Imparting Various Finishes On Polyester Cotton Fabric using

Antistatic And Softening Agents

A Major Project Report

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY

IN

TEXTILE ENGINEERING

(2011-2015)

By
Khushboo (TE-5961)
Robin Saklani (TE-5981)
Bijender Kumar Ranta(TE-5988)
ShikhaSharma(TE-5995)
Rohil(TE-5999)

DEPARTMENT OF TEXTILE ENGINEERING

JAWAHARLAL NEHRU GOVT. ENGINEERING COLLEGE,
SUNDERNAGAR, DISST. MANDI (H.P)
CERTIFICATE

I hereby certify that the work which is being presented in the final report entitled Imparting
Various Finishes On Polyester Cotton Fabric using Anistatic And Softening Agents
fulfillment of the requirements for the award of Bachelor of Technology and submitted to the
department of Textile Engineering of J.N. Govt. Engg. College is an authentic record of our
work carried out during a period from Jan 2015 to Jan 2015 under the supervision of MS.
PREETI GAUTAM.

The matter presented in this report hs not been submitted by us for the award of any other degree
elsewhere.
Khushboo (TE-5961)
Robin Saklani (TE-5981)
Bijender Kumar Ranta (TE-5988)
ShikhaSharma(TE-5995)
Rohil(TE-5999)

This is to certify that the above statement made by the candidate is correct to the best of my
knowledge.

SUPERVISOR

Ms. PreetiGautam.
Assistant Professor
Department of Textile Engineering
J. N. Govt. Engg. College, Sunder Nagar

Certified that the candidates were examined in the viva voce examination held on ..

.. ..
(Internal Examiner) (External Examiner)
 ABSTRACT

Polyester cotton blend is the most usable fabric in the world. It contributes to 65% all the fabrics.
Polyester cotton blend fabric is amazingly versatile, wheather alone and blended. P/C blend is
popular because it is easy to care for and comfortable year round. In hot humid weather P/C
breathe. In cold weather, the fabric remains dry, the fabric retained body heat especially napped
fabric.

P/C blend has some disadvantages associated with it such as not tear resistant, rougher, less
comfort, flammable etc. To overcome these drawbacks different finishing chemicals are used to
finish polyester cotton blend fabrics. The aim of this project was to apply anti static finishing i.e
soil release finish, anti pollen finish etc to P/C blend fabric using anti static finish agents so as to
impart more than one functional characteristics to the fabric at the same time without any
deterioration in its primary properties of P/C.

All the properties provided by anti static on finished P/C were satisfactory so it can be used as a
multi finishing agents.
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First of all, we owe or sincere thanks to almighty God by whose grace I have been able to
complete my project work.

It is grateful to acknowledge my indebtness and heartful thanks to the management for giving me
an opportunity to pursue this project at our esteemed organization, JN GOVT. ENGG.
COLLEGE SUNDERNAGAR, DISTT. MANDI (HP).

The satisfaction, which accompanies the successful completion of any task, is in complete
without the mention of the persons who made it possible, because success may be the epitome of
ones hard work, perseverance and determination cant be achieved without someones
encouraging guidance and advice or which serve as beacon light and crown ones efforts with
success.

T extend my earnest thanks and gratefulness to my project guide Miss. Preeti Gautam for her
invaluable guidance, constructive criticism and unceasing encouragement during project work.

I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to Prof. L.K Awasthi (Director-cum-Principal)and

Mr. Praveen Kumar( Branch Incharge) for their constant supervision and valuable support during
the project work.

Finally we express my sincere gratitude to all our Staff Members, Group Mates and Beloved
Parents for their guidelines and support to carry out the project effectively and efficiently.
TABLE OF CONTENTS

S.NO. TITLE
Abstract
1 Introduction
2 Literature Survey
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Finishing of Polyester Cotton blend
2.3 Anti static agent
2.3.1 Mechanism of Antistatic agent
2.3.2 Anti static finishes
2.3.3 Static electricity
2.4 Mechanism of softening effect
2.4.1 Cationic softeners
3 Experimental
3.1 Material
3.2 Finishing agent
3.3 Chemical used
3.4 Physical properties
3.5 Instruments and apparatus
3.6 Method of application
3.6.1 Recipe
3.7 Testing Instruments and tests
3.7.1 Testing of anti static finishes
3.7.2 Electrostatic voltmeter
3.7.3 Electrostatic multimeter
3.7.4 Drying and curing chamber
3.7.5 Water bath
3.7.6 Padding mangle
3.7.7 Electronic weighing machine
3.7.8 Rubbing fastness testing
3.7.9 Light fastness testing
3.7.10 Air permeability testing
3.7.11 Flammability testing
3.7.12 Tensile strength testing
3.7.13 Handle
3.7.14 Soil release testing
3.7.15 Color fastness testing
4 Result analysis
5 Conclusion
6 References

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction

Traditionally textiles were considers as low technology domain as their primary functions
were protection of modesty providing micro climate and good look. With the
intensification of global competition, textile manufacturing companies from developed
countries are competing for a significant share of the global market by developing new
technologies or new products. Companies are trying to differentiate their products with
specific and special functions. The consumer are demanding textile products with higher
performances, even in the traditional clothing and home textile areas as the world market
of textiles is becoming highly competitive.
Finishing is the process of giving certain treatment of the fabric in order to increase the
aesthetic feel of fabric and imparting desirable characteristics and enhancing physical
appearance.
Finishing on cotton polyester blend using Antistatic finishing agent.The finished fabric
with different concentration was then studied for different characteristics. Apart from
functional characteristics primary properties of fabric were also assessed such as The
Polyester and cotton are crucial materials in the fabric and garment-making industries
because each has a number of useful characteristics. Poly-cotton blends are created by
employing industrial weavers and looms to combine the two fibers; blend ratios typically
range from 65 percent cotton and 35 percent polyester to a 50-50 mix. While these blends
may have some cons, the far more plentiful pros mean that poly-cottons are ideal for
artistically-minded craftspeople who enjoy making their own clothing, costumes and
furniture coverings.Poly-cotton blends are strong, durable and tear-resistant, thanks to the
fact that polyester fibers are far more elastic than cotton alone. Also, polyester doesn't
shrink and change shape the way cotton does, giving users of the blend more latitude in
how the fabric is washed and dried. However, thanks to the cotton component, blends are
very abrasion-resistant and far more breathable than pure polyester. In addition, poly-
cotton blends can be dyed in a wide range of colors and, because they are so widely
available, tend to be far cheaper than pure cotton fabrics.
In this study we applied various finishing to polyester cotton fabric using Anti static
finish and cationic softener as a finishing agent. The finished fabric with different
concentration was then studied for different characteristics. Apart from various
characteristics primary properties of fabric were assessed such as static charge, rubbing
fastness, light fastness, color fastness, drape etc.
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE
SURVEY
Literature Review:
2.1 Introduction
Textile finishing usually includes treatments such as scouring dyeing printing etc to enhance
their basic characteristics like dye penetration print ability, wet ability hand and appearance.
Types of finishing:

(1)CHEMICAL FINISHING: In this process fabric is treated with chemical in order to increase
aesthetic feel e.g wrinkle resistance flame proof etc
(2) MECHANICAL FINISHING: In this process fabric is finished with the help of some
mechanical means e.g embossing, calendaring, suedingetc
(3) CHEMICAL PLUS MECHANICAL FINISHING: In this process fabric is finished with help
of both chemical and mechanical means e.g wet, calendaring, sanforizing etc.

2.2 Finishing of P/C Blend:

The benefits of cotton are that it is breathable, which means it is a good material to wear when
it's hot. However, cotton will wear out and rip, particularly if it is 100 percent cotton. Cotton
canvas won't rip as easily, but it is heavy. Natural fibers, such as cotton, are more expensive than
synthetic (polyester) materials. Cotton burns, whereas polyester melts. Cotton is hypoallergenic
and doesn't cause allergies or irritate skin. It is soft and long-lasting if cared for. It is easily
blended with polyester or other synthetics and can be treated so that it is heat-resistant. Cotton is
also easily dyed because of its absorbency properties. Cotton is a natural product, and therefore
doesn't contain any chemicals.Because cotton has a naturally textured surface, it is good for
cleaning and can be sterilized. Cotton doesn't irritate the skin, because it is supple; but it is not as
durable as polyester, which is unyielding. Cotton canvas is far more abrasion-resistant than
polyester.When affordable. Cotton combined with polyester is less prone to pilling and static
Today's poly-cotton blends are softer than their predecessors. This type of fabric keeps it shape
and color longer, and it doesn't shrink. Blended products are usually less expensive and last
longer than cotton, according to TMS Promotional Wear and Products combining polyester with
cotton, the result is a stronger material. Polyester is a man-made fiber made of coal, air, water
and petroleum products. There are several different types of polyester; through the term
"polyester" typically refers to polyethylene terephthalate (PET). Polyester fibers for the
production of fabrics are formed by forcing fiber forming materials through tiny holes, forming a
thread. Other forms of polyester are also used to make plastic bottles, insulation, and the glossy
finish on instruments.

2.2.1 Pollutants:

Since polyester is the main component in polyester cotton and polyester is a synthetic, man-
made, material, chemicals are used and created as the result of production. De-sizing and
bleaching agents are used to pre-treat the fabric as well as dyes and other chemicals used in
printing techniques to create the final colors and patterns. Water and energy consumption are
also a factor in the processing technique used to create the fabric.

2.2.2 Flammable:

Polyester is a polymer, meaning that it has many of the same characteristics as plastic. It melts
and burns at the same time and quickly sticks to any surface it drips on, including skin. Since the
primary fiber in polyester cotton is polyester, this means that the fabric is flammable and that
polyester cottons must be ironed at a very low temperate, if at all, to prevent melting.

ComfortThe blend of polyester and cotton does not breathe or stay cool as well as pure cotton,
making it uncomfortable for some. Since polyester is a synthetic fiber and less absorbent than
natural fibers, the higher the percentage of polyester in the finished fabric, the less breathable
and rougher the texture.

2.2.3 Staining:

Polyester fibers hold non water-soluble dye extremely well, which is great for creating vibrant
colors and patterns for clothing and upholstery and makes water-soluble stains easy to clean
However, it also means that oil stains, which are non water-soluble, are quick to set and difficult
to remove.
2.2.4 Cotton-polyester blends data sheet.

Properties of polyester cotton blend

End of life Opportunity summary for

Cotton-polyester blends
Data Sheet for Cotton-polyester blends

Natural & synthetic fibre blend. Cotton & polyester blends combine the best of
General the properties of both fibres to provide a fabric that has easy care qualities
with the comfort afforded by the moisture absorption characteristics of cotton.

Widely available. Widely available in a range blends and an equally wide

Available as:
range of fabric weights.

Can be dyed a wide range of colours. The bleaching and dyeing characteristics
of the two fibres do differ and it is likely that a combined programme will be
Colouration
required to achieve the colouration required. Neither fibre is difficult to
process

Dimensional Very low shrinkage. The presence of polyester improves the already good
Stability performance of cotton

Resistance Resistant to pilling. The presence of the polyester in the blend brings about an
to pilling improvement to the pilling resistance

Moisture Blend dependant. Will depend on the blend composition and be between the
regain low levels attainable with polyester to the moderate levels for cotton, 2-12%

Wide range of applications. Cotton & polyester blends find applications in

almost all areas associated with "image wear" in the corporate clothing sector.
Applications
Lightweight fabrics are used in shirts/blouses and heavier weights can be used
for skirts & trousers.

Restricted because of blend. Being a blended yarn does impose some

End of life difficulties on the end of life opportunities. Separation of the fibres is one of
Possibilities the biggest barriers preventing either fibre from being recycled or
remanufacture.
2.3 Antistatic Agents:
Anti stats or antistatic agents are finishes that can be applied to a fabric to aid in the dissipation
of static charge buildup on the fibers. Anti stats can be applied to the fiber as a temporary finish
or added in the spinning bath prior to fiber formation to give a more permanent finish. Chemical
cross linking of an anti stat applied to a textile structure will provide a permanent finish, also.
Most natural fibers and regenerated natural fibers are hydrophilic and possess charged or polar
groups on the fiber surface that can dissipate static charge to the atmosphere and prevent static
buildup. Therefore anti stat treatments are confined to the synthetic fibers such as nylon,
polyester, etc. The anti stats are surface-active agents related to detergents, ethylene oxide
derivatives, silicones, or polar polymers such as polyamine resins. Because of their polar nature,
they are able to bleed static charge from the fiber and dissipate it into the air.

2.3.1 MECHANISM OF ANTI STATIC FINISHING:

The principle mechanisms of antistatic finishes are increasing the conductivity of fiber surface
(equivalent to lowering the surface resistivity) and reducing frictional forces through lubrication.
The surface resistivity is defined as a material property of a substance whose numerical value is
equal to the ratio of the voltage gradient to the current density. The resistivity is in effect the
resistance of the fiber to electrical flow. Increasing conductivity produces a lower charge buildup
and a more rapid dissipation while increased lubricity decreases the initial charge buildup.
Antistatic agents that increase fiber surface conductivity form an intermediate layer on the
surface. This layer is typically hygroscopic. The increased moisture content leads to higher
conductivity. The presence of mobile ions on the surface is very important for increased
conductivity. The effectiveness of hygroscopic antistatic finishes depends greatly on the
humidity of the surrounding air during actual use; lower humidity leads to lower conductivity
(higher resistance) and greater problems with static electricity. Most non-polymeric antistatic
finishes are also surfactants that can orient themselves in specific ways at fiber surfaces. The
hydrophobic structure parts of the molecule acts as lubricants to reduce charge buildup. This is
particularly true with cationic antistatic surfactants that align with the hydrophobic group away
from the fibres.
2.3.2 Antistatic finishes:
Antistatic finish are used for the removal in synthetic fibres of the unwanted effects of
electrostatic charge produced during production and wear of fabrics and knits. Electrostatic
charge causes an undesirable adhesive power and a resultant shabbiness. It is applied by means
of an anti-static chemical treatment, the effect of which may be temporary or permanent. There
are two types of Antistatic finish

1. Non-durable finishes
2. Durable finishes

Non-durable finishes:

Non- durable antistatic agents are preferred for fiber and yarn processing finishes since ease of
removal is important. Other important requirements of spin finish and fiber lubricants are heat
resistance and oil solubility. This group of mostly hygroscopic materials includes surfactants,
organic salts, glycols, polyethylene glycols, polyelectrolyte, quaternary ammonium salts with
fatty alkyl chains, polyethylene oxide compounds and esters of salts of alkyl phosphonium acids.
The general requirements for non durableantistats are:

Low volatility
Low flammability
Non yellowing (heat stable)
Non corrosive
Low foaming

1. Esters of phosphoric acid form the largest group of non-durable antistats

The alkyl groups are usually derived from fatty acids. Ethoxylated fatty alcohols are also used to
form the esters. The durability of these phosphoric acid esters increases with molecular size.
2. Quaternary ammonium compounds are the next largest group of non durableantistats. The
most widely used are ditallowdimethylammonium chloride and dehydrogenated
tallowdimethylammonium chloride

These are common ingredients in laundry and dryer applied consumer softeners. Like many other
cationic antistats have an affinity for textile fibers and can be applied by exhaustion processes.
3. The last group of non-durable antistats is composed of non-ionic compounds such as
ethoxylated fatty esters, alcohol and alkyl amines.

Mixtures of cationic and non-ionic surfactants demonstrate synergistic antistatic properties. Non
ionic materials provide increased moisture absorption and the cationic products provide the
mobile counter ions.

Durable finishes:

Obtaining antistatic properties that are durable to repeated launderings from a single finish
application is difficult to achieve. The basic principle is to form a cross linked polymer network
containing hydrophilic groups. Typically, polyamines are reacted with polyglycols to make such
structures. These polymers can be formed prior to application to fabrics, or they can be formed in
situ on the fiber surface after pad application. A variety of cross linking approaches can be used.
One based on polyepoxides is shown below

The amount of hydrophilic character in the final polymer can be varied to meet individual
requirements. The larger the hydrophilic portions, the more moisture are absorbed and the
greater the antistatic effects obtained. However, at high levels of absorbed moisture, the polymer
surface film softens and is more easily removed by abrasion during laundering. Higher degrees
of cross linking will reduce the moisture absorption and subsequent swelling, but the antistatic
effectiveness decreases. Additional difficulties with cross linked hydrophilic polymers include
interferences with soil release and soil redepositionproperties.Owing to the difficulties in
achieving the perfect balance of desired properties, the use of durable antistatic finishes is
limited. Other wash-fast antistatic agents are described in the literature, including
polyhydroxypolyamines (PHPA) or polyalkylene and polyacrylic copolymers.

2.3.2 STATIC ELECTRICITY:

Static electricity is electricity at rest and is built up when materials contact and then separate
allowing for a transfer of electrons resulting in an unequal electron balance creating negative or
positive charged items, this electron transfer is activated by frictional forces. Electricity
generated in this manner is known as triboelectricity. It is static because it remains on the surface
of insulative materials as they do not possess the property to conduct the electrical charge
throughout the structure, resulting in the charge remaining static on the surface.The way different
materials behave is due to their properties, the Triboelectric series is a prediction of how
materials will react based on these properties, ie which are more reactive and whether they
become positive or negatively charged, the further apart in the series materials are listed
illustrates that a greater charge will be created on their interaction.The turboelectric series is
useful in predicting results from material interactions, however this is a generalisation and a
range of variable factors will ultimately influence the charge generated, such as;

1. Area of contact
2. Speed of Separation
3. Material Chemistry

From this it is demonstrated that human skin is most likely to loose electrons, becoming
positively charged, whereas materials such as polyester, polyurethane, polypropylene, PVC and
Teflon, tend to gain electrons and become negatively charged. Therefore when synthetic fibres
are worn in close to skin applications static electricity occurs, the amount of charge generated
depends on variables such as the materials properties, mechanics of contact, surface contact
andRelative humidity?. Whereas static electricity in clothing applications can be troublesome for
the wearer, the consequences are generally within the guidelines for safe working, in such
applications anti-static finishes can be implemented to minimise the problem.In Textile
processing static electricity becomes more problematic, as materials are often processed at high
speeds and contact with materials that create triboelectricity, which in insulating materials can
result in a static charge remaining on the surface, which can result in an electrostatic discharge.
As well as a possible safety risks for workers, charged surfaces can also attract and hold foreign
matter that causes a contamination risk during process affecting the quality of the end product.

The Human body is the biggest generator of triboelectricity, when this electrostatic is then
discharged a small shock can be experienced, but this mostly only causes mild discomfort,
however in certain environments this electrostatic discharge can pose health and safety risks and
the malfunction of electronic equipment. In areas where flammable of volatile liquids or gases
are processed an electrostatic discharge can trigger fire or explosion. In areas where sensitive
electronic equipment is manufactured or stored an electrostatic discharge can cause malfunction,
which is costly, because of these risks controlling discharge is of high priority to many
industries. Therefore means of controlling electrostatic discharge are implemented, and due to
the human body being a main factor in its generation, clothing and accessories such as wrist
straps are implemented in controlling it. Many environments requires workers to wear personal
protective clothing with anti-static properties and these usually work by dissipating the charge,
ie, not allowing it to sit static on the surface, this is done through the introduction of conductive
materials which allow for flow through of the charge, often allowing it to flow into the ground.

2.3.3 Basic principle of anti finishing:-

During the contact of materials a form of adhesion will occur, this is a complex interaction but
generalised in the case of Triboelectric generation, it is an atomic interaction occurring
between electrons and protons. As the materials then separate, not all electrons remain around
their nucleus and can transfer between materials, leading to an unequal amount of electrons,
which results in a positive, if electrons are lost or negative if electrons are gained, charge.

The chemical structure of the material dictates how it will behave in relation to triboelectricity,
as the fundamental elements and molecular structure determine electron activity, determining the
circumstances under which electron transfer will occur and to what extend, leading to whether a
positive or negative charge will be incurred. This chemical structure will also determine if/how
the occurring charge is dissipated.

As all materials want to exist in equilibrium, they strive to maintain balance and again reach their
neutral state, therefore they want to regain or discharge the electrons. The rate at which this
occurs is again due to chemical structure of the materials and 2 main groups exist;

1. Insulators.
2. Conductors.

Insulators

Insulators do not allow movement of electrons within the structure, therefore electricity cannot
flow through them, and so acquired charge stays on the surface of the Insulator?, remaining
static. Resulting in all the charge being focused in one area, which can lead to a build up that
may be quite strong when released. Insulators are therefore highly resistive as they restrict the
flow of electricity.
 Conductor

Conductors have low resistance as they allow for movement of electrons within their structure
meaning electricity can flow freely.Static Dissipative materials lay in between insulators and
conductors, they can allow static to build up on them, but they can conduct, doing so at a slower
rate than a conductor. Charges transfer faster than they would from an insulator but slower than
from a conductor.

Selecting materials that will minimise the generation of triboelectiricty will reduce the resultant
charge, however this approach will be unlikely to eliminate the build up completely, especially in
applications where frictional forces are frequently experienced. To minimise the risk of
electrostatic discharge the basic principle is that the charge cannot remain static, it has to be
moved, and therefore it needs to encounter materials within which it can do so. Therefore a way
of dissipating, or distributing the charge is required, and this is done through the implementation
of conductive materials to enable the charge to be moved safely.

The size of the charge being moved and the rate at which this occurs is dependant upon the
specific application. In textiles there are generally two approaches taken to control static
electricity;

Anti-static finishes- provides a surface treatment to traditional textile materials, altering their
inherent electrostatic behaviour, allowing them to dissipate the charge by allowing for the current
to move along the fabric surface.
Introduction of conductive fibres and yarns- works in the same principle, ie, allowing the
generated charge to dissipate through conduction, however this property is introduced in the
form of conductive yarns or fibres instead of as a surface finish.

2.3.4 Influence of Moisture in Textile materials:

It can be generalized that synthetic fibres are more prone to static generation that natural. This
is related to the low moisture regain of synthetic fibres. Pure water, as in H2O is unable to
conduct electricity, however water is not very often experienced in its pure state, most likely to
contain contaminants, such as salts, which make the water conductive.The polar groups within
the fibre dictate to what extent water molecules will be attracted, for example the groups OH and
COOH. The fibre structure also dictates the extent to which water molecules can be held, for
example in highly ordered regions (crystalline) there is no place for the molecules, whereas more
disordered regions (amorphous) are able to absorb water molecules. Therefore the fibres ability
to hold moisture affects its ability to generate a charge and to conduct it, which is whyRH affects
textiles electrostatic properties.

Measurement:
Static Electricity is measured in Coulombs. The charge of an object (Q) is determined by the
product of the capacitance of the object (C) and the voltage potential on the object (V)
Q=CV.

Surfactants

Water is implemented as an anti static agent because of the conductivity of the electrolytes it
holds, it is cheap, non-toxic, and non-flammable. In natural fibres there
inherent Hydrophilic nature allows them to hold water molecules, which gives them some
conductivity, reducing the problem of static charge. Therefore in synthetic fibres that do not
allow for a high water regain, anti-static agents are used to encourage the presence of water in
the textile.

Surfactants have a hydrophobic head and a Hydrophilictail, the phobic head is embedded within
the synthetic material, and the Hydrophilichead attracts water and salts to create a dissipative
layer, as displayed in figure 2. However this relies upon atmospheric conditions and as they are
intended to attract a surface layer they may not be suitable for cleanroom applications,

Surfactants are applied at fabric finishing stage, and are often found in fabric softeners, however
they do not last for the life of the product and are often lost during the laundering process. There
have been wide concerns over their safety and the environmental impact of using them on such a
wide scale.
Figure 2. Antistatic agent.
2.4 MECHANISM OF SOFTENING EFFECT:

Softeners provide the main effects on the surface of the fibres, small softeners molecules, in
addition penetrate the fibre and provide an internal plasticisation of the fibre forming polymer by
reducing of the glass transition temperature Tg. The physical arrangement of the usual softeners
molecules on the fibre surface is important. It depends on the ionic nature of the softeners
molecule and the relative hydrophobicity of the fibre surface. Cationic softeners orient
themselves with their positively charged ends towards the partially negatively charged fibre (zeta
potential), creating a new surface of hydrophobic carbon chains that provide the characteristics
excellent softening and lubricity seen with cationic softeners. Anionic softeners, on the other
hand, orient themselves with their negatively charged ends repelled away from the negatively
charged fibre surface. This leads to higher hydrophoftening then with cationic softeners. The
orientation of non ionic softeners depends on the nature of the fibre surface, with the hydrophilic
portion of the softeners Being attracted to hydrophilic surfaces and the hydrophobic portion
being attracted to hydrophobic surfaces.

2.4.1 CATIONIC SOFTENERS

Cationic softeners have the best softeners and are reasonably durable to laundering. They can be
applied by extortion to all fibres from a high liquor to goods ratio bath and they provide a
hydrophobic surface and poor rewetting properties , because their hydrophobic groups are
oriented away from the fabric surface they are usually not compatible with anionic products.
CHAPTER 3
EXPERIMENTAL
3.1 MATERIAL:
Fabric used: Polyester Cotton blend (65/35%)

Pretreated woven polyester Cotton fabric of

GS : 200

EPI: 84

PPI: 56

Warp Count: 20

Weft Count: 14

3.2 FINISHING AGENTS

The following antistatic agent was supplied from as follows

Cationic Anti static Agent

Cationic softeners

3.3 CHEMICAL USED:

Following laboratory reagents were used in various processes:

1. Antistatic Agent

Trade Name: ADOGENR 66

CHEMICAL NAME: (100%) ETHYL BIS-(POLYETHOXY-ETHANOL)TALLOW AMMONIUM

ETHOSULFATE

2 Softening Agent

Trade name : Z-QUATTM TO10ZH

CHEMICAL NAME : METHYL AMMONIUM METHOSULFATE ESTER

 3.4 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

1. ANTISTATIC AGENT (ADOGEN 66)

Appearance @25C Viscous liquid
Total solids% 100%
Color , gardner 63 max 6-8
pH 7
Viscosity 300-500

2. Softening agent (Z-QUATTM TO10ZH)

Appearance(20C) Yellow,clear liquid
Colour Max. 6
pH value (10% in IPA/water) 5.5-7.5

3.5 INSTUMENTS AND APPARATUS:

water bath
Electronic weighing balance
Padding mangle
Drying and curing chamber
Air permeability tester
Strength tester
Static voltmeter
Static multi meter
Rubbing tester
Light fastness tester
3.6 METHOD OF APPLICATION
3.6.1 Recipe

Antistatic Agent

(Trade Name: ADOGENR 66

CHEMICAL NAME: ETHYL BIS-(POLYETHOXY-ETHANOL): 2%, 2.5%, 3%, 3.5%, 4%

,4.5% ,5% (w/w)

TALLOW AMMONIUM ETHOSULFATE )

Acetic acid (30%) : 1 cc/l

Temperature : 70C ( padding mangle)

Liquor ratio : 1:30

Time : 10 20 min
3.7 TESTING INSTRUMENTS AND TESTS :

3.7.1 TESTING OF ANTISTATIC FISHES:

All laboratory of antistatic finishes should be conducted in an environment where the

temperature and the especially the relative humidity are thoroughly controlled. The relative
humidity has a great effect on the antistatic effect seems the resistivity of the fiber depends on its
moisture content and lower the resistivity. The large variety of electrostatic test methods can be
divided in three main groups measuring the cling time, the electrical resistance or the
electrostatic voltage or charge, often as half-life time

Perhaps the simplest test method for the evaluation of antistatic fishes is the ash test. A piece of
the fabric to be evaluated is rubbed briskly on a piece of plastic or rubber. The fabric is then
placed over an ashtray containing cigarette ash. The amount of ash transferred to the fabric is an
indication of the amount of static charge imparted to the fabric. Owing to the difficulty in
quantifying the results, this test is mainly used as a qualitative tool to distinguish between
antistatic treated and untreated fabrics.

More quantitative results based on the same principle of charge build up can be obtained with
AATCC test method 115: Electrostatic clinging of fabrics, fabric to metal test, also known as
the cling test. A fabric that has been electrically changed in a repeatable manner by rubbing is
placed next to a grounded inclined matter plate. Any residual electrical charge causes the fabric
to cling to the plate. The time required to the fabric to released from the plate is measured. The
shorter the cling time the better the antistatic properties. However, fabric-to-metal cling times are
not tightly related to fabric-to-body cling times.

AATCC test method 76: Electrical resistivity of the fabrics is used to measure the surface
resistivity of fabric (units are ohm/square).The voltage drop across aa ring electrode system is
used to determine the fabrics resistivity. A resistivity value of 10)11 ohm/square or lower is
considered to be indicated of a fabric with negligible static propensity. The National Fire
Protection Association rooms with flammable an easthetic gases a common assignment of
surface resistivity value of practical usage of the finished textiles at 65% relative humidity
(corresponding to DIN 54 345-1: determination of electrical resistance)
3.7.2 ELECTROSTATIC VOLTMETERS:

This meter measure the actual potential (voltage) at the surface of the object under test. These
instruments use non-contacting sensors with a high voltage amplifier to drive the sensing probe
to the same potential as that of the surface being measured. By measuring the output of the high
voltage amplifier an accurate indication of the unknown potential can be determined.
Measurement accuracy is typically 0.1% regardless of probe-to-surface spacing (spacing is
usually in the range of 0.1) with a target resolution 0.1 (2.5mm) or smaller. Electrostatic
voltmeters typically can measure over the range from millivolts to several thousand volts.

Fig. 3.1 static charge tester.

3.7.3 STATIC MULTIMETER;

The compact and powerful energy monitoring devices precisely and reliably detect the power
values of electrical feeders and individual consumers. In addition, they provide important
measured values for assessing the system state the quality of the power network. They are
communication-capable and equipped with an Ethernet interface as standard. The free software
power fig is available for configuration, which greatly simplifies the setting up of multiple
measuring devices.
Fig. 3.2 Static multimeter.

3.7.4 DRYING AND CURING CHAMBER:

It has been found, however, that by applying certain resins to the-felts after they have been
manufactured, and properly curing the resin within the body of the felt, that the life or the felt is
greatly increased. However, the proper drying and curing of the resins on the felts has involved a
problem because the size of; the felts varies greatly, depending their particular use and particular
machines when the felt has been dried to a predetermined degree of dryness, the resin will be
cured at the, same elevated temperature or the temperature the resin solution and a portion of the
solution is centrifuged from the body of the felt to reduce the overall quantity of resin solution
retained in the body of the felt to a point that when the felt is dry, the retained resin will represent
approximately 5% of the dry weight of the felt.
After the felt has passed through the centrifuging operation, or solution eliminating operation,
the felt is" then to be dried at elevated temperatures to reduce the moisture content of the felt to a
sufficiently low point that the resin retained in the body of the felt can be cured for permanent
retention within the body of the felt. This curing operation is also required to be carried forward
at elevated temperature to complete the polymerization or condensation of the resin.
It has also been found that other, resins of similar character can be used in treating the felts for
the purpose of increasing their resistance to j abrasion and resistance to chemical and bacterial
action. In all instances, however, it is found to be preferable to use the resins in a water solution,
in which the felt can be placed for saturation thereof by the solution of the resin. After the body
of the felt immediately upon the body of the felt reaching a predetermined degree of dryness.
Another object of the invention is to provide a method and an apparatus for drying and curing a
felt, or an endless fabric belt, by alternately. heating and cooling the same during the drying or
the curing operation.
3.7.5 WATER BATH
A device for regulating the temperature of anything subjected to heat, by surrounding the vessel
containing it with another vessel containing water which can be kept at a desired temperature;
also, a vessel designed for this purpose.

In a lab it is often essential to keep a liquid mixture at an exact temperature without a gradient of
heat. To do this scientists often submerge the vessel needing this controlled environment into a
bath of water at a controlled temperature. The advantage is that the water in the bath presents the
heated material with a constant temperature that will not exceed 100oC (the boiling point of
water) so that over heating or scorching is avoided. In laboratory water bath the temperature can
be controlled through sensors to within a degree of the desired temperature.

Fig 3.3 Water bath

3.7.6 Padding Mangle:

Backed by the sound infrastructural facility and experienced personnel, our company has been
able to emerge as one of the renowned manufacturers, suppliers & exporters of Horizontal
Padding Mangle. This system is a kind of versatile laboratory machine which is suitable for
printing, dyeing and finishing applications. Owing to its features such as easy installation,
impeccable performance and long functional life, our Horizontal Padding Mangle is widely
acknowledged across the market. Moreover, clients can avail these from us within committed
time period.
Fig 3.4 Padding mangle

Features
No separate trough for padding liquor.

The space formed between 2 bowls, when under pneumatic pressure acts as trough.

Minimum quantity of liquor required for padding a sample.

Simple operations. Maximum working width is 300 mm.

Minimum time is required for padding sample.

No time log between dip & nip as the sample gets squeezed immediately after passing
through padding liquor.

No exposure to atmospheric conditions after padding and before getting squeezed.

Substantial saving in liquor consumption thus saving on consumption of soft water, dyes,
auxiliaries & chemicals.

Hence very economical model.

A trough is provided below the bowls to collect liquor after padding.

3.7.7 Electronic weighing machine

A weighing machine is measuring the normal force equal and opposite the total force
experienced by the object being weighed at the face where the machine and the object meet.
Even thought the object may not be moving, it is still experiencing an accelerating force equal to
its mass times gravity. In SI units we call this Newton ( 1 N = 1 kg * 9.8 m/s^2).
If a weighing machine were to measure the force experienced by a mass at the Earth's surface, it
would read substantially higher than if it were to measure the force experienced by the same
mass at a much higher altitude where the magnitude of the gravitational force is much smaller. In
either case, the weighing machine does "stop" the object from continued movement, but then
again, so does the surface of the Earth. This is due more to nuclear forces and friction than
anything else, as gravity is much weaker than the other forces.
Also, try to consider what the weighing machine would read if the object was dropped from
some distance. Gravity would accelerate the object, and upon initially meeting the surface of the
weighing machine, would transmit its momentum to it, resulting in a "weight" that was much
higher than the actual mass of the object itself. However, given a short period of time, the kinetic
energy of the object would move towards zero, and the weighing machine would be exerting a
force upwards equal to that of gravity in the downwards direction. The final number would be of
course, the weight of the object, or more precisely, the measure of the force required to keep the
object in gravitational equilibrium.

Mechanical weights usually work by compression of a spring, where the compressed distance via
some levers are translated to a dial calibrated to show weight. An electro-mechanical weight
would instead use a piezoelectric sensor [1] or a strain gauge [2] to measure the weight which
can be converted to an analogue or digital readout.
Weighing scales (usually just "scales" and the weights / masses against which to weigh them are
placed. The Oxford English Dictionary defines scales as "Apparatus for weighing. The pan, or
each of the pans, of a balance."[1] Spring balances or spring scales measure force or weight by
balancing the force due to gravity against the force on a spring, whereas a balance or pair of
scales using a balance beam compares masses by balancing the force of gravity (weight) due to
the mass of an object against the force due to gravity (weight) of a known mass. Either type of
balance or scales can be calibrated to read in units of force (weight) such as Newton, or in units
of mass such as kilograms, but the balance or pair of scales using a traditional balance beam to
compare masses will read correctly for mass even if moved to a place with a different (non-zero)
gravitational field strength (but would then not read correctly if calibrated in units of force),
while the spring balance would read correctly in force in a different gravitational field strength
(but would not read correctly if calibrated in units of mass).
Fig 3.5 EWM

3.7.8 Rubbing fastness tester

The Rubbing Fastness Tester checks the color transferred from the surface of a colored textile material
to other surface by rubbing in dry and wet condition. It is applicable to textiles made from all fiber in the
form of Yarn or Fabrics whether dyed or printed or otherwise colored.

We have Three Model of Rubbing Fastness Testers :

a. Crock METER i3 TM

b. Crock METER i2 TM (AATCC)

c. Digi CROCK i2 TM

Crock METER i3 (Rubbing Fastness Tester)

Paramount crock METER i3 is used for testing the transference of color from the surface of one
material to another by either wet or dry rubbing. Specimens are rubbed with dry, standard cotton
cloth (Crocking cloth) and again, if applicable, with wet cloth. The staining of the crocking cloths is
assessed with an ISO / AATCC Grey Scale.
Fig. 3.6 Rubbing fastness tester.

Electronic , re-settable LCD Counter.

Dual Metal Sample Holder for specimen Testing and Garment Testing.

Easy to use, Polycarbonate Specimen Clamps.

Complete with all accessories including pre-cut (50 x 50 mm) 400 crocking clothes, 16mm Finger and
finger clips, blotting papers etc.

With Inspection and Calibration Certificate.

Weight: 9.5Kg. (20.9lb.)

Dimension:

Length Depth Height

640 mm 95 mm 195 mm.

25 inch 3.75 inch 7.5 inch

Related Standards

ISO 105 X 12, M&S C8, BS 1006 DO2, JIS L 0849, AATCC 8/165, ASTM F1319
3.7.9 Light Fastness Testing
Light fastness, or color fastness to light, is the resistance of printed or pigmented materials to fading or
color change due to exposure to sunlight or an artificial light source. The light fastness of print is
predominantly governed by the pigment type used. Print exposed to high levels of sunlight such as on
posters and compost sacks require a high degree of light fastness. The tests for print fade and light
fastness of paper, print and pigmented plastics using a James Heal Apollo weather fastness tester fitted
with a xenon arc lamp source and irradiance measurement. Light fastness testing is made using filtered
xenon arc lamps which simulate UV and visible solar radiation more closely than any other artificial light
source. They provide the best method for assessing the accelerated light ageing of products such as
pigments, dyes and inks, which are sensitive to the long-wave and visible wavelengths of sunlight.With
appropriate filters fitted, direct sunlight, sunlight through window glass and in-store lighting conditions
can be reproduced. A series of Blue Wool standards are included with every set of test samples to
ensure that results are reliable and reproducible. Accelerated weathering includes a simulated rain cycle
which can introduce an element of thermal shock to the test sample

Standards and Accreditation

There are many international standards applicable to light fastness testing, including ISO 105-B02, BS EN
20105-B02, BS EN 4892-2 and ISO 12040.

3.7.10AIR PERMEABILITY:
The air permeability of a fabric is a measure of how well it allows the passage of air through it.
The ease of passage of air is of importance for a number of fabric end uses such as industrial
filters, tents, sail cloths, parachutes, raincoat materials, shirting etc.

Air permeability is defined as the volume of air in millilitres which is passed in one second
through 100s mm2 of the fabric at a pressure difference of 10 mm head of water.
Air permeability is very important parameters as for as anti static finishing is concerned as
affects the porocity. Air permeability was carried out using ASTM D 737 and in terms of cm
cube per cm square per second at pressure head of 1 PA.

Fig 3.7 Air permeability tester.

3.7.11 FLAMMABILITY TESTING:

Flameproof fabrics are absolutely necessary for protective clothing in many industrial processes
where the chances of inflammable fabrics being ignited are high. In the domestic sphere many
serious and tragic accident are the results of clothing catching fire e.g a dress is ignited when a
young lady is powdering her face and using a mirror placed over the mantle piece. The notes
which follow are intended to serve as a guide to further reading and the most of the information
has been gathered from the publication of the British standards institution and papers on
flammability in journal of the textile institute. Some definition and terms used relating
flammability,
A. FLAMMABLE a flammable fabric is one which propagates flame i.e it
continuous to burn after the igniting flame has been removed.
 B. FLAME RESISTANCE READING the flammability testing of fabrics and is of
the same order as the time in seconds necessary for the propagation of flame
hundred inch in a vertical strip.
C. FLAME-PROOF a flame proof fabric is one which does not propagate flame i.e
any flame goes out quickly when the igniting flame is withdrawn, the material
complying with the requirements of clauses 3 and 4 of V.S.31201
D. FLAME-RESISTANT a flame resistant fabric is one whose flame-resistance
rating is high i.e above 150.
E. INHERENTLY FLAME-PROOF MATERIAL: material which, although not
submitted to a flame-proofing process, its flame-proof.
F. DURABLY FLAME-PROOF MATERIAL flame-proofed material which, after
being submitted to a washing treatments, remains flame-proof.
G. TEMPORARILY FLAME-PROOF MATERIAL: material which complies with
the requirements of clauses 3 of B.S.3120, before but not after, the prescribed
washing treatment.
It is not easy to measure directly the vertical flame speed over rapidly burning fabrics as the
flame front is not well defined. It is easy, however, possible to measure the vertical flame speed
directly weighing the fabric continuously on a torsion balance while it is burning. The vertical
flame speed is then readily calculated from the rate the loss of weight, the initial weight of the
fabric, and the weight residue.

3.7.12 TENSILE STRENGTH:

Tensile testing of cotton fabric samples was carried out to know the tensile behavior of the
fabrics after finishing it with the anti static finishing agents. Tensile behavior was assessed using
ASTM D5035. In this test 6*2 inch fabric samples where used and testing was carried out on
tensile testing machine based on the constant rate of elongation. Load elongation curves of the
fabric samples was analysed to know the tensile behavior.
.
3.7.13 HANDLE:
ASTM D1388 cantilever test method was used for the determination of handle of fabric. In this
test, the fabric specimen is allow to bend under its own weight. The free length, which bends
under its own weight sufficiently to make its leading edge intersects a plane of 41.5 degree
inclination, is called as bending length of the fabric. The dimension of the specimen for the
testing used was 62.

3.7.14Soil Release: Oily Stain Release test Method

3.7.14.1 Purpose and Scope

1. This test method is designed to measure the ability of fabrics to release oily stains during
home laundering.
2. This test method is primarily for use by fabric finishers to evaluate the likely performance of
soil release finishes in actual use. If this test method is used as part of a contract between buyer
and seller, or in any case where comparisons between laboratories are being made, the parties
should agree to use the same ballast and detergent. In referee situations, or where standard
specifications are involved, 1993 AATCC Standard Reference Detergent should be used
3. The use of this test on garments is not precluded.

3.7.14.2 Principle:

A stain is applied to a test specimen. An amount of the staining substance is forced into the
fabric by using a specified weight. The stained fabric is then laundered in a prescribed manner
and the residual stain rated on a scale from 5 to 1 by comparison with a stain release replica
showing a graduated series of stains.

3.7.14.3 Terminology:

1. soil, n..dirt, oil or other substances not normally intended to be present on a substrate such as a
textile material.
2. soil release, n..the degree to which a soiled substrate approaches its original, unsoiled
appearance as a result of a care procedure.
3. stain, n..a local deposit of soil or discoloration on a substrate that exhibits some degree of
resistance to removal, as by laundering or dry cleaning.

3.7.14.4 Apparatus and Materials:

1. AATCC White Textile Blotting Paper
2. Corn oil
3. Glassine paper or equivalent.
4. Timer.
5. Weight, cylinder 6.4 cm (2.5 in.) diam., 2.268 0.045 kg (5.0 0.1 lb) (stainless steel is
preferable).
6. Amber bottle with medicine dropper
7. Washer, automatic
8. Dryer, automatic
9. Granular commercial detergent, home wash or 1993 AATCC Standard Reference Detergent
10. Ballast of 92 92 cm (36 36 in.) hemmed pieces of bleached cotton sheeting (Ballast
wash load Type 1) or 50/50 polyester/cotton bleached and mercerized poplin (Ballast wash load
Type 2) or 50/ 50 polyester/cotton bleached mercerized plain weave (Ballast wash load Type 3).
11. Lighting and evaluation area.
12. Table with non-glare black top 61 92 cm (24 36 in.); 89 3 cm (35 1 in.) high.
13. Stain Release Replica or 3M Stain Release Rating.
14. Thermometer.
15. Balance or scale appropriate for the weights required.

3.7.14.5 Test Specimens:

Use two test specimens 38 1 38 1 cm (15.0 0.4 15.0 0.4 in.) for each
determination. Condition the test specimens for a minimum of 4 h at 21 1C (70 2F) and 65
2% RH prior to application of stains.

3.7.14.6 Staining Procedure:

1. Place the unstained specimen flat on a single thickness of AATCC White Textile Blotting
Paper on a smooth, horizontal surface.
2. Using the medicine dropper, place 5 drops (approx. 0.2 mL) of corn oil in the approximate
center of the test specimen.
3. Place a 7.6 7.6 cm (3.0 3.0 in.) square of glassine paper over the stained area.
4. Place the weight (see 5.5) on the glassine paper directly over the stained area.
5. Allow weight to sit undisturbed for 60 5 s. Then remove the weight and discard the glassine
sheet.
6. Do not allow stained test specimens to contact each other in a manner which would transfer
stains. Wash within 20 5 min after staining.

3.7.14.7 Washing Procedure:

1. Fill washer to high water level with water at one of the temperatures from Table and Check
with the thermometer.
2. Add 100 1 g of detergent to the washer.
3. Start the water agitating, place ballast and then test specimens in the washer making a total
load of 1.80 0.07 kg (4.00 0.15 lb). The maximum number of test specimens per washer load
shall be 30 with one stain per specimen.
4. Set the dial on the washer for a Normal wash to run for 12 min measured
time and allow cycle to run to completion. (This gives normal agitation in both the wash and the
rinse.)
5. At the end of the final spin cycle, place the entire load, test specimens and ballast, into the
dryer.
6. Dry at Normal (Cotton Sturdy) setting at a time setting of 45 min or until dry. On some dryers
a 5 min cool down automatically follows the drying on the Normal (Cotton Sturdy) setting. For
dryers without this feature dry at High setting for 45 5 min and change setting to Air and run
for 5 min. Maximum dryer stack temperature at the cabinet exit should be 65 6C (150 10F)
with the heating element on.
7. Remove specimens from dryer immediately on completion of the cycle and lay flat to prevent
formation of wrinkles or creases which can affect the stain release rating. Rate residual stains
within 4 hr after drying.

3.7.14.8 Evaluation:

1. Mount the stain release replica on the mounting board, with the center of the standard 114 3
cm (45 1 in.) from the floor.
2. Place the test specimen flat with face up in the center of the non-glare black topped table with
one edge of the table touching the mounting board. The fabric shall be rotated to be viewed from
the direction which produces the lowest rating.
3. Viewing distance shall be 76 3 cm (30 1 in.) from the back mounting board, with the eye
at 157 15 cm (62 6 in.) from the floor. The rater should stand directly in front of the
specimen. Varying the viewing angle either horizontally or vertically can affect grades obtained
on some fabrics.
4. Each rater shall independently compare the residual stain on the test specimen with the stains
on the stain release replica and rate each test specimen to the nearest 0.5 grade

3.7.15 Color fastness to light:

This test measures the resistance to fading of dyed textiles when exposed to daylight. The test is
of importance to the dyestuff manufacturer, the dyer and the retailer. Certain end products
require a high resistance to fadingbecause of their exposure to light during use, for example:
curtains, upholstery,carpets, awnings and coatings. However, many items of apparel also require
a degree of light fastness because they are exposed to light when on display, particularly in a
shop window.
Light sources
The British Standard allows either daylight or xenon arc light to be used for the test.

Daylight BO1:

To test the resistance of a material to fading in daylight a sample of it is exposed facing due
south (in the northern hemisphere), sloping at an anglefrom the horizontal which is
approximately equal to the test site latitude.The sample is covered with glass and provision is
made for it to be ventilated.Together with the specimen under test eight 'standard blue wool
dyeings' are exposed. This method gives a true indication of the light fastness of a dyed material
but it is slow.
Xenon arc B02:
The xenon arc is a much more intense source of light which has a very similar spectral content to
that of daylight so that the test is speeded upconsiderably. Because of the large amount of heat
generated by the lamp an efficient heat filter has to be placed between the lamp and specimen
and the temperature monitored. This is in addition to a glass filter as above to remove ultra-violet
radiation.
Mercury-tungsten fluorescent lamp (MBTF):
This is a source found in certain commercial light fastness testers. It provide sa less intense light
source than the xenon arc but will still give a fastertest result than using daylight. One advantage
of it is that the bulbs are cheaper and last longer than do xenon ones. It is claimed to give similar
results to daylight.

Reference standards:
The essence of the test is to expose the sample under test to the light sourcetogether with eight
blue wool reference standards. The sample and blue standards are partly covered so that some of
the material fades and some is left unfaded. A rating is given to the sample which is the number
of the reference standard which shows a similar visual contrast between the exposed and
unexposed portions as the specimen. This means that the specimen will be given a grade between
one (poor light fastness) and eight(highly resistant to fading). If the result is in between two blue
dyeing it is given as 3-4, for example. There are two sets of blue wool reference standards in
use. Those usedin Europe are identified by the numerical designation 1 to 8. They range from 1
(very low light fastness) to 8 (very high light fastness) so that eachhigher numbered reference is
approximately twice as fast as the precedingone. The blue wool references used in America are
identified by the letter L followed by the numerical designation 2 to 9. The two sets of references
are not interchangeable.
PROCEDURE:
The sample under test and a set of blue wool reference standards are arranged on a suitable
backing. The middle third of the strips is covered with opaque card (A). The assembly is then
exposed to light until the specimen just shows a change in shade (4-5 on the grey scale). The
number of the standard showing a similar change is noted. The exposure is continued until the
contrast in the specimen is equal to grey scale 4, at which point a second segment of the
specimen and standards is covered with another piece of opaque card (B). The exposure is again
continued until the contrast between the exposed and unexposed parts of the specimen is equal to
grey scale 3, at which point the exposure is terminated. When the cards are removed the
specimen and standards will show two areas that have been exposed for different lengths of time
together with anunexposed area. The specimen is given the rating of the standard which shows
similar changes. If the exposed areas have different ratings then the overall rating is the mean of
the two ratings. If the grade given to the specimen is 4 or higher then the initial assessment at a
contrast 4-5 on the grey scale becomes significant as some colours can fade at a faster rate on
initial exposure to light. If this initial grade is different from the main grade it is included after
the main grade in brackets,