energies

Article
Transient Numerical Simulation of the Melting and
Solidification Behavior of NaNO3 Using a Wire
Matrix for Enhancing the Heat Transfer
Martin Koller, Heimo Walter * and Michael Hameter
Institute for Energy Systems and Thermodynamics, Technische Universitt Wien, Getreidemarkt 9,
1060 Vienna, Austria; martin.e302.koller@tuwien.ac.at (M.K.); michael.hameter@tuwien.ac.at (M.H.)
* Correspondence: heimo.walter@tuwien.ac.at; Tel.: +43-1-58801-302318

Academic Editor: Chi-Ming Lai

Received: 19 January 2016; Accepted: 8 March 2016; Published: 16 March 2016

Abstract: The paper presents the results of a transient numerical investigation of the melting
and solidification process of sodium nitrate (NaNO3 ), which is used as phase change material.
For enhancing the heat transfer to the sodium nitrate an aluminum wire matrix is used. The numerical
simulation of the melting and solidification process was done with the enthalpy-porosity approach.
The numerical analysis of the melting process has shown that apart from the first period of the
charging process, where heat conduction is the main heat transfer mechanism, natural convection
is the dominant heat transfer mechanism. The numerical investigation of the solidification process
has shown that the dominant heat transfer mechanism is heat conduction. Based on the numerical
results, the discharging process has been slower than the charging process. The performance of the
charged and discharged power has shown that the wire matrix is an alternative method to enhance
the heat transfer into the phase change material.

Keywords: transient numerical simulation; thermal energy storage; wire matrix; heat transfer
enhancement; sodium nitrate; latent energy storage; natural convection; melting; solidification

1. Introduction
The aim of the European Union is a reduction of the greenhouse gas emissions (referred to 1990)
as well as an increase of the energy efficiency of 20% till 2020. To achieve this ambitious goal, it is
necessary to increase the target share of renewable energies in the energy consumption as well as the
energy efficiency. This relates to the situation that renewable energies, energy storage and energy
distribution will be the most important and strongly growing markets for the next decades and hence
also key topics for research and development.
The storage of thermal energy is a special form of energy storage. Beside the simple storage and
release of heat, thermal energy storage systems can play an important role in electricity production in
case of an integration into a thermodynamic cycle (Rankine, Brayton, etc.). To store thermal energy
from, e.g., superheated steam, a storage system based on latent heat is necessary to store the heat of
condensation in an exergetically optimal way. In such a system, the thermal energy transfer occurs
when a so called phase change material (PCM) changes the aggregate state (phase) from, e.g., solid to
solid, solid to liquid, liquid to gas, or solid to gas and vice versa. Initially, the temperature of PCMs
increases like a conventional sensible storage material as they absorb heat until it reaches the melting
point. Compared to sensible storage materials, a PCM absorbs and releases heat at a nearly constant
temperature during the phase change and they can store 514 times more heat per unit volume than
sensible storage materials such as water, sand, or rock [1]. This results in a significant reduction of
the storage volume using PCMs as storage material compared to sensible heat storage. That means

Energies 2016, 9, 205; doi:10.3390/en9030205 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2016, 9, 205 2 of 18

that the latent heat thermal energy storage system (LHTES) has a higher energy density compared to
sensible storage systems. A further advantage of the latent heat thermal energy storage system is that
the charging and discharging process takes place at small temperature differences.
The selection of the PCM material used in an application depends on the process parameters as well
as the thermodynamic, physical, chemical, and economic aspects. By selecting a PCM material for a specific
application the melting temperature must be selected close to the operation temperature. The volume
based latent heat should also be as high as possible to reduce the size of the storage device. A further
important specification on phase change materials is given to the thermal conductivity in both states, solid
and liquid, which is desirable to improve the heat transfer into the phase change material. To maintain
convenient container design for the phase change device the density variation during phase change from
solid to liquid and vice versa as well as the vapor pressure at operation temperature should be low.
For the use in power cycles as well as industrial applications phase change materials in the
medium and high temperature range are required. In these temperature ranges, a high number of
materials are available like metals and metal alloys or inorganic salts and saline compounds. However,
the most discussed storage materials for LHTES are salts and their eutectics. These materials are
characterized by the low heat conductivity [24]. A widely used method to overcome this heat
transport limitation in LHTES is to increase the specific surface of the heat exchanger tubes. Various
techniques, like fins [411], dispersed high-conductivity particles inside the PCM [12,13], metal and
graphite-compound matrices [1416], micro-encapsulation [1719] as well as a combination of metal
foam made of copper and sandwich structure fins [20] have been suggested and were analyzed.
Based on the low thermal conductivity of the PCMs the details of heat transfer and phase change
in the presence of heat transfer enhancing techniques has become of interest. To analyze the melting
and freezing process of a material under the influence of gravity, a higher number of analytical [2125]
as well as numerical methods [2628] were developed in the last decades. The change with time
of the position of the phase interface during the melting and/or solidification process is the main
problem concerning the numerical simulation. As reported in [29], more than half of all investigations
done on latent heat thermal storage systems were numerically and most of the used models are 2D
(see e.g., [28,30]). The very slow laminar flow (natural convection) and the variation of the physical
properties of the PCM during the phase change result in difficulties for the numerical simulation.
But the main challenge of such problems is the presence of a moving liquidsolid interface involving
a strong coupling of mass and heat transfer. To get accurate results, very small time steps as well as
a fine structured computational grid is necessary. Therefore long computation time can be expected
even for small 3D models [10].
In the present work the results of a transient numerical analysis on the melting and solidification
behavior of sodium nitrate (NaNO3 ), which is used as phase change material in a LHTES, will be
presented. The heat transfer fluid flows inside a steel tube of the heat exchanger. The steel tube is
surrounded by an aluminum wire matrix for enhancing the heat transfer into the PCM. The material
aluminum was chosen based on the high thermal conductivity, which is approximately 10 times
higher compared to steel, the low material density of approximately 2700 kg/m3 and the applicable
temperature range up to 330 C. A further advantage of the selected material combination is that
galvanic corrosion between aluminum, carbon steel and sodium nitrate is not critical, as mentioned
in [31]. Parts of the present study are presented in [32].

2. Mathematical Model of the Heat Exchanger Tube

In the next paragraphs, the physical and mathematical model as well as the thermo-physical
properties for the materials will be presented.

2.1. Physical Model of the Wired Matrix

Figure 1 shows a sketch of the analyzed heat exchanger tube used in the present study for the heat
transfer from the heat transfer fluid, which flows inside the tube, to the surrounding sodium nitrate
Energies 2016, 9, 205 3 of 18

(NaNO3 ), which is used as phase change material. The heat exchanger tube consists of a plain steel
tube surrounded by an aluminum wire matrix. The analysis was done for a vertical arrangement of the
Energies 2016, 9, 205 3 of 18
heat exchanger tube. The main advantage of using a wire matrix for enhancing the heat transfer to the
phase change material
arrangement is the
of the heatsimple geometry
exchanger asmain
tube. The welladvantage
as the simple assembling
of using of the
a wire matrix for tube by inserting
enhancing
the heat transfer
and pre-stressing of thetowires,
the phase
which change material is to
are connected thethe
simple
steel geometry as well
tube. Under as the simple
operation temperature
assembling
C), theofwire the tube by inserting and pre-stressing of the wires, which are connected to the steel
(up to 330 matrix is highly flexible and therefore the different linear expansion between
tube. Under operation temperature (up to 330 C), the wire matrix is highly flexible and therefore the
steel tube and wire matrix can be easily compensated.
different linear expansion between steel tube and wire matrix can be easily compensated.

Figure 1. Heat exchanger tube with wire.

Figure 1. Heat exchanger tube with wire.
2.2. Mathematical Model
2.2. Mathematical Model
To obtain the numerical solution for the phase change problem the commercial computer code
To ANSYS
obtain FLUENT (ANSYSsolution
the numerical Inc., Canonsburg,
for the phasePA, USA)change was problem
used. In theANSYS FLUENT the
commercial computer
enthalpy-porosity approach [33,34] is used to calculate
code ANSYS FLUENT (ANSYS Inc., Canonsburg, PA, USA) was used. In ANSYS the melting and/or solidification process.
FLUENT the
The enthalpy-porosity method depends on the liquid volume fraction which denotes the ratio
enthalpy-porosity approach [33,34] is used to calculate the melting and/or solidification process.
of volume of liquid to the total volume in each cell. Therefore, the liquid fraction describes the
Thefraction
enthalpy-porosity
of a cell volume method
which isdepends
filled with onliquid.
the liquid
For thevolume fraction
calculation which denotes
the computational domain the
in ratio of
volume theof liquid
PCM will be divided into three regions: solid, liquid, and mushy zone. With this technique thefraction
to the total volume in each cell. Therefore, the liquid fraction describes the
of a cell melting
volumefront
which is calculated
is not filled with liquid. Instead,
explicitly. For the thecalculation the computational
quantity liquid domain
fraction is computed at in
eachthe PCM
time stepinto
will be divided for every
threecell based on
regions: the enthalpy
solid, liquid, andbalance
mushy[33]. zone.
Computational
With thiscells, where the
technique thephase of front
melting
the material
is not calculated changes, are
explicitly. modeled
Instead, theasquantity
a pseudoliquid
porous medium with
fraction liquid fraction
is computed ranging
at each time step for
between 0 and 1, for solid and liquid respectively, while 0 < < 1 denotes the mushy zone. Thus, the
every cell based on the enthalpy balance [33]. Computational cells, where the phase of the material
energy equation used here for the PCM system yields to:
changes, are modeled as a pseudo porous medium with liquid fraction ranging between 0 and 1, for
solid and liquid respectively, while0<H <1denotes
vH the kT zone.
mushy S E Thus, the energy equation (1) used
here for the PCM system yields to:t
with the total enthalpy
B
pHq ` H H s Hlat pk Tq ` SE
v Hq
p (1)
Bt (2)

with theand theenthalpy

total sensible enthalpy
T
H sH Hs `Hlat
H sref c p dT (3) (2)
Tref

and the sensible enthalpy

The enthalpy change during the phase change (latent heat) can be written as a function of the
liquid fraction and the latent heat of fusion Hlat = L.Based
T on a method proposed by [34], the liquid
Hs Hsre f `
fraction can be determined by temperature. c p dT (3)
Tre f

The enthalpy change during the phase change (latent heat) can be written as a function of the
0 if T Tsol
liquid fraction and the latent heat of fusion Hlat = L. Based on a method proposed by [34], the liquid

fraction can be determined by temperature. 1 if T Tliq (4)

T T fi
0 sol if Tsol T T TT
T T
sol
liq
ffi
liq sol ffi
1 if T T liq


ffi
ffi (4)
T Tsol fl
if Tsol T Tliq
Tliq Tsol
Energies 2016, 9, 205 4 of 18

with Tsol = 578.65 K and Tliq = 579.65 K. The temperatures Tsol and Tliq determine the size of the mushy
zone. As described in [35], an iteration between the energy balance Equation (1) and the liquid fraction
Equation (4) is done for the calculation of the temperature. This method was suggested by [34] because
a direct calculation of Equation (4) to update the liquid fractions results in poor convergence of the
energy balance Equation (1). The continuity equation used can be written as:
B
` p v q 0 (5)
Bt
and the momentum equation for the enthalpy-porosity equation is given in Equation (6).
B .
p v q ` v p v q p ` p2 v q ` AC pq v ` S M (6)
Bt
with
p1 q2
AC pq C (7)
3 ` b
the porosity function AC () to reduce gradually the velocities from a finite value in the liquid to
zero in the solid. The value b in Equation (7) is a small computational constant (b = 0.001) used to
avoid division by zero while the mushy zone constant C is supposed to reflect the structure of the
melting front.
For the mushy zone constant the standard value of ANSYS FLUENT with C = 105 was used.
The higher the value of the mushy zone constant, the steeper the damping term becomes, and the
faster the velocity drops to zero as the material solidifies, see also [36].
The basic conservation equations of continuity, momentum, and energy were solved numerically,
using the ANSYS FLUENT 14.5 software. For the pressure-velocity coupling, the COUPLED scheme,
which is implemented in ANSYS FLUENT, was used for the present study.
The following assumptions are made for the numerical investigation:
1. Both the solid as well as the liquid phase is homogeneous and isotropic, and the melting process
is symmetric within a segment.
2. NaNO3 in the liquid phase is considered to be an incompressible and Newtonian fluid.
3. The volume change upon phase change is ignored.
4. For the molten PCM laminar flow as Newtonian fluid is assumed.
5. The solid is homogeneously distributed in the mushy region.
6. It is assumed that the PCM has an ideal solidification behavior. Therefore, the subcooling effects
are neglected and the solidification temperature is constant.
7. A perfect contact between the surfaces of the single wires and also to the steel tube is assumed.
A normal downward-directed gravity field with the corresponding gravitational acceleration of
9.81 m/s2 is considered.

2.3. Thermo-Physical Properties

The thermo-physical properties for the tube and wire matrix are taken from the ANSYS FLUENT
properties data base. For the properties of the phase change material NaNO3 a user defined function
(UDF) was programmed.
Important values for the numerical simulation of phase change problems are the melting
temperature, heat of fusion, specific heat capacity, heat conduction, dynamic viscosity and density.
In the literature, different data for the melting temperature of the sodium nitrate are available. In the
present work a constant melting temperature of T = 579.15 K was used for NaNO3 , which is based
on the references [37,38]. The heat of fusion with L = 176.256 kJ/kg is taken from [38]. It can be
seen in the references [37,38], which have made a comparison with a higher number of published
data, that the gradient of the specific heat capacity in the liquid region of NaNO3 is approximately
Energies 2016, 9, 205 5 of 18

constant. In the solid region of the sodium nitrate, the specific heat capacity shows a slight upward
trend starting from the environment temperature up to the melting temperature. At temperature levels
of 523.15 K < T < 573.15 K, which is close to the phase change temperature, the specific heat shows
a local maximum (at approximately 543.15 K) as a result of a change of the crystal structure. In the
region between approximately 573.15 K < T 579.15 K the specific heat capacity is approximately
constant and has a value close to the specific heat capacity of the liquid sodium nitrate. However, the
local maximum of the specific heat capacity is not within the temperature region of the numerical
simulation. Therefore, the specific heat capacity for the solid as well as liquid NaNO3 was modeled
within the present study with the constant value of c p = 1635 J/kgK (this is the value of the liquid
NaNO3 ) based on the references [37,38].
For the density of the sodium nitrate in the solid phase, the value of 2119.6 kg/m3 was used
according to [3,37,39], while for the liquid region the equation

liq 1890 0.6pT 593.15q (8)

which is based on the data of [40], was developed. A comparison with available data in the literature
shows that the polynomial used for the liquid density of NaNO3 in this work is located between the
data of [41,42]. Following [43], the dynamic viscosity of the liquid PCM has been expressed as

liq 0.0251 6.054 105 T ` 3.871 108 T 2 (9)

For the thermal conductivity in the liquid phase the correlation of [44]

liq 0.62 1.787 104 T (10)

was used in the UDF. Based on the measurement data of [37], an equation for the thermal conductivity
in the solid phase was derived.
sol 1.2 9.067 104 T (11)
If different values for a physical property at the solidus and the liquidus line are given, then
a linear interpolation between these values is done to get the thermo-physical properties in the
mushy zone.

2.4. Numerical Model of the Heat Exchanger Tube

The numerical simulation of the melting and solidification behavior of a material must be done in
such a way that the grid size used in the computational domain as well as the used time step is very
small. Otherwise, it is not possible to get realistic solutions for the problem under investigation.
Therefore it is not possible to simulate the total heat exchanger tube of a LHTES with a three
dimensional domain, because for large storage devices the single tube length in the heat exchanger
can be up to several meters which will consume enormous computing resources. However, for a basic
understanding of the physical mechanism small sized computational domains can be used. Therefore,
for the three dimensional simulations made for the present study a height of 43.8 mm was used for
the computational domain of the vertical arranged heat exchanger tube with wire matrix, which is
presented in Figure 2.
Energies 2016, 9, 205 6 of 18
Energies 2016, 9, 205 6 of 18

Figure 2. Computational domain and geometry data of the analyzed heat exchanger tube with
wired matrix.
Figure 2. Computational domain and geometry data of the analyzed heat exchanger tube with wired matrix.
The computational domain consists of the steel tube (outer diameter is 33.7 mm) with an aluminum
The computational
wire matrix domainnitrate.
and the PCM sodium consistsThe
of cross
the steel tubeof(outer
section diameter
the wire is 33.7
is a square withmm) with an
the dimension
aluminum wire
3.65 mm 3.65 mm. matrix and the PCM sodium nitrate. The cross section of the wire is a square with
theIndimension
Figure 3,3.65
the mm 3.65 mm.
boundary conditions and the direction of the gravity used for the numerical
In Figure 3, the boundary
simulations are depicted. At the top conditions and thesurfaces
and the bottom directionasofwell
the as
gravity
at the used
outerfor theofnumerical
shell the NaNO3
simulations are depicted. At the top and the bottom surfaces as well as
an adiabatic wall is defined. The adiabatic boundary conditions avoid a heat exchange at the outer shell with
of thethe
NaNO 3 an adiabatic wall is defined. The adiabatic boundary conditions avoid a heat exchange with
surrounding through these surfaces. The consequence of the adiabatic boundary condition is that
the surrounding through these surfaces. The consequence of the adiabatic boundary condition is that
during the charging process no dissipation of the heat coming from the heat transfer fluid through the
during the charging process no dissipation of the heat coming from the heat transfer fluid through
steel tube is given. In real thermal heat storage devices the container is completely insulated against
the steel tube is given. In real thermal heat storage devices the container is completely insulated
the environment. The thickness of this insulation is chosen in such a way that the thermal loss is as low
against the environment. The thickness of this insulation is chosen in such a way that the thermal
as economically feasible. Thus, nearly adiabatic conditions are given for such a storage unit. Therefore
loss is as low as economically feasible. Thus, nearly adiabatic conditions are given for such a storage
the assumption of an adiabatic wall is justified.
unit. Therefore the assumption of an adiabatic wall is justified.

Figure3.3.Boundary
Figure Boundaryconditions
conditions used
used for
for the
the analyzed
analyzedheat
heatexchanger
exchangerconfiguration.
configuration.

AtAt
thethe sidewalls
side wallsofofthe
thecomputational
computational domain
domain the
the symmetry
symmetryboundary
boundarycondition
conditionwaswasused.
used.
For the numerical simulations, the initial temperature of the whole system (tube, wire and NaNO3)
For the numerical simulations, the initial temperature of the whole system (tube, wire and NaNO3 )
was 569.15 K for the melting and 589.15 K for the solidification process. The tube wall surface
was 569.15 K for the melting and 589.15 K for the solidification process. The tube wall surface
temperature Tw, which represents the boundary condition at the inner tube diameter surface, was
temperature Tw , which represents the boundary condition at the inner tube diameter surface, was
599.15 K for the melting and 559.15 K for the solidification process. The tube wall surface
599.15 K for the melting and 559.15 K for the solidification process. The tube wall surface temperature
temperature was kept constant during the whole simulation.
was kept constant during the whole simulation.
The grid size used for the discretization of the computational grid was determined after a
careful grid
The size usedofforthe
examination theresults
discretization
of a gridofrefinement
the computational grida was
process. As timedetermined
step for theafter a careful
numerical
examination of the results of a grid refinement process. As a time step for the numerical simulation,
Energies 2016,
Energies 2016, 9,
9, 205
205 77of
of18
18

simulation, a value of 0.05 s was used, which is also a result of preliminary tests [45]. A further
adecrease
value ofof
0.05
thes time
was used, which
step size as is alsoasa of
well result of preliminary
the size of control tests [45]. of
volumes A the
further decrease of grid
computational the time
did
step size as well as of the size of control volumes of the computational grid did not
not show noticeable changes in the results. For the computational domain shown in Figures 2 and 3 ashow noticeable
changes in theofresults.
total number For thevolumes
65,624 control computational
is used.domain shown
The value in volume
for the Figures ratio,
2 andwhich
3 a total numberas:
is defined of
65,624 control volumes is used. The value for the volume ratio, which is defined as:
Volume of the wire matrix
Volume of the wire matrix (12)
Volume of the PCM (12)
Volume of the PCM
is 0.149 and the surface to volume ratio
is 0.149 and the surface to volume ratio
Surface area of the wire matrix
Surface area of the wire matrix (13)
(13)
Volume
Volume of thewire
of the wirematrix
matrix
is 0.965 m11. .

The numerical simulations presented in the present article are done on an 8 core computer and
the
the computation
computationtime for for
time the melting process
the melting was approximately
process two weekstwo
was approximately while for thewhile
weeks solidification
for the
process the computation time was about three weeks.
solidification process the computation time was about three weeks.

3. NumericalResults
3. Numerical Resultsand
andDiscussion
Discussion
In
In the
the following, the results
following, the results of
of the
the numerical
numerical simulation
simulationof
ofthe
themelting
meltingprocess
processwill
willbe
bepresented.
presented.

3.1. Results for the Charging Process

3.1. Results for the Charging Process
In Figure 4 the chronological sequence of the volume averaged temperature (red curve) and
In Figure 4 the chronological sequence of the volume averaged temperature (red curve) and
volume averaged liquid fraction (blue curve) for the PCM during the charging process using a wire
volume averaged liquid fraction (blue curve) for the PCM during the charging process using a wire
matrix for improving the heat transfer is presented. The black dashed line in Figure 4 shows the melting
matrix for improving the heat transfer is presented. The black dashed line in Figure 4 shows the
temperature of the PCM.
melting temperature of For
thecomparison
PCM. For reasons a further
comparison time asequence
reasons further of a volume
time averaged
sequence of a NaNO
volume3
temperature of a heat exchanger tube design with longitudinal fins (green colored) is included in
averaged NaNO3 temperature of a heat exchanger tube design with longitudinal fins (green colored)
Figure 4. in Figure 4.
is included

Figure 4.
Figure 4. Chronological
Chronological sequence
sequence of the volume
of the volume averaged
averaged temperature
temperature and
and liquid
liquid fraction
fraction for
for the
the
phase change
phase change material
material during
during the
the melting
melting process.
process.

The numerical simulation for the heat exchanger tube with longitudinal fins was done under
The numerical simulation for the heat exchanger tube with longitudinal fins was done under the
the same conditions and with approximately same ratios and as for the wire matrix. The data for
same conditions and with approximately same ratios and as for the wire matrix. The data for this
this curve is taken from [45]. It can be seen in Figure 4 that the volume averaged temperature shows
curve is taken from [45]. It can be seen in Figure 4 that the volume averaged temperature shows no
no distinct flattening in the curve around the melting temperature compared to the tube with
distinct flattening in the curve around the melting temperature compared to the tube with longitudinal
longitudinal fins. This behavior is a result of the aluminum wire matrix.
fins. This behavior is a result of the aluminum wire matrix.
The development of the liquid fraction of the PCM over the time is depicted in Figure 5. During
The development of the liquid fraction of the PCM over the time is depicted in Figure 5. During
the first phase of the charging process (the melted region is small) the heat conduction is the main
the first phase of the charging process (the melted region is small) the heat conduction is the main
heat transfer mechanism. Furthermore, it can be seen that the melting process starts at the top of the
Energies 2016, 9, 205 8 of 18
Energies 2016, 9, 205 8 of 18

heat transfer mechanism.

computational domain and Furthermore, it can be seen
grows synchronously that the
towards themelting process
outer shell starts
and the at the Therefore,
bottom. top of the
computational domain and grows synchronously towards the outer shell and
an asymmetric melting behavior over the height is given. This asymmetric melting process is a result the bottom. Therefore,
an
of asymmetric
the increasing melting behavior
influence overnatural
of the the height is given. (buoyancy-driven
convection This asymmetric melting process
currents) on theis a charging
result of
the increasing influence of the natural convection (buoyancy-driven currents)
process. The molten PCM rises up along the tube wall as it gets heated and flows downwards on the charging process.
along
The
the solid NaNO3 where it cools down by transferring heat to the solid region. Thus, a vortexsolid
molten PCM rises up along the tube wall as it gets heated and flows downwards along the flow
NaNO where it cools down by transferring heat to the solid region. Thus,
arises in the melted zone, which helps to enhance the heat transfer to the solidliquid layer of the
3 a vortex flow arises in
the melted zone, which helps to enhance the heat transfer to the solidliquid
NaNO3. This effect is increased by the adiabatic boundary condition on the top of the computational layer of the NaNO 3.
This effectAs
domain. is increased
mentionedbyabove,the adiabatic
no lossboundary
of heat tocondition on the topduring
the environment of the the
computational
charging processdomain. is
As mentioned above, no loss of heat to the environment during the charging process
given. Thus the natural convection flow in the melted region of the PCM forces heat transfer to the is given. Thus the
natural convection
upper part flow in the melted
of the computational region
domain. Thisofintensifies
the PCM forces heat transfer
the described to the upper
asymmetric melting part of the
process.
computational
However, the domain.
results ofThis intensifies the
experimental described asymmetric
investigations, e.g., [46,47],melting
showprocess.
the same However, the
effect. The
results of experimental investigations, e.g., [46,47], show the same effect. The
measured temperature at the top of the storage device with vertical heat exchanger tubes increases measured temperature
at the top
faster of the storage
compared device with at
to the temperature vertical heat exchanger
the bottom. tubesthat
This indicates increases fasterfront
the melting compared
movestofromthe
temperature
the top to the at the bottom.
bottom. ThisThis indicateswas
behavior thatalso
the melting
observedfront moves from by
experimentally the [46,47]
top to the as bottom.
well as
This behavior was also
numerically by [9,10,48]. observed experimentally by [46,47] as well as numerically by [9,10,48].

Figure 5. Contours of the liquid fraction of the PCM during the melting process at different time steps.
Figure 5. Contours of the liquid fraction of the PCM during the melting process at different time steps.

A vector plot of the velocity including the liquid fraction of the PCM is represented in Figure 6.
It canA be
vector
seenplot
thatofthethevelocity
velocityprofile
including
withinthetheliquid fraction
melted zoneof is the PCM is
complex represented
based on the wirein Figure 6.
matrix.
ItAtcan
thebe seen thatofthe
beginning thevelocity
chargingprofile
processwithin
(see the melted
Figure zone isthe
6a), where complex
meltedbased
regionon is the wire
small, wematrix.
find a
At
steep gradient of the phase front. This is, on the one hand, a result of the small distance to thefind
the beginning of the charging process (see Figure 6a), where the melted region is small, we a
steel
steep gradient of the phase front. This is, on the one hand, a result of the
tube and, on the other hand, a result of the heat conduction which is the main heat transfer small distance to the steel
tube and, on during
mechanism the other hand,
this a result
period of melting
of the the heat process.
conduction Wewhich is the
can also seemain heat transfer
in Figure 6a that mechanism
during this
during this period of the melting process. We can also see in Figure 6a
first phase of melting the radial directed wires restrict the start of natural convection.that during this Therefore
first phasethe
of
melting the radial directed wires restrict the start of natural convection. Therefore
melting process of the PCM on top of each wire is slower compared to the region beside the radial the melting process
of the PCM
wire, whereonthe
top buoyancy-driven
of each wire is slower flowcompared to the region
is unrestricted beside the radial
and accelerated. This wire,
effectwhere
loses the
its
buoyancy-driven flow is unrestricted and accelerated.
importance with increasing liquid region of the PCM, see Figure 6b. This effect loses its importance with increasing
liquid region of the PCM, see Figure 6b.
Energies 2016, 9, 205 9 of 18
Energies 2016, 9, 205 9 of 18

Energies 2016, 9, 205 9 of 18

Figure 6. Vector plot of the liquid velocity of the molten PCM at different time steps.
Figure 6. Vector plot of the liquid velocity of the molten PCM at different time steps.
Figure 6. Vector plot of the liquid velocity of the molten PCM at different time steps.
A detailed three-dimensional view of the velocity field around the wire matrix is shown in
A detailed three-dimensional view of the velocity field around the wire matrix is shown in
FigureA 7. Based on
detailed the flow restriction
three-dimensional of the
view wire
of the matrix field
velocity the liquid PCM
around theflows
wirearound
matrix the wire and
is shown in
Figure 7. Based
increases on the
locally its flow restriction of the wire matrix the liquid PCM flows around the wire and
velocity.
Figure 7. Based on the flow restriction of the wire matrix the liquid PCM flows around the wire and
increases locally its velocity.
increases locally its velocity.

Figure 7. Vector plot of the liquid velocity of the PCM 225 s after simulation start.
Figure 7. Vector plot of the liquid velocity of the PCM 225 s after simulation start.
If theFigure
downward7. Vector
flowplot of the
of the PCMliquid
alongvelocity of the PCMlayer
the solidliquid 225 sisafter simulation
restricted start.
by a tangential wire
(a part of the tangential wire is surrounded by the solid PCM, see Figures 6
If the downward flow of the PCM along the solidliquid layer is restricted by a tangential wireand 7) then the melting
If the downward
process flow of the PCMin thealong the solidliquid layer is restricted byisaatangential of a wire
(a part ofistheslowed down
tangential locally
wire solidby
is surrounded region behind
the solid PCM,thesee
tangential
Figures wire.
6 andThis
7) then result
the melting
(a part of the
lower
process istangential
heat transferdown
slowed wire
from is surrounded
the
locallywire
in to
thethe by
solid
solid the solid
region
region PCM,
behind
behind see
thethe Figures
tangential
tangential 6 and
wire
wire. 7)is then
based
This a on athe
result ofmelting
smalla
process is slowed
temperature down locally
difference betweenin the solid
wire and region
solid behind
material. the tangential wire.
lower heat transfer from the wire to the solid region behind the tangential wire based on a small This is a result of a lower
The from
heat transfer
temperature timedifference
evolution
the toofthe
wirebetween thesolid
averaged
wireregion velocity
and solidbehind ofthe
thetangential
material. molten PCM wireis based
presented
on ainsmall Figure 8. In
temperature
Figure
differenceThe 8 it
between can be seen that
wire andofsolid
time evolution during the first period of the charging process the buoyancy-driven
material.velocity of the molten PCM is presented in Figure 8. In
the averaged
velocity8 of the
canmolten
Figure
The timeitevolution ofPCM
be seen isduring
high. This
thataveraged
the the is a result
first
velocity of theofof
period the
thesmall
molten liquidprocess
charging
PCM layer and
is presented the
thein relatively high
buoyancy-driven
Figure 8. In Figure 8
velocity of the molten PCM is high. This is a result of the small liquid layer and the relativelyofhigh
temperature difference between the solid PCM and the tube wall. With
it can be seen that during the first period of the charging process the buoyancy-driven velocity of
increasing thickness the
temperature difference between the solid PCM and the tube wall. With increasing thickness of the
the molten PCM is high. This is a result of the small liquid layer and the relatively high temperature
difference between the solid PCM and the tube wall. With increasing thickness of the liquid layer and
solid temperature the temperature difference and consequently the velocity decreases. In the time
Energies 2016, 9, 205 10 of 18
Energies 2016, 9, 205 10 of 18

period between
liquid layer approximately 200 s upthe
and solid temperature to 800 s the graph
temperature for the wired
difference matrix shows
and consequently thesome velocity
velocity
Energies 2016, 9, 205 10 of 18
peaks. These peaks
decreases. In theare
timea period
result between
of the transversal arranged
approximately 200 s upwires
to 800which represent
s the graph anwired
for the obstacle
matrixduring
shows
the charging some velocity peaks. These peaks are a result of the transversal arranged
process for the fluid flow of the melted PCM. With the development of a small melted wires which
liquid layer and solid temperature the temperature difference and consequently the velocity
represent
PCMdecreases. an obstacle
layer between during thethe
the wire charging PCM,
processthefordownward
the fluid flow of the flowmelted PCM. With the
In the time periodand
betweensolid
approximately 200 s up to 800moving
s the graph forofthethe liquid
wired PCM is
matrix
development
divided of a small melted PCM layer between the wire and the solid PCM, the downward
shows some velocity peaks. These peaks are a result of the transversal arranged wires which fluid
and flows through the small liquid layer and crosses the tangential arranged wire. This
moving flow of the liquid PCM is divided and flows through the small liquid layer and crosses the
flow represent
through an theobstacle
layer shows
duringathehigh velocity
charging which
process forresults
the fluid inflow
the velocity peak.
of the melted PCM.ThisWith
behavior
the is
tangential arranged wire. This fluid flow through the layer shows a high velocity which results in
development
intensified if two or of more
a small melted PCM
tangential layer between
arranged wires arethein wire and the
the same solid
state. PCM,
With the downward
increasing liquid layer
the velocity peak. This behavior is intensified if two or more tangential arranged wires are in the
moving
behind flow of thewire
thestate.
tangential liquid
thePCM is divided
averaged and flows through the small liquid layer and crosses the
same With increasing liquid layervelocity
behind thedecreases.
tangential wire the averaged velocity decreases.
tangential arranged wire. This fluid flow through the layer shows a high velocity which results in
the velocity peak. This behavior is intensified if two or more tangential arranged wires are in the
same state. With increasing liquid layer behind the tangential wire the averaged velocity decreases.

Figure 8. Chronological sequence of the volume averaged velocity during the charging process.
Figure 8. Chronological sequence of the volume averaged velocity during the charging process.
Such velocity peaks cannot be observed after approximately 800 s after simulation start. The
Such velocity peaks cannot
Figure 8. Chronological be observed
sequence of the volume after approximately
velocity during800 s afterprocess.
simulation start.
circumstance for this behavior is given by a generalaveraged
lowering of the averaged the charging
PCM velocity and the
The circumstance
flattening of thefor this behavior
melting front. When is given by a front
the melting general lowering
becomes more and of themoreaveraged PCM velocity
flat the number of
and the Such velocity
flattening of thepeaks
meltingcannot be When
front. observed after
thefluid approximately
melting 800 smoreafter and
simulation start.
theThe
transversal arranged wires which restrain the flow front becomes
decreases. more flat number
circumstance
of transversal for this behavior is given by a the
general lowering of the averaged PCM velocity and the
With arranged
increasing wires which
of liquid volumerestrain
fraction fluid
the flow decreases.
temperature difference within the molten region
flattening of the melting front. When the melting front becomes more and more flat the number of
With increasing
decreases. of liquid
This results volume
in a further fraction
decrease thevolume
of the temperature
averaged difference
velocity ofwithin
the PCM.the molten region
transversal arranged wires which restrain the fluid flow decreases.
decreases.The Thischarged
resultspower per volume
in a further PCMofisthe
decrease depicted
volumeinaveraged
Figure 9. velocity
The curve of shows
the PCM. the typical
With increasing of liquid volume fraction the temperature difference within the molten region
behavior
The of
charged a LHTES
power during the charging process. During the first phase of the melting process the
decreases. This resultsper
in avolume
further PCM is depicted
decrease in Figure
of the volume 9. The
averaged curve of
velocity shows the typical behavior
the PCM.
charged
of a LHTES power is very high, based on the high temperature difference between the heat transfer
Theduring
chargedthe charging
power process.
per volume PCMDuring the first
is depicted in phase
Figureof 9. the
Themelting
curve showsprocess the the charged
typical
fluid and the solid PCM. With the development of the first small liquid layer of PCM along the outer
power is very high, based on the high temperature difference between the
behavior of a LHTES during the charging process. During the first phase of the melting process the heat transfer fluid and the
tube surface the temperature difference between the heat transfer fluid and the liquid PCM
solidcharged
PCM. With power theisdevelopment
very high, based of the
on first small
the high liquid layer
temperature of PCMbetween
difference along the theouter
heat tube surface
transfer
decreases and therefore, also the heat flux decreases. After this typical rapid decrease of power (see
fluid and thedifference
the temperature solid PCM.between
With thethe development
heat of the
transfer firstand
fluid smalltheliquid
liquid layer
PCM of PCM along and
decreases the outer
therefore,
also measurement data in [46,47]), the charged power is approximately constant up to about 1000 s
tubeheat
also the surface
flux the temperature difference
decreases. between the heat transfer fluid and the liquid PCM data
after simulation start (in After this typical
this analyzed case).rapid
Duringdecrease of power
this period of time(seethe also measurement
volume averaged
decreases and therefore, also the heat flux decreases. After this typical rapid decrease of power (see
in [46,47]), the charged
temperature increases power
close isto approximately constant(see
the melting temperature up Figure
to about 4). 1000
Whens after simulation
the volume start (in
averaged
also measurement data in [46,47]), the charged power is approximately constant up to about 1000 s
this analyzed
temperature case).
of theDuring this period
PCM achieves of time the
approximately themelting
volume averaged the
temperature, temperature
charged power increases close to
decreases.
after simulation start (in this analyzed case). During this period of time the volume averaged
the melting temperature (see Figure 4). When the volume averaged temperature of the PCM achieves
temperature increases close to the melting temperature (see Figure 4). When the volume averaged
approximately
temperaturethe melting
of the temperature,
PCM achieves the charged
approximately power
the melting decreases.the charged power decreases.
temperature,

Figure 9. Chronological sequence of the volume averaged charged power during the melting process.

Figure 9. Chronological sequence of the volume averaged charged power during the melting process.
Figure 9. Chronological sequence of the volume averaged charged power during the melting process.
Energies 2016, 9, 205 11 of 18
Energies 2016, 9, 205 11 of 18

3.2. Results for the Discharging Process

In the following the results of the numerical simulation of the solidification process will be
presented.
presented. The
The boundary
boundaryand andinitial
initialconditions
conditionsused
usedforforthe
thenumerical
numerical investigations
investigations areare
described
described in
detail in Section
in detail 2.4.2.4.
in Section
At the
the beginning
beginningof ofthe
thedischarging
dischargingprocess
processthe complete
the complete sodium
sodium nitrate is inisthe
nitrate statestate
in the of liquid and
of liquid
the circulation of the NaNO
and the circulation of the NaNO 3 starts along the whole external shell of the computational
3 starts along the whole external shell of the computational domain domain with
an averaged
with velocity
an averaged close toclose
velocity zero to
(see Figure
zero (see10). This10).
Figure circulation is a resultisofathe
This circulation natural
result convection
of the natural
which is based
convection whichon isthebased
temperature
on the difference
temperature between the sodium
difference betweennitrate (initial temperature
the sodium nitrate (initial is
589.15 K) and the heat transfer fluid (represented by the boundary condition
temperature is 589.15 K) and the heat transfer fluid (represented by the boundary condition of the of the inner tube wall
surface temperature
inner tube wall surface Twtemperature
= 559.15 K). T Based on the
w = 559.15 K).large
Basedtemperature
on the largedifference
temperature during this period
difference duringof
solidification
this period of thesolidification
buoyancy-driven the velocity increases rapidly.
buoyancy-driven velocityWith decreasing
increases temperature
rapidly. difference
With decreasing
within the molten
temperature region within
difference and increasing
the moltenthickness of the
region andsolid PCM thethickness
increasing averagedof velocity of the
the solid sodium
PCM the
nitrate
averageddecreases.
velocity of the sodium nitrate decreases.

Figure 10. Chronological sequence of the volume averaged velocity during the discharging process.
Figure 10. Chronological sequence of the volume averaged velocity during the discharging process.

In Figure
In Figure11,11,thethe development
development of theofliquid
the fraction
liquid fraction of thenitrate
of the sodium sodiumduringnitrate during the
the solidification
process at different time steps is depicted. As we can see from Figure 11 the solidification process11starts
solidification process at different time steps is depicted. As we can see from Figure the
solidification
at the bottom process starts at the bottom
of the computational domainofand thealong
computational
the outer tubedomain and This
surface. alongresult
the outer tube
is in good
agreement with numerical results presented in [9,10,48,49] and experimental work in [46,47]. Inand
surface. This result is in good agreement with numerical results presented in [9,10,48,49] all
experimental
references workvertical
a single in [46,47]. In allshell-and-tube
arranged references a heat single vertical isarranged
exchanger shell-and-tube
investigated. For improving heat
exchanger
the is investigated.
heat transfer longitudinalFor improving and
[9,10,46,47,49] the transversal
heat transfer longitudinal
[48,49] fins are used. [9,10,46,47,49]
The numerical and
transversal [48,49] fins are used. The numerical investigations
investigations are done three-dimensionally, except [48], which was two-dimensionally. In all are done three-dimensionally,
except [48],simulations,
numerical which was the two-dimensionally.
volume change ofInthe all PCM
numerical
during simulations,
phase change thedue
volume change
to density of the
changes
PCM during phase change due to density changes is neglected, the outer
is neglected, the outer shell of the computational region is considered as adiabatic, and the mushy shell of the computational
regionconstant
zone is considered
used for as the
adiabatic, and the
calculations mushy
is C = 105 .zoneThe constant
numerical used for the calculations
simulation presented inis[9,10,49]
C = 105.
Thedone
are numerical
for thesimulation
same boundary presented in [9,10,49]
conditions are done
and with for the same
approximately theboundary
same ratios conditions
(betweenand0.164
with
approximately the same ratios (between 0.164
1 and 0.098) and (between
and 0.098) and (between 1.19 and 0.79 m ) as for the present study. In [48] the supply temperature 1.19 and 0.79 m 1) as for

the present
and the outletstudy. In [48]
pressure forthe
thesupply temperature
heat transfer fluid are andusedtheasoutlet pressure
boundary for thefor
condition heat
thetransfer fluid
heat transfer
are used as boundary condition for the heat transfer fluid. The analyzed
fluid. The analyzed heat exchanger tube in [48] shows with a volume ratio of = 0.016 and a surfaceheat exchanger tube in [48]
shows with a volume ratio of
1 = 0.016 and a surface to
to volume ratio of = 1.58 m a larger deviation compared to the wire matrix.volume ratio of = 1.58 m 1 a larger deviation

compared to the wire

The numerical matrix. presented in [10] are done for the same heat exchanger tube design as
simulations
used for the experimental work in [46,47]. The experimental work was done at approximately constant
heat transfer fluid temperature (difference between supply and return temperature of the heat transfer
fluid is approximately 2 K). The length of the heat exchanger tube is 3 m.
With progress of the discharging process the solidified layer of the NaNO3 increases and the
region for the buoyancy driven flow will be restricted by the growing solid sodium nitrate layer. The
decreasing buoyancy-driven fluid flow takes place between the outer shell and the solid NaNO3 .
Energies 2016, 9, 205 12 of 18

Based on the solidified NaNO3 layer an additional heat resistance is given. Thus heat conduction takes
place within the solidified NaNO3 region. The heat conduction will be the significant heat transfer
mechanism during the solidification process and the natural convection gets less relevant. 12 of 18
Energies 2016, 9, 205

Figure
Figure11.11.Contours
Contoursof
ofthe
the liquid
liquid fraction the PCM
fraction of the PCM during
duringthe
thedischarging
dischargingprocess
process
at at different
different
time steps.
time steps.

InTheFigure 12 the simulations

numerical time evolution of the in
presented volume
[10] areaveraged
done for liquid
the same fraction as well astube
heat exchanger temperature
design
of as
theused
sodium for the experimental work in [46,47]. The experimental work was done at approximatelyline
nitrate for the analyzed heat exchanger design is illustrated. The black dashed
in constant
Figure 12 shows
heat the melting
transfer temperature
fluid temperature of the PCM.
(difference between From Figure
supply and12return
it cantemperature
be seen thatofduring
the
theheat
firsttransfer
phase fluid
of solidification the volume
is approximately 2 K). Theaveraged
length oftemperature
the heat exchangerdropstuberapidly down close to the
is 3 m.
meltingWith progress of
temperature theapproximately
(first discharging process250 s the solidified
after simulation layer of theDuring
start). NaNOthis3 increases
time theand the
volume
region for the buoyancy driven flow will be restricted by the growing solid sodium
averaged liquid fraction decreases only by approximately 8%. This overall behavior was also observed nitrate layer. The
bydecreasing
experimental buoyancy-driven
measuring, seefluide.g.,flow takes
[46,47]. place
After between
that the outer shell
first solidification andthe
phase, theaveraged
solid NaNO NaNO 3.
3
Based on the
temperature solidified NaNOconstant
is approximately 3 layer an additional
around heat resistance
the melting temperatureis given.
for Thus heatperiod
a longer conduction
of time.
takes
This place
is also within the solidified
characteristic NaNO3 region.
for the solidification The of
process heat conduction
vertical arranged willheat
be the significant
exchanger heatsee
tubes,
transfer
e.g., mechanism during the solidification process and the
[46,47,49], and is in contrast to the melting behavior of the wire matrix.natural convection gets less relevant.
Energies 2016, 9, 205 13 of 18
In Figure 12 the time evolution of the volume averaged liquid fraction as well as temperature of
the sodium nitrate for the analyzed heat exchanger design is illustrated. The black dashed line in
Figure 12 shows the melting temperature of the PCM. From Figure 12 it can be seen that during the
first phase of solidification the volume averaged temperature drops rapidly down close to the
melting temperature (first approximately 250 s after simulation start). During this time the volume
averaged liquid fraction decreases only by approximately 8%. This overall behavior was also
observed by experimental measuring, see e.g., [46,47]. After that first solidification phase, the
averaged NaNO3 temperature is approximately constant around the melting temperature for a
longer period of time. This is also characteristic for the solidification process of vertical arranged
heat exchanger tubes, see e.g., [46,47,49], and is in contrast to the melting behavior of the
wire matrix.

Figure 12. Chronological sequence of the volume averaged temperature and liquid fraction for the
Figure 12. Chronological sequence of the volume averaged temperature and liquid fraction for the
PCM during the discharging process.
PCM during the discharging process.
With decreasing volume averaged liquid fraction the volume averaged temperature of the
NaNO3 is also decreasing.
If we compare Figures 4 and 12, then it can be seen that the melting process is faster than the
solidification process. This shows the great importance of the natural convection during the melting
process. Based on this behavior, it can be concluded that the heat exchanger tube must be designed
 Figure
Energies 12.205
2016, 9, Chronological sequence of the volume averaged temperature and liquid fraction for the
13 of 18
PCM during the discharging process.

With decreasing
With decreasingvolume
volumeaveraged
averaged liquid fraction
liquid the volume
fraction averaged
the volume temperature
averaged of the NaNO
temperature of the3
is also decreasing.
NaNO3 is also decreasing.
If we
If we compare
compare Figures
Figures 44 and
and 12,
12 then
then it
it can
can be
be seen
seen that
that the
the melting
melting process
process isis faster
faster than
than the
the
solidification process. This shows the great importance of the natural convection during
solidification process. This shows the great importance of the natural convection during the melting the melting
process. Based
process. Based onon this
this behavior,
behavior,ititcan
canbebeconcluded
concludedthatthatthe
theheat
heatexchanger
exchanger tube
tubemust
mustbebedesigned
designedin
such
in a way
such a waythat nono
that restriction should
restriction shouldbe be
given forfor
given thethe
natural
naturalconvection
convectionflow, seesee
flow, alsoalso
[10].
[10].
The time evolution of the averaged discharged power per m 3 NaNO during the solidification
The time evolution of the averaged discharged power per m3 NaNO33 during the solidification
process is
process is depicted
depicted inin Figure
Figure 13. For reasons
13. For reasons ofof comparison
comparison aa further
further time
time sequence
sequence of of aa volume
volume
averaged NaNO temperature of a heat exchanger tube design with longitudinal
averaged NaNO3 temperature of a heat exchanger tube design with longitudinal fins (green colored)
3 fins (green colored)
is included
is included in in Figure
Figure 13.
13.

Figure 13. Chronological sequence of the volume averaged discharged power per m33 NaNO3 during
Figure 13. Chronological sequence of the volume averaged discharged power per m NaNO3 during
the
the solidification
solidification process.
process.

Apart from the very first phase of the solidification process (first approximately 30 s), where the
Apart from the very first phase of the solidification process (first approximately 30 s), where the
discharged power shows a maximum based on the high temperature difference between the tube
discharged power shows a maximum based on the high temperature difference between the tube
wall and the sodium nitrate, the discharged power decreases approximately linear between 200 and
wall and the sodium nitrate, the discharged power decreases approximately linear between 200 and
100 kW/m33. During this period the volume averaged liquid fraction reaches the value of
100 kW/m . During this period the volume averaged liquid fraction reaches the value of approximately
approximately 40%. Compared to a heat exchanger tube with longitudinal fins, the discharged
40%. Compared to a heat exchanger tube with longitudinal fins, the discharged power per volume is
power per volume is higher during the first 750 s.
higher during the first 750 s.
The study presented in this paper was done with a small computational height. The following
The study presented in this paper was done with a small computational height. The following
question needs to be evaluated: how is the influence of the computational domain height on the
question needs to be evaluated: how is the influence of the computational domain height on the
numerical results?
numerical results?
The influence of the computational height on the simulation result depends upon whether a
The influence of the computational height on the simulation result depends upon whether a
charging or discharging process is analyzed. The simulation results of the present study as well as
charging or discharging process is analyzed. The simulation results of the present study as well as other
studies (experimental [46,47] and numerical [9,10,48,49]) have shown, that heat conduction is the main
heat transfer mechanism during the discharging process. Therefore the height of the computational
domain had no significant impact on the numerical results, especially with a constant temperature
boundary condition at the tube wall. The main heat transfer takes place in this case in horizontal
direction and only a smaller heat flux is given in the vertical direction. In contrast to the charging
process the heat is not transferred to the upper part of the computational domain.
In case of the charging process the situation is different. The main heat transfer mechanism
during the charging process is natural convection. As we have seen in the results of the numerical
study the natural convection flow in the molten region of the PCM shifts heat to the upper part of the
computational domain (this process is intensified by the adiabatic boundary condition as discussed
above). The consequence of this behavior is that a larger tube (computational domain) height results
in a decrease of the heat flux from the HTF to the PCM in the upper part of the tube based on the
decreasing temperature difference between HTF and PCM in this region. Thus, non-uniform heat flux
Energies 2016, 9, 205 14 of 18

distribution along the vertical heat exchanger tube dimension in direction to the outer shell is given
with passing time. With increasing charging time the heat flux to the phase change material decreases.
The impact of this behavior is given in the overall melting time. With other words, an increase of
the tube (computational domain) height by keeping constant all other (boundary and geometrical)
conditions will result in a larger melting time. But, and that is the most important knowledge, the
basic physical behavior will not be effected.
The performance of the charged and discharged energy has shown that under the analyzed
conditions the wire matrix is an alternative method to enhance the heat transfer to the PCM. But for
the numerical analysis an ideal contact between the surfaces of the single wire as well as to the steel
tube was assumed. This cannot be guaranteed in a real storage application. Therefore a higher contact
resistance between the single wires must be taken into account. Especially in case of changing the
cross section of the wire from quadratic to circular will increase the contact resistance. This will result
in a decrease of the charging/discharging power and in an increase of the charging/discharging time.
Considering the complexity of the problem, including the multi-dimensionality of the melting
and solidification process, the non-uniform heating along the heat exchanger tube (based on the
temperature decrease of the heat transfer fluid in case of a single phase flow), the transient character of
the process, the irregular melting patterns, the subcooling of the PCM during solidification and the heat
transfer to the surroundings, further investigations must be done in future for a better understanding
of the complex overall processes. In a next step, the change in volume of the PCM will be included
to the mathematical models for the simulation of the melting and solidification process and these
results will be validated with measurements made with the test rig at IET. Additionally, the influence
of the model height on the numerical results will be investigated for a better understanding of the
buoyancy-driven flow. But all these measure will lead to a considerable increase of the used CPU time.

4. Conclusions
In the present work, a transient numerical analysis of the melting process of sodium nitrate for a
heat exchanger tube design, which consists of a steel tube and an aluminum wire matrix, has been
performed. For the numerical analysis, the enthalpy-porosity formulation was used to get quantitative
information about the time evolution of the melting front within the phase change material.
The numerical analysis of the melting process has shown that during the first period of the
charging process, where the melted region is very small, the heat conduction is the dominant heat
transfer mechanism. With increasing melted region natural convection plays the key role for the
melting process. This results in a faster melting progress at the top of a storage device compared to the
bottom. The analysis of the heat exchanger tube design with wired matrix indicates that no flattening
is given for the volume averaged temperature of the PCM around the melting temperature.
The numerical results of the solidification process have pointed out that the dominant heat
transfer mechanism during solidification is heat conduction. The investigation has also shown that the
discharging process has been slower than the charging process.
For the numerical analysis, an ideal contact between the surfaces of the single wire as well as to the
steel tube was assumed, but this cannot be guaranteed in a real application. Therefore, a higher contact
resistance between the single wires must be taken into account which results in a larger charging and
discharging time.

Acknowledgments: The K-Project GSGGreenStorageGrid (grand number 836636) is funded in the

framework of COMETCompetence Centers for Excellent Technologies by the Federal Ministry of
Transport, Innovation and Technology, the Federal Ministry of Science, Research and Economy, the Vienna
Business Agency, the Federal Province of Lower Austria and by the Federal Province of Upper Austria.
The program line COMET is administrated by the Austrian Research Promotion Agency (FFG (sterreichische
Forschungsfrderungsgesellschaft)).
The authors would also like to thank the project partners Valmet GesmbH., EVN AG, ENRAG GmbH. and
Primetals Technologies GmbH. for the pleasant and constructive working relationship.
Energies 2016, 9, 205 15 of 18

Author Contributions: Martin Koller has conducted the numerical simulations and result analysis; Michael
Hameter supported the numerical simulations and the result analysis; and Heimo Walter contributed to the study
design, result analysis, the coordination of the whole project and wrote the manuscript.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Nomenclature

Ac Porosity function (kg/m3 s)

b Computational constant (-)
C Mushy zone constant (kg/m3 s)
cp Specific heat at constant pressure (J/kgK)
H Total enthalpy (J/kg)
Hs Sensible enthalpy (J/kg)
Hlat Latent enthalpy for the phase change in a numerical control volume (J/kg)
k Thermal conductivity (W/mK)
L Latent heat of fusion (J/kg)
p Pressure (N/m2 )
SM Source term momentum equation (N/m3 )
SE Source term energy equation (J/m3 s)
t Time (s)
T Temperature (K)
v Velocity (m/s)
Greek letters
Surface to volume ratio (1/m)
Liquid fraction (-)
Volume ratio (-)
Thermal conductivity (W/mK)
Density (kg/m3 )
Dynamic viscosity (kg/ms)
Subscripts
E Energy balance
lat Latent
liq Liquidus
M Momentum balance
ref Reference
s Sensible
sol Solidus
W Wall

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