Reproduction in flowering plants

Sexual reproduction The production of new individuals that are

genetically different to their parents, by the fusion of male and
female gametes.

Asexual reproduction The production of new individuals without

fertilisation, from division of body cells in the parent.

Generalised structure of a flower

Part Function
Petal Colourful to attract insects
Anther Male part that makes pollen
Filament Joins anther to rest of plant
Stigma Female part that receives pollen
Ovary Contains ovules
Ovule Female gametes (eggs)
Pollen Male gamete
Nectary Produces nectar to attract
insects
Sepal Protects the flower when in bud

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The structure of wind pollinated vs insect pollinated plants

Insect pollinated Wind pollinated

Few anthers are small and inside
flower
Stigma is small and inside flower
Large colourful petals
Pollen made in moderate
quantities
Pollen grains are sticky or spikey
Pollen is heavier
Has a nectary
Scented to attract insects
Many anthers are large and
outside flower
Stigma is large, feathery and
hang outside flower
Tiny colourless/green petals
Pollen made in huge quantities
Pollen grains are smooth
Pollen is lightweight
No nectary
Not scented

Pollination

1. Pollen is released from the anthers and deposited on the

stigma of another flower of the same species.

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Fertilisation

2. The pollen grain then grows a pollen tube from the tip of the
stigma where it landed into the ovule.

3. The nucleus of the pollen (the male gamete) then fuses with an
ovule (the female gamete) to form a zygote.
4. The zygote develops into an embryo plant containing tissues
that will become roots, stem and leaves.
5. Other tissue grows around the zygote as a store of food, the
cotyledons. These are used by the germinating seeds until they
develop into seedlinga and carry out photosynthesis.
6. The ovule wall hardens to form a tough protective case around
the seed called the seed coat. The ovary tissue around the
seed often develops in to fruit.

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Germination

To germinate seeds need;

1. Water
2. Oxygen (seeds need to respire)
3. Correct temperature (optimum temperature for enzymes)

The germinating seeds use the food reserves (cotyledons) for

energy until they develop in to seedlings and are able to
photosynthesise.

Asexual Reproduction in flowering plants

Some plants produce runners (stems which grow along the ground).
Points on the stem where leaves join can also grow roots. The new

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plant is geneticlly identical to the parent plant as it has grown from
cells of the parent. Strawberry plants are an example of this.

Cuttings can be taken from bits of old plants. Pieces of leaf, stem or
root are cut from a healthy plant, treated with plant hormones to
encourage root growth and planted in compost. After a few weeks
the new plant will have grown roots, shoots and leaves.

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 Reproduction in humans

Part Function
Testes Sperm production
Sperm ducts Carry sperm from the testes to
the penis
Prostate gland Produce liquid in which sperm
are able to swim
Seminal vesicles Produce liquid in which sperm
are able to swim
Urethra Carries sperm (and urine) to
outside
Scrotum Supports the testes outside the
body at a lower temperature

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 Part Function
Ovaries Produce eggs
Oviduct Delivers egg to fallopian tube
Fallopian tube Takes egg to uterus
Uterus Embryo develops here
Cervix Separates uterus from vagina
Vagina Elastic muscular tube which
opens to the outside of the body

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Pregnancy

1. If pregnancy occurs the egg cell fuses with the sperm cell in
the fallopian tube and develops in to a zygote.
2. The zygote begins dividing by mitosis to become an embryo.
3. The embryo embeds itself into the thickened uterus lining, and
for the first 3 months the embryo gets its nutrients by
diffusion through the uterus lining.
4. At the end of 3 months the placenta has developed and the
embryo is now a fetus where all its major organs can now be
identified.
5. The placenta brings the mothers blood supply very close to
that of the fetus, but their blood does not mix.
6. The fetus develops inside a bag of fluid called the amniotic
fluid, contained in the amnion (the bags membrane).
7. The fluid protects the fetus from damage and variations in
temperature.

The placenta

This develops from foetal tissues and allows the exchange of

materials between mother and fetus. It has a large number of blood
vessels that do not touch. This is to protect the fetus from mothers
high blood pressure and any germs/chemicals in the mothers
bloodstream that could damage the fetus.

CO2, water and urea diffuse from fetus to mother

O2, glucose, amino acids and minerals diffuse from mother to fetus

The placenta is adapted for diffusion by;

1. Huge surface area (many villi like projections)

2. Only a few cells thick
3. Blood supplies keep concentration gradients high
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 Secondary sexual characteristics

During puberty boys make testosterone in their testes and

girls make oestrogen in their ovaries.

In boys testosterone causes; In girls oestrogen causes;

An increase in rate of growth
until adult sized
Hair growth on face and body
including pubic hair
Growth and development of
male sexual organs
Voice breaks and deepens
Increased muscle
development
Sperm production begins
An increase in rate of growth
until adult sized
Hair growth on body including
pubic hair
Growth and development of
female sexual organs
Voice deepens
Hips widen and breasts
develop
Menstrual cycle begins

The Menstrual cycle

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 The cycle is normally 28 days long and controlled by the
hormones oestrogen and progesterone.
1. Day 1 - the uterus lining starts to breaks down and another
egg starts to develop in one of the ovaries.
2. Cells surrounding the developing egg secrete oestrogen
which stimulates the uterus to repair and thicken.
3. Day ~14 OVULATION occurs - An egg is released from
the ovary into the oviduct and cells in the ovary secrete
progesterone. The progesterone stimulates the uterus lining
to thicken even more.
4. If the egg is unfertilised the oestrogen and progesterone
hormone levels fall, causing the uterus lining to break down
(Menstruation).
5. When hormone levels are low enough another egg develops in
one of the ovaries and the cycle begins again.

If the egg is fertilised progesterone continues to be released from

the ovary which maintains the uterus lining during pregnancy (and
prevents further ovulation)

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