Dolomite: Perspectives on a

Perplexing Mineral

Dolomite is a metastable carbonate. It forms in a variety of distinctly different settings

and can change as conditions change. The mode of formation influences dolomite
morphology and thus impacts exploration and production strategies. New approaches
to carbonate evaluation are helping geoscientists unearth reservoir-quality dolomite,
despite its heterogeneous and often enigmatic nature.

Mishari Al-Awadi
Kuwait Oil Company
East Ahmadi, Kuwait

William J. Clark
William Ray Moore
Denver, Colorado, USA

Michael Herron
Tuanfeng Zhang
Weishu Zhao
Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA

Neil Hurley
Dhahran, Saudi Arabia

Djisan Kho
East Ahmadi, Kuwait

Bernard Montaron
Dubai, UAE

Fadhil Sadooni
Qatar University
Doha, Qatar

Oilfield Review Autumn 2009: 21, no. 3.

Copyright 2009 Schlumberger.
For help in preparation of this article, thanks to
Tony Smithson, Northport, Alabama, USA.
Carbonate Advisor, CMR, EcoScope, ECS, ELAN,
Litho-Density and MDT are marks of Schlumberger.

I think you should be more explicit

here in step two.

Modified with permission from Sidney Harris, copyright ScienceCartoonsPlus.com.

32 Oilfield Review
Dolomite is a complex mineral. It can precipitate
directly from solutions containing magnesium,
calcium and carbonate ions to form cement or
unlithified sediment. However, most dolomite
forms through the chemical alteration of precur-
sor carbonate rock or sedimentprimarily lime-
stone or calcareous muds. These carbonates tend
to be unstable, composed chiefly of calcite or its
more thermodynamically unstable polymorph,
aragonite. When these precursor materials are
exposed to magnesium-rich fluids, a portion of
the calcium ions may be replaced by magnesium
ions to form a more stable magnesium calcium
carbonate known as dolomite.
Dolomite is found in a wide range of settings
including hydrothermal veins, lakes, shallow
oceans, lagoons and evaporative basins. Theories
surrounding the origins of dolomite continue to
evolve. Amid controversy and speculation, many
modes of origin have been proposed over the years,
and nearly as many have been discarded.1
A common sedimentary rock-forming min-
eral, dolomite is not merely an assemblage of
magnesium, calcium and carbonate (right).
Rather, it is a metastable mineral of dubious lin-
eage with a variable chemical composition and
atomic structure. For a given span of geologic
time, it may reside in one form, only to pass to a
more stable state when its equilibrium is dis-
turbedprimarily through changes in pressure,
temperature or chemistry. The crystals may
even grow in size. Thus, early generations of
crystals may subsequently be recast into ever
more stable forms.
This process can be repeated numerous times
during burial and diagenesis, with each new
phase forming through partial or complete disso-
lution of an earlier dolomite. Recrystallization
can be beneficial to reservoir formation when it
generates intercrystalline porosity, but porosity
gains can later be negated by the precipitation of
pore-filling dolomite cement or by dolomite crys-
tal growth that forms large interlocking crystals.
Because the morphology of a dolomite body is
controlled by processes that created it, geoscien-
tists usually try to integrate the mode of origin into
their exploration strategies. Over time, however,
the recrystallization of metastable dolomite can
obliterate all traces of the minerals earliest mode
of origin, with subsequent generations reflecting
only the latest environment of recrystallization.2
By masking its mode of origin, dolomite recrystal-
lization can hamper exploration efforts.
Autumn 2009
Some dolomites host exceptional reservoirs A Metastable Lexicon
characterized by high porosity and permeability. Because it is a descriptive science based on
E&P companies therefore endeavor to predict observations made in the field, geology depends
where their drill bit will stand the best chance of on a precisely tuned lexicon. When transferred
encountering reservoir-quality dolomitedespite from one analog to another, geological terminol-
its chemical complexities and hidden modes of ogy tends to evolve. Dolomite geology is rife with
origin. This article describes various modes and such terms.
settings in which dolomite is formed, as well as Dolomite is named in honor of Dodat Gratet
processes that are responsible for enhancing or de Dolomieu (17501801), a colorful and some-
destroying its porosity. It also reviews problems what controversial geologist who described cal-
encountered when interpreting data from con- careous rock exposures in the southern Alps of
ventional logging suites and provides a glimpse northeastern Italy.3 Dolomieu observed that these
into advanced tools and methodologies used for rocks looked like limestone but failed to effer-
evaluating reservoirs in this enigmatic rock. vesce as limestone does when treated with weak
Calcite
CaCO3
Dolomite Ankerite
CaMg(CO3)2 CaFe(CO3)2
MgCO3 FeCO3
Magnesite Siderite
> Solid-solution series. In its purest state, dolomite falls along the
calcite-magnesite line in the solid-solution series of calcite,
magnesite and siderite. Although the composition of dolomite is
written as [CaMg(CO3)2], naturally occurring dolomite ranges from
about Ca1.16 Mg0.84(CO3)2 to about Ca0.96 Mg1.04(CO3)2.
1. Despite more than 200 years of research, the origin of 3. de Dolomieu DG: Sur un genre de pierres calcaires trs
dolomite remains the subject of considerable controversy, peu effervescente avec les acides et phosphorescentes
partly because critical chemical, biological and par la collision, Journal de Physique 39
hydrological conditions are poorly understood and partly (October 1791): 310.
because petrographic and geochemical data permit more For an updated perspective: Zenger DH, Bourrouilh-Le
than one interpretation. Jan FG and Carozzi AV: Dolomieu and the First
For more on this controversy: Machel HG: Concepts and Description of Dolomite, in Purser BH, Tucker ME and
Models of Dolomitization: A Critical Reappraisal, in Zenger DH (eds): Dolomites: A Volume in Honor of
Braithwaite CJR, Rizzi G and Darke G (eds): The Geometry Dolomieu. Boston, Massachusetts, USA: Blackwell
and Petrogenesis of Dolomite Hydrocarbon Reservoirs. Scientific, International Association of Sedimentologists,
London: Geological Society, Special Publication 235 Special Publication 21 (1994): 2128.
(2004): 763.
2. Warren J: Dolomite: Occurrence, Evolution and
Economically Important Associations, Earth Science
Reviews 52, nos. 13 (November 2000): 181.
MattV_ORAUT09_Fig_1_2
33

> Smallest to largest. The dolomite label can be applied to the mineral (left),
rock (center) and mountain range (right ).
acid. So although the dolomite label was first
applied to the rock, it also names the chief min-
eral constituent as well as the mountain range in
which it was first described (above).
To distinguish between rock and mineral, the
term dolostone was introduced in 1948.4 This
name refers to rock formed of the mineral
dolomite (more than 75%), along with other min-
erals.5 Dolomicrite is formed when dolomite
replaces very fine crystalline muds.
Other researchers felt it necessary to distin-
guish between different types of dolomite and
introduced new terms to account for variations in
magnesium and calcium content. The ideal com-
position of dolomite consists of equal amounts of
Ca and Mg in alternating layers separated by CO3
4. Shrock RR: A Classification of SedimentaryMattV_ORAUT09_Fig_2
Rocks,
The Journal of Geology 56, no. 2 (March 1948): 118129.
5. The popularity of this term has waxed and waned over
the years, mainly because the designation of dolomite
has historical priority for the rock. However, dolostone
may once more gain acceptance as researchers seek to
avoid ambiguity.
6. Machel, reference 1.
7. Machel, reference 1.
8. Machel, reference 1.
9. Rodgers J: Terminology of Limestones and Related
Rocks: An Interim Report, Journal of Sedimentary
Petrology 24, no. 4 (December 1954): 225234.
10. Warren, reference 2.
11. Sun SQ: Dolomite Reservoirs: Porosity Evolution and
Reservoir Characteristics, AAPG Bulletin 79, no. 2
(February 1995): 186204.
34
layers. The designation of high-calcium dolomite
is given to the mineral when calcium carbonate
[CaCO3] increases by 10% or more above its ideal
composition; alternatively, it may also be called
calcitic dolomite or lime dolomite. With a
decrease in magnesium carbonate [MgCO3] con-
tent, such that CaCO3 ranges from 50% to 90%, the
rock may be called dolomitic limestone. Further
reducing MgCO3 to between 5% and 10% results in
magnesian limestone, though some consider
this term obsolete. With less than 5% MgCO3, the
precursor rock is simply called limestone.
Protodolomite is a common metastable pre-
cursor of dolomite. Although it approximates
dolomite in chemical composition, it is said to
be poorly ordered, or lacking the well-developed
12. Lucia FJ: Origin and Petrophysics of Dolostone
Pore Space, in Braithwaite CJR, Rizzi G and Darke
G (eds): The Geometry and Petrogenesis of Dolomite
Hydrocarbon Reservoirs. London: Geological Society,
Special Publication 235 (2004): 141155.
Halley RB and Schmoker JW: High-Porosity Cenozoic
Carbonate Rocks of South Florida: Progressive Loss
of Porosity with Depth, AAPG Bulletin 67, no. 2
(February 1983): 191200.
13. In 1837, Jean-Baptiste lie de Beaumont used a model
of mole-for-mole exchange of calcium by magnesium
to account for vuggy porosity in the dolostones of the
Tyrolean Alps. lie de Beaumont J-B: Lapplication du
calcul lhypothse de la formation par pigenie des
anhydrites, des gypses, et des dolomies, Bulletin de la
Socit Gologique de France 8 (1837): 174177.
crystal lattices found in mature, ordered, stoi-
chiometric dolomite.6 Like other terms in this
discussion, some would strike it from the dolo-
mite vocabulary, while others find it useful.
The plural term dolomites may be used to col-
lectively describe different types of dolomite that
vary in texture, composition or genesis.7 When
describing a carbonate that has been subjected
to replacement, the adjective dolomitized may
be used.
Dolomites can be divided into two major fami-
lies. Penecontemporaneous dolomites form soon
after deposition of carbonate precursors as a
result of geochemical conditions that prevail
within the precursors environment of deposition.
Most penecontemporaneous dolomites are of
Holocene age and are restricted to certain
evaporitic lagoonal or lacustrine settings.
Postdepositional dolomites form after carbonate
sediment has been deposited and subsequently
removed from the active zone of sedimentation.
This may happen through progradation of the
sedimentary surface, burial and subsidence,
uplift and emergence, or eustatic sea-level fluc-
tuations. Almost all examples of massive, region-
ally extensive dolostones are postdepositional.8
Important but sometimes confusing distinc-
tions have been drawn between various types of
dolomite, based on how they form. A dolomites
mode of origin is an important concept that can be
tied to its general orientation and areal extent in
the subsurface. Primary dolomite consists of
particles that first formed as dolomite by direct
precipitation from seawater or other aqueous solu-
tion. This process creates unlithified dolomite
sediment. However, later researchers assigned the
designation of primary to dolomite on the basis of
its position in the rock fabric.9 Primary, in this
case, came to refer to dolomite that has directly
precipitated above, at or within the sediment,
while also forming at the same time as that sedi-
ment. Thus, the geochemical term primary takes
on a stratigraphic context.
14. Powers RW: Arabian Upper Jurassic Carbonate
Reservoir Rocks, in Ham WE (ed): Classification of
Carbonate RocksA Symposium. Tulsa: The American
Association of Petroleum Geologists, AAPG Memoir 1
(1962): 122192.
This relationship between dolomitization and porosity is
also reviewed by Lucia, reference 12.
15. Murray RC and Pray LC: Dolomitization and Limestone
DiagenesisAn Introduction, in Pray LC and
Murray RC (eds): Dolomitization and Limestone
Diagenesis: A Symposium. Tulsa: Society of Economic
Paleontologists and Mineralogists, SEPM Special
Publication 13 (1965): 12.
16. Murray and Pray, reference 15.
17. Weyl PK: Porosity Through Dolomitization:
Conservation-of-Mass Requirements, Journal of
Sedimentary Research 30, no. 1 (March 1960): 8590.
Oilfield Review
 Not all precipitates fall into the primary clas-
sification. A different type of precipitate has
more negative implications in the oil field. This
dolomite precipitates from aqueous solutions in
the form of pore-filling cement.
Secondary dolomites are formed through the
replacement of CaCO3 by CaMg(CO3)2. Currently,
the term replacive, or some variation thereof,
appears to be eclipsing secondary.
Thus, precipitation is responsible for both
primary dolomite and pore-filling cement. On the
other hand, dolomitization forms secondary or
replacive dolomite. Unfortunately, the latter term
is frequently used to describe distinctly different
processes. Many use this term loosely to describe
either the process in which magnesium ions
replace calcium ions or settings where precipita-
tion leads to unlithified sediment or pore-filling
cements. Some experts feel that too much lati-
tude is granted by such usage. To them, dolomiti-
zation should not be applied to dolomite
cementation or to cases in which hydrothermal
fluid leads to recrystallization of preexisting
dolomites. They reserve the term solely for the
replacement reaction.
This brief glimpse into the dolomite lexicon
chronicles attempts by geoscientists to grasp the
nature of a perplexing mineral. Despite the com-
plexity inherent in dolomite, E&P companies have
a history of success in exploiting these formations.
Mineralization and Reservoir Quality
Exploration efforts specifically targeted at dolo-
mite reservoirs have paid off in the form of
numerous oil and gas fields around the world. It
is estimated that up to 50% of the worlds carbon-
ate reservoirs are in dolomite, and in North
America that estimate ranges to 80%.10 Dolomite
reservoirs also host significant volumes of hydro-
carbons in Russia, northwestern and southern
Europe, northern and western Africa, the Middle
East and Far East (above right).
Dolomite formation has a marked effect on
reservoir quality, though not all dolomites make
good reservoirs. In some reservoirs, it is a detri-
ment to production. The permeability, solubility
and original depositional fabric of a carbonate
rock or sediment, as well as the chemistry, tem-
perature and volume of dolomitizing fluids, all
influence dolomite reservoir quality. Given these
variables, dolomitization can enhance, preserve
or destroy porosity.11
There are at least two trains of thought con-
cerning dolomite porosity: Some geologists main-
tain that dolostone porosity is inherited from its
limestone precursor.12 Others cite a long-held
claim that the chemical conversion of limestone
Autumn 2009
60N
30N
0
30S
60S
> Distribution of basins (blue dots) that host production from dolomite reservoirs.
Most of these basins occupy a position along a broad belt between 60 north and
south of the equator. (From Sun, reference 11.)
to dolostone results in a 12% porosity increase bulk-volume dolomite, it has acquired a grain-
because the molar volume of dolomite is smaller dominated fabric in which dolomite crystals
than that of calcite.13 essentially support the overburden, thereby sub-
Modern-day studies from different parts of stantially inhibiting compaction.17 This is one
the globe show interesting changes in porosity reason ancient or deeply buried dolomite is often
and permeability with increasing dolomite vol- much more porous than associated limestone
ume. For example, an evaluation of Jurassic (below). Higher porosity and permeability are
Arab-D carbonates in Ghawar field, Saudi Arabia,
indicated a steady decrease in porosity and per-
0 0
meability as dolomite volume increased from 10%
to 80%.14 However, as 80% to 90% of the rock is 2,000 75% to 100% 75% to 100%
replaced by dolomite, both intercrystalline poros- dolomite limestone 1,000
ity and permeability increased. Beyond 90%, 4,000
porosity and permeability decreased again as
more dolomite was added to the rock. A 6,000
2,000
similar result from Mississippian carbonates of
8,000
Saskatchewan, Canada, showed that maximum
Depth, ft
Depth, m
porosity was developed in carbonates MattV_ORAUT09_Fig_3
that con- 3,000
10,000
tained 80% to 90% dolomite.15 These examples
highlight important processes that take place as 12,000
dolomite is formingprocesses that can affect 4,000
reservoir quality. 14,000
Most dolomites are thought to form through
the replacement of preexisting calcite or aragonite 16,000 5,000
sediments. Dolomitization occurs more readily in
18,000
lime muds than in coarser carbonate sands
because muds have greater numbers of nucleation 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Porosity, %
sites on which dolomite crystals can form.16 During
early stages of dolomitization in mud-dominated > Progressive loss of porosity with depth. As
carbonates, porosity decreases slightly as dolomite expected, limestone and dolomite units from
the South Florida basin both show decreases in
crystals encroach upon space previously occupied
porosity with depth. The limestones tend to be
by mud. As dolomite is buried, mechanical com- more porous at shallower depths. Below 5,600 ft
paction caused by the steadily increasing weight of (1,700 m), however, the rate of porosity decline
overburden will further reduce porosity. actually slows for dolomites (blue) as they
become less susceptible to diagenesis and
However, as dolomitization continues, the recrystallization than the more reactive
dolomite crystals begin to develop a supporting limestones (green). (From Allan and Wiggins,
framework. By the time a carbonate reaches 80% reference 19.)
35
 Planar texture Nonplanar texture Planar-e (euhedral) dolomite: This texture,
often referred to as sucrosic, forms important
reservoirs worldwide. Permeability varies strongly
with porosity. Uniform pore-throat sizes and
well-interconnected pore systems are found in
planar-e dolomite, as seen in capillary pressure
data and scanning electron microscope (SEM)
pore-cast analysis.
Euhedral Subhedral Anhedral Planar-s (subhedral) dolomite: Permeability
is lower than in planar-e dolomite and does
not increase as rapidly with increasing poros-
ity. Uniform throat sizes and well-connected
pore systems are not seen in this dolomite,
probably because of continued cementation
during diagenesis.
Nonplanar dolomite occurs in the subsurface at
temperatures greater than 50C [122F]. This dolo-
Increase in temperature
mite exhibits no significant correlation between
> Dolomite textures. Dolomite can be divided into planar and nonplanar permeability and porosity (below). Permeability in
textures (top). The planar texture is further subdivided into euhedral and
subhedral classes. Euhedral (planar-e) dolomite is characterized by well-
developed crystal faces with sharp boundaries, with the area between 105
crystals being either porous or filled by another mineral. Subhedral (planar-s) Planar-e dolomite
dolomite grains are still planar but less distinct than planar-e grains and show 104 Planar-s dolomite
compromised boundaries between crystals. Nonplanar dolomite consists of

Permeability, mD
anhedral grains that lack well-developed crystal faces. These anhedral grains 103 r = 0.99
are closely packed, with curved, lobate, serrated or otherwise irregular
crystalline boundaries. (Adapted from Sibley and Gregg, reference 20.) Actual 102
examples of these textures are captured in polished thin-section micrographs
101
obtained through a petrographic microscope under polarized light. Euhedral r = 0.99
dolomite (bottom left ) from a Cretaceous reservoir of the Middle East exhibits 100
well-developed faces associated with intercrystalline porosity. Subhedral
dolomite (center bottom) was obtained from a Triassic reservoir of the 101
northern Arabian Platform. Anhedral dolomite from a Jurassic reservoir of the 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Arabian basin (bottom right) shows a lack of crystal faces and interlocked Total porosity, % by volume
crystals that destroy porosity. (Photographs courtesy of Fadhil Sadooni.) 105
Nonplanar dolomite
104
Permeability, mD

103
more likely to be preserved in dolostone than in Because the quality of a dolomite reservoir is
MattV_ORAUT09_Fig6_2
limestone because the supporting framework of characterized by its texture, this interrelation- 102 r = 0.15
dolomite crystals provides greater compressive ship of crystal shape and grain size, orientation 1
10
strength, thus the limestone is more susceptible and packing within a rock can also affect reser-
to compaction. voir quality. Textural classification schemes help 100
Beyond 90% dolomitization, the loss of poros- geologists infer processes that controlled crystal
101
ity can be attributed to the addition of carbonate nucleation and growth.20 One widely accepted 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
and magnesium, through a process known as dolomite classification scheme is based on crys- Total porosity, % by volume
overdolomitization. After an initial replacement tal boundary relationships and divides textures > Porosity versus permeability. Quantitative
phase during which calcite is replaced by dolo- into two types: planar and nonplanar. The planar analysis of different textural types indicates that
mite, a pore-filling phase may occur, whereby crystals are further divided into euhedral and sub- permeability in dolomites is not directly related to
total porosity or crystal size, but rather to the
dolomite precipitates to form crystal overgrowths hedral classes (above). connectivity of pore throats. There is a strong
or pore-occluding cement. Thus, overdolomitiza- Planar dolomite forms in both shallow and relationship between increasing porosity and
tion causes young dolostones to have less porosity burial diagenetic environments. Texture develops permeability in planar-e dolomites (top, green),
than associated limestones.18 when crystals undergo faceted growth with pla- and an apparent strong relationship in planar-s
(blue). The correlation coefficient (r) between
Dolomite crystal formation plays another role nar interfaces, characteristic of dolomite crystals porosity and permeability in nonplanar dolomites
in reservoir quality. Dolomite frequently forms formed during early diagenesis and, under cer- (bottom, yellow) is low, as permeability in this type
larger crystals than the calcite it replaces. tain conditions, at elevated temperatures in the of dolomite is a function of secondary features
Enlarged crystal size is associated with increases subsurface. Two porosity-permeability popula- such as connected vugs and fractures. Points
plotted at 0.5mD represent measurements that fell
in pore-throat size and pore smoothness, which tions exist for planar dolomite. below the lower determination limit of the
boost permeability in dolostones.19 permeameter and are not part of a statistical
trend. (From Woody et al, reference 21.)

36 Oilfield Review
MattV_ORAUT09_Fig_7
nonplanar dolomite is often attributed to secondary
porosity features such as fractures or intercon-
nected vugs, rather than intergranular porosity
found between crystals.21
Researchers continue to unravel the mysteries
of dolomite mineralization. The discovery that
dolomite is metastable was a revelation that
helped geoscientists explain the variations in
chemical proportions and structural order that are
seen as the mineral evolves. Dolomitization is not
a single event; it is a sequence of responses caused
by changing geologic conditions.
Modes of Dolomite Formation
Many environments of dolomitization have been
identified. Some result in unique reservoir geom-
etries that bear directly on exploration strategy.
Rather than describe every type of dolomite
formation, the following discussion focuses pri-
marily on modes that permit dolomites that are
thick enough to be targeted for exploration. This
also implies that the discussion mainly covers
secondary, or replacive, dolomite. In some cases
the distinction between modern and ancient con-
ditions must be drawn, because current settings
do not necessarily reflect the conditions in which
ancient dolomites were formed. Three well-
established hydrologic models and settings, along
with some of their variants, are discussed first,
and the section concludes with hydrothermal and
bacterial cases.
Brine-Reflux ModelPerhaps the most popu-
lar concept of dolomite formation is embodied in
the brine-reflux model and similar variations. In
this instance, seawater in a restricted lagoon evap-
orates to form a hypersaline brine that sinks to the
lagoon floor and seeps through underlying lime
sediments as it escapes, or refluxes back to the sea
(above). As it filters through the pores of the
underlying rock, magnesium from the brine
replaces part of the calcium contained within the
aragonite and calcite components of the lime-
stone, converting it to dolomite.
This scenario was proposed in 1960 to explain
extensive lagoonal and reefal dolomites associ-
ated with platform evaporites of the Permian
basin in West Texas, USA.22 Reflux dolomitization
has since been recognized in cores from other
areas, where the intensity of dolomitization
decreases with distance from the evaporite-
carbonate contact. Today, hypersaline environ-
mentswhere water salinity rises above that of
normal seawaterare widespread in a belt
between about 30 north and south latitude. In
the Permian basin, lagoons developed behind
Autumn 2009
Evaporation
Free flow
Increasing water density
Open marine
Sill
Seep
age refl
ux
> Brine reflux in an evaporitic setting. A sill to seaward restricts circulation of waters. Some of the
seawater evaporates, causing water density to increase. The dense brines sink below the sediment,
reflux through the basin or lagoon floor and dolomitize any carbonate sediments that they pass
through. (Adapted from Allan and Wiggins, reference 19.)
barrier reefs on a broad shelf inundated by the seen to be caused by primary permeability and
shallow waters of Permian seas. The reefs crystallinity, rather than by dolomitization.
impeded the surface exchange of water between In this model, the down-and-out migration of
lagoon and sea. Restricted circulation, combined the hypersaline brine was responsible for dolomi-
with loss of water by evaporation, lowered water tizing broad expanses of carbonate rock in the
levels in the lagoon, raised the salinity of brines Permian basin. Within the carbonates, the brine-
and promoted the precipitation of evaporites. As reflux pathways shifted seaward as the shelves
the specific gravity of the concentrated brine regressed. The lagoons, which sourced the brines,
increased, it sank through the water column and also followed progressively forestepping reef
migrated to the lowest depressions in the carbon- deposits. As established escape zones for the
ate floor of the lagoon. brine became sealed off by advancing evaporites,
Displacing the connate water in the underly- they would be replaced by similar outlets farther
ing rock, the dense hypersaline brine seeped seaward. With each forestep, previously unin-
downward along vertical migration pathways, fol- vaded reef limestones were exposed to the
lowing bedding planes only when vertical paths dolomitizing brines. The pace of regression was
were exhausted. In rocks with varying permeabil- geologic, and so slow that most of the limestones
ities, the seeping brines migrated mainly through were dolomitized before the supply of brine was
porous zones while bypassing denser limestone cut off.
lenses. Thus, coarse-grained and porous Permian Most modern dolomite is associated with
dolomites are limited to beds previously com- hypersaline solutions.23 Modern brine-reflux con-
posed of coarse-grained and porous limestones. ditions have been documented on a smaller
MattV_ORAUT09_Fig_8
By contrast, fine-grained dense dolomites occupy scale in settings such as the San Andrs Islands
open-shelf positions, where extremely fine- offshore Colombia, the Canary Islands, Spain
grained, mud-based lithographic limestones and the Caribbean island of Bonaire in
would normally form. Dolomite textures were Netherlands Antilles.24
18. Lucia, reference 12. 23. Land LS: The Origin of Massive Dolomite, Journal of
19. Allan JR and Wiggins WD: Dolomite Reservoirs: Geological Education 33, no. 2 (1985): 112125.
Geochemical Techniques for Evaluating Origin and 24. Kocurko MJ: Dolomitization by Spray-Zone Brine-
Distribution. Tulsa: The American Association of Seepage, San Andrs, Colombia, Journal of
Petroleum Geologists, AAPG Continuing Education Sedimentary Research 49, no. 1 (March 1979): 209213.
Course Note Series 36 (1993). Mller G and Teitz G: Dolomite Replacing Cement A
20. Sibley DF and Gregg JM: Classification of Dolomite in Biocalcarenites from Fuerteventura, Canary Islands,
Rock Textures, Journal of Sedimentary Research 57, Spain, in Bricker OP (ed): Carbonate Cements.
no. 6 (November 1987): 967975. Baltimore, Maryland, USA: Johns Hopkins Press, 1971.
21. Woody RE, Gregg JM and Koederitz LF: Effect of Deffeyes KS, Lucia FJ and Weyl PK: Dolomitization
Texture on Petrophysical Properties of Dolomite: of Recent and Plio-Pleistocene Sediments by Marine
Evidence from the Cambrian-Ordovician of Evaporite Water on Bonaire, Netherlands Antilles,
Southeastern Missouri, AAPG Bulletin 80, no. 1 in Pray LC and Murray RC (eds): Dolomitization and
(January 1996): 119132. Limestone Diagenesis: A Symposium. Tulsa: Society of
Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists, SEPM
22. Adams JE and Rhodes ML: Dolomitization by Seepage
Refluxion, AAPG Bulletin 44, no. 12 Special Publication 13 (1965): 7188.
(December 1960): 19121920.
37
 dolomite. In general, the dolomitization process
can be expressed by the chemical equation:
2CaCO3 + Mg2+ => CaMg(CO3)2 + Ca2+.
This model is based on Mifflin carbonate
Evaporation outcrops of the Platteville Formation, in the
Middle Ordovician Champlain Series of Wisconsin,
Supratidal Storm
flood USA. Here, the carbonates appear homogeneous
High water
Intertidal over a broad area, and the thickness of the unit
and general structure suggest a broad, shallow
Low water Water level
open-marine environment. The open-marine
Seep Subtidal
age refl fossils, along with a lack of mud cracks, algal
ux
mats and evaporites, preclude supratidal deposi-
tion and dolomitization in a physically restricted
lagoonal environment.
> Sabkha reflux environment. This schematic of peritidal sediments on a Qatar peninsula sabkha
Dolomitization of the Mifflin Member was the
shows another variation on the reflux theme. Seawater is pushed onshore during storm surges,
becomes concentrated through evaporation, then seeps into the underlying sediment to reflux to its result of a relatively early diagenetic process fol-
source. (Adapted from Warren, reference 2.) lowing subaerial exposure of uplifted limestone
and subsequent establishment of freshwater
lenses. Dolomitization occurred in the brackish
zone where seawater and fresh waters mixed,
with a dolostone-limestone boundary established
Perhaps an even better-known variation on brine-reflux dolomites never approach the scale along the lower margin of the groundwater lens.30
lagoonal brine reflux is seen on a localized scale of processes that caused dolomitization of shelf In a somewhat different mode, dolomite may
in the sabkha model. In this arid-climate sce- carbonates adjacent to ancient evaporites. In be created through the circulation of saline
nario, storm surges or high tides push seawater modern settings, reflux dolomites have been groundwaters deep within a carbonate platform.
landward, over the peritidal sediment of a sabkha found beneath evaporite crusts, but the areas of In southern Florida, USA, cold, dense seawater is
flat. As the surface water sinks into the sediment, evaporite precipitation are both small in scale drawn through the platform margin from the deep
some of the pore waters are lost to capillary evap- and localized.27 Modern analogs to ancient dolo- Straits of Florida. Geothermally driven circulation
oration, leaving a hypersaline brine. Here, hydro- mite deposits are often hard to find. As with other causes the Mg-rich seawater to rise into the inte-
dynamic pressure provides the hydrologic pump modes, this popular conceptual construct must rior of the Florida carbonate platform, where it
for moving Mg through the system. As it becomes be applied judiciously, on a case-by-case basis. mixes with fresh meteoric water before discharg-
more concentrated, the brine precipitates arago- Marine-Meteoric Mixing ModelThe strati- ing through an extensive aquifer system.
nite and anhydrite or gypsumminerals that graphic position, related fossil assemblages and The interplay of fresh and saline waters
sometimes form an updip seal in dolomite reser- lack of associated evaporite indicate that some with geothermal heat flow is known as Kohout
voirs. Precipitation of these minerals removes dolomites do not form within a restricted-marine, convection.31 In this scenario, the resulting pore
calcium from the solution but leaves the magne- supratidal setting. Instead, they are found in waters become undersaturated with respect to
sium content unchanged, thus raising the Mg/Ca areas where Mg-rich saline waters mix with fresh calcite and aragonite but still saturated with
ratio and promoting dolomite precipitation or meteoric water. Modern and ancient dolomite respect to dolomite, which is precipitated in the
dolomitization.25 The dense brine continues to formations around the world support variations permeable aquifers.
percolate downward into underlying lime sedi- on this theme. Another environment for mixing of fresh and
ments and refluxes back to its source MattV_ORAUT09_Fig_9
(above). One such variation is grounded in widespread saline waters is found along the coastal plains of
Sabkha dolomite is commonly associated with dolomitic facies associated with shallow epicon- southeastern Australia. From the present, and
supratidal sediments and features, such as algal tinental shelves or structural highs, where extending throughout the Quaternary Period,
stromatolites, nodular anhydrites and wind- unlike the previous modelsevidence of saline microcrystalline dolomite and other carbonate
driven interbedded deposits. brine evaporation is not seen.28 The origin of minerals have been forming in shallow ephemeral
A prime example of the sabkha model is the these dolomites is explained by the dorag model, lakes of the Coorong region. These lakes develop
Ordovician Red River dolomite in the Williston in which dolomitization occurs in the brackish along a 100-km [62-mi] belt, in an interdune cor-
basin of the USA and Canada. Modern-day zone that forms when fresh groundwater is mixed ridor located immediately inland from the present
sabkhas are undergoing extensive study in the with seawater.29 In this zone, seawater supplies coastline, behind a calcareous sand barrier. The
Trucial Coast of the United Arab Emirates. There, Mg2+ ions, and dissolution of CaCO3 occurs as the lakes are considered to be outcrops of the water
dolomitization takes place only in the storm two waters mix. Calculations show that mixing table, and free water, resulting from rainfall and
recharge zone, and the amount of dolomite cor- meteoric groundwaters with 5% to 30% seawater regional or local aquifer recharge, is found at their
relates with the frequency of recharge.26 can cause undersaturation with respect to cal- surface only during winter and spring.32
Researchers have, however, raised doubts as cite, while dolomite becomes supersaturated. Modern dolomite is found only in lakes sub-
to whether reflux can operate on a regional scale, Within this range, calcite can be replaced by jected to an annual desiccation phase. Those lakes
as originally proposed. The hydrologies of modern occur mainly in areas receiving less than 500 mm

38 Oilfield Review
[19.7 in.] of rainfall per year, and typically fill to a
water depth of 0.5 to 1 m [1.6 to 3.3 ft]. When
filled, these lakes have a carbonate-mud bottom
that contains algae and other organic matter. As
lake levels fall, the waters become increasingly
saline before eventually exposing the mud bottom
to sunlight and consequent desiccation. Ensuing
brines form during the drying phase and are
refluxed out of the system into seaward-flowing
groundwaters. Fine-grained dolomites and other
carbonates remain behind, while saline and sul-
fate evaporite minerals are flushed out of the sys-
tem. This dolomite is thought to precipitate from a
carbonate gel suspension, not through replace-
ment of a preexisting carbonate.
The dolomites in this system accumulate above
shallow continental groundwaters that flow toward
the sea. During their coastward migration, the
groundwaters traverse large volumes of predomi-
nantly carbonate aquifer sediments. The source of
the Mg is poorly understood but is believed either
to be supplied by a local Quaternary volcanic prov-
ince or to be scavenged by groundwater flow from
other sources.
Burial Diagenesis ModelDolomite can form
in environments where pore-fluid chemistry is
dominated by subsurface diagenetic processes or
where interactions between water and rock have
modified the original pore waters. Such environ-
ments are removed from active surface sedimen
tation by intermediate to deep burial and are
characterized by chemically reducing conditions.
Burial dolomites form in the subsurface after
lithification of lime sediments. These dolomites
can either directly precipitate as cement or form
as replacements in permeable intervals flushed
by warm to hot magnesium-enriched basinal and
hydrothermal waters. Since burial dolomite
replacement occurs after lithification of a car-
bonate host, this dolomite may crosscut deposi-
tional facies as well as formation boundaries.33 In
addition to structural position, oxygen and stron-
tium [Sr] isotopes are useful in determining how
such dolomites originate. These dolomites tend
to have negative 18O oxygen isotope values,
indicating precipitation from fluids at some-
what higher temperatures than those of earlier
platform dolomites. The recrystallization of previ-
25. Warren, reference 2.
26. Land, reference 23.
27. Warren, reference 2.
28. Epicontinental shelves are flooded continents, created
through flooding by ancient seaways.
29. The term dorag is said to be loosely translated from
the Farsi language, and is used to infer mixed blood
or hybrid.
Badiozamani K: The Dorag Dolomitization Model
Application to the Middle Ordovician of Wisconsin,
Journal of Sedimentary Research 43, no. 4
(December 1973): 965984.
Autumn 2009
ously formed dolomites by basinal fluids can
reset the crystal characteristics, producing crys-
tals with low 18O values, modified 87Sr/86Sr ratios
and saline high-temperature fluid inclusions.34
In these subsurface environments, dolomitiza-
tion of limestone is facilitated by higher tempera-
tures as burial depth increases. In turn, higher
temperatures enable dolomitization by solutions
with lower Mg/Ca ratios than the previously men-
tioned hypersaline brines. Temperatures of 60 to
70C [140 to 158F] are sufficient for burial dolo-
mites to form, and these conditions can usually be
met within just a few kilometers of the surface.
With sufficient temperature increase, many sub-
surface waters can become dolomitizing solutions,
including residual evaporite brines, seawater and
shale-compaction waters. In the latter case, pore
water is expelled from fine-grained sediments dur-
ing burial and compaction. Clay minerals release
Mg+2, which may pass through carbonates, result-
ing in their dolomitization.
However, dolomitization in the deep subsur-
face is not extensive because pore fluids and ions
are progressively lost with continued compac-
tion. The case for shale compaction is another
contentious topic. Some experts hold that the
precipitation of chlorite within shales may be a
local sink for Mg. As with other models, large vol-
umes of Mg-bearing fluids are necessary for this
model to be viable.
Hydrothermal ModelOne fairly popular
model, hydrothermal dolomitization (HTD),
stems from an older idea that has been reincar-
nated in refined form. HTD commonly forms mas-
sive dolomites that are localized around faults
(above right). Hydrothermal dolomite is formed
by deep basinal waters as they travel upward
through relatively permeable conduits, such as
faults and thrust planes, or even zones beneath
impermeable seals. As waters circulate down-
ward in basinal convection cells, they warm in
accordance with the local geothermal gradient.
With heating, they become more buoyant, move
upward and flow outward along faults and bed-
ding planes.
Buoyancy and viscosity affect the ascent rate
and geometry of the rising fluid. Where buoyancy
forces are stronger, the rising fluid forms a
30. For more on this type of dolomite: Folk RL and
Siedlecka A: The Schizohaline Environment: Its
Sedimentary and Diagenetic Fabrics as Exemplified by
Late Paleozoic Rocks of Bear Island, Svalbard,
Sedimentary Geology 11, no. 1 (May 1974): 115.
31. Kohout FA: Ground-Water Flow and the Geothermal
Regime of the Floridian Plateau, Transactions, Gulf
Coast Association of Geological Societies 17
(1967): 339354.
ane
Dolomite
l
lt p
Limestone
fau
up
w
flo
ids
Flu
> Hydrothermal dolomitization. Fluids from deep
within a basin can rapidly move up fault planes to
dolomitize carbonates at shallower depths.
concentrated, predominantly vertical plume.
Within this plume, temperatures, flow rates and
chemical potential may be expected to decrease
from the center toward its margins. For relatively
cool systems, in which viscosity dominates, fluids
rise slowly and plume geometry is determined by
the ratio of vertical to horizontal permeability.35
Deep waters become hydrothermalmeaning
they are at least 5C [9F] higher than the ambi-
ent formation temperatureas they are transmit-
ted upward into cooler, shallower parts of the
basin. Pressures of hydrothermal fluids also tend
to be higher than ambient fluid pressures.
Hydrothermal fluids, therefore, are those that
ascend to cooler strata before their heat has had
time to dissipate appreciably into the formation.
They flow rapidly upward through permeable
conduits, rather than migrating slowly through
low-permeability strata. Active faults make the
best conduits because they have not been miner-
alized. Some faults may even breach the seals of
MattV_ORAUT09_Fig_10
deeper aquifers, tapping geopressured fluids that
flow at a high rate up the faults.36
A similar processfault-related hydrother-
mal alterationhas long been recognized by the
mining industry as an important aspect of car-
bonate diagenesis. However, until recently, this
process was largely overlooked in the evaluation
of carbonate reservoirs. As a result, some fea-
tures that were probably produced by faulting
and hydrothermal fluid flow have been inter-
preted as having formed in meteoric mixing
zones, deep burial and other environments.37
32. von der Borch CC and Lock D: Geological Significance
of Coorong Dolomites, Sedimentology 26, no. 6
(December 1979): 813824.
33. Allan and Wiggins, reference 19.
34. Warren, reference 2.
35. Warren, reference 2.
36. Allan and Wiggins, reference 19.
37. Allan and Wiggins, reference 19.
39
 A prime example of an ancient fault-related
dolomite is found in the Ordovician Trenton
Black River limestones of Michigan, USA, and
southwestern Ontario, Canada.38 There, dolomite
defines zones of faulting and fracturing within
the surrounding limestone.
Microbial Mediation ModelPresent-day
low-temperature dolomite most often forms in
restricted-marine or hypersaline coastal environ-
ments; however, these modern settings produce
only a small fraction of the total dolomite found
in the rock record. Although dolomite is abun-
dant in rocks of the Paleozoic era (250 to 540Ma),
it becomes increasingly scarce in younger rock or
sedimentparticularly in recent (Holocene)
settings. By contrast, ancient massive dolomites
are believed to have formed in a wide variety of
settings, described previously. This disparity leads
some researchers to question whether present-
day conditions actually reflect those that allowed
the formation of massive ancient dolomites.
To understand the rarity of dolomite in the
recent rock record, researchers sought to dis-
cover how dolomite forms. Until recently, they
have struggled to synthesize the mineral in their
laboratories. Reasoning that seawater contained
the right ingredients needed for the creation of
dolomite, geochemists used brine concentrations
and pressure-temperature conditions thought to
exist in nature during the formation of dolomite.39
The inability to produce dolomite in the labora-
tory goes to the very heart of the problem that has
plagued geoscientists for years (see The
Dolomite Problem, page 1). Although magne-
sium, calcium and carbonate ions are common in
seawater, the conditions necessary to arrange
them in the neatly ordered, alternating layers
that formed stoichiometric dolomite have appar-
ently changed. Once geoscientists understand
how dolomite forms in a controlled environment,
they may come closer to learning how it forms in
nature and why it was once so prevalent and yet
is so uncommon today.
The dolomite problem is tied to a number of
interrelated processes involving thermodynam-
ics, chemical kinetics, hydrology, host-rock
texture and mineralogy. Discoveries in the
1990s revealed that another processmicrobial
actionshould be factored into the equation
(above right). Microbes became the focus of
attention in the sulfate-rich sludges of shallow
isolated lagoons, when it was discovered that
calcium-rich dolomite precipitates under anoxic,
hypersaline conditions.
Sulfate-reducing bacteria in the Brazilian
Lagoa Vermelha play an important role in the for-
mation of primary dolomite in lagoons along the
40
0.5 m
> Scanning electron microscope photomicrograph of rod-shaped microbial
cells inhabiting the surface of a basalt sample. These microbes have
precipitated dolomite after three months in anaerobic groundwater.
Differences in crystal encrustation may be due to microbial residence time on
the basalt surface or may simply reflect differences in metabolic activity.
Each cell is approximately 1 m long. (From Roberts et al, reference 43.)
coast east of Rio de Janeiro.40 There, lagoonal as evidenced by the fact that dolomite is not pre-
hydrological cycles vary with alternating wet and cipitating in most other anoxic, organic-carbon-
dry seasons. During the wet season, precipitation rich marine sediments.
and continental groundwater raise water levels; Laboratory experiments were able to simulate
during the dry season, seawater recharges the the chemistry of the dry-season anoxic hypersaline
lagoon, which becomes increasingly saline as lagoonal waters. Bacteria taken from the lagoonal
evaporation intensifies. This dynamic system sludge were used to inoculate a cultural medium.
helps supply the ions needed for dolomite pre- They were incubated for one year in a refrigerator
cipitation and anaerobic microbial activity. at 4C [39F]. After incubation, a dolomite pre-
Dolomite precipitation requires Mg2+, Ca2+ and cipitate was recovered. Scanning electron micro-
CO32 ions, whereas a continuous supply of SO42 scope (SEM) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis
ions provides oxygen required to sustain the showed that a ferroan dolomite with a fairly high
metabolic activity of the sulfate-reducing bacte- degree of cation order had been precipitated.
ria. The most favorable time for dolomite precipi- Subsequent laboratory experiments using two
tation is the dry season, when the main source of aerobic bacteria cultures, Halomonas meridiana
MattV_ORAUT09_Fig_11
groundwater recharge is seawater, which delivers and Virgibacillus marismortui, were shown to
the ions necessary for both dolomite precipita- precipitate dolomite in just 30 days at 25C and
tion and sulfate reduction. 35C [77F and 95F], respectively.41 These experi-
In some geochemical models, sulfate is thought ments also showed that the time required for ini-
to inhibit dolomite production. Experiments have tiation and precipitation of dolomite decreased
shown that in a purely inorganic system without with increasing temperature, while the quantity of
benefit of bacterial action, the sulfate does indeed crystals increased with greater incubation time.
inhibit dolomite precipitation. However, this is just Here, bacterial metabolic activity involves produc-
the opposite of the Lagoa Vermelha case, in which tion of ammonia [NH3], which creates an alkaline
sulfate is necessary to maintain the microbial microenvironment around the bacteria cells. The
activity required to produce dolomite. The hydro- bacteria also produce CO2, which dissolves and
logic system furnishes sulfate ions to the zone of transforms into either HCO 3 or CO23 at higher pH.
active sulfate reduction where sediments become In the presence of Ca2+ and Mg2+, the culture
enriched with dolomite, which, once nucleated, medium becomes supersaturated with respect to
continue to grow with burial. The right strain of dolomite. These physiochemical changes influ-
bacteria is also a key to dolomite precipitation, ence the geochemical environment and promote
Oilfield Review
dolomite precipitation. Other related experiments
are helping researchers develop oxygen isotope
paleothermometers to evaluate conditions of
ancient dolomite formation.42
These analyses proved that microbial media-
tion of dolomite production can be achieved
under low-temperature anoxic conditions, and in
a relatively short time. When dolomite is associ-
ated with sediments that are rich in organic
carbon, biological influences should therefore
be investigated.
A different type of biomineralization was
reported in 2004 when methanogens, rather than
sulfate reducers, were found to be responsible for
dolomite nucleation and precipitation. Rather
than examining a hypersaline lagoon, groundwa-
ter researchers conducted a long-term evaluation
of a petroleum-contaminated freshwater aquifer
in Minnesota, USA. There they discovered dolo-
mite on the cells of methanogenic microbes that
colonized a subsurface basalt layer in a highly
reducing environment.43
In this setting, dolomite formation is seen as
part of a two-step process in which microorgan-
isms first weather the basalt and incidentally
release Mg, Ca and Fe. Microbial consumption of
CO2 then results in dolomite crystal nucleation
on their cell walls.
Field observations showed low-temperature
dolomite precipitation by microbial action after
three months. Subsequent experiments were
conducted in a controlled laboratory environ-
ment in which methanogenic bacteria were incu-
bated in an anaerobic chamber at 25C for eight
months. Once again, dolomite crystals nucleated
on microbe cells that colonized the basalt sur-
faces. This study expands the range of environ-
ments in which dolomite precipitation is found to
occur at low temperature, opening the possibility
for new models to explain the origin and diage-
netic history of ancient dolomites.
The preceding review of dolomite formation
provides only a general orientation and does not
cover the full range of environments that support
the creation of dolomite. Variations and combina-
tions of different modes are espoused by many
researchers. Furthermore, a survey of dolomite
literature would reveal that each model is only as
good as the latest technical paper, and all models
have been roundly debated, criticized and in
some cases, rebuked.
Each dolomite reservoir is created under
unique circumstances, and some reservoirs may
consist of multiple generations of dolomite
formed by different flow systems and mecha-
nisms. All dolomite reservoirs should be investi-
gated and characterized on a case-by-case basis.
Autumn 2009
Lithology Pore system Relative permeability
Core data
and porosity and permeability and saturation
Spectroscopy
Density
Thermal neutron Grain density
NMR T2 distribution Laterolog resistivity
Epithermal neutron Porosity
Image log Induction resistivity
Photoelectric factor Permeability
NMR
Gamma ray
> Carbonate Advisor sequential workflow. The first step incorporates results
from tools that provide lithology and porosity information: spectroscopy,
density, thermal neutron, epithermal neutron, photoelectric factor, NMR and
gamma ray. The data are examined by petrophysicists and serve as inputs to
the next step, which involves evaluation of the pore system and permeability
using NMR T2 distribution or image logs. Next, relative permeability and
saturation are obtained from array laterolog or array induction resistivity
measurements. Also, core data, such as grain density, porosity and
permeability, can be added to the analysis.
Reservoir Evaluation contained in their pore spaces. Nuclear magnetic
Evaluation of dolomite reservoirs is never resonance (NMR) porosity and bound-fluid volume
straightforward. The heterogeneous pore systems are sensitive to fluid type and pore-space geome-
in dolomitic rock can easily confound petrophysi- try, but less sensitive to the rock matrix. Relative
cal evaluation efforts. Even the quantification of permeability, which pertains to the effective flow
dolomite can be difficult. The carbonate precur- of oil or gas and water, affects shallow resistivity
sors of dolomite, deposited primarily as a result measurements more than deep resistivity mea-
of biological activity and composed of fossil frag- surements. All these measurements are inte-
ments and assorted rock grains, tend to create grated with others into a simultaneous solution.
rocks with very complex textures and a wide Porosity, in particular, is a focal point of any
range of pore shapes and sizes. These rocks may reservoir evaluation. However, calculating poros-
be further beset by multiple physical, biological ity values in carbonates, which include calcite
and chemical processes, each operating at differ-
38. Hurley NF and Budros R: Albion-Scipio and Stoney
ent scales. Once converted, dolomite may later Point Fields, U.S.A., Michigan Basin, in Beaumont
be subjected to multiple stages of dissolution, EA and Foster NH (eds): Stratigraphic Traps I. Tulsa:
American Association of Petroleum Geologists,
precipitation and recrystallization. AAPG Treatise of Petroleum Geology, Atlas of Oil and
Dolomite reservoir evaluation must account Gas Fields (1990): 137.
MattV_ORAUT09_Fig_12
39. Land LS: Failure to Precipitate Dolomite at 25C from
for heterogeneity in lithology, rock pores, grains Dilute Solution Despite 1000-Fold Oversaturation
and textures. The Carbonate Advisor petrophys- After 32 Years, Aquatic Geochemistry 4, nos. 34
(September 1998): 361368.
ics and productivity analysis process was devel-
40. Vasconcelos C and McKenzie JA: Microbial Mediation
oped to help geoscientists evaluate these complex of Modern Dolomite Precipitation and Diagenesis Under
reservoirs. Carbonate Advisor analysis relates Anoxic Conditions (Lagoa Vermelha, Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil), Journal of Sedimentary Research 67, no. 3
logging data to producibility using texture-sensi- (May 1997): 378390.
tive logs and borehole imaging to characterize 41. Snchez-Romn M, Vasconcelos C, Schmid T, Dittrich M,
McKenzie JA, Zenobi R and Rivadeneyra MA: Aerobic
pore geometry.44 The interpretation methodology Microbial Dolomite at the Nanometer Scale: Implications
involves an integrated sequence to determine for the Geologic Record, Geology 36, no. 11
(November 2008): 879882.
lithology, porosity, pore type, permeability, rela-
42. Vasconcelos C, McKenzie JA, Warthmann R and
tive permeability and saturation (above). Bernasconi SM: Calibration of the 18O Paleo
Lithology and porosity are derived by combin- thermometer for Dolomite Precipitated in Microbial
Cultures and Natural Environments, Geology 33, no. 4
ing measurements from various tools, each with (April 2005): 317320.
sensitivity to different factors, including rock 43. Roberts JA, Bennett PC, Gonzlez LA, Macpherson GL
and Milliken KL: Microbial Precipitation of Dolomite in
matrix, fluid properties and porosity. Neutron cap- Methanogenic Groundwater, Geology 32, no. 4
ture spectroscopy and photoelectric factor (PEF) (April 2004): 277280.
data are used to quantify rock mineralogy. Bulk 44. Ramamoorthy R, Boyd A, Neville TJ, Seleznev N, Sun H,
Flaum C and Ma J: A New Workflow for Petrophysical
density and neutron porosity measurements are and Textural Evaluation of Carbonate Reservoirs,
sensitive to both the lithology and the fluids Transactions of the SPWLA 49th Annual Logging
Symposium, Edinburgh, Scotland, May 2528, 2008,
paper B.
41
 Total porosity Litho-Density tool.45 The PEF matrix value for
Micro- Meso- Macro- pure sandstone is 1.81; for dolomite it is 3.14 and
porosity porosity porosity
for limestone it is 5.08. From the PEF measure-
~ 0.5 m ~ 5 m ment, the percentage of dolomite can be directly
for for calculated if the matrix contains only two miner-
distribution All pores
NMR distribution
> long < 50 to 100 m als; unfortunately, rocks often contain a mixture
response < short
T2 cutoff T2 cutoff have the same T2 of minerals. Adding to the complexity is the fact
Image Blind to pores that even small concentrations of relatively com-
Vug
Nonvug porosity smaller than
response porosity
tool buttons
mon minerals, such as siderite (with a PEF of
14.7), pyrite (with its PEF of 16.97) or anhydrite
100%
macroporosity (with a PEF of 5.03), distort the measured PEF
values and shift the value toward calcite. There
are too many unknowns in this case to determine
Macro- the matrix type and the matrix porosity from a
porous
standard logging suite.
An additional problem with using PEF for
lithology determination is the effect of barite,
Micro- Macro- Macro- which is commonly added as a weighting material
macro micro meso
to drilling mud systems. Barite, with its PEF of
Micro- Micro- Meso- Meso- 266.82, overwhelms other PEF measurements in
porous meso micro porous
these mud systems.
100% 100%
microporosity mesoporosity The ECS elemental capture spectroscopy tool
> Pore geometries. Total porosity (top) can be can help to fill some of the gaps in the interpreta-
divided into different types of pores based on tion process. Neutron capture spectroscopy mea-
NMR and image log data. Micropores, with sures elemental yields of minerals found in the
pore-throat diameters less than 0.5 m, usually
formation. Recent advances in elemental capture
contain mostly irreducible water and little
hydrocarbon. Mesopores, with pore-throat spectroscopy have resulted in improved magne-
diameters between 0.5 and 5 m, may contain sium yield measurements to help petrophysicists
significant amounts of oil or gas in pores above quantify the amount of dolomite and other miner-
the free-water level (FWL). Macropores, with
als contained in reservoir rocks. ECS measure-
throats measuring more than 5 m in diameter,
are responsible for prolific production rates in ments also provide yields of calcium and sulfur,
many carbonate reservoirs but often provide which are critical for most carbonate lithology
pathways for early water breakthrough, leaving determination. In addition, ECS spectroscopy
considerable gas and oil behind in the mesopores
above the FWL. The three different types of pores data provide relative yields of elements such as
can be further divided into eight pore system iron, silicon, barium, hydrogen and chlorine. ECS
classes (bottom). data thus reduce uncertainty in porosity mea-
surements derived from basic logging suites.
and dolomite, can be a rather convoluted pro- Pore geometry comes into play when evaluat-
cess. Neutron porosity measurements must be ing reservoir quality and fluid-flow properties. For
corrected for the rock matrix. If the matrix con- the Carbonate Advisor system, the pores are parti-
tains only dolomite or only calcite, the porosity tioned into different types based on pore-throat
transform is fairly simple. But if the rock size. Partitioning is based on NMR transverse
MattV_ORAUT09_Fig_13
contains a mixture of both minerals, then the cor- relaxation time (T2) distributions augmented by
rect proportions of each must be determined to borehole images. Even though NMR is sensitive to
accurately calculate porosity values. pore-body size distribution, the Carbonate Advisor
Matrix complexity also affects the computa- system calibrates the results to appear as pore-
tion of density porosity because the equation throat size distribution. Two cutoffs are applied to
used to convert porosity from bulk density mea- T2 distributions relating relaxation time to pore-
surements requires matrix density as an input. size distribution (above left).
Should the rock be a mix of dolomite and calcite, The short cutoff defines the microporosity
the porosity calculations will be incorrect unless fraction, and the long cutoff defines the macropo-
an accurate matrix density is obtained. Thus, rosity fraction, while the mesoporosity fraction
underestimating or ignoring the presence of falls between the two. The macroporosity compo-
dolomite can lead to low computed porosity val- nent is also determined from borehole images by
ues that mask potentially productive zones. converting the resistivity image into a porosity
In some cases, calcite and dolomite can be image and extracting the fraction of large pores
readily distinguished using PEF data from a present. From the three porosity partitions, eight
petrophysical pore system classes are identified.
42
Matrix permeability is also estimated using
transforms optimized for each pore class.
Permeability estimates can be validated or cali-
brated using data from formation testing tools or
core measurements.
Simultaneous solutions of saturation and rel-
ative permeability are obtained through forward
modeling. The full model accounts for radial vari-
ations in resistivity caused by the distribution of
drilling fluids that invaded the formation, which
influences resistivity tool response. Both array
induction and array laterolog measurements can
be used for the analysis. With their multiple
depths of investigation, the resistivity tools can
accurately characterize the invasion front, which
is inverted to determine imbibition relative-
permeability curves. The saturation front and
salinity front are simultaneously solved to deter-
mine fractional flow, relative permeability versus
saturation and true formation resistivity.
The Carbonate Advisor system was recently
put to the test in a reservoir in northern Kuwait.
Reservoir evaluation in this area can be compli-
cated by drilling fluids weighted with barite, used
to increase drilling safety in fields known for high
concentrations of hydrogen sulfide and high res-
ervoir pressures.46 Geoscientists with the opera-
tor Kuwait Oil Company (KOC) found that zones
of improved porosity and permeability were asso-
ciated with dolomitization in this field. The quan-
tification of dolomite content was therefore
important in classifying reservoir quality.
However, the estimation of dolomite content
from conventional measurements can be hindered
by a variety of factors, such as barite mud effects,
complex lithologies and sensitivity of logging tool
measurements to dolomite, as well as differences
in each tools vertical resolution and depth of
investigation. To overcome these formation evalua-
tion challenges, an ECS tool was used to obtain
elemental relative yields for mineralogy computa-
tion. Magnesium measured by this tool was a key
element for dolomite quantification in this com-
plex reservoir. The CMR combinable magnetic
resonance tool was also run to obtain pore geome-
try information. The Carbonate Advisor system
provided formation evaluation results that closely
agree with core data (next page).
45. The PEF log is recorded as part of the density
measurement. The PEF measurement is unitless, but
because it is proportional to the photoelectric cross
section per electron, it is sometimes expressed in
barns/electron.
46. Kho D, Al-Awadi M and Acharya M: Application of
Magnesium Yield Measurement from Elemental Capture
Spectroscopy Tool in Formation Evaluation of Northern
Kuwait Fields, presented at the SPWLA 50th Annual
Logging Symposium, The Woodlands, Texas,
June 2124, 2009.
Oilfield Review
 Moved Water

Moved Hydrocarbon

Water

Oil

Dolomite

Macroporosity
Calcite
Macro-meso
Anhydrite Mesoporosity

10-in. Resistivity Macro-micro

Pyrite
0.2 ohm.m 2000 Microporosity
Meso-micro
Limestone Grain Density 20-in. Resistivity Core Porosity
Kaolinite Mesoporosity Core Permeability
2.7 g/cm3 3 0.2 ohm.m 2000 0.5 % 0 Micro-macro
DT Compressional Computed Porosity 0.1 mD 10,000
Dolomite Grain Density 30-in. Resistivity Macroporosity
Illite Micro-meso MDT Mobility
2.7 g/cm3 3 0.2 ohm.m 2000 109 s/ft 29 0.5 % 0
0.5 ft3/ft3 0 0.1 mD/cP 10,000
Rel. Dry Weight Mg 60-in. Resistivity Density Core Grain Density T2 Distribution Microporosity
Chlorite
0 lbf/lbf 0.25 0.2 ohm.m 2000 1.95 g/cm3 2.95 2.5 g/cm3 3.5 0.015 Carbonate Advisor Carbonate Advisor Carbonate Advisor
Total Porosity Permeability Estimated Permeability
Core Grain Density Depth, 90-in. Resistivity Neutron Porosity ELAN VOLUMES Computed Grain Density 0.015
2.7 g/cm3 3 ft 0.2 ohm.m 2000 0.45 % - 0.15 100 % 0 2.5 g/cm3 3.5 0.5 ft3/ft3 0 0.1 mD 10,000 0.1 mD 10,000

X,050

X,100

X,150

X,200

X,250

> Appraisal of a complex carbonate reservoir. In Track 1, a strong computations. When the porosity partitioning result (Track 7) is compared
correlation is seen between the relative dry weight Mg measurement with the computed lithology (Track 4), dolomite content shows a close
obtained by the ECS tool (green curve) and grain density measurements correlation with the mesoporosity (green shading) and macroporosity (red
obtained through core analysis (red dots). The array induction resistivity shading). This formation shows a general correspondence between
data (Track 2) and conventional density (pink curve), neutron (blue curve) increases in dolomite content and pore size. Porosity is further related to
and sonic (green curve) data in Track 3 are used for computing porosity and permeability (Track 8). High permeability values generally correspond to
water saturation. Track 4 shows the resulting lithology, porosity and fluid zones of macroporosity (red shading). The computed permeability can be
volumes computed by the Carbonate Advisor service. A good match compared to core and MDT modular formation dynamics tester data (Track 9).
between core data (red) and computed grain density (blue curve) and Carbonate Advisor estimated permeability (black curve) matches the core
computed porosity (black curve) are seen in Track 5. The T2 distribution permeability (red dots) and is confirmed by the MDT mobility reading
measurement from the CMR combinable magnetic resonance tool (Track 6) (blue dots).
is used for porosity partitioning, pore system classification and permeability
MattV_ORAUT09_Fig_14

Autumn 2009 43
 Core analysis confirmed the relationship tools used to investigate the reservoir; standard
between dolomite content and reservoir qual- capture spectroscopy tools are not sensitive to pro-
ity in this northern Kuwait field. The 3D portions of Mg and Ca in a formation. Although
crossplot shows a general trend of increasing photoelectric factor measurements can be used
dolomite content with increases in porosity for this purpose, the shallowness of the PEF mea-
and permeability (below left). surement makes it sensitive to borehole condi-
tions, barite muds, and invasion by drilling fluids.
Expanding the Scope However, ECS measurements obtained by the
Despite efforts to determine environmental set- EcoScope multifunction LWD service are sensi-
tings, modes of origin and conditions that impact tive to the proportion of Mg in a formation. This
dolomite quality, exploration and production of capability is key to determining calcite and dolo-
these formations are fraught with uncertainty. mite content in a carbonate formation. This LWD
Refinements in distinctly different approaches to collar obtains a broad array of measurements.
formation evaluation technology are helping E&P Designed around a pulsed neutron generator, the
companies to reduce some of these unknowns. EcoScope tool measures resistivity, neutron
As previously discussed, petrophysical evalua- porosity, azimuthal gamma ray, density, neutron
tions of dolomite reservoirs require detailed min- gamma density and formation sigma, in addition
eralogy and matrix properties to correct density to elemental capture spectroscopy.
and neutron porosity calculations. These inputs Another approach, based on wellbore imag-
depend, in part, on the ability to distinguish cal- ing and high-resolution computed tomography
cite from dolomite. The first step in obtaining (CT) scans, is helping E&P companies to better
these inputs rests with the selection of logging predict fractures and high-permeability trends
in highly heterogeneous formations. With the
aid of sophisticated conditional simulation algo-
rithms, this approach analyzes wellbore images
to determine where pores and conductive
patches lie in relation to rock matrix.47 Gaps in
the wellbore imagean inherent feature of pad
coverage provided by imaging toolsare filled
using a multipoint statistical (MPS) conditional
simulation to create a fullbore image of the
wellbore (below right). The multipoint condi-
tional simulation incorporates micron-scale CT
scans of actual core to create digital rock sam-
ples that train the MPS program.48 This pattern-
based approach honors all data obtained by the
pad device; it also extends patterns from within
the pad measurement into the gaps, thereby
creating a 3D pseudocore.49 The new fullbore
image can then be divided into different petro-
physical facies that are used for estimating
porosity and permeability.

Depth,
1,000

D Volu ft
ility, m
0.0
0.1
100

eab m e of
0.2

e perm dolo
0.3

Cor
10

mite
0.4
0.5

X00
0.6
1
0.1

0.7
0.01

0.8
0.9

0.300
1.0

0.30
0
0.270
0.27
0
0.240
0.24
0
0.210 X02
0.21
Core po

0 0
0.18
0.18
rosity, %

5 0 0
0.1
rosity, %

0 0.1
0.12 50
0.1
Core po

9 0 20
0.0
0 0.0
0.06 90
0 0.0
0.03 60 X04
0 0.0
0.000.0 .1 30
0 1,00.000
0.2 00
0.3
10
Vo

0.4
0

D
lu

0.5 ,m
me

10

0.6 ility
o

eab
fd

0.7
1
olo

m
per
mi

0.8 re
te

Co X06
0.

0.9
1

1.0
0.0
1

> Effect of dolomitization on reservoir quality. Core analysis data from a

field in Kuwait were used to plot dolomite volume, core porosity and core X08
permeability. These data showed strong correlations between increasing
dolomite volumes and increases in porosity and permeability. The scatter > Filling the gaps. Images through a layered, fractured interval were
within this 3D crossplot reflects the heterogeneous nature of the pore obtained in a single pass (left ) of a pad-type borehole imaging tool.
system within the dolomitic rock. Data from one pad have been removed to emphasize the area
normally measured by each pad (green dotted line, left ). Gaps
between pads have been filled in the fullbore image using MPS
pattern-based geostatistical modeling (center ). Dark conductive
patches are outlined by green contours (right ). These contours help
identify complex 3D fluid-flow pathways in heterogeneous carbonates.

44 Oilfield Review
 model heterogeneities ranging from centimeters
cm]
. [22 to meters in scale. By defining regions of high or
5 in
er, 8.
et low resistivity, the imaging technique can help

m
determine whether the vugs form a connected

Dia
and therefore permeable network.
Capillary pressure and relative-permeability
F
curves can be assigned to different petrophysical
facies, based on laboratory special core analysis
and mercury-injection capillary pressure tests run
on actual reservoir rock core samples. Numerical
simulations using these results provide the key to
quantifying the impact of carbonate rock hetero-
B geneity on fluid flow during primary production,
waterflooding or gasflooding. Such simulations are

m]
1 ft [0.3
carried out on the previously constructed numeri-
cal pseudocores to estimate important effective
parameters such as water cut, oil recovery factor
and recovery efficiency on a pseudocore or well
logging scale (left).
CT scans and microscale observations can
help geoscientists predict attribute characteris-
tics on a macroscale. The size, shape and height
of the numerical pseudocore are limited only by
Diameter, 4 in.
[10 the amount of computer memory that is avail-
able. This allows researchers to quickly perform
cm
]

numerical experiments on large samples that

could not be duplicated in a laboratory, given any
amount of time or money.
Although formation evaluation techniques
can readily distinguish sandstones from carbon-
0.17 Oil saturation 0.86 ates, the capability to identify and quantify dolo-
mite in reservoir rocks poses a distinct challenge.
> Flow simulation. These results have been produced after 0.72 pore-volumes
of water were injected through a numerical pseudocore in an oil-wet
While laboratory-based measurements may not
dolomite. Bulk remaining oil saturation is 58%; water cut is 77%. Water is address ongoing controversies regarding dolo-
injected through the pseudocore from outside to inside. Colors represent oil mite formation, they are able to accurately char-
saturations. Heterogeneity is obvious in the nonuniform breakthrough of water acterize the wellbore to provide valuable insights
(B) shown in some parts of the flow pseudocore, whereas in other areas the
flood front (F) has barely moved into the rock. that will help E&P companies develop these
notoriously heterogeneous reservoirs. MV

For example, it can be used to evaluate imaging pads appear as dark high-conductivity
vugslarge, irregular pores visible to the naked regions, rather than as discrete pores.
eyecommonly seen in carbonate rocks. Zones Fullbore images allow closed contours to be
of enhanced porosity and permeability exist in drawn around resistive or nonresistive regions in
the vicinity of vugs, as confirmed by thin sections, the image. Such regions provide important mea-
SEM images and minipermeability measure- sures of reservoir heterogeneity and are gener-
MattV_ORAUT09_Fig_17
ments. Swarms of small vugs are commonly seen ally much larger than the core plugs or digital
in the vicinity of large vugs. On borehole-imaging models generated from CT scans of rocks. Thus,
logs, small vugs that fall below the resolution of borehole images are critical for identifying flow
47. For more on core evaluation using X-ray computed 49. Hurley NF and Zhang T: Method to Generate Fullbore
tomography: Kayser A, Knackstedt M and Ziauddin M: Images Using Borehole Images and Multi-Point
A Closer Look at Pore Geometry, Oilfield Review 18, Statistics, paper SPE 120671, presented at the
no. 1 (Spring 2006): 413. SPE Middle East Oil and Gas Show and Conference,
48. Zhang T, Hurley NF and Zhao W: Numerical Modeling of Bahrain, March1518, 2009.
Heterogeneous Carbonates and Multi-Scale Dynamics,
paper JJJ, presented at the SPWLA 50th Annual Logging
Symposium, The Woodlands, Texas, June 2124, 2009.

Autumn 2009 45