Well Logging PE-307

Lecture 11 Thursday, May 25th ,2017

Q. Pad-type tool is used in which logs?

A. Pad-type tools are required in those logs where the depth of investigation is very
shallow. Depth of investigation is a distance that characterizes how far a logging
tool measures into the formation from the face of the tool. A shallow depth of
investigation means the tool is not capable of obtaining responses from deep into
the formations. To avoid borehole environments influence on formation response
(due to mud, mud-cake) and to reduce the distance between tool and formation
rock, the tool is run in a way that it sticks to the wall- this is a pad-type tool. Pad-
type tools are used in Density Log and Neutron log. These tools can also be used
in Gamma ray and resistivity logs.
The reason why such tools have shallow depth of investigation, is because it is a
tendency of energies (sound waves, gamma rays, neutrons etc.) to take the shortest
path possible. Especially in induced logs like density log where you bombard
gamma rays, these rays try to return without going deeper into the formation. So,
they just travel through the near wellbore region of the rock.
Q. Is density of drilling mud critical in Well logging?
A. Yes. Drilling mud has heavy, solid particles called Barite(BaSO4) that add to its
density. When a porous formation is drilled, the mud tends to infiltrate the
formation, in such a way that the solid barite particles, being larger than the pore,
gets deposited on the rock face, while the liquid phase of mud enters the rock. This
forms an impermeable layer of barite. Now its good for drilling, but not so for
well logging. We require this layer (called mud-cake) to be very thin, so that the
true response of formation can be measured. This becomes even more sensitive in
case of shallow depth-of-investigation logs. So, mud is designed in a way to keep
enough barite to add density great enough to keep a mud hydrostatic pressure, but
not too great density so as to cause barite to erode assembly or form thicker mud
cakes.
-Mud cakes can break during operations. If mud cake breaks, more mud will enter
formation. We also design mud to form mud cakes such that they dont break.
-Tool spacing cannot be kept large, to increase depth of investigation as a solution
of measuring through mud cake. The reading will not be reliable; the energies will
travel through larger depth inside, but measurements will mix as the energy returns
to the tool, travelling through several formations.

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Well Logging PE-307
Lecture 11 Thursday, May 25th ,2017

Continuing from Application of GR Log- Spectral GR Log.

4. MINERAL IDENTIFICATION (through Spectral Gamma Ray Log):

Spectral GR Log is useful in identifying the source of radioactivity-K, Th or U. GR
log serves the purpose of detection shales. Shales are potential source rock, and
most shales are radioactive. High radioactivity should mean shale, but some clean
sands can sometimes produce high gamma ray readings which would confuse them
with shales. Such sandstones include those containing feldspars, micas and heavy
minerals including uranium-bearing ores. (Mica is not a clay, neither is feldspar.)
The extra information supplied by the spectral gamma ray tool can, in most cases,
help recognize these situations, and calculate the amount of the particular
radioactive minerals present.

The rock matrix can have numerous minerals; if sand matrix contains feldspar or
mica, then it would be having radioactivity. In the above figure, we have some
common minerals found in rock matrix. Potassium and thorium are indicators of
shale (Uranium is solely associated with hydrocarbons). The above figure works
best when only one dominant radioactive mineral is present in the rock matrix (all
listed minerals are radioactive).
An important thing to know is that Feldspar and Mica are siliceous non-clay
minerals (sand-related) and groups like Kaolinite, Illite are clay minerals. When
thorium ppm increases, you move from Sandy to Shaly composition. If Potassium
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Well Logging PE-307
Lecture 11 Thursday, May 25th ,2017

% increases, your reservoir has mixed composition (both sand-related minerals and
clay minerals). Thats why Thorium is a good indicator of shale and potassium is
just a moderate indicator. Thorium is a direct indicator of shale as it occurs only in
shale. A pure sandstone with mica and a sandy shale might have same
radioactivity; the spectral GR log will show the formers Thorium content to be
very low, while the latters (sandy-shale) Thorium content will be high. Feldspar,
Clays, micas- all these minerals are basically siliceous and all have potassium in
them, so potassium might be high in both micaceous sand and sandy shale, or low
in sandy shale, high in sand-it is only a moderate indicator. Thorium will not be in
sand.
If some shale is encountered, then there will be thorium in it, and therefore you
will identify it to be containing Illite. Another thing to know is that micas exist in
sands in many kinds of maturity levels. Micas and Feldspars dont degrade the
reservoir quality- they make reservoir radioactive, but the reservoir quality does
not change, hydrocarbons are producible. However, if Mica is mature and converts
to Illite, then the reservoir quality will change. Shaly sand and clean sands
permeabilities are very different. Shales in sands are of three types:
1. Structural Shale- an original depositional granular form. This affects sands
permeability the least.
2. Laminated Shale- thin layers of shale cutting the sand beds; this affects the
sands permeability the most.
3. Dispersed Shale- clay distributed through the rock and pore space
Note: amount of shale (or %) also matters, in permeability (rock quality).
Effect of Logging Speed in GR Log Measurement:
Consider the adjacent figure, having a
specific interval that has been logged twice
by a GR log. In the left figure, you
performed 2 logs on an interval with slow
speed. We found that the two log responses
overlapped. The responses you get in the
2nd log is same as those of the 1st log, and
so you didnt miss any response. You get a
sort of correction. In the right figure, the 2
logs were run fast and the 2 logs are not
overlapping. Though the features are
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Well Logging PE-307
Lecture 11 Thursday, May 25th ,2017

similar (where you got high response in 1st log, you are high in 2nd one), but you
are missing some signatures, as the features are fluctuating.
Radioactive emissions are random, and hence fluctuate in an unpredictable way
with time. If the count rates are high, this causes no real problems as there are
sufficiently many counts in a reasonable time interval for the fluctuations to
average out. In gamma ray logging, the count rate is low so the fluctuations have to
be taken into account. For each measurement depth, the tool must linger long
enough to measure enough count in order to obtain good quality data. In gamma
ray logging a time averaging procedure is adopted to minimize the statistical
fluctuations. The output from the detector is measured as a gamma ray count rate,
which is averaged over a time defined by a time constant Tc.
In order to increase the quality of the log data Tc should be as large as possible.
However, as the logging tool is constantly moving, a large Tc will result in the
blurring of bed boundaries, which as implications for the vertical resolution of the
tool. As there are large costs associated with running logs slowly, there is a
compromise to be reached between logging speed and log quality. In practice, the
product of logging speed in feet per second and Tc in seconds is conventionally
held constant at 1 foot. Hence, the gamma ray measurement is averaged over this
one foot interval, and the log data is shifted down by 1 foot to compensate. Note
that the log data is therefore recorded at the bottom of the one foot interval over
which it is averaged.
Borehole Quality:
We will now be dealing with effect of borehole size
on GR log measurement. At a particular depth,
whether or not your GR reading is reliable, you
have to check with Caliper log. If at particular
depth, your hole size is greater, this means more
mud is present at this depth. The more the mud, the
less reliable your GR response. So, for log quality
(how reliable is the log) to be measured, it is
important that at depth where you measured the
radioactivity, what was the condition of borehole
size.

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Well Logging PE-307
Lecture 11 Thursday, May 25th ,2017

The gamma ray log usually runs centered in the borehole. If the borehole suffers
from caving, the gamma ray log can be badly affected. In intervals that suffer from
caving, there is more drilling mud between the formation and the gamma ray
detector to attenuate the gamma rays produced by the formation. Hence, the log is
underestimated, as shown in Figure.
Note that the denser the mud used, the greater the underestimation will be, because
of increased Compton scattering in the drilling mud. Barite muds are a particular
problem as barite is very efficient at absorbing gamma rays.
The measured overestimation may usually be corrected if the caliper log for the
well is known. The Figure also shows the corrected gamma ray log. Comparison of
the two show the degree to which the caving has affected the gamma ray reading.
Corrections are carried out using correction charts supplied by the logging tool
company. Each tool design has its own set of charts, which are drawn up for a
range of drilling fluids and tool geometries. Note that the tool can also be run in
eccentred mode (pressed up against the borehole wall). When run in eccentred
mode the corrections are much smaller as the drilling mud contributes less to the
gamma ray signal, and has less opportunity to attenuate the gamma rays.
Every tool run in the borehole has a gamma ray tool segment in it, whatever the
operation that might be.
5. Correlation Tool between Wells:
The log is also used for correlation between wells. A connection of points from
well to well in which the data suggest that the points were deposited at the same
time or have similar and related characteristics.
Heavy Mud: high density mud, used in overpressure zones.

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Well Logging PE-307
Lecture 11 Thursday, May 25th ,2017

THE FORMATION DENSITY LOG

It is a record of formations bulk density. This is the overall density of a rock
including solid matrix and fluid enclosed in the pores. Bulk Density is a function of
the density of the minerals forming the rock and the volume of free fluid which it
encloses. The density log is used to calculate porosity and indirectly, hydrocarbon
density. It is also used to calculate acoustic impedance, minerals identification,
overpressure and fracture porosity.
From paul glover,

The formation density log measures the bulk density of the formation. Its main use
is to derive a value for the total porosity of the formation. Its also useful in the
detection of gas-bearing formations and in the recognition of evaporites.
PRINCIPLE OF MEASUREMENT:
The formation density tools are induced radiation tools. They bombard the
formation with radiation and measure how much radiation returns to a sensor.
Formation is bombarded with medium high energy gamma rays and their response
(attenuation) between the tools source and detectors is measured. Attenuation is a
function of the number of electrons that the formation contains (its electron
density) which in turn is very closely related to its common density. In dense
formation, Compton scattering is extreme and few detectable gamma rays reach
the tools detectors.
The rock consists of solid grains
part called matrix and pores
where fluids reside. The bulk
density of a rock depends upon
the solid minerals of which it is
composed, its porosity, and the
density of the fluids filling that
porosity. The bulk density is
basically a weighted average of
the densities of the solid granular
matrix and the fluid in the pores
(as shown in figure).

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Well Logging PE-307
Lecture 11 Thursday, May 25th ,2017

Weighted Average is a kind of arithmetic mean of a set of numbers in which

some elements of the set carry more importance (weight) than others. We have two
densities; the solid matrix density (that occupies 1- space) and the fluids
(occupying porosity). The matrix and the fluid are not occupying the rock equally,
so we have to use weighted average. The weight of matrix density is 1-, whereas
the weight of fluid density is . The unit of density used here is g/cc. Salty brine
waters density is around 1.2,1.3 g/cc.

Lets do some exercises to check how porosity affects the bulk density of the
formation. Calculate Bulk density using the data given below.

=0.3, 0.2, 0.1, 0.05 (30, 20, 10 & 5%)

matrix= 2.65 g/cc (sandstone)

fluid= 0.8 (oil)

We have;

log ( i. e . bulk ) = ( f ) +(1) m

At = 0.3;

log =0.3 ( 0.8 )+ (10.3 ) 2.65

log =2.095 g/cc

Similarly,

log (@ =0.2 )=2.28 g/cc

log (@ =0.1 )=2.465 g/cc

log (@ =0.05 )=2.557 g /cc

You can observe that as porosity decreases, the bulk density increases, and getting
closer to density of the rock at 0% porosity, so there is an inverse relation. This
relation is when lithology and fluid is constant.

The formation density tool is useful in the determination of porosity. You

performed logs on a rock interval. You get the idea of fluid from a log, and
lithology (matrix) from another log. The density log provides you with the bulk
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Well Logging PE-307
Lecture 11 Thursday, May 25th ,2017

density of the formation. Knowing bulk , matrix & fluid, you can rearrange the above
formula to calculate the porosity of the formation.

log ( i. e . bulk ) = ( f ) +(1) m

log = ( f m ) + m

log m
=
f m

Obviously, m is greater than log , f . And your porosity cannot be

negative. So, to keep porosity positive we take negative common and remove
negative;

mlog
= (
m f )

= m log
m f

where log is measured by density log tool, and m , f are measured from
other logs. This gives you the porosity of the formation. Remember densities of
lithologies at 0% and densities of fluids.

Q. Calculate the porosity of a zone, with overall density 2.4 g/cc, formation is
limestone, and contains fresh water.
2.712.4
=
2.711.0

=18.01
Remember density is an intensive property, it is independent of mass. m doesnt
change with porosity, only bulk density log changes with porosity.
Density log, along with neutron and sonic log is a porosity log, though the
methods of measuring porosity is different. If same porosity comes from all these
logs, then this porosity is correct. Another application of density log is
measurement of acoustic impedance. The acoustic impedance (Z) of a material is
defined as the product of its density (p) and acoustic velocity (V). It is resistance
offered by the rock to propagation of sound waves through it. Acoustic impedance
is used in bed boundary identification, which can be useful in identification of fluid
contacts in the reservoir. GR log can also be used, as it also discriminates sands
and shales.

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Well Logging PE-307
Lecture 11 Thursday, May 25th ,2017

Density from the formation density log is often combined with acoustic velocity
from the sonic log to calculate acoustic impedance down a well. The acoustic
impedance can be used to create synthetic seismograms to help the interpretation
of seismic data.

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