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Nev1, ClarkSui, Ryan Postlethwaite, Bricology, Izno, Rexparry sydney, HFJ, Firstorm, Natg 19, Tokelove, SieBot, Royalty90, ViennaUK,
Lightmouse, RSStockdale, Termer, ClueBot, Rjd0060, XPTO, Niceguyedc, Jsgrsn, Searchinginlove, SchreiberBike, L.smitheld, Big-
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AnomieBOT, ArthurBot, GrouchoBot, King of terrorists osama bin laden, LucienBOT, Bld8402, Chevymontecarlo, Farkasven, Slivicon,
Greedyhalibut, Monstrelet, Orenburg1, Maned Vixen, Daniel the Monk, EmausBot, John of Reading, RayneVanDunem, ClueBot NG,
CocuBot, GeoTrou, Hospitaller2003, BG19bot, George Ponderevo, PhnomPencil, Bodhisvaha5, Vvven, G.M. Sir Lawrence, Laberkiste,
Hmainsbot1, Mogism, Chicbyaccident, Yopie2, SamSennett, 069952497a, Ilacin, Chris troutman, NYBrook098, Comp.arch, Pariah24,
RJB123, Rubbish computer, MarcusVetus, Matterington, Torvic07, GamerKostja, Bender the Bot, Zeb181, Torontino and Anonymous: 98

Siege of Constantinople (1203) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Constantinople_(1203)?oldid=768089043 Contributors:

Delirium, Adam Bishop, Fjarlq, Art LaPella, Tim!, Jaraalbe, Manxruler, CrniBombarder!!!, SmackBot, Cplakidas, Andrwsc, Neelix, Cyde-
bot, Buistr, Staberinde, The Anomebot2, Kevinsam, CommonsDelinker, KTo288, Hugo999, Hasanbay~enwiki, Lightmouse, Vanished user
ewsn2348tui2f8n2o2utjfeoi210r39jf, TIY, Pindanl, Addbot, AnomieBOT, Rjanag, GrouchoBot, Nedim Ardoa, TobeBot, Archange-
los1180, Nederlandse Leeuw, DominicConnor, Jbribeiro1, Marcocapelle, , Hmainsbot1, Nimetapoeg, YiFeiBot, Loose
eel, GreenC bot and Anonymous: 9

Siege of Constantinople (1204) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sack_of_Constantinople_(1204)?oldid=763059724 Contributors:

Delirium, Adam Bishop, Huangdi, Rich Farmbrough, Bender235, Art LaPella, ADM, Wereldburger758, Tim!, The wub, Jaraalbe, Gaius
Cornelius, Thunderforge, CrniBombarder!!!, Mix321, Attilios, SmackBot, Davewild, Peter Isotalo, Cplakidas, Stevenmitchell, Andrwsc,
Igoldste, Neelix, Cydebot, Staberinde, Marek69, Nick Number, DPdH, The Anomebot2, Kevinsam, CommonsDelinker, Dinkytown,
Kansas Bear, Hugo999, Dodger209, Nxavar, Solicitr, Hasanbay~enwiki, Brozozo, Vanished user ewsn2348tui2f8n2o2utjfeoi210r39jf,
TIY, Drmies, Gnome de plume, Yorkshirian, Phso2, SchreiberBike, Pindanl, Addbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Angel ivanov angelov,
AnomieBOT, VanishedUser sdu9aya9fasdsopa, Rjanag, JackieBot, ChildofMidnight, Ulf Heinsohn, RibotBOT, Nedim Ardoa, DITWIN
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Bot, Balph Eubank, EmausBot, GoingBatty, Minimacs Clone, ZroBot, Jbribeiro1, DeCausa, Samgnzlz, Bright Darkness, WNYY98,
Marcocapelle, Display name 99, Zedshort, LoneWolf1992, Jns4eva, M.F. W-Venables, Nimetapoeg, Ueutyi, Lemnaminor, BreakfastJr,
Begotknow, Dede1221sky, Xk9, NickTheRipper, Bobalot2345, TheMedian and Anonymous: 47

Siege of Constantinople (1235) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Constantinople_(1235)?oldid=761099033 Contributors:

Delirium, Art LaPella, Tim!, SmackBot, Colonies Chris, Cplakidas, Neelix, Cydebot, Alexander VIII~enwiki, The Anomebot2, Kevinsam,
CommonsDelinker, Dinkytown, Gligan, Hugo999, TXiKiBoT, Hasanbay~enwiki, Vanished user ewsn2348tui2f8n2o2utjfeoi210r39jf,
Pindanl, Addbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Rjanag, Xqbot, Nedim Ardoa, DrilBot, WikitanvirBot, Jbribeiro1, Catlemur, Gligan1,
ELNO Checking, Marcocapelle, , Hmainsbot1 and Anonymous: 4

Siege of Belgrade (1456) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Belgrade_(1456)?oldid=768198702 Contributors: Bryan

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6.9. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 39

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Mittelalter zur Neuzeit, aus der Reihe sterreichische Geschichte, Wien 1996, ISBN 3-8000-3532-4 Original artist: Un-
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History of Bulgaria, volume 4 The Bulgarian people under Ottoman rule (from XV to the beginning of the XVII century)", Publishing
house of the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Soa, 1983, page 58 (in Bulgarian). Original artist: Bulgarian Herald
40 CHAPTER 6. SIEGE OF BELGRADE (1456)

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cense: Public domain Contributors:
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6.9. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 41

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42 CHAPTER 6. SIEGE OF BELGRADE (1456)

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6.9. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 43

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44 CHAPTER 6. SIEGE OF BELGRADE (1456)

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