g

GE Power Systems
Oil & Gas

Technical Training

MS5001 PA
GAS TURBINE

Operation and Maintenance

Training Manual

Customer: AGIP GAS BV LYBIAN BRANCH

Plant location: WAFA COAST- LYBIA
g Nuovo Pignone

INDEX

CHAP. 1
Page

1. INTRODUCTION................................................................................................1-1

1.1 STATIONARY APPLICATIONS .............................................................1-1

1.2 MOBILE APPLICATIONS........................................................................1-2

1.3 HISTORICAL NOTES ...............................................................................1-2

1.4 NUOVO PIGNONE GAS TURBINE MANUFACTURING PLANT ......1-3

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1. INTRODUCTION

A gas turbine is an internal combustion motive machine. From all points of view, it can
be considered as a self-sufficient system: in fact, it is capable to aspirate and compress
ambient air via its own compressor, to enrich the energetic power of air in its own
combustion chamber and to convert this power into useful mechanical energy during the
expanding process that takes place in its own turbine section. The resulting mechanical
energy is transmitted via a coupling to a driven operating machine, which produces work
useful for the industrial process in which the gas turbine belongs.

1.1 STATIONARY APPLICATIONS

These applications are the subject of this traning course. They are intended for the
following industrial uses:

Generator drive, in order to produce electric energy by an open cycle.

Generator drive, to produce electric energy by a combined cycle.

Generator drive, to produce electric energy by co-generation.

Compressor drive

Pump drive

Pipeline compressor drive

Pipeline pump drive

Particular industrial processes

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1.2 MOBILE APPLICATIONS

These applications were the first ones to be introduced in terms of time. They
include the following fields:

railways

marine propulsion

aviation

road traction

1.3 HISTORICAL NOTES

The first gas turbines to be used in operating applications appeared on the market
at the end of the Forties; they were generally used in railways and presented the
advantage of burning liquid fuel, even of poor quality. In this regard, we will
mention the MS3001 turbine built by General Electric, with a power of 4500 HP,
which was used just for this purpose.
Successive achievements in material technology and extensive research into
combustion resulted in rapid improvements in performance, in terms of specific
power and efficiency, obtained by increasing maximum temperatures in the
thermodynamic cycle.
In this matter, three generations of evolution can be defined, distinguished by the
maximum temperature (C) ranges of gases entering the first rotor stage of the
turbine:

First generation 760<Tmax. <955

Second generation 955<Tmax. <1124
Third generation 1149<Tmax. <1288

Obviously, to an increase in temperature there corresponded an increase in

thermodynamic efficiency, which passed from values lower than 20% on the first
machines to current values higher than 40% (LM6000 gas turbine).

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1.4 NUOVO PIGNONE GAS TURBINE MANUFACTURING PLANT

Nuovo Pignone has built gas turbines of heavy duty type for industrial applications
since 1961. These are made in the Florence workshop under a Manufacturing
Agreement with General Electric, Schenectady - N.Y. - USA, which, in time, has
led to the acquisition of complete licences (MS5002 gas turbine) and to the
complete execution of some gas turbine models (turbines of the PGT range),
starting from engineering and on to all construction phases.
As a complement to their main activities, Nuovo Pignone converts gas turbines
intended originally for the aircraft industry into packages for industrial applications
which use the originary gas generator in conjunction with power turbines made
by General Electric (LM range), or by Nuovo Pignone (PGT16 and PGT25
ranges).
Since 1962 up to the present time, Nuovo Pignone has built about 1000 turbines,
complete with all auxiliaries required for their operation; of these, a good deal are
part of turnkey plants for all application purposes listed at para. 1.1.

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In the following tables, gas turbines currently produced by Nuovo Pignone are divided
by model and by type of application.

TABLE 1.1 GAS TURBINES FOR MECHANICAL DRIVE APPLICATIONS (1)

Model Continuous Heat Rate RPM

duty on the
Power load side
KW Kj/Kwh

PGT 2 2180 13360 22500

PGT 5 5500 13680 10290

PGT 5 R 4850 10530 10290

PGT 10 10440 10590 7900

MS 3002 10890 13480 6500

MS 3002 R 10440 10480 6500

PGT 16 14260 9935 7900

PGT 25 23270 9565 6500

H.S.P.T 29980 8935 6100

LM 2500 22670 9720 3600

MS 5002(D) 32600 11890 4670

LM 5000 34450 9960 3600

MS 6001 41010 10780 5100

LM 6000 44850 8435 3600

MS 7001 86280 10750 3600

_____________________________
(1)The values in the table refer to the turbine loading flange, under ISO conditions and
the use of natural gas.

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TABLE 1.2 TURBINE S FOR GENERATOR DRIVE APPLICATIONS (1)

Model Continuous Heat Rate Hz

duty on
Power load side
KW Kj/Kwh

PGT 2 2150 13536 60/50

PGT 5 5500 12852 60/50
PGT 10 10700 11052 60/50
PGT 16 13760 10295 60/50
PGT 25 22450 9910 60/50
H.S.P.T 28930 9260 60/50
LM 2500 22330 10110 60/50
MS 5001 26300/27830 12650/12640 60/50
LM 5000 33060 10270 60/50
MS 6001 38340/41400 10780 60/50
LM 6000 43450 8710/ 60/50
MS 6001 FA 70140 10530 60/50
MS 7001 EA 83500/90200 11060 60
MS 9001 E 123400/133000 10850 50
MS 9001 EC 169200 10300 50
MS 9001 FA 226500 10090 50

_____________________________
(1) The values in the table refer to the turbine loading flange, under ISO conditions and the
use of natural gas.

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 GE 2 (PGT 2)
Overview
The GE2 is a 2MW single shaft machine for base load power generation. Thanks to the high exhaust tem-
perature, the GE2 is perfectly suited for cogeneration in industrial and civil applications (over 5MW of
thermal power) and emergency electric power generation. The single combustion chamber can operate with
a wide variety of liquid and gaseous fuels (or dual fuels) and it is designed to reduce environmental impact
to a minimum, thus satisfying the most restrictive environmental regulations. The load reduction gear is
integrated with the gas turbine and provides output speeds suitable for power generation (1500/1800 RPM).
A microprocessor system for regulation, control and protection has been designed to render the management
and operation of the GE2 gas turbine completely automatic.

Design Info
Compressor
Two stage centrifugal compressor
Pressure ratio 12.5:1
Combustion
Single, combustion chamber
Turbine
Two stage turbine
Investment cast blades, forged discs
Package
The complete Gen Set ismounted on a single baseplate
The enclosure is integral with the baseplate providing maximum accessibility for gas
turbine and auxiliaries maintenance; noise level < 85dB (A) at 1m
In outdoor applications the filter plenum is flanged on top of the enclosure
The package design is standardized for quick delivery; custom applications can be
provided
Package dimensions (including generators and filters) LxWxH = 5.5mx3.8mx2.3m;
Weight = 12t
Emissions Control
Steam or water injection for standard combustion chamber
Dry Low Emission configuration available to satisfy the most stringent environmental
regulations

Performance Info
Generator Drive (Expected Performance at ISO Conditions with fuel natural gas)

Model Output Heat Rate Exhaust Flow Exhaust Temperature

GE2 2000 kWe 14400 kJ/kWh 10.7 kg/s 525 C

P. 1-4

INTRODUCTION
 GE 5 (PGT 5)
Overview
The PGT5 heavy-duty gas turbine has been designed with modular concepts to facilitate accessibility and
maintainability.
The gas generator consists of a 15-stage, high efficiency, axial-flow compressor directly coupled to a single
stage turbine.
The low pressure shaft (two-shaft version) is a single-stage, high-energy turbine, with variable second stage
nozzles which grant maximum flexibility for mechanical drive service.
The PGT5 has a single combustion chamber system which is rugged, reliable and able to burn a wide range
of fuels, from liquid distillates and residuals to all gaseous fuels, including low BTU gas.
Typical applications include pump drive for oil pipelines and compressor drive for gas pipelines.

Design Info
Compressor
Axial flow compressor, 15 stages
Pressure ratio 9.1:1
Combustion
Single, reverse flow combustion can
Turbine
Two shafts
High Pressure turbine one reaction stage
Low Pressure turbine one reaction stage
Package
The gas turbine module on a single baseplate includes the engine, starting system, auxilia-
ries and acoustic enclosure
Std. Configuration (excluding inlet/exhaust ducts/system):
size 8mLxWxH = 8.5mx2.5mx3.0m
weight 28 t
Emissions Control
DLE combustion system
Steam and water injection system

Performance Info

Generator Drive: Single Shaft version(Expected Performance at ISO Conditions with fuel natural gas)
Model Output Heat Rate Exhaust Flow Exhaust Temperature
PGT5 5220 kWe 13422 kJ/kWh 24.6 kg/s 524 C

Mechanical Drive:Two Shafts version (Expected Performance at ISO Conditions with fuel natural gas)
Model Output Heat Rate Exhaust Flow Exhaust Temperature
PGT5 5450 kW 13450 kJ/kWh 25.8 kg/s 533 C

P. 1-5

INTRODUCTIONS
 GE 5B (PGT 5B)
Overview
The GE5B series is a 6 MW range industrial duty gas turbine designed in two configurations: A single shaft
configuration for power generation and a two shaft configuration for mechanical drive applications. The
completely new design of the GE5B combines the technology of aircraft engine design with the ruggedness
of the heavy duty PGT class of turbines. The flexibility, simplicity and compactness of the GE5B make it
ideal for industrial power generation, including steam production, Oil & Gas applications in remote areas
and Offshore installations. The control system is configured for fully automatic operation and has provisions
for connection to Remote Monitoring and Diagnostics. The GE5B is ideally suited for applications, which
require a continuous supply of electrical power with high availability and reliability. The exhaust energy is
enough to provide a substantial quantity of steam at various pressures and temperatures when coupled to a
Heat Recovery Steam Generator.

Design Info
Compressor
Axial flow compressor, 11 stages
First three stator stages are variable geometry
Pressure ratio 15:1
Combustion
Annular combustion chamber, 18 fuel nozzles
Turbine
Two reaction stages
First stage cooled
Package
The gas turbine module on a single baseplate includes engine, starting system, load gear,
auxiliaries and acoustic enclosure
The off-base equipment is limited to the lube oil coolers and electric generator
The inlet filtration module is designed for mounting above the gas turbine enclosure
The enclosure has wide double-joined doors allowing for ease of access to all turbine
components and auxiliaries or engine removal
The package design is standardized for quick delivery; custom applications can be
provided
Package dimensions (including filters on top of the enclosure)
LxWxH = 5.9mx2.5mx5.7m;Weight = 30t
Emissions Control
The standard unit is configured with a DLE combustion system

Performance Info
Generator Drive (Expected Performance at ISO Conditions with fuel natural gas)

Model Output Heat Rate Exhaust Flow Exhaust Temperature

GE5 5500 kWe 11720 kJ/kWh 19.7 kg/s 571 C

P. 1-6

INTRODUCTION
 PGT 10A (two shaft)
Overview
The PGT10 is a high efficiency gas turbine designed and developed by Nuovo Pignone for shaft outputs
ranging between 9,500 and 15,000 HP at ISO conditions. Since first introduced to the market in 1988, the
PGT10 has met its design goals by providing customers with high performance and high reliability and
availability while keeping its design simplicity and easy maintenance concepts. To achieve high
efficiencies over an extended spectrum of power range, an uncommon combination of features has been
incorporated into the design: High pressure ratio, firing temperature level in line with second generation gas
turbines, variable axial compressor stator vanes and power turbine nozzles. The PGT10 combustion system
consists of a single combustion chamber designed for low NOx emissions and is suitable for a large variety
of gaseous and liquid fuels. Typical applications for PGT10 two-shaft gas turbines are not only natural gas
compression, centrifugal pump drive and process application, but also power generation as well as
Cogeneration and Offshore applications.

Design Info
Compressor
Axial flow compressor, 17 stages
Pressure ratio 14.1:1
Combustion
Single combustion chamber
Turbine (Two shafts)
High Pressure turbine two stages
Low Pressure turbine two reaction stages
Package
The gas turbine module on a single baseplate includes the engine and a load gear; the
auxiliaries are installed on a separate baseplate joined to that of the gas turbine to form a
single lift on which the sound-insulated enclosure is mounted
The electric generator is installed on a concrete foundation to limit overall shipping
dimension
The package design is standardized for quick delivery, but custom applications can be
provided
Package dimensions (excluding generator and filters) 9.1mx2.5mx3.0m; Weight: 32t
Emissions Control
The combustion system is available both in conventional and DLE configuration to
satisfy the most stringent environmental regulations
Steam and water injection systems are available for NOx reduction and power augmenta-
tion

Performance Info
Generator Drive: Two Shaft version(Expected Performance at ISO Conditions with fuel natural gas)
Model Output Heat Rate Exhaust Flow Exhaust Temperature
PGT10 10220 kWe 11540 kJ/kWh 42.1 kg/s 484 C

Mechanical Drive:Two Shafts version (Expected Performance at ISO Conditions with fuel natural gas)
Model Output Heat Rate Exhaust Flow Exhaust Temperature
PGT10 10660 kW 11250 kJ/kWh 42.3 kg/s 493 C

P. 1-7

INTRODUCTIONS
 GE 10B (single/two shaft) (PGT 10B 1/2)
Overview
The GE10 is a high efficiency and environmental friendly Heavy Duty Gas Turbine designed and developed
by Nuovo Pignone for Power Generation (including industrial co-generation) and Mechanical Drive appli-
cations.
Since it was first introduced to the market in 1988, the model PGT10A has been providing high perform-
ance, reliability and availability to worldwide customers while keeping with easy maintenance concepts.
From this starting point, in 1998 Nuovo Pignone launched on the market the high performance version of
this model with two different configurations:
Two shafts for mechanical drive and single shaft for power generation and cogeneration applications.
The GE10 Gas Turbine, with its ability to burn different fuels (natural gas, distillate oil, low BTU fuel), can
be installed in many countries with different environmental conditions: continental, tropical, offshore and
desert.
Continuous improvement of the model is carried out with reference to performance and emissions reduction
capability. In this context particular emphasis has been placed on the design of a DLN system for Nitrogen
Oxides (NOx) reduction in order to meet present and future standards for pollutant emissions.

Design Info
Compressor
Axial flow compressor, 11 stages
First three stages of stator are variable geometry
Pressure ratio 15.5:1
Combustion
Single combustion chamber
Turbine
Single shaft GE10/1 Two shaft GE10/2
Three reaction stages High Pressure turbine two reaction stages (cooled)
First two stages cooled Low Pressure turbine two reaction stages
Package
The gas turbine module on a single baseplate includes the engine and the load gear; the auxiliaries
are installed on a separate baseplate joined to that of the gas turbine to form a single lift on which
the sound-insulated enclosure is mounted
The electric generator is installed on a concrete foundation to limit overall shipping dimensions
The package design is standardized for quick delivery; but custom applications can be provided
Package dimensions (excluding generator and filters) LxWxH = 9mx2.5mx3; Weight = 40t
Emissions Control
The combustion system is available both in conventional and DLN configuration to satisfy strin-
gent environmental regulations
Steam and water injection systems are available for NOx reduction and power augmentation
Performance Info

Generator Drive: Single Shaft version(Expected Performance at ISO Conditions with fuel natural gas)
Model Output Heat Rate Exhaust Flow Exhaust Temperature
GE10 11250kW 11467 kJ/kWh 47.3 kg/s 490 C
Mechanical Drive:Two Shafts version (Expected Performance at ISO Conditions with fuel natural gas)
Model Output Heat Rate Exhaust Flow Exhaust Temperature
GE10 11690 kW 11060 kJ/kWh 46.9 kg/s 487 C

P. 1-8

INTRODUCTION
 PGT 16
Overview
The PGT16 gas turbine is composed of the twin spool GE Aeroderivative LM1600 Gas Generator coupled
with a rugged, industrial power turbine designed by Nuovo Pignone.
The LM1600 Gas Generator is derived from the F404 turbofan aircraft engine, while the power turbine of the
PGT16 gas turbine is identical to the power turbine of the PGT10 Nuovo Pignone Heavy Duty, high effi-
ciency gas turbine, which has been in operation for more than half a million hours.
The power turbine shaft speed (7900 RPM) is optimized for direct coupling to pipelines and injection and
process centrifugal compressors with speed ranges that suit all operating conditions.
High efficiency and reliability are just two of a large number of benefits contributing to LM2500+ customer
value.
For generator drive applications the LM1600, coupled to its synchronous generator with a speed reduction
gear, is a highly flexible turbogenerator that can also cover combined cycle/cogeneration applications with
an electrical efficiency close to 50%.

Design Info
Compressor
Twin spool axial compressor (3 stages LP compressor, 7 stages HP compressor)
Pressure ratio 20.1:1
Combustion
Annular combustion chamber (18 fuel nozzles)
Turbine
Twin Spool Gas Generator turbine (1 stage HP turbine, 1 stage LP turbine)
Two stages Power turbine (7900 RPM) with variable angle first stage nozzles
Package
The complete gas turbine module is mounted on a single baseplate
The enclosure is integrated with the baseplate providing maximum accessibility for gas
turbine and auxiliaries maintenance
Standard Configuration (excluding inlet/exhaust ducts/system):
Size LxWxH = 8.1mx2.5mx3.8m
Weight 19t
Emissions Control
Steam or water injection systems for NOx abatement
Dry Low Emission (DLE) combustion system
Performance Info
Generator Drive: (Expected Performance at ISO Conditions with fuel natural gas)
Model Output Heat Rate Exhaust Flow Exhaust Temperature
PGT16 13735 kWe 10314 kJ/kWh 47.4 Kg/s 493 C

Mechanical Drive: (Expected Performance at ISO Conditions with fuel natural gas)
Model Output Heat Rate Exhaust Flow Exhaust Temperature
PGT16 14252 kW 9756 kJ/kWh 47.4 kg/s 493 C

P. 1-9

INTRODUCTIONS
 PGT 25
Overview
The PGT25 gas turbine consists of the GE Aeroderivative LM2500 Gas Generator coupled with a rugged,
industrial power turbine designed by Nuovo Pignone. The LM2500 gas generator and the PGT25 power
turbine demonstrated the best overall performances to cover the 17,000-31,000 HP range with maximum
efficiency above 37%.
The speed of the output shaft, 6500 rpm, as well as the high capacity and simplicity of maintenance have
made the PGT25 highly suitable for driving direct coupled centrifugal compressors for pipeline service or
natural gas reinjection plants. Its light weight and high efficiency makes it well suitable for offshore and
industrial power generation.
The modular design, extended to all accessory equipment, takes into account the special requirements of
platform applications (minimum weights and overall dimensions), as well as drastically reduces erection
time and costs.
The gas generator can be easily dismantled with a simple translation within the package space, thus reduc-
ing the time required for maintenance.
Simplicity of construction and the high quality of the materials employed allow for long intervals between
overhauls and reduced maintenance costs.

Design Info
Compressor
Sixteen stages axial compressor
Pressure ratio 17.9:1
Combustion
Annular combustion chamber (30 fuel nozzles)
Turbine
Two stages Gas Generator turbine
Two stages Power turbine (6500 RPM)
Package
The complete gas turbine module comes mounted on a single baseplate
The enclosure is integrated with the baseplate providing for maximum accessibility for gas
turbine and its auxiliaries maintenance
Standard Configuration (excluding inlet/exhaust ducts/system):
LxWxH = 9.1mx3.5mx3.7m ,Weight 38t
Emissions Control
Steam or water injection systems for NOx abatement
Dry Low Emission (DLE) combustion system

Performance Info
Generator Drive: (Expected Performance at ISO Conditions with fuel natural gas)
Model Output Heat Rate Exhaust Flow Exhaust Temperature
PGT25 22417 kWe 9919 kJ/kWh 68.9 Kg/s 525 C
Mechanical Drive: (Expected Performance at ISO Conditions with fuel natural gas)
Model Output Heat Rate Exhaust Flow Exhaust Temperature
PGT25 23260 kW 9560 kJ/kWh 68.9 kg/s 525 C

P. 1-10

INTRODUCTION
 MS 5001
Overview
The MS5001 single shaft turbine is a compact heavy-duty turbine designed for long life and easy mainte-
nance.
The MS5001 gas turbine is the ideal solution for industrial power generation where low maintenance,
reliability and economy of fuel utilization are required.
Low investment costs make the MS5001 package power plant an economically attractive system for peak
load generation.
The MS5001 is ideally suited for cogeneration achieving very high fuel utilization indexes and allowing for
considerable fuel savings. Typical applications are industrial plants for cogeneration of power and process
steam or in district heating systems.

Design Info
Compressor
Axial flow compressor, 17 stages
Pressure ratio 10.5:1
Combustion
Can-annular combustion, 10 chambers
Turbine
2 stages
First stage nozzles cooled
Package
Complete turbine package mounted on a single baseplate
Enclosure integrated with the baseplate providing maximum accessibility for gas turbine
and auxiliaries maintenance
Standard configuration (excluding inlet/exhaust ducts/system):
size LxWxH = 11.6mx3.2mx3.7m;
weight 87.5t
Emissions Control
Steam or water injection systems for NOx abatement
Dry Low NOx (DLN) combustion system

Performance Info
Generator Drive (Expected Performance at ISO Conditions with fuel natural gas)

Model Output Heat Rate Exhaust Flow Exhaust Temperature

MS5001 26300 kWe 12650 kJ/kWh 124.1 kg/s 487 C

P. 1-11

INTRODUCTIONS
 MS 5002
Overview
The MS5002 gas turbine was launched in the 1970s and it has been updated and up-rated along the years to
match the higher power demand.
Presently two versions are available:
MS5002C - 38000 HP at ISO condition
MS5002D - 43700 HP at ISO condition.
The MS5002 is a gas turbine specifically designed for mechanical drive applications with a wide operating
speed range to meet operating conditions of the most common driven equipment, centrifugal compressors
and pumps. It also has the capability to burn a large variety of gaseous and liquid fuels.
Almost 500 units (more than 300 of which were manufactured by Nuovo Pignone) have been installed
world-wide in all possible environments including arctic, desert, offshore, etc., always demonstrating easy
operability as well as very high reliability and availability. The simple design and robustness of the ma-
chine allow for complete maintenance to be performed on site without the need for special tools or service
shop assistance. Typical applications include Gas Boosting, Gas Injection/Reinjection, Oil & Gas Pipelines,
LNG plants and Gas Storage

Design Info
Compressor
MS5002C
Sixteen stages axial compressor
Pressure ratio 8.9:1
MS5002D
Seventeen stages axial compressor
Pressure ratio 10.8:1
Combustion
Reverse flow, multi chamber (can-annular) combustion system (12 chambers)
Turbine
Single stage Gas Generator turbine
Single stage power turbine (4670 RPM rated speed) with variable angle nozzles.
Package
Two baseplates configuration (gas turbine flange to flange unit and auxiliary system.
Enclosures integrated with the baseplates providing maximum accessibility for gas turbine
and auxiliaries maintenance
Standard configuration (excluding inlet/exhaust ducts/system):
size LxWxH = 15.0mx3.2mx3.8m
weight 110t
Emissions Control
Steam or water injection systems for NOx abatement
Dry Low NOx (DLN) combustion system
Performance Info
Mechanica Drive (Expected Performance at ISO Conditions with fuel natural gas)
Model Output Heat Rate Exhaust Flow Exhaust Temperature
MS5002C 28340 kW 12310 kJ/kWh 126.0 kg/s 515 C
MS5002D 32590 kW 11900 kJ/kWh 141.3 kg/s 510 C

P. 1-12

INTRODUCTION
 PGT 25+
Overview
The PGT25+ gas turbine has been developed for 30 MW ISO shaft power service with the highest thermal
efficiency level (approx. 40%).
The PGT25+ gas turbine consists of the GE Aeroderivative LM2500+ Gas Generator (updated version of
LM2500 gas generator with the addition of zero stage to axial compressor) coupled with a 6100 RPM Power
Turbine. Built on the LM2500 heritage and with demonstrated 99.6% reliability, the PGT25+ incorporates
proven technology improvements and a large percentage of parts in common with LM2500 in order to
deliver the same outstanding level of reliability. Designed for its ease of maintenance, the PGT25+ also
provides a high level of availability.
High efficiency and reliability are just two of large number of benefits contributing to PGT25+ customer
value.
Application flexibility makes the PGT25+ ideal for a range of mechanical drive (gas pipeline etc.), power
generation, industrial cogeneration and offshore platform applications in any environment.

Design Info
Compressor
Seventeen stages axial compressor
Pressure ratio 21.5:1
Combustion
Annular combustion chamber (30 fuel nozzles)
Turbine
Two stage Gas Generator turbine
Two stage Power turbine (6100 RPM)
Package
Gas Generator, Power Turbine and auxiliary System mounted on a single baseplate
The enclosure is integrated with the baseplate providing maximum accessibility for gas
turbine and auxiliaries maintenance
Standard Configuration (excluding inlet/exhaust ducts/system):
size LxWxH = 6.5mx3.6mx3.9m (gas turbine and auxiliary baseplate)
weight 38t (gas turbine and auxiliary baseplate)
Emissions Control
Steam or water injection systems for NOx abatement
Dry Low Emission (DLE) combustion system

Performance Info
Generator Drive: (Expected Performance at ISO Conditions with fuel natural gas)
Model Output Heat Rate Exhaust Flow Exhaust Temperature
PGT25+ 30226 kWe 9084 kJ/kWH 84.3 Kg/s 500 C

Mechanical Drive: (Expected Performance at ISO Conditions with fuel natural gas)
Model Output Heat Rate Exhaust Flow Exhaust Temperature
PGT25+ 31360 kW 8754 kJ/kWh 84.3 kg/s 500 C

P. 1-13

INTRODUCTIONS
 MS 6001
Overview
The MS6001 is a single shaft heavy-duty gas turbine. Its design was based on the well proven mechanical
features of the MS5001 in order to achieve a compact, high efficency unit.
The MS6001 is widely applied in power generation applications for base, mid-range and peak load service.
Other typical applications include driving of process machines, such as compressors, in LNG plants.
Combined cycle plants based on MS6001 achieve very high efficiencies with higher availability and
reliability than conventional thermal plants.

Design Info
Compressor
Axial flow compressor, 17 stages
Pressure ratio 11.9:1
Combustion
Can-annular combustion, 10 chambers
Dual fuel capability
Turbine
3 stages, first two cooled buckets
First 2 stage nozzles cooled
Package
Complete turbine package mounted on a single baseplate
Enclosure integrated with the baseplate providing for maximum accessibility for gas
turbine and its auxiliaries maintenance
Standard configuration (excluding inlet/exhaust ducts/system):
size LxWxH = 15.9mx3.2mx3.8m;
weight 96t
Emissions Control
Steam or water injection systems for NOx abatement
Dry Low NOx (DLN) combustion system

Performance Info
Generator Drive: (Expected Performance at ISO Conditions with fuel natural gas)
Model Output Heat Rate Exhaust Flow Exhaust Temperature
MS6001B 42100 kWe 11230 kJ/kWh 145.8 kg/s 552 C

Mechanical Drive: (Expected Performance at ISO Conditions with fuel natural gas)
Model Output Heat Rate Exhaust Flow Exhaust Temperature
MS6001B 43530 kW 10825 kJ/kWh 145 kg/s 544 C

Experiences
More than 46 units sold

P. 1-14

INTRODUCTION
 LM 6000
Overview
The GE LM6000 delivers more than 44.8 MW of power at over 42.7% thermal efficiency.
It is the worlds most fuel-efficient, simple-cycle gas turbine. High efficiency, low cost and easy installation
make the LM6000 the perfect modular building block for electrical power applications such as industrial
cogeneration of utility peaking, both midrange and base-load operations. As an aircraft engine aboard the
Boeing 747, the LM6000 has logged more than 10 million flight hours, with the lowest shop visit rate of
any jet engine.
Continuing the tradition of GEs LM6000 established record, the LM6000 is ideal as a source of drive-
power for pipeline compression, offshore platforms, gas reinjection and LNG compressors. The LM6000 has
been GEs first aeroderivative gas turbine to employ the new Dry-Low Emission premixed combustion
system; this system is retrofittable on LM6000s already in operation. Water or steam injection can also be
used to achieve low NOx emissions.

Design Info
Compressor
Low pressure compressor 5 stages
High pressure compressor 14 stages
Pressure ratio 30:1
Combustion
Annular combustion chamber
Turbine
High Pressure turbine 2 stages
Low Pressure turbine 5 stages
Package
Gas Generator, Power Turbine and auxiliary system mounted on a single baseplate
The enclosure is integrated with the baseplate providing maximum accessibility for gas
turbine and auxiliaries maintenance
Standard configuration (excluding inlet/exhaust ducts/system):
size LxWxH = 9.3mx4.2mx4.4m
weight 31t
Emissions Control
Steam or water injection system for NOx abatement
Dry Low Emission (DLE) combustion system

Performance Info

Generator Drive: (Expected Performance at ISO Conditions with fuel natural gas)
Model Output Heat Rate Exhaust Flow Exhaust Temperature
LM6000 43076 kWe 8707 kJ/kWh 131 Kg/s 450 C

Mechanical Drive: (Expected Performance at ISO Conditions with fuel natural gas)
Model Output Heat Rate Exhaust Flow Exhaust Temperature
LM6000 44740 kW 8455 kJ/kWh 127 kg/s 456 C

P. 1-15

INTRODUCTIONS
 MS 7001
Overview
The MS7001EA is a single shaft heavy-duty gas turbine for power generation and industrial applications
requiring the maximum reliability and availability.
With design emphasis placed on energy efficiency, availability, performance and maintainability, the
MS7001EA is a proven technology machine with more than 500 units of its class in service.
Typical applications in addition to the 60Hz power generation service are large compressor train drives for
LNG plants.

Design Info
Compressor
Seventeen stages axial compressor
Pressure ratio 12.5:1
Combustion
Reverse flow, multi chamber (can-annular) combustion system (10 chambers)
Turbine
Three stages turbine (3600 RPM)
Package
Two baseplates configuration (gas turbine flange to flange unit and auxiliary system)
Enclosures integrated with the baseplates providing maximum accessibility for gas turbine
and auxiliaries maintenance
Standard configuration (excluding inlet/exhaust ducts/system):
size LxWxH = 11.6mx3.3mx3.8m
weight 121t
Emissions Control
Steam or water injection systems for NOx abatement
Dry Low NOx (DLN) combustion system

Performance Info

Generator Drive: (Expected Performance at ISO Conditions with fuel natural gas)
Model Output Heat Rate Exhaust Flow Exhaust Temperature
MS7001EA 85100 kWe 11000 kJ/kWh 300 kg/s 537 C

Mechanical Drive: (Expected Performance at ISO Conditions with fuel natural gas)
Model Output Heat Rate Exhaust Flow Exhaust Temperature
MS7001EA 81590 kW 11020 kJ/kWh 278 kg/s 546 C

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INTRODUCTION
 MS 9001
Overview
The MS9001E is a single shaft heavy-duty gas turbine. It was developed for generator drive service in the 50
Hertz market.
The MS9001E is widely applied in power generation for base, mid-range and peak load service.
Combined cycle plants based on MS9001E achieve very high efficiencies with higher availability and
reliability than conventional thermal plants.

Design Info
Compressor
Axial flow compressor, 17 stages
Pressure ratio 12.6:1
Combustion
Can-annular combustion, 14 chambers
Dual fuel capability
Turbine
3 stages, first two cooled buckets
First 2 stage nozzles cooled
Package
Two baseplates configuration (gas turbine flange to flange unit and auxiliary system)
Enclosures integrated with the baseplates providing maximum accessibility for gas turbine
and auxiliaries maintenance
Standard configuration (excluding inlet/exhaust ducts/system):
size LxWxH = 22.1mx4.5mx6.3m
weight 217.5
Emissions Control
Steam or water injection systems for NOx abatement
Dry Low NOx (DLN) combustion system

Performance Info

Generator Drive: (Expected Performance at ISO Conditions with fuel natural gas)
Model Output Heat Rate Exhaust Flow Exhaust Temperature
MS9001E 123400 kWe 10650 kJ/kWh 412.8 kg/s 543 C

Experiences
44 Units sold

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INTRODUCTIONS
 TYPE POWER MAX EFFiCIENCY

GE 2 2,0MW 25 %

GE 5 (1/2 shaft) 5,2 - 5,4 MW 26,9 %

GE 5 B 5,9 - 6,2 MW 32 %

PGT 10 10,5 MW 32,6 %

GE 10 B(1/2 shaft) 11,7 MW 33 %

PGT 16 14,2 MW 36,9 %

PGT 25 23,2 MW 37,7 %

MS 5001 26,3 MW 28,5 %

MS 5002 C-D 28,3 -32,5 MW 29,2 - 30,3%

PGT 25+ 29,9 MW 40, 3 %

MS 6001 B 42 MW 32,5 %

LM 6000 44,8 MW 41,1 %

MS 7001 EA 81,5 MW 32,7 %

MS 9001 E 123,4 MW 33,8 %

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INTRODUCTION
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INDEX

CHAP. 2
Page

2. THEORETICAL OPERATING SCHEME .........................................................2-1

2.1 OPERATING PRINCIPLE ........................................................................2-2

2.2 MAIN COMPONENT PARTS OF A GAS TURBINE .............................2-4

2.2.1 Compressor .....................................................................................2-5

2.2.2 Combustion section ........................................................................2-6
2.2.3 Turbine section ...............................................................................2-7

2.3 BRAYTON CYCLE ...................................................................................2-7

2.4 INFLUENCE OF EXTERNAL FACTORS ON

GAS TURBINE PERFORMANCE .........................................................2-14

2.5 INFLUENCE OF INTERNAL FACTORS ON

GAS TURBINE PERFORMANCE .........................................................2-16

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2. THEORETICAL OPERATING SCHEME

Fig. 2.1 shows an example of a gas turbine (in this specific case, it is our MS6001 gas
turbine) with a sectional view of the machine properly said. This figure has the purpose
to highlight the main component parts involved in the operating cycle.

AUSILIARI
AUXILIARIES FLANGIA-FLANGIA
FLANGE TO FLANGE

BASAMENTO
BASEPLATE

Fig. 2.1 - Example of a simple cycle gas turbine (single shaft)

The main component parts illustrated in Fig. 2.1 are:

machine, generally called flange - flange

auxiliary equipment

baseplate

The above systems are completed by the suction, exhaust and control systems,
which, like the auxiliary equipment and the baseplate, are dealt with in the relevant
chapters, whereas here only details about their arrangement and interface with the
flange-flange assembly (Fig. 2.1) are described.
In fact, this chapter deals exclusively with the operating principles of a flange-
flange.

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2.1 OPERATING PRINCIPLE

A gas turbine works in the following way:

it aspirates air from the surrounding environment;

it compresses it to a higher pressure;

it increases the energy level of compressed air by the addition of fuel gas
which undergoes combustion in a combustion chamber;

it directs high pressure and high temperature air to a turbine section, which
converts thermal energy into mechanical energy that makes the shaft
revolve; this serves, on the one hand, to supply useful energy to the driven
machine, coupled to the machine by means of a coupling and, on the other
hand, to supply energy necessary for air compression, which takes place in
a compressor connected directly with the turbine section itself;

it expels low pressure and low temperature gases resulting from the above-
mentioned converting process into the atmosphere.

Fig. 2.2 overleaf shows the behavioral pattern of pressures and temperatures, in
terms of quality, inside the different machine sections corresponding to the above-
mentioned operating phases.

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Fig. 2.2

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Fig. 2.2 enhances the fact that combustion takes place under almost constant
pressure conditions.
Unlike alternative motors, compression and expansion take place on a continual
basis, as happens for power generation.
On the contrary, in an alternative motor (for ex., a four-stroke, eight cycle motor),
though power is generated in the expansion phase, like in a turbine, this process
takes only 1/4 of the complete cycle, whereas in a gas turbine expansion takes place
continually all through the cycle. The same applies to compression.
For the same reason, along with the fact that there are no masses in alternate
motion, the degree of regularity of the running cycle of a gas turbine is incomparably
greater than that of an alternative motor (eight or Diesel cycle).

2.2 MAIN COMPONENT PARTS OF A GAS TURBINE

Fig. 2.3 - A sectional View of a Gas Turbine

A gas turbine (Fig. 2.3) is composed of three main sections, described in the following
paragraphs. As concerns design and construction features, these are extensively dealt with in
Chapter 3.

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2.2.1 Compressor

The compressor shall be of the axial type (Fig. 2.3). The choice of this type
of compressor depends on the fact that this compressor is capable to deliver
high air output ratings, necessary to obtain high values of useful power in a
reduced size. This concept will be resumed later, when the main
thermodynamic ratios in the operating cycle of a gas turbine are described.

A compressor consists of a series of stages of rotating blades, which increase

air speed in terms of kinetic energy, followed alternately by stages of stator
blades, which convert kinetic energy into higher pressure.
The number of compression stages is related to the structure of the gas
turbine and, above all, to the compression ratio to be obtained.
At the compressor inlet side, there are Inlet Guide Vanes (or, IGV), whose
primary purpose is to direct air, delivered by the suction system, towards the
first stage of rotating blades. Another important function of IGVs is to
ensure a correct behaviour by the compressor, in terms of fluid dynamics,
under different transient operating conditions (for example, during start-up
and shut down) when, due to different running speeds as apposed to normal
operating speed, the opening angle of IGVs is changed: this serves to vary
the air delivery rate and to restore ideal speed triangles in transient phases.
Finally, in combined cycles and in the co-generation process, the capability
to change the geometrical position of IGVs permits to optimise temperatures
at the turbine exhaust side and, thus, to increase the efficiency of the recovery
cycle by varying the flow rate of the air entering the compressor.

At the compressor output side there are a few stages of Exit Guide Vanes or
EGV, necessary to obtain maximum pressure recovery before air enters the
combustion chamber.
The compressor serves also to supply a source of air needed to cool the walls
of nozzles, buckets and turbine disks, which are reached via channels inside
the gas turbine, and via external connecting pipings. Additionally, the
compressor supplies sealing air to bearing labyrinth seals.

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2.2.2 Combustion Section

In the case of "heavy duty" gas turbines as the one shown in Fig. 2.3, the
combustion section consists of a system of one or more tubular combustion
chambers (in this specific case there are ten combustion chambers) arranged
symmetrically and evenly in a circumference; these chambers receive and
burn fuel by means of an equal number of burners (one per combustion
chamber).

Air enters each chamber with a flow direction inverse to that of the hot gases
inside (for this reason, this method of air distribution is called "reverse
flow"). This external flow, which marginally touches the various chambers,
serves to cool them. In addition, the part of air that does not take part in the
combustion process is used for cooling the combustion products; in fact, it
is introduced into the chambers through diluition holes until optimal
temperature conditions are established to allow the gas and air mixture into
the turbine section.

Air passage from the combustion section properly said to the gas turbine
inlet takes place inside manifolds called transition pieces; here, the gases
flowing out of the single combustion chambers are led to form a continuous
annular profile, equal to the one that leads into the first stage nozzles ring.

Initially, the combustion process is ignited by one or more spark plugs. Once
ignited, combustion proceeds in a self-sufficient way without the help of
spark plugs, as long as the delivery conditions of fuel and combustion air are
fulfilled.
In the case of gas turbines built for the aviation industry (LM , PGT16 and
25 range), the combustion section consists of a single chamber of toroidal
shape, with direct and not "reverse flow" cooling; in fact, this helped reduce
external diametral sizes, since a smaller frontal section was needed in order
to offer as little resistance as possible to aircraft motion.

For the same reason, this combustion chamber does not need any separate
transition pieces. The other operating principles are the same as those
described for tubular chambers.

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2.2.3 Turbine Section

In the case of "heavy duty" turbines, as shown in Fig. 2.1, the turbine section
comprises a certain number of stages (in this specific case, three stages), each
one of them consisting of one stator stage (distributor nozzle); in this stage,
high temperature and high pressure gases delivered by the transition piece
described beforehand are accelerated and directed towards the rotor stage of
buckets mounted on a disk connected with the power shaft.
As mentioned before (para. 2.1), the conversion of thermal energy and
pressure into kinetic energy takes place in the stator stage.
The rotor stage completes this conversion, as here kinetic energy is
transformed into energy that drives the shaft, thus generating the power
required to drive the compressor (internal compression work, cannot be used
as externally useful work) and to operate the driven machine (generator,
compressor, etc.) connected to the gas turbine by means of a coupling.
The energy of gases supplied by the combustion system can be varied by
changing the delivery rate of fuel. In this way you can regulate the useful
power values needed for the technological process of which the gas turbine
is the motor.

2.3 BRAYTON CYCLE

The thermodynamic cycle according to which a gas turbine works is known as

the Brayton cycle.
Fig. 2.4 illustrates a diagram of a gas turbine (in this specific case, an MS6001
single shaft turbine). This diagram is useful to understand the meaning of the
thermodynamic cycle more easily.

Fig. 2.4 - Gas Turbine Operating Diagram

Air enters the compressor at point (1), which represents ambient air conditions. These
conditions are classified according to pressure, temperature and relative humidity values.

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It was agreed that standard design conditions be classified as ISO Conditions, to which there
correspond the following reference values:

ISO CONDITIONS

Ambient temperature (C) 15

Ambient pressure (mbar) 1013

Relative humidity (%) 60

Afterwards, air is compressed inside the compressor, and exits in the condition indicated at
point (2). During the converting process from (1) to (2), no heat is released outside. However,
air temperature increases, due to polytropic compression, up to a value variable depending on
gas turbine model and ambient temperature.
After leaving the compressor, air enters the combustion area, practically under the same
pressure and temperature conditions as at point (2) (except for losses undergone on the way
from the compressor delivery side to the combustion chamber inlet, which amount to about 3
to 4% of the absolute value of delivery pressure). Fuel is injected into the combustion chamber
via a burner, and combustion takes place at practically constant pressure.

Conversion between points(2) and (3) represents not only combustion. In fact, the temperature
of the combustion process properly said, which takes place under virtually stechiometric
conditions, reaches excessively high values (around 2000 C) locally in the combustion area
next to the burner, due to the resistance of materials downstream.
Therefore, the conversion final temperature, relative to point (3), is lower, as it is the result of
primary gases mixing with cooling and dilution air as described previously.
In this regard, it is useful to give some definitions of temperature at point (3), which is the
maximum cycle temperature or firing temperature (see Fig. 2.5).

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Fig. 2.5 - Firing temperature

Section A refers to the so-called "turbine inlet temperature", which is the average
temperature of gases in plane A.
Section B refers to the so-called firing temperature, which is the average gas
temperature in plane B.
Section C refers to the so-called ISO firing temperature", which is the average gas
temperature in plane C, calculated as a function of the air and fuel flow rates via
a thermal balance of combustion according to the ISO 2314 procedure.
The difference in the interpretation of temperatures in sections A and B consists
in the fact that, on gas turbines like those which we are dealing with in this training
course, in section B we take into account the mixture of 1st stage nozzle cooling
air, which was not involved in the combustion process, but mixes with burnt gases
after cooling the surface of the nozzle.
According to the Nuovo Pignone - General Electric standard, the temperature that
best represents point (3) is the one in section B.

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The following transformation, comprised between points (3) and (4), represents
the expansion of gases through the turbine section, which, as mentioned before,
converts therma energy and pressure into kinetic energy and, thanks to the
revolutions of the power shaft, into work used for compression (internal, not
useable) and external useful work, thanks to the connection with an operating
machine.
Over 50% of the energy developed by expansion in the gas turbine is absorbed by
the axial compressor for its compressing work.
Downstream of section (4), gases are exhausted into the atmosphere.
The thermodynamic representation of the events described so far is visible in Fig.
2.6 (pressure diagrams - volume P-V and temperature - entropy T-S).

Fig. 2.6 - Brayton Cycle

In the cycle illustrated in the above figure, the 4 points correspond to the same
described before.
In particolar, note the compression and expansion transformations, obviously
these are not isoentropic.
In this respect, please remember that:
the specific compression work Wc , from (1) to (2), is expressed with good
approximation by the following ratio:

Wc = Cpm(T2-T1) (T2-T1) (Kj/Kgasp. air)

the specific expansion work Wt , from (3) through (4), is expressed by:

Wt = Cpm(T3-T4) (T3-T4) (Kj/Kggas.)

Heat Q1, supplied to the combustion chamber from (2) to (3), is expressed by:

Q1 = Cpm(T3-T2) (T3-T2) (Kj/Kggas.)

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The gas turbine cycle "closes" ideally with the transformation from (4) to (1),
which corresponds to the cooling of exhaust gases, in that heat Q2 is aspirated out
into the atmosphere, as though the latter were a refrigerant of infinite capability.
The thermodynamic ratio that describes the cooling process of exhaust gases is
the following:
Q2 = Cpm(T4-T1) (T4-T1) (Kj/Kggas.)

The various values for Cpm, expressed in the preceding ratios, represent the average
specific heat at constant pressure between the extreme temperature values in the
interval examined.
For a more rigorous evaluation, it would be necessary to proceed by means of
integral calculation.

Once Q1, Q2, Wc and Wt, are known, you can obtain the valuesforthe following
significant parameters:

Thermodynamic efficiency = (Q1 - Q2)/Q1

This ratio means that, by parity of heat Q1, introduced into the combustion chamber
by fuel, efficiency will increase as heat Q2 decreases, dissipated into the
atmosphere. We will see in Chap. 8 how to recover this heat partially in combined
cycles and in the regenerative cycle.
Useful work Nu supplied to the driven machine = GgasWt - GariaWc
In the latter ratio, Ggas and Garia correspond respectively the weight of gases
delivered to the turbine inlet section, and to the air aspirated by te compressor,
necessary to pass from specific to global values.

So far, all descriptions and examples refer to a single shaft turbine like MS 6001.
In fact, in the diagram illustrated in Fig. 2.4, the entire turbine section is connected
mechanically witht the axial compressor.
Such types of single shaft turbines are suitable for driving operating machines that
run at constant speed, such as alternators and, for this reason, are used typically in
the generation of electric energy.
In applications, in which power regulation is achieved by means of speed variation
in the driven machine, two-shaft gas turbines are usually employed (see diagram
in Fig. 2.7); in this case, the turbine is divided into two mechanically separate
sections:

A high pressure section, which runs at constant speed within a wide range
of powers, and drives exclusively an axial compressor.
A low pressure section, connected with the operating machine via a coupling;
this section can vary its running speed independent of the high pressure
turbine section.

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This configuration, with the addition of other elements which will be described in
Chapter 4, serves to regulate the driven machine speed without the need to vary the
speed of the axial compressor; thus, the latter may continue to run at its design
speed, with optimal efficiency.

Fig. 2.7 - Two Shaft Gas Turbine Diagram

The ratios described so far apply in general to all machine types.

The classical concepts of thermodynamics permit to give a correct evaluation to
the Brayton cycle and to the influence by parameters such as pressures, temperatures,
specific heats, polytropic exponents, etc.
A diagram in Fig. 2.8 expresses the ratios among the following parameters:

Firing temperature T3 (C)

Compression ratio
Thermal efficiency
Specific power (KW/(Kg/sec.))

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Fig. 2.8 - Relations between significant thermodynamic quantities

This diagram indicates that:

a) under equal temperature T3, maximum efficiency is reached by increasing

the compression ratio. The maximum efficiency value does not corresponds
to the maximum specific power.
b) The higher the increase in the compression ratio, the greater the benefit
provided by increased firing temperature T3 for specific power and
efficiency values.
However, it is not possible to exceed certain values for T3, because of
limitations imposed by the resistance of the materials currently available.
The increase in temperature T3 represents therefore a very important parameter
that requires vast and constant efforts in the research about materials, blade
cooling technology, etc., in order to achieve reliable and efficient products
capable to meet ever growing demands by the market.
c) Specific power is important, because, to a higher specific power there
corresponds a gas turbine of smaller size, though of equal power output.
d) Efficiency is important, because the higher the efficiency, the lower the
consumption and operating costs.

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2.4 INFLUENCE OF EXTERNAL FACTORS ON GAS TURBINE PER-

FORMANCE

A gas turbine uses ambient air, therefore, its performance is greatly affected by all
factors that influence the flow rate of air delivered to the compressor, in terms of
weight.
These factors are:

Temperature
Pressure
Relative humidity

In this regard, we remind you that reference conditions for the three above-
mentioned factors are, by convention, ISO standards (para. 2.3).

As the compressor inlet temperature increases, there increases the specific

compression work, while the weight of the air delivered decreases (because of a
decrease in specific weight ). Consequently, the turbine efficiency and useful
work (and, therefore, power) diminish as well. If temperature decreases, the
reverse occurs.
This dependence of temperature on the air aspirated by the compressor and power
and efficiency varies from turbine to turbine, according to cycle parameters,
compression and expansion output and air delivery rate.
Fig. 2.9 shows an example of how power, specific consumption (heat rate) and the
delivery rate of exhaust gases depend on ambient temperature.

Fig. 2.9 - Influence of ambient temperature on turbine performance

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Specific consumption, dimensionally represented in figure 2.9 as HEAT RATE,

is the inverse of efficiency, in that it indicates the ratio between thermal energy,
resulting from the combustion process, and mechanical energy, supplied to the
power shaft (or to the generator terminals, if we consider the performance of a load
gear and generator, if present).
To summarise, we call Q1 the energy resulting from combustion and Nu the
external useful work: thus, specific consumption or Heat Rate is defined as:

HR = Q1/Nu

and is generally expressed as Kj/Kwh.

If the atmospheric pressure decrases in comparison with the ISO reference

pressure, there decreases the weight of air delivered (because of a reduction in its
specific weight) and, proportionally, there decreases the useful power, which is
proportional to the weight of the gas delivered. On the contrary, the other
parameters of the thermodynamic cycle (HR, etc.) are left uninfluenced.
Fig. 2.10 shows the percentage pattern of the useful power of a gas turbine in
relation to its installation altitude.

CORRECTION
FACTOR

ATMOSPHERIC
PRESSURE CORRECTION
FACTOR

ATMOSPHERIC
PRESSURE

ALTITUDE - 1000 FEET

Fig. 2.10

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Relative humidity influences the specific weight of air aspirated by the compressor.
In fact, humid air is less dense than dry air, so if the relative humidity increases,there
decreases the power output and there increases specific consumption (HR) (Fig.
2.11).
In the past, such an effect used to be neglected. Nowadays, as ever more powerful
gas turbines are made and humidity is added in the form of water or steam by
reduction of NOx, this effect must be taken into consideration.

Fig. 2.11

2.5 INFLUENCE OF INTERNAL FACTORS ON GAS TURBINE PERFORM-

ANCE

Next to the three external factors described in the preceding paragraph, there are
other factors which notably affect the performance of a gas turbine. These may be
called internal factors, because they are related to the auxiliary systems of the gas
turbine.
They are the following:

Pressure drop in the compressor inlet section

Pressure drop in the turbine exhaust system
Fuel type
Air extraction from the axial compressor
Steam injection
Water injection
Evaporative cooling

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Pressure drops in the compressor inlet section

Pressure drops are caused by the gas turbine suction system, composed of an
airfiler, a silencer, a length of duct, pipe section regulators, etc., installed upstream
of the compressor suction flange. When air flows through this system, it is
subjected to friction, which reduces its pressure and thus its specific weight. These
drops cause a reduction in useful power and an increase in specific consumption
or "heat rate", as mentioned previously in the case of the influence exerted by
ambient pressure.

Pressure drops in the turbine exhaust system

These are caused by the exhaust system of the gas turbine, composed of one or
more silencers, a length of duct, a recovery boiler (in the case of combined cycles
or co-generation), diverters, shutters, etc., through which exhaust gases are
expelled into the atmosphere.
Exhaust gases flowing through this system are subjected to friction, which
increases the value of back pressure as opposed to the value of external, atmospheric
pressure. This reduces the amount of turbine expansion, as the latter terminates
one isobar higher than the reference one, which results in reduced useful power
and increased specific consumption (heat rate).
Table 2.1 reports the typical values by which performance is dependent on pressure
drops at the compressor inlet section and at the turbine exhaust section. For the
reasons explained above, this dependance is proportional to the values of pressure
drop.
TABLE 2.1 EFFECTS OF PRESSURE DROPS

Every 100 mm H2O at suction : Every 100 mm H2O at exhaust :

1.42 % power loss 0.42 % power loss
0.45 % increase in Heat Rate 0.42 % increase in Heat Rate
1 C increase in exhaust temperature 1 C increase in exhaust temperature

Fuel gas influence

Best performance is achieved if natural gas rather than diesel oil is used. In fact,
output power under base load power and under equal conditions (environmental,
pressure drops , etc.) will be about 2% greater and specific consumption (Heat
Rate) between 0.7 and 1% lower, depending on gas turbine model.
These differences will become all the more remarkable if we compare performances
obtained with natural gas and with progressively "heavier"fuel types, such as
residuals, Bunker C, etc.
This behavior is due to the higher heating power of products originated by the
combustion of natural gas, as the latter has a higher content of water vapour,
resulting from a higher ratio between hydrogen and carbon, which is typical of
methane, the main component part of natural gas.

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Gaseous fuels with a lower calorific value than natural gas (commonly called "low
btu gases") can greatly influence the performance of a gas turbine.
In fact, if the calorific value diminishes (Kj/Nm3), the weight of fuel delivered to
the combustion chamber must increase to provide the necessary amount of energy
(Kj/h).
This addition in the weight of the fluid, which is not even compressed by the
compressor, provokes an increase in power (see the definition of useful work at
para. 2.3) and a reduction in specific consumption.
In this case, the power absorbed by the compressor is left substantially unvaried.
However, in the case of combustion of low btu gases, the following side effects
must be taken into consideration:

An increase in the weight of fluid delivered to the turbine increases the

compression ratio in the compressor, which must not come too near the
surging limit.
An increase in the fuel delivered often requires larger diameters of tubings
and control valves (and, consequently, higher costs). This effect is all the
more conspicuous in the case in which also the temperature of a gas and,
therefore, its specific volume, are higher (for example, gases produced by
coal gassing).
Gases with a low calorific value are frequently enough saturated with water
vapour upstream of the gas turbine combustion system. This provokes an
increase in the coefficients of heat transmission by combustion products,
and an increase in metal temperature on hot parts of the turbine.

Air extraction from the axial compressor

On some gas turbine applications (chemical processes, pipe blowing during the
commissioning stage, etc.) it may become necessary to extract compressed air
from the compressor delivery side.
As a general rule, and unless prescribed otherwise in the case of machines
originally built for the aviation industry, it is possible to extract as much as 5% of
the air delivered by the compressor without the need to alter the turbine layout at
all.
It is possible to achieve extraction values ranging between 6 and 20 % , depending
on the machine and combustion chamber configuration, if alterations are made to
casings, pipings and the control system.
Fig. 2.12 shows how percentages of air extraction influence output power and
specific consumption (heat rate), taking into consideration also ambient temperature.

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HEAT RATE (%)

HEAT RATE (%)

Fig. 2.12

Steam injection and water injection

Steam or water injection may have the following two purposes:

a reduction in nitrogen oxide (NOx) level.

an increase in output power.

Reducing the nitrogen oxide (NOx) level

The method of steam or water injection was introduced in the early 70s to limit and
control the presence of nitrogen oxides or NOX.
Injection is usually performed in the area where the combustion chamber cap is
present. The injection system is built in a way to set a limit to the amount of
injectable steam or water, in order to safeguard stability and continuity in the
combustion process. Anyway, the amount of steam and water injected is sufficient
to guarantee a massive reduction in the level of NOx.
According to the amount of steam or water injected into the combustion chamber,
which the turbine control system automatically monitors in relation to the NOx
level desired, output power will increase consequently to an increase in the mass
of fluid delivered through the gas turbine.
In the case of steam injection, the Heat Rate or specific consumption will also
decrease for the same reasons that apply to fuel gases with a low calorific value.
On the contrary, the latter advantage does not exist in the case of water injection,
as here a higher quantity of fuel is needed to vaporize water to the condition that
allows it to be injected into the combustion chamber.

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In condition of peak duty, with a maximum of 1250 hours/year, it is possible to

increase the water delivered through the combustion chamber cap area in order to
increase the gas turbine power output. Obviously, this calls for shorter maintenance
intervals.
As concerns the maximum water flow rates and maintenance procedures, these
must be evaluated case by case, depending on the machine model and its
combustion system.

Output power increase

Steam injection for increasing the gas turbine output power has been available and
warranted by over 30 years' experience.
Unlike water, steam is injected into the compressor exhaust casing, thus eliminating
all limitations imposed in order to safeguard stability in the combustion process.
For this reason, the maximum amount of injectable steam is limited to percentage
values of the weight of air aspirated by the compressor.
Steam must be overheated, and there must be at least 25 C difference with respect
to the compressor delivery temperature; steam supply limit pressure must be at
least 4 bar(g) greater than maximum pressure in the combustion chamber.
In the case of steam or water injection, the amount of steam injected in conditin
of partial load must be equal to the amount required to abate NOx. Once the load
base value is reached, the control system gives the OK to inject the additional
steam needed to increase the turbine output power.

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Fig. 2.13 shows the typical effects of steam injection on the output power of a gas
turbine (in this case, an MS 5002 gas turbine) as a function of ambient temperature.

Fig. 2.13 - Effects of steam injection on output power

(MS5002 Gas Turbine)

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Evaporative cooling
Curves in fig. 2.9 show clearly how power and efficiency increase as the
compressor inlet temperature decreases.
The latter can be reduced artificially by using an evaporative cooler located
upstream of the suction filter.
Water, fractioned into drops or in the form of a liquid film, cools the air by
evaporating in the cooler as it flows in contrary direction, thus originating an
adiabatic-isoenthalpic exchange (see fig. 2.14).

EVAPORATION CELLS
CELLE AD EVAPORAZIONE

H20 HEADER
COLLETTORE H2O
COALESCER/DEMISTER
COALESCER/DEMISTER

ARIA CALDA AMBIENTE

AMBIENT HOT AIR COOLED

ARIA
AIRREFRIGERATA
TOWARD
VERSOAIR IL FILTRO
DELLARIA
FILTER

H 0 CIRCULATING
POMPA
2
H2O
DI CIRCOLAZIONEPUMP

SUMP TANK
SUMP TANK

Fig. 2.14 Evaporative cooler

In order to prevent water from being drawn towards the compressor and fouling it,
downstreams of the cooler there are one or more stages of drop separators
(demisters), which, by inertia, separate any water drops that might be carried away
downstream of the cooler by the flow of air aspirated by the turbine.
Fig. 2.15 shows the effects of evaporative cooling on the gas turbine output power
and specific consumption.
As can be noted, benefits increase as relative humidity decreases and ambient
temperature increases.
Unfortunately, the above requirements are met in environments (for example,
deserts), in which water is not always available in the amounts needed by the
cooler.

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Fig. 2.15 Effects of Evaporative Cooling on Performance

Inlet chilling
In environments in which a high degree of average relative humidity is present
(higher than 60%) and ambient temperatures are not excessively high, it is
advisable to cool air with a different method, commonly called "inlet chilling";
according to this method, air is cooled during a refrigerating cycle (based generally
on absorption) carried out in a closed circuit. In this way, the restrictions imposed
by relative humidity and by ambient temperature, described in the preceding
system, can be eliminated. The minimum temperature reached by air at the end of
the cooling process is strictly dependent on the capability of the refrigerating cycle
to produce cold liquid and on the efficiency of the thermal exchange that takes
place in the water - air exchanger.
Figure 2.16 shows an operating diagram of this system (in this example, steam
is used for the absorption cycle), composed of a chiller, water connecting pipings
and a water - air exchanger, installed downstream of the gas turbine suction filter.
Same as in evaporative cooling, also in this case it is necessary to install a
coalescer/demister downstream of the system, in order to prevent humidity from
reaching the compressor inlet section.

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DEMISTER/COALESCER
DEMISTER/COALESCER
SCAMBIATORE
HEAT EXCHANGER

CAMERA ARIA FREDDA

COOLED AIR VERSO
ARIA AMBIENTE FILTRI IL COMPRESSORE
AMBIENT AIR FILTERS TOWARD COMPRESSOR
CHAMBER

DRAIN
DRENAGGIO
COOLING WATER INLET
INGRESSO ACQUA FREDDA

CHILLER
CHILLER RITORNO ACQUA DA RAFFREDDARE

ALLA TORRE DI RAFFREDDAMENTO

TO COOLING STEAM INLET VAPORE
INGRESSO
TOWER

Fig. 2.16 Air "chilling cooling" system, based on absorption

Figure 2.17 shows a comparison between the cooling powers of the two systems.

% RH const. lines

Saturation line
d
PSYCHROMETRIC
CHART
constant moisture content line
a Kgwater/Kgair
b

c
constant enthalpy line

Tc Tb Td Ta

Fig. 2.17 Comparison psychometric chart

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Line a - d represents air cooling in the case of evaporative cooling. As mentioned

before, this line follows the constant enthalpy line, resulting in a progressive
increase in relative humidity.
The restriction imposed by this cooling method consists in the fact that there
remains a minimum distance from the saturation curve, compatibly with realistic
exchange surfaces, considered from the point of view of construction. Normal
values indicate around 90% relative humidity, that is, there still remains a 10%
margin before the saturation line is reached.
Under these conditions, the final air temperature is equal to Td.
In the case of the chilling process, the cooling line has a constant moisture content
along segment a - b. If the potential of the refrigerating cycle and the efficiency of
the exchanger allow it, cooling can reach the saturation line and follow it along
segment b - c, in which heat is removed to form condensate (H2O). In this second
segment, there is a smaller temperature reduction, because most of the cooling
energy serves for the condensing process and only a small part of it participates
in lowering temperature.
In the chilling system, the air final temperature will be equal to Tb or Tc, according
to the chosen degree of cooling.

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