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Advaita Vedanta
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Main page "Advaita" redirects here. For other uses, see Advaita (disambiguation).
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Featured content Advaita Vedanta[note 1] is a sub-school of the Vedanta[note 2] school of Vedic[1][2][3][4] or
Current events Hindu philosophy[5] and religious practice,[web 1] giving "a unifying interpretation of the
Random article whole body of Upanishads".[6] The principal, though not the first, exponent of the
Donate to Wikipedia Advaita Vedanta-interpretation was Shankara Bhagavadpada[7] who systematised the
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works of preceding philosophers.[8] Its teachings have influenced various sects of
Interaction Hinduism.[9]
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The key source texts for all schools of Vednta are the Prasthanatrayi, the canonical
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Community portal texts consisting of the Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita and the Brahma Sutras, of
Recent changes which they give a philosophical interpretation and elucidation.[6]
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Advaita (not-two in Sanskrit) refers to the identity of the true Self, Atman, which is
Tools pure consciousness[note 3], and the highest Reality, Brahman, which is also pure
What links here
consciousness.[11] [note 4] [note 5] Followers seek liberation/release by acquiring vidy
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(knowledge)[13] of the identity of Atman and Brahman. Attaining this liberation takes a
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long preparation and training under the guidance of a guru. Advaita thought can also
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Permanent link be found in non-orthodox Indian religious traditions, such as the tantric Nath tradition.
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Advaita Vedanta developed in a multi-faceted religious and philosophical landscape.
Wikidata item Statue of Gaudapada, the grand guru of Adi
The tradition developed in interaction with the other traditions of India, Buddhism, Shankara and the first historical proponent of
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Vaishnavism and Shaivism, as well as the other schools of Vedanta. Advaita Vedanta, also believed to be the
Print/export founder of Shri Gaudapadacharya Math
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In modern times, due to western Orientalism and Perennialism, and its influence on
Download as PDF Indian Neo-Vedanta and Hindu nationalism,[14] Advaita Vedanta has acquired a broad
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Printable version acceptance in Indian culture and beyond as the paradigmatic example of Hindu
Advaita Vedanta
Languages spirituality,[14] despite the wide popularity of the Shaivite Vishishtadvaita and
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Dvaitadvaita bhakti traditions, and incorporating teachers such as Ramana Maharshi
and Nisargadatta Maharaj despite their eclectic and tantric backgrounds.
etina
Eesti Contents [hide]
Main articles [show]
Espaol 1 History of Advaita Vedanta
Subschools [show]
Franais 1.1 Pre-Shankara Vedanta
Teachers [show]
Galego
1.2 Gaudapada

Philosophy [show]
1.3 Adi Shankara
Practices [show]
1.4 Advaita Vedanta sub-schools
Bahasa Indonesia
Scriptures [show]
1.5 Later developments
Italiano
2 Influence Influences [show]
2.1 Early influence

v t e
Latina 2.2 Advaita Mathas
Lietuvi 2.3 Smarta Tradition Part of a series on
2.4 Unifying Hinduism Hindu philosophy
2.5 Contemporary popularization
Nederlands
3 Texts

3.1 Textual authority
Norsk bokml
3.2 Prasthnatray Three standards
Polski
3.3 Siddhi-granthas [show]
Portugus stika Schools
Romn
3.4 Introductory texts
Nstika Schools [show]
3.5 Modern texts
Personalities [show]
4 Philosophy
Simple English 4.1 Avidy v t e
Slovenina 4.2 Moksha liberation through knowledge of atman
Svenska 4.3 Means to liberation This article contains Indic text.
Without proper rendering support,
4.4 Epistemology Ways of knowing
you may see question marks or
4.5 Ontology The nature of being boxes, misplaced vowels or
Trke
5 Status of ethics missing conjuncts instead of Indic
text.
6 Influence of Mahayana Buddhism
Ting Vit
6.1 Advaita-criticisms

Edit links 6.2 Common core thesis
7 Relationship with other forms of Vedanta
7.1 Vishishtadvaita
7.2 Dvaita
8 List of teachers
9 See also
10 Notes
11 References
12 Sources
12.1 Published sources
12.2 Web-sources
13 Further reading
14 External links
History of Advaita Vedanta [edit]
Advaita Vedanta existed prior to Shankara, but found its most influential expounder in Shankara.[15]
Pre-Shankara Vedanta [edit]

Of the Vedanta-school before the composition of the Brahma Sutras (400450 CE[16]) almost nothing
is known.[16] Very little also is known of the period between the Brahmansutras and Shankara (first
half of the 8th century CE).[16] Only two writings of this period have survived: the Vkyapadya, written
by Bharthari (second half 5th century[17]), and the Mndkya-krik written by Gaudapada (7th
century CE).[16]
Earliest Vedanta [edit]

See also: Vedas, Upanishads and Darsanas
Adi Shankara with
The Upanishads form the basic texts, of which Vedanta gives an interpretation.[18] The Upanishads Disciples, by Raja Ravi
don't contain "a rigorous philosophical inquiry identifying the doctrines and formulating the supporting Varma (1904)
arguments".[19][note 6] This philosophical inquiry was performed by the darsanas, the various
philosophical schools.[21] Deutsch and Dalvi point out that in the Indian context texts "are only part of a tradition which is preserved
in its purest form in the oral transmission as it has been going on."[22]
The Upanishads originated in the Sramana movements, renunciate ascetic traditions which gave birth to Yoga,[23] Jainism,
Buddhism,[24] and some nstika schools of Hinduism such as Crvka and jvika, and also popular concepts in all major Indian
religions such as sasra (the cycle of birth and death) and moksha (liberation from that cycle).[25][note 7] The various traditions
interacted with each other, and cannot be seen as completely separate developments.[26] Buddhism, favored and supported by
merchants and royals,[27] developed elaborate philosophical and pedagogical texts and systems early in its history. Early in the first
millennium Madhyamaka and Yogacara developed ideas about the two levels of truth and the working of the mind[28] to which the
developing Vedanta-tradition responded, but also incorporated these systems.[3] Buddhist influence can also be found in the Yoga
Sutras of Patanjali, written c. 4th century CE.[29][30]
Bdaryana's Brahma Sutras [edit]

Main article: Brahma Sutras
The Brahma Sutras of Bdaryana, also called the Vedanta Sutra,[31] were compiled in its present form around 400450 CE,[32] but
"the great part of the Sutra must have been in existence much earlier than that".[32] Estimates of the date of Bdaryana's lifetime
differ between 200 BCE and 200 CE.[33]
The Brahma Sutra is a critical study of the teachings of the Upanishads. It was and is a guide-book for the great teachers of the
Vedantic systems.[31] Bdaryana was not the first person to systematise the teachings of the Upanishads.[34] He refers to seven
Vedantic teachers before him:[34]
From the way in which Bdaryana cites the views of others it is obvious that the teachings of the Upanishads must
have been analyzed and interpreted by quite a few before him and that his systematization of them in 555 sutras
arranged in four chapters must have been the last attempt, most probably the best.[34]
Between BrahmaSutras and Shankara [edit]
According to Nakamura, "there must have been an enormous number of other writings turned out in this period, but unfortunately all
of them have been scattered or lost and have not come down to us today".[16] In his commentaries, Shankara mentions 99 different
predecessors of his Sampradaya.[4] In the beginning of his commentary on the Brhadaranyaka Upanishad Shankara salutes the
teachers of the Brahmavidya Sampradaya.[web 3] Pre-Shankara doctrines and sayings can be traced in the works of the later
schools, which does give insight into the development of early Vedanta philosophy.[16]
The names of various important early Vedanta thinkers have been listed in the Siddhitraya by Yamuncrya (c.1050), the
Vedrthasamgraha by Rmnuja (c.10501157), and the Yatndramatadpik by rnivsa-dsa.[16] Combined together,[16] at least
fourteen thinkers are known to have existed between the composition of the Brahman Sutras and Shankara's lifetime.[16][note 8]
Although Shankara is often considered to be the founder of the Advaita Vedanta school, according to Nakamura, comparison of the
known teachings of these early Vedantins and Shankara's thought shows that most of the characteristics of Shankara's thought
"were advocated by someone before ankara".[35] Shankara "was the person who synthesized the Advaita-vda which had
previously existed before him".[35] In this synthesis, he was the rejuvenator and defender of ancient learning.[36] He was an
unequalled commentator,[36] due to whose efforts and contributions the Advaita Vedanta assumed a dominant position within Indian
philosophy.[36]
Gaudapada [edit]
Main article: Gaudapada
Gaudapada (6th century)[37] was the teacher of Govinda Bhagavatpada and the grandteacher of Shankara.
Mukya Krik [edit]
Gaudapada wrote or compiled[38] the Mukya Krik, also known as the Gauapda Krik and as the gama stra.[note 9] The
Mukya Krik is a commentary in verse form on the Mandukya Upanishad, one of the shortest but most profound Upanishads,
or mystical Vedas, consisting of just 13 prose sentences. In Shankara's time it was considered to be a ruti, but not particularly
important.[39] In later periods it acquired a higher status, and eventually it was regarded as expressing the essence of the Upanisad
philosophy.[39]
The Mukya Krik is the earliest extent systematic treatise on Advaita Vednta,[40] though it is not the oldest work to present
Advaita views,[7] nor the only pre-Sankara work with the same type of teachings.[7]
Buddhist influences [edit]
According to B.N.K. Sharma, the early commentators on the Brahma Sutras were all realists,[41] or pantheist realists.[42] During the
same period, the 2nd-5th century CE, there was a great idealist revival in Buddhism, which countered the criticisms of the Hindu
realists.[43] The works of Buddhist thinkers like Nagasena, Buddhaghosa and Nagarjuna, all of them Brahmin converts to
Buddhism,[43] "created a great sensation and compelled admiration all around".[43] Other Brahmins, faithful to Brahminism but
equally impressed by these developments in Buddhist thought, looked for and found in some portions of the Upanishads "many
striking approaches to the metaphysical idealism of the Buddhists".[43] During the 5th and 6th centuries there was a further
development of Buddhist thought with the development of the Yogacara school.[44]
It was Gaudapada who further bridged Buddhism and Vedanta.[44] He took over the Buddhist doctrines that ultimate reality is pure
consciousness (vijapti-mtra)[37][note 10] and "that the nature of the world is the four-cornered negation".[37][note 11] Gaudapada
"wove [both doctrines] into a philosophy of the Mandukaya Upanisad, which was further developed by Shankara".[48][note 12] At the
same time, Gaudapada emphatically rejected the epistemic idealism of the Buddhists, arguing that there was a difference between
objects seen in dreams and real objects in the world, although both were ultimately unreal. He also rejected the pluralism and
momentariness of consciousnesses, which were core doctrines of the Vijnanavada school, and their techniques for achieving
liberation.[50]
Gaudapada also took over the Buddhist concept of "ajta" from Nagarjuna's Madhyamaka philosophy,[51][52] which uses the term
"anutpda".[53] [note 13] "Ajtivda", "the Doctrine of no-origination"[58][note 14] or non-creation, is the fundamental philosophical
doctrine of Gaudapada.[58]
Richard King has noted that Ajativada has a radically different meaning in the context of respectively Vedanta and Buddhism.
Buddhist writers take Ajativada to imply that there are no essences in factors, and therefore change is possible. Gaudapada made
the opposite interpretation, advocating the absolutist position that origination and cessation were unreal, the only Ultimate reality
(Brahman) being unoriginated and unchanging.[59]
According to Gaudapada, the Absolute is not subject to birth, change and death. The Absolute is aja, the unborn eternal.[58] The
empirical world of appearances is considered unreal, and not absolutely existent.[58]
Shri Gaudapadacharya Math [edit]

Main article: Shri Gaudapadacharya Math
Around 740 AD Gaudapada founded Shri Gaudapadacharya Math[note 15], also known as Kava maha. It is located in Kavale,
Ponda, Goa,[60] and is the oldest matha of the South Indian Saraswat Brahmins.[61][62]
Unlike other mathas, Shri Gaudapadacharya matha is not a polemical center established to influence the faith of all Hindus, its
jurisdiction is limited to only Dakshinatya Saraswat Brahmins.
Adi Shankara [edit]

Main article: Adi Shankara
Adi Shankara (788820), also known as akara Bhagavatpdcrya and di akarcrya, synthesised and rejuvenated the
doctrine of Advaita.[36] It was Shankara who succeeded in reading Gaudapada's mayavada[63][note 16] into Badarayana's Brahma
Sutras, "and give it a locus classicus",[63] against the realistic strain of the Brahma Sutras.[63][note 17][note 18] His interpretation,
including works ascribed to him, has become the normative interpretation of Advaita Vedanta.[65][63]
Late-Classical Hinduism [edit]

See also Late-Classical Age and Hinduism Middle Ages
Shankara lived in the time of the so-called "Late classical Hinduism",[66] which lasted from 650 till 1100 CE.[66] The previous period
was the "Golden Age of Hinduism"[67] (ca. 320650 CE[67]), which flourished during the Gupta Empire[68] (320 to 550 CE) until the
fall of the Harsha Empire[68] (606 to 647 CE).
Prior to this "Golden Age"[note 19] the "classical synthesis"[71] or "Hindu synthesis"[69][70] emerged, which incorporated
shramanic[70][72] and Buddhist influences[70][73] and the emerging bhakti tradition into the Brahmanical fold via the smriti
literature.[69][70] This synthesis emerged under the pressure of the success of Buddhism and Jainism.[74]
During the classical period, power was centralised, along with a growth of far distance trade, standardizarion of legal procedures,
and general spread of literacy.[68] Mahayana Buddhism flourished, but the orthodox Brahmana culture began to be rejuvenated by
the patronage of the Gupta Dynasty.[75] The position of the Brahmans was reinforced,[68] and the first Hindu temples emerged
during the late Gupta age.[68]
After the end of the Gupta Empire and the collapse of the Harsha Empire, power became decentralised in India. Several larger
kingdoms emerged, with "countless vasal states".[76][note 20] The kingdoms were ruled via a feudal system. Smaller kingdoms were
dependent on the protection of the larger kingdoms. "The great king was remote, was exalted and deified",[77] as reflected in the
Tantric Mandala, which could also depict the king as the centre of the mandala.[78]
The disintegration of central power also lead to regionalisation of religiosity, and religious rivalry.[79][note 21] Local cults and
languages were enhanced, and the influence of "Brahmanic ritualistic Hinduism"[79] was diminished.[79] Rural and devotional
movements arose, along with Shaivism, Vaisnavism, Bhakti and Tantra,[79] though "sectarian groupings were only at the beginning
of their development".[79] Religious movements had to compete for recognition by the local lords.[79] Buddhism lost its position, and
began to disappear in India.[79]
Buddhism, which was supported by the ancient Indian urban civilisation lost influence to the traditional religions, which were rooted
in the countryside.[81] In Bengal, Buddhism was even prosecuted. But at the same time, Buddhism was incorporated into Hinduism,
when Gaudapada used Buddhist philosophy to reinterpret the Upanishads.[82] This also marked a shift from Atman and Brahman as
a "living substance"[83] to "maya-vada"[note 16], where Atman and Brahman are seen as "pure knowledge-consciousness".[84]
According to Scheepers, it is this "maya-vada" view which has come to dominate Indian thought.[81]
Philosophical system [edit]
Shankara systematised the works of preceding philosophers.[8] His system marks a turn from realism to idealism.[63][83]
Shankara's synthesis of Advaita Vedanta is summarised in this quote from the Vivekacmai, one of his Prakaraa grathas
(philosophical treatises):[note 22]
In half a couplet I state, what has been stated by scores of texts;
that is Brahman alone is real, the world is mithy (not independently existent),
and the individual self is nondifferent from Brahman.[85][note 23]
According to Sringeri Math, Shankara's message can be summarised even shorter:
The eternal, impersonal, consciousness Absolute is the Brahman, the one without a second.[web 11]
Writings [edit]
Main article: Adi Shankara bibliography
Adi Shankara's main works are his commentaries on the Prasthana Trayi, which consist of the Brahma Stras, Bhagavad Gt and
the Upanishads. According to Nakamura, Shankara's Brahma-stra-bhsya, his commentary on the Brahma Stra, is "the most
authoritative and best known work in the Vednta philosophy".[86] Shankara also wrote a major independent treatise, called
"Upadea Shasr", expounding his philosophy.
The authenticity of the "Vivekachudamani", a well-known work ascribed to Shankara, is doubtful,[87][88][89] though it is "so closely
interwoven into the spiritual heritage of Shankara that any analysis of his perspective which fails to consider [this work] would be
incomplete".[87][note 24]
The authorship of Shankara of his Mandukya Upanishad Bhasya and his supplementary commentary on Gaudapada's Mukya
Krik is also disputed.[90][note 25]
Advaita Vedanta sub-schools [edit]

After Shankara's death several subschools developed. Two of them still exist today, the Bhmat and the Vivarana.[web 12][4]
Perished schools are the Pancapadika and Istasiddhi.[95]
These schools worked out the logical implications of various Advaita doctrines. Two of the problems they encountered were the
further interpretations to the concepts of my and avidya.[web 12]
Bhamati [edit]
Main article: Bhamati
The name of the Bhamati-subschool is derived from Vachaspati Misra's commentary on Adi Shankara's Brahmasutra
Bhashya.[web 12][web 13] According to legend, Misra's commentary was named after his wife to praise, since he neglected her during
the writing of his commentary.[web 13]
Vachaspati Misra Bhamati attempts to harmonise Sankara's thought with that of Mandana Misra. The Bhamati-school takes an
ontological approach. It sees the Jiva as the source of avidya.[web 12]
Vivarana [edit]
The name of the Vivarana-school is derived from Prakasatman's Pancapadika-Vivarana, a commentary on the Pancapadika by
Padmapadacharya.[95]
Prakasatman was the first to propound the theory of mulavidya or maya as being of "positive beginningless nature".[96]
The Vivarana-school takes an epistemological approach. It sees Brahman as the source of avidya. Critics object that Brahman is
pure consciousness, so it can't be the source of avidya. Another problem is that contradictory qualities, namely knowledge and
ignorance, are attributed to Brahman.[web 12]
Later developments [edit]

The prominent names in the later Advaita tradition are Prakstman (tenth century), Vimukttman (tenth century), Sarvajtman
(tenth century), r Hara (twelfth century), Citsukha (twelfth century), nandagiri (thirteenth century), Amalnand (thirteenth
century), Vidyraya (fourteenth century), akarnand (fourteenth century), Sadnand (fifteenth century), Praknanda
(sixteenth century), Nsihrama (sixteenth century), Madhusdhana Sarasvati (seventeenth century), Dharmarja Advarindra
(seventeenth century), Appaya Dkita (seventeenth century), Sadaiva Brahmendra (eighteenth century), Candraekhara Bhrati
(twentieth century), and Sacchidnandendra Saraswati (twentieth century).[web 14]
Influence [edit]
Early influence [edit]

According to Richard E. King,
Although it is common to find Western scholars and Hindus arguing that Sankaracarya was the most influential and
important figure in the history of Hindu intellectual thought, this does not seem to be justified by the historical
evidence.[97]
According to King, until the 10th century Sankara was overshadowed by his older contemporary Mandana-Misra. In the centuries
after Sankara it was Maana Mira who was considered to be the most important representative of Vedanta.[98]
Prior to Shankara, views similar to his already existed, but did not occupy a dominant position within the Vedanta.[99] The early
Vedanta scholars were from the upper classes of society, well-educated in traditional culture. They formed a social elite, "sharply
distinguished from the general practitioners and theologians of Hinduism."[100] Their teachings were "transmitted among a small
number of selected intellectuals".[100] Works of the early Vedanta schools do not contain references to Vishnu or Shiva.[101] It was
only after Shankara that "the theologians of the various sects of Hinduism utilized Vedanta philosophy to a greater or lesser degree
to form the basis of their doctrines,"[9] for example the Nath-tradition,[102] whereby "its theoretical influence upon the whole of Indian
society became final and definitive." [100]
Advaita Mathas [edit]

See also: Dashanami Sampradaya
Advaita Vedanta is, at least in the west, primarily known as a philosophical system. But it is
also a tradition of renunciation. Philosophy and renunciation are closely related:[web 1]
Most of the notable authors in the advaita tradition were members of the
sannyasa tradition, and both sides of the tradition share the same values,
attitudes and metaphysics.[web 1]
Shankara, himself considered to be an incarnation of Shiva,[web 1] established the

Dashanami Sampradaya, organizing a section of the Ekadandi monks under an umbrella
(Vidyashankara temple) at Sringeri
grouping of ten names.[web 1] Several other Hindu monastic and Ekadandi traditions Sharada Peetham, Shringeri
remained outside the organisation of the Dasanmis.[103][104][105]
Adi Sankara organised the Hindu monks of these ten sects or names under four Mahas (Sanskrit: ) (monasteries), with the
headquarters at Dvrak in the West, Jagannatha Puri in the East, Sringeri in the South and Badrikashrama in the North.[web 1] Each
math was headed by one of his four main disciples, who each continues the Vedanta Sampradaya.
According to Pandey, these Mathas were not established by Shankara himself, but were originally ashrams established by
Vibhdaka and his son yanga.[106] Shankara inherited the ashrams at Dvrak and Sringeri, and shifted the ashram at
ngaverapura to Badarikrama, and the ashram at Angadea to Jaganntha Pur.[107]
Monks of these ten orders differ in part in their beliefs and practices, and a section of them is not considered to be restricted to
specific changes made by Shankara. While the dasanmis associated with the Sankara maths follow the procedures enumerated by
Adi ankara, some of these orders remained partly or fully independent in their belief and practices; and outside the official control
of the Sankara maths.
The advaita sampradaya is not a Saiva sect,[web 1][108] despite the historical links with Shaivism:
Advaitins are non-sectarian, and they advocate worship of Siva and Visnu equally with that of the other deities of
Hinduism, like Sakti, Ganapati and others.[web 1]
Nevertheless, contemporary Sankaracaryas have more influence among Saiva communities than among Vaisnava
communities.[web 1] The greatest influence of the gurus of the advaita tradition has been among followers of the Smartha Tradition,
who integrate the domestic Vedic ritual with devotional aspects of Hinduism.[web 1]
According to Nakamura, these mathas contributed to the influence of Shankara, which was "due to institutional factors".[8] The
mathas which he built exist until today, and preserve the teachings and influence of Shankara, "while the writings of other scholars
before him came to be forgotten with the passage of time".[109]
The table below gives an overview of the four Amnaya Mathas founded by Adi Shankara, and their details.[web 15]
Shishya
Direction Maha Mahvkya Veda Sampradaya
(lineage)
Prajnam brahma (Consciousness is
Prajnam brahma (Consciousness is
Padmapda East Govardhana Pha Rig Veda Bhogavala
Brahman)
Sringeri rada
Surevara South Aham brahmsmi (I am Brahman) Yajur Veda Bhrivala
Pha
Hastmalakcrya West Dvraka Pha Tattvamasi (That thou art) Sama Veda Kitavala
Atharva
Toakcrya North Jyotirmaha Pha Ayamtm brahma (This Atman is Brahman) Nandavala
Veda
According to the tradition in Kerala, after Sankara's samadhi at Vadakkunnathan Temple, his disciples founded four mathas in
Thrissur, namely Naduvil Madhom, Thekke Madhom, Idayil Madhom and Vadakke Madhom.
Smarta Tradition [edit]

Main article: Smarta Tradition
Traditionally, Shankara is regarded as the greatest teacher[110][111] and reformer of the Smartha.[112][111] According to Hinduism-
guide.com:
Not all Brahmins specialized in this Smriti tradition. Some were influenced by Buddhism, Jainism or Charvaka tradition
and philosophy. This did not mean that all these people rejected the authority of Vedas, but only that their tradition of
worship and philosophy was based not on smriti texts. In time, Shankaracharya brought all the Vedic communities
together. He tried to remove the non-smriti aspects that had crept into the Hindu communities. He also endeavoured to
unite them by arguing that any of the different Hindu gods could be worshipped, according to the prescriptions given in
the smriti texts. He established that worship of various deities are compatible with Vedas and is not contradictory, since
all are different manifestations of one nirguna Brahman. Shankaracharya was instrumental in reviving interest in the
smritis.[web 16]
According to Hiltebeitel, Shankara established the nondualist interpretation of the Upanishads as the touchstone of a revived smarta
tradition:[113]
Practically, Shankara fostered a rapprochement between Advaita and smarta orthodoxy, which by his time had not only
continued to defend the varnasramadharma theory as defining the path of karman, but had developed the practice of
pancayatanapuja ("five-shrine worship") as a solution to varied and conflicting devotional practices. Thus one could
worship any one of five deities (Vishnu, Siva, Durga, Surya, Ganesa) as one's istadevata ("deity of choice").[113]
The Sringeri monastery is still the centre of the Smarta sect.[110][111] In recent times bhakti cults have increasingly become popular
with the smartas,[114] and Shiva is particularly favored.[110] In modern times Smarta-views have been highly influential in both the
Indian[web 17] and western[web 18] understanding of Hinduism via Neo-Vedanta. Vivekananda was an advocate of Smarta-
views,[web 18] and Radhakrishnan was himself a Smarta-Brahman.[115][116] According to iskcon.org,
Many Hindus may not strictly identify themselves as Smartas but, by adhering to Advaita Vedanta as a foundation for
non-sectarianism, are indirect followers.[web 17]
Unifying Hinduism [edit]

With the onset of Islamic rule, hierarchical classifications of the various orthodox schools were developed to defend Hinduism
against Islamic influences.[117] According to Nicholson, already between the twelfth and the sixteenth century,
... certain thinkers began to treat as a single whole the diverse philosophical teachings of the Upanishads, epics,
Puranas, and the schools known retrospectively as the "six systems" (saddarsana) of mainstream Hindu
philosophy.[118]
The tendency of "a blurring of philosophical distinctions" has also been noted by Burley.[119] Lorenzen locates the origins of a
distinct Hindu identity in the interaction between Muslims and Hindus,[120] and a process of "mutual self-definition with a contrasting
Muslim other",[121] which started well before 1800.[122] Both the Indian and the European thinkers who developed the term
"Hinduism" in the 19th century were influenced by these philosophers.[118]
Within these socalled doxologies Advaita Vedanta was given the highest position, since it was regarded to be most inclusive
system.[117] Vijnanabhiksu, a 16th-century philosopher and writer, is still an influential representant of these doxologies. He's been a
prime influence on 19th century Hindu modernists like Vivekananda, who also tried to integrate various strands of Hindu thought,
taking Advaita Vedanta as its most representative specimen.[117]
Contemporary popularization [edit]
Indian nationalism and Hindu Universalism [edit]

Main articles: Hindu nationalism and Hindu reform movements
With the onset of the British Raj, the colonialisation of India by the British, there also started a Hindu renaissance in the 19th
century, which profoundly changed the understanding of Hinduism in both India and the west.[14] Western orientalist searched for
the "essence" of the Indian religions, discerning this in the Vedas,[123] and meanwhile creating the notion of "Hinduism" as a unified
body of religious praxis[124] and the popular picture of 'mystical India'.[124][14] This idea of a Vedic essence was taken over by the
Hindu reformers, together with the ideas of Universalism and Perennialism, the idea that all religions share a common mystic
ground.[125] The Brahmo Samaj, who was supported for a while by the Unitarian Church,[126] played an essential role in the
introduction and spread of this new understanding of Hinduism.[127]
Vedanta came to be regarded as the essence of Hinduism, and Advaita Vedanta came to be regarded as "then paradigmatic
example of the mystical nature of the Hindu religion".[128] These notions served well for the Hindu nationalists, who further
popularised this notion of Advaita Vedanta as the pinnacle of Indian religions.[129] It "provided an opportunity for the construction of
a nationalist ideology that could unite HIndus in their struggle against colonial oppression".[130]
Vivekananda [edit]
Main articles: Neo-Vedanta, Swami Vivekananda and Ramakrishna Mission
A major proponent in the popularisation of this Universalist and Perennialist interpretation of Advaita Vedanta was Vivekananda,[131]
who played a major role in the revival of Hinduism,[132] and the spread of Advaita Vedanta to the west via the Ramakrishna Mission.
His interpretation of Advaita Vedanta has been called "Neo-Vedanta".[133] Vivekananda discerned a universal religion, regarding all
the apparent differences between various traditions as various manifestations of one truth.[134] He presented karma, bhakti, jnana
and raja yoga as equal means to attain moksha,[135] to present Vedanta as a liberal and universal religion, in contrast to the
exclusivism of other religions.[135]
Vivekananda emphasised samadhi as a means to attain liberation.[136] Yet this emphasis is not to be found in the Upanishads nor
with Shankara.[137] For Shankara, meditation and Nirvikalpa Samadhi are means to gain knowledge of the already existing unity of
Brahman and Atman,[136] not the highest goal itself:
[Y]oga is a meditative exercise of withdrawal from the particular and identification with the universal, leading to
contemplation of oneself as the most universal, namely, Consciousness. This approach is different from the classical
Yoga of complete thought suppression.[136]
He also claimed that Advaita is the only religion that is in total agreement with modern science. In a talk on "The absolute and
manifestation" given in at London in 1896 Swami Vivekananda said,
I may make bold to say that the only religion which agrees with, and even goes a little further than modern researchers,
both on physical and moral lines is the Advaita, and that is why it appeals to modern scientists so much. They find that
the old dualistic theories are not enough for them, do not satisfy their necessities. A man must have not only faith, but
intellectual faith too".[web 19]
Vivekenanda's modernisation has been criticised:
Without calling into question the right of any philosopher to interpret Advaita according to his own understanding of it, ...
the process of Westernization has obscured the core of this school of thought. The basic correlation of renunciation
and Bliss has been lost sight of in the attempts to underscore the cognitive structure and the realistic structure which
according to Samkaracarya should both belong to, and indeed constitute the realm of my.[133]
Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan [edit]

Main article: Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan
Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan further popularized Advaita Vedanta, presenting it as the essence of Hinduism,[web 20] but neglecting the
popular bhakti-traditions.[138] Radhakrishnan saw other religions, "including what Radhakrishnan understands as lower forms of
Hinduism,"[web 20] as interpretations of Advaita Vedanta, thereby Hindusizing all religions.[web 20] His metaphysics was grounded in
Advaita Vedanta, but he reinterpreted Advaita Vedanta for a contemporary understanding.[web 20] He acknowledged the reality and
diversity of the world of experience, which he saw as grounded in and supported by the absolute or Brahman.[web 20][note 26]
Radhakrishnan also reinterpreted Shankara's notion of maya. According to Radhakrishnan, maya is not a strict absolute idealism,
but "a subjective misperception of the world as ultimately real."[web 20]
Neo-Advaita [edit]
Main article: Neo-Advaita
Neo-Advaita is a New Religious Movement based on a popularised, western interpretation of Advaita Vedanta and the teachings of
Ramana Maharshi.[140] Neo-Advaita is being criticised[141][note 27][143][note 28][note 29] for discarding the traditional prerequisites of
knowledge of the scriptures[144] and "renunciation as necessary preparation for the path of jnana-yoga".[144][145] Notable neo-
advaita teachers are H. W. L. Poonja,[146][140] his students Gangaji[147] Andrew Cohen[note 30], and Eckhart Tolle.[140]
Non-dualism [edit]
Main article: Nondualism
Advaita Vedanta has gained attention in western spirituality and New Age, where various traditions are seen as driven by the same
non-dual experience.[149] Nonduality points to "a primordial, natural awareness without subject or object".[web 26] It is also used to
refer to interconnectedness, "the sense that all things are interconnected and not separate, while at the same time all things retain
their individuality".[web 27]
Georg Feuerstein is quoted by nonduality-adepts[note 31] as summarizing the Advaita Vedanta-realization as follows:
The manifold universe is, in truth, a Single Reality. There is only one Great Being, which the sages call Brahman, in
which all the countless forms of existence reside. That Great Being is utter Consciousness, and It is the very Essence,
or Self (Atman) of all beings."[web 29][note 32]
Texts [edit]
See also: Works of Adi Shankara
Advaita Vedanta is based on the inquiry into the sacred texts of the Upanishads, Bhagavad Gita and Brahma Sutras. Adi Shankara
gave a systematisation and philosophical underpinning of this inquiry in his commentaries. The subsequent Advaita-tradition has
further elaborated on these sruti and commentaries.
Textual authority [edit]

The order of precedance regarding authority of Vedic Scriptures is as follows,
ruti, literally "hearing, listening", are the sacred texts comprising the central canon of Hinduism and is one of the three main
sources of dharma and therefore is also influential within Hindu Law.[150]
Smti, literally "that which is remembered (or recollected)", refers to a specific body of Hindu scripture, and is a codified
component of Hindu customary law. Post Vedic scriptures such as Ramayana, Mahabharata and traditions of the rules on
dharma such as Manu Smriti, Yaagnyavalkya Smriti etc. Smrti also denotes tradition in the sense that it portrays the traditions of
the rules on dharma, especially those of lawful virtuous persons.)
Pura, literally "of ancient times", are post-vedic scriptures notably consisting of narratives of the history of the universe from
creation to destruction, genealogies of kings, heroes, sages, and demigods, and descriptions of Hindu cosmology, philosophy,
and geography.[web 31]
ichra, literally "that which is followed by good (in recent times)".
Atmatui, literally "that which satisfies oneself (or self validation)", according to which one has to decide whether or not to do
with bona fide. Initially this was not considered in the order of precedence but Manu and Yjavalkya considered it as last one.
If anyone of them contradicts the preceding one, then it is disqualified as an authority to judge. There is a well known Indian saying
that Smti follows ruti. So it was considered that in order to establish any Theistic Philosophical theory (Astika Siddhanta) one
ought not contradict ruti (Vedas).
Prasthnatray Three standards [edit]

Main article: Prasthanatrayi
Adi Sankara has chosen[citation needed] three standards, called Prasthnatray, literally, three points of departure (three standards).
Later these were referred to as the three canonical texts of reference of Hindu philosophy by other Vedanta schools.
They are:
1. The Upanishads, known as Upadesha prasthna (injunctive texts), (part of ruti)

2. The Bhagavad Gita, known as Sdhana prasthna (practical text), (part of Smti)
3. The Brahma Sutras, known as Nyya prasthna or Yukti prasthana (part of darana of Uttar Mms)
The Upanishads consist of twelve or thirteen major texts, with many minor texts. The Bhagavad Gt is part of the Mahabhrata.
The Brahma Stras (also known as the Vednta Stras), systematise the doctrines taught in the Upanishads and the Gt.
Sankara Bhagavadpda has written Bhshyas (commentaries) on the Prasthnatray. These texts are thus considered to be the
basic texts of the Advaita-parampara.
Siddhi-granthas [edit]
Additionally there are four Siddhi-granthas that are taught in the Advaita-parampara, after study of the Prasthana-trayi:
1. Brahmasiddhi by Mandana Mishra (750850),

2. Naishkarmasiddhi by Sureswara (8th century, disciple of Sankara),
3. Ishtasiddhi by Vimuktananda (1200),
4. Advaita Siddhi,[web 32] written by Madhusudana Saraswati - 1565-1665.
Introductory texts [edit]

Introductory texts from the Advaita Vedanta tradition include:
Ashtavakra Samhita (pre-Sankara), with traces of Advaitism.[note 33]

Tattvabodha (Shankara), an introductory text explaining the terminologies used in Advaita Vedanta.[note 34]
Atmabodha, A Treatise on the knowledge of Atma (Shankara).[note 35]
Vedantasara (of Sadananda) (Bhagavad Ramanuja, 1017 to 1137 A.D.[web 39])[note 36]
Vakyavrtti
Laghu-Vakyavrtti
Drg-Drsya-Viveka
Panchikaranam
Vedanta-Paribhasha (of Dharmaraja Adhvarindra)
Advaita-Makaranda (of Lakshmidhara Kavi)
Aparoksha-Anubhuti
Dakshinamurti-Stotram
Panchadasi (of Vidyaranya)
Kaupina-pancakam
Sadhana-panchakam
Manisha-pancakam
Dasasloki
Modern texts [edit]

Treatises on Advaita Vedanta are still being written. The works of Swami Vivekananda, such as his writings on Jnana yoga, have
been influential in the spread of Advaita Vedanta in the west.
Philosophy [edit]
Main article: Hindu philosophy
The philosophy of Advaita Vedanta is based on the sacred texts of the Upanishads, Bhagavad Gita and Brahma Sutras. Adi
Shankara gave a systematisation and philosophical underpinning of this inquiry in his commentaries, which have become central
texts in the Advaita Vedanta tradition.
Avidy [edit]
Brahman [edit]
Due to ignorance (avidy), Brahman is visible as the material world and its objects (nama rupa vikara). The actual Brahman is
attributeless and formless. Brahman, the highest truth and all (reality), does not really change; it is only our ignorance that gives the
appearance of change.
The notion of avidy and its relationship to Brahman creates a crucial philosophical issue within Advaita Vedanta thought: how can
avidy appear in Brahman, since Brahman is pure consciousness?[151]
Sengaku Mayeda writes, in his commentary and translation of Adi Shankara's Upadesasahasri:
Certainly the most crucial problem which Sankara left for his followers is that of avidy. If the concept is logically
analysed, it would lead the Vedanta philosophy toward dualism or nihilism and uproot its fundamental position.[152]
tman [edit]
Main article: tman (Hinduism)
Also due to avidy, the true identity is forgotten, and material reality, which manifests at
various levels, is mistaken as the only and true reality.
True Self [edit]
tman (IAST: tman, Sanskrit: ) is a Sanskrit word that means 'self'. tman is the first
principle,[153] the true self of an individual beyond identification with phenomena, the
essence of an individual.
The swan is an important motif in
When the reflection of Atman falls on avidya (ignorance), atman becomes jva a living Advaita. It symbolises two things: first,
being with a body and senses. Each jiva feels as if he has his own, unique and distinct the swan is called hamsah in Sanskrit
Atman, called jivatman. The concept of jiva is true only in the pragmatic level. In the (which becomes hamso if the first letter
in the next word is /h/). Upon repeating
transcendental level, only the one Atman, equal to Brahman, is true.
this hamso indefinitely, it becomes so-
tman is not a part of Brahman that ultimately dissolves into Brahman, but identical with aham, meaning, "I am That". Second,
just as a swan lives in water but its
Brahman. The characteristics of Atman are Consciousness, Reality and Bliss.
feathers are not soiled by water,
Atman, being the silent witness of all the modifications, is free and beyond sin and merit. It similarly a liberated Advaitin lives in this
world full of maya but is untouched by
does not experience happiness or pain because it is beyond the triad of Experiencer,
its illusion.
Experienced and Experiencing. It does not do any Karma because it is Aaptakaama. It is
incorporeal and independent.
Moksha liberation through knowledge of atman [edit]

Main article: Moksha
The aim of Advaita Vedanta is liberation, by knowledge of the identity of atman and Brahman. According to Adi ankara, knowledge
of Brahman springs from inquiry into the sacred texts of the Upanishads, Bhagavad Gita and Brahma Sutras. It is obtained by
following the four stages of samanyasa (self-cultivation), sravana, listening to the teachings of the sages, Manana, reflection on the
teachings, and Dhyana, contemplation of the truth "that art Thou".
Pururtha Chief aims of human life [edit]
Indian philosophy emphasises that "every acceptable philosophy should aid man in realising the Purusarthas, the chief aims of
human life:[154]
Dharma: the right way to life, the "duties and obligations of the individual toward himself and the society as well as those of the
society toward the individual";[155]
Artha: the means to support and sustain one's life;
Kma: pleasure and enjoyment;
Moka: liberation, release.
According to Puligandla:
Any philosophy worthy of its title should not be a mere intellectual exercise but should have practical application in
enabling man to live an enlightened life. A philosophy which makes no difference to the quality and style of our life is no
philosophy, but an empty intellectual construction.[156]
Advaita Vedanta gives an elaborate path to attain moksha. It entails more than self-inquiry or bare insight into one's real nature.
Practice, especially Jnana Yoga, is needed to "destroy one's tendencies (vAasanA-s)" before real insight can be attained.[web 22]
Identity of Atman and Brahman [edit]

See also Jnana, Prajna and Prajnam Brahma
Moksha is attained by realizing the identity of Atman and Brahman. According to Potter,
8. The true Self is itself just that pure consciousness, without which nothing can be known in any way.
9. And that same true Self, pure consciousness, is not different from the ultimate world Principle, Brahman ...
11. ... Brahman (=the true Self, pure consciousness) is the only Reality (sat), since It is untinged by difference, the
mark of ignorance, and since It is the one thing that is not sublimatable.[11]
"Pure consciousness" is the translation of jnanam.[10] Although the common translation of jnanam [10] is "consciousness", the term
has a broader meaning of "knowing"; "becoming acquainted with",[web 2] "knowledge about anything",[web 2] "awareness",[web 2]
"higher knowledge".[web 2]
"Brahman" too has a broader meaning than "pure consciousness". According to Paul Deussen,[12] Brahman is:
Satyam, "the true reality, which, however, is not the empirical one
Jnam, "Knowledge which, however, is not split into the subject and the object"
anantam, "boundless or infinite"
According to David Loy,
The knowledge of Brahman ... is not intuition of Brahman but itself is Brahman.[157]
The same nuance can be found in satcitananda, the qualities of Brahman, which are usually translated as "Eternal Bliss
Consciousness",[158] "Absolute Bliss Consciousness",[web 44] or "Consisting of existence and thought and joy".[web 45] Satcitananda is
composed of three Sanskrit words:
sat (present participle); [Sanskrit root as, "to be"]:[citation needed] "Truth",[note 37] "Absolute Being",[web 44] "a palpable force of
virtue and truth".[159] Sat describes an essence that is pure and timeless, that never changes.[web 44]
cit (noun): "consciousness",[web 44] "true consciousness",[citation needed] "to be consciousness of",[160] "to understand",[160] "to
comprehend".[160]
nanda (noun): "bliss",[web 44] "true bliss",[citation needed] "happiness",[web 46] "joy",[web 46] "delight",[web 46] "pleasure"[web 46]
This knowledge is intuitive knowledge, a spontaneous type of knowing[161][note 38], as rendered in the prefix pra of prajnanam
Brahman,
Jivanmukta Liberation [edit]
Advaitins believe that suffering is due to Maya (also known as Mithya or Vaitathya). Only knowledge of Brahman can destroy Maya.
At the relative plane Jiva and Iswara "are regarded as different from and of a lower order of reality than the original consciousness
that is the absolutely real (paaramaarthika) Brahman".[web 50] When Maya is removed, the truth of "Brahma Satyam Jagan Mithya
Jivo Brahmaiva Na Aparah" is realised:[web 51]
Brahman (the Absolute) is alone real; this world is unreal; the Jiva or the individual soul is non-different from
Brahman.[web 51]
Such a state of bliss when achieved while living is called Jivanmukta.[162]
Mahavakya The Great Sentences [edit]

Main article: Mahvkyas
The Mahavakya, or "the great sentences", remind us of the unity of Brahman and Atman,[citation needed] or "the inner immortal self
and the great cosmic power are one and the same".[163] There are many such sentences in the Vedas, however only one such
sentence from each of the four Vedas is usually chosen.
Sr. No. Vakya Meaning Upanishad Veda
1 (pragnam brahma) Prajnam [note 39] is Brahman[note 40] Aitareya V.3 Rgveda
2. (aham brahmsmi) I am Brahman, or I am Divine[168] Brhadranyaka I.4.10 Shukla Yajurveda
3. (tat tvam asi) That thou art Chandogya VI.8.7 Samaveda
4. (ayamtm brahma) This Atman is Brahman Mandukya II Atharvaveda
Means to liberation [edit]
Necessity of a Guru [edit]

See also: Guru-shishya tradition
Guidance of a Guru [edit]

According to ankara and others, anyone seeking to follow the philosophy of Advaita Vednta must do so under the guidance of a
Guru (teacher).[169] It is the teacher who through exegesis of Sruti and skilful handling of words generates a hitherto unknown
knowledge in the disciple. The teacher does not merely provide stimulus or suggestion.[170]
Qualities of the Guru [edit]
The Guru must have the following qualities (see Mundaka Upanishad 1.2.12):
1. rotriya must be learned in the Vedic scriptures and Sampradaya

2. Brahmanih literally meaning 'established in Brahman'; must have realised the oneness of Brahman in everything, and
in himself/herself.
The seeker must serve the Guru, and submit questions with all humility in order to remove all doubts (see Bhagavad Gita 4.34). By
doing so, Advaita says, the seeker will attain Moksha ('liberation from the cycle of births and deaths').
Ways to liberation [edit]
Practice, especially Jnana Yoga, is needed to "destroy one's tendencies (vAasanA-s)" before real insight can be attained.[web 22]
Jnana Yoga Four stages of practice [edit]

Main article: Jnana Yoga
Classical Advaita Vedanta emphasises the path of Jnana Yoga, a progression of study and training to attain moksha. It consists of
four stages:[171][web 54]
Samanyasa or Sampattis,[172] the "fourfold discipline" (sdhana-catustaya), cultivating the following four qualities:[171][web 55]
Nitynitya vastu viveka ( ) The ability (viveka) to correctly discriminate between the eternal (nitya)
substance (Brahman) and the substance that is transitory existence (anitya).
Ihmutrrtha phala bhoga virga ( ) The renunciation (virga) of enjoyments of objects (artha phala
bhoga) in this world (iha) and the other worlds (amutra) like heaven etc.
amdi atka sampatti ( ) the sixfold qualities,
ama (control of the antahkaraa).[web 56]
Dama (the control of external sense organs).
Uparati (the cessation of these external organs so restrained, from the pursuit of objects other than that, or it may mean
the abandonment of the prescribed works according to scriptural injunctions).[note 41]
Titika (the tolerating of tpatraya).
raddha (the faith in Guru and Vedas).
Samdhna (the concentrating of the mind on God and Guru).
Mumukutva ( ) The firm conviction that the nature of the world is misery and the intense longing for moksha
(release from the cycle of births and deaths).
Sravana, listening to the teachings of the sages on the Upanishads and Advaita Vedanta, and studying the Vedantic texts, such
as the Brahma Sutras. In this stage the student learns about the reality of Brahman and the identity of atman;
Manana, the stage of reflection on the teachings;
Dhyana, the stage of meditation on the truth "that art Thou".
Bhakti Yoga and Karma Yoga [edit]
The paths of Bhakti Yoga and Karma Yoga are subsidiary to jnana yoga
Bhakti Yoga [edit]

Main article: Bhakti
In Bhakti Yoga, practice centres on the worship God in any way and in any form, like Krishna or Ayyappa. Adi Shankara himself was
a proponent of devotional worship or Bhakti. But Adi Shankara taught that while Vedic sacrifices, puja and devotional worship can
lead one in the direction of jnana (true knowledge), they cannot lead one directly to moksha. At best, they can serve as means to
obtain moksha via shukla gati.[citation needed]
Karma Yoga [edit]

Main article: Karma yoga
Karma yoga is the way of doing our duties, in disregard of personal gains or losses. According to Sri Swami Sivananda,
Karma Yoga is consecration of all actions and their fruits unto the Lord. Karma Yoga is performance of actions dwelling
in union with the Divine, removing attachment and remaining balanced ever in success and failure.
Karma Yoga is selfless service unto humanity. Karma Yoga is the Yoga of action which purifies the heart and prepares
the Antahkarana (the heart and the mind) for the reception of Divine Light or attainment if Knowledge of the Self. The
important point is that you will have to serve humanity without any attachment or egoism.[web 57]
Epistemology Ways of knowing [edit]

See also: Epistemology
Epistemology (from Greek (epistm), meaning "knowledge, understanding", and (logos), meaning "study of") is the
branch of philosophy concerned with the nature and scope (limitations) of knowledge.
Pramas Correct knowledge [edit]

Main article: Pramana
Pramna, (sources of knowledge, Sanskrit ), refers to the correct knowledge, arrived at by thorough reasoning, of any object.
Pramt, Prama and Prameya [edit]
Prama forms one part of a tripui (trio), namely,
1. Pramt, the subject; the knower of the knowledge

2. Prama, the cause or the means of the knowledge
3. Prameya, the object of knowledge
Six pramas [edit]
In Advaita Vednta,[173] as in the Bha school of Mims, the following pramas are accepted:
1. Pratyaka (perception), the knowledge gained by means of the senses. That which is immediately perceived to be so; This
knowledge can be corrected, e.g. if one perceives a piece of rope to be a snake.
2. Anumna (inference), the knowledge gained by means of inference. That which is perceived as true through previous
knowledge, e.g. to knows that it is a fire because smoke can be seen in the sky (the two are related through a universal law)
3. abda (verbal testimony), the knowledge gained by means of texts such as Vedas (also known as ptavkya, abda
prama)
4. Upamna (comparison), the knowledge gained by means of analogy or comparison. That which is perceived as true since it
compares to previous, confirmed, knowledge. To know that something is something, e.g. a cat, because one has seen cats
before.
5. Arthpatti (postulation), the knowledge gained by superimposing the known knowledge on an appearing knowledge that
does not concur with the known knowledge. I.e. To see someone gain weight while knowing they are fasting, imposes the
knowledge that the person is secretly eating.
6. Anupaladbhi (negation), the knowledge gained through the absence of the object. That which is true through a negation.
Classic e.g. karatale ghato nasti the pot is not on the palm. The pot could be elsewhere. So the place (on the palm) of its
absence is also important.
Perception, inference and verbal testimony have the same meaning as in the Nyaya-school. Regarding comparison, postulation and
non-cognition Advaita Vedanta views which somewhat differ from the Nyaya-school.[173]
Sruti and anubhava - canonical texts and personal experience [edit]
According to a common interpretation, Shankara emphasizes the role of personal experience (anubhava) in ascertaining the validity
of knowledge. Anantanand Rambachan quotes several modern interpretators in defence of this interpretation, especially
Radakrishnan.[174] Yet, according to Rambacham himself, sruti is the main source of knowledge for Shankara.[175]
According to Swami Dayananda Saraswati, anubhava has a more specific meaning than "experience", namely "direct knowledge".
Interpreting anubahva as "experience" may lead to a misunderstanding of Advaita Vedanta, and a mistaken rejection of the study of
the scriptures as mere intellectual understanding. Stressing the meaning of anubhava as knowledge, Saraswati makes clear that
liberation comes from knowledge, not from mere experience.[note 42] Saraswati points out that "the experience of the self ... can
never come because consciousness is ever-present, in and through each and every experience."[web 58]
According to Hirst, anubhava is the "non-dual realisation gained from the scriptures", which "provides the sanction and paradigm for
proper reasoning", when interpreted by a self-realized Advaitin teacher.[176] This "knowledge of Brahman, is identical with that self
which is to be known as witness, not as object".[176]
Davis translates anubhava as "direct intuitive understanding".[177] And according to Comans, Shankara uses anubhava
interchangeably with pratipatta, "understanding".[note 42]
Criterion of Sublation [edit]

See also: Aufheben
Sublation is replacement of a "truth" by a higher "truth", until no higher truth can be found. Shankara uses sublatibility as the
criterion for the ontological status of any content of consciousness:[178]
Sublition is essentially the mental process of correcting and rectifying errors of judgement. Thus one is said to sublate a
previous held judgment when, in the light of a new experience which contradicts it, one either regards the judgment as
false or disvalues it in some significant sense ... Not only judgment but also concepts, objects, relations, and in general
any content of consciousness can be sublated.[179]
Ontology The nature of being [edit]

See also: Substance ontology, Substance theory and substance ontology
Ontology is the philosophical study of the nature of being, existence, or reality, as well as the basic categories of being and their
relations.
Advaita Vedanta is a so-called substance ontology, an ontology "which holds that underlying the seeming change, variety, and
multiplicity of existence there are unchanging and permanent entities (the so-called substances)".[180] In contrast, Buddhism is a
process ontology, according to which "there exists nothing permanent and unchanging, within or without man".[181][note 43]
Three Levels of Reality [edit]

See also: Two truths doctrine
Advaita took over from the Madhyamika the idea of levels of reality.[183] Usually two levels are being mentioned,[184] but Shankara
uses sublation as the criterion to postulate an ontological hierarchy of three levels:[185][web 59]
Pramrthika (paramartha, absolute), the absolute level, "which is absolutely real and into which both other reality levels can be
resolved".[web 59] This experience can't be sublated by any other experience.[185]
Vyvahrika (vyavahara), or samvriti-saya[184] (empirical or pragmatical), "our world of experience, the phenomenal world that
we handle every day when we are awake".[web 59] It is the level in which both jiva (living creatures or individual souls) and Iswara
are true; here, the material world is also true.
Prthibhsika (pratibhasika, apparent reality, unreality), "reality based on imagination alone".[web 59] It is the level in which
appearances are actually false, like the illusion of a snake over a rope, or a dream.
Brahman [edit]
Main articles: Brahman and Nirguna Brahman
Absolute Truth [edit]
Brahman is Paramarthika Satyam, "Absolute Truth".[186] It is
the true Self, pure consciousness ... the only Reality (sat), since It is untinged by difference, the mark of ignorance, and
since It is the one thing that is not sublatable".[11]
"Brahman" has a broader meaning than "pure consciousness". According to Paul Deussen,[12] Brahman is:
Satyam, "the true reality, which, however, is not the empirical one"
Other than Brahman, everything else, including the universe, material objects and individuals, are maya. Brahman is absolute
reality, unborn and unchanging.[citation needed] According to Advaita Vedanta, consciousness is not a property of Brahman but its very
nature. In this respect Advaita Vedanta differs from other Vedanta schools.[web 60]
Brahman is the Self-existent, the Absolute and the Imperishable. Brahman is indescribable. It is at best Satchidananda, Infinite
Truth, Infinite Consciousness and Infinite Bliss.
Brahman is free from any kind of differences or differentiation. It does not have any sajtya (homogeneous) differentiation because
there is no second Brahman. It does not have any vijtya (heterogeneous) differentiation because there is nobody in reality existing
other than Brahman. It has neither svagata (internal) differences, because Brahman is itself homogeneous.
Brahman is often described as neti neti, "not this, not this" since Brahman cannot be correctly described as this or that.
Atman [edit]
Due to avidya, atman is covered by sheaths, or bodies, which hide man's true nature.
Koshas [edit]
See also: Kosha
According to the Taittiriya Upanishad, the Atman is covered by five koshas, usually rendered "sheath".[web 61] They are often
visualised like the layers of an onion:
According to the Kosha system in Yogic philosophy, the nature of being human encompasses physical and
psychological aspects that function as one holistic system. The Kosha system refers to these different aspects as
layers of subjective experience. Layers range from the dense physical body to the more subtle levels of emotions, mind
and spirit. Psychology refers to the emotional, mental and spiritual aspects of our being. Together, all aspects make up
our subjective experience of being alive.[187]
From gross to fine the five sheets are:
1. Annamaya kosha, food-apparent-sheath

2. Pranamaya kosha, air-apparent-sheath
3. Manomaya kosha, mind-stuff-apparent-sheath
4. Vijnanamaya kosha, wisdom-apparent-sheath
5. Anandamaya kosha, bliss-apparent-sheath (Ananda)
According to Vedanta the wise man should discriminate between the self and the koshas, which are non-self.
Avasthtraya Three states of consciousness [edit]

See also: Sarira (Vedanta)
Adi Shankara discerned three states of consciousness, based on the Mandukya Upanishad, namely waking (jgrat), dreaming
(svapna), and deep sleep (suupti),[web 62][web 63] which correspond to the three bodies:[188]
1. The first state is the waking state, in which we are aware of our daily world. "It is described as outward-knowing (bahish-
prajnya), gross (sthula) and universal (vaishvanara)".[web 63] This is the gross body.
2. The second state is the dreaming mind. "It is described as inward-knowing (antah-prajnya), subtle (pravivikta) and burning
(taijasa)".[web 63] This is the subtle body.
3. The third state is the state of deep sleep. In this state the underlying ground of concsiousness is undistracted, "the Lord of all
(sarv'-eshvara), the knower of all (sarva-jnya), the inner controller (antar-yami), the source of all (yonih sarvasya), the origin
and dissolution of created things (prabhav'-apyayau hi bhutanam)".[web 63] This is the causal body.
4. A fourth state is Turiya, pure consciousness. It is the background that underlies and transcends the three common states of
consciousness.[web 64][web 65] In this consciousness both absolute and relative, Saguna Brahman and Nirguna Brahman, are
transcended.[189] It is the true state of experience of the infinite (ananta) and non-different (advaita/abheda), free from the
dualistic experience which results from the attempts to conceptualise ( vipalka) reality.[190] It is the state in which ajativada,
non-origination, is apprehended.[190]
Empirical reality [edit]
My [edit]
Main articles: My (Hinduism) and My
According to Adi Shankara, My (/mj/) is the complex illusionary power of Brahman which causes the Brahman to be seen as
the material world of separate forms. Its shelter is Brahman, but Brahman itself is untouched by the illusion of My, just as a
magician is not tricked by his own magic.
All sense data entering ones awareness via the five senses are My. My is neither completely real nor completely unreal, hence
indescribable. My is temporary and is transcended with "true knowledge", or perception of the more fundamental reality which
permeates My.
My has two main functions:
1. To "hide" Brahman from ordinary human perception,

2. To present the material world in its (Brahmam) place.
Swami Vivekananda explains the concept of My as follows:
My of the Vedanta, in its last developed form, is neither Idealism nor Realism, nor is it a theory. It is a simple
statement of factswhat we are and what we see around us ...
What does the statement of existence of the world mean then? ... It means that it has no absolute existence. It exists
only in relation to my mind, to your mind and to the mind of everyone else ... We have to work in and through it. It is a
mixture of existence and non-existence ... There is neither how nor why in fact; we only know it is and that we can not
help it ... The very basis of our being is contradiction.[191]
The world is unreal and real [edit]
The world is both unreal and real. but something can't be both true and false at the same time; hence Adi Shankara has classified
the world as indescribable.
Adi Sankara says that the world is not real (true), it is an illusion. Adi Sankara gives the following reasoning:[192]
Whatever thing remains eternal is true, and whatever is non-eternal is untrue. Since the world is created and destroyed, it is not
real (true).
Truth is the thing which is unchanging. Since the world is changing, it is not real (false).
Whatever is independent of space and time is real (true), and whatever has space and time in itself is not real (false).
Just as one sees dreams in sleep, he sees a kind of super-dream when he is waking. The world is compared to this conscious
dream.
The world is believed to be a superimposition of the Brahman. Superimposition cannot be real (true).
Adi Sankara also claims that the world is not absolutely unreal (false). It appears unreal (false) only when compared to Brahman. At
the empirical or pragmatic level, the world is completely real:[193]
If the world were unreal (false), then with the liberation of the first living being, the world would have been annihilated. However,
the world continues to exist even if a living being attains liberation. But, it is possible that no living being attained the ultimate
knowledge (liberation) till now.
Adi Sankara believes in karma, or good actions. This is a feature of this world. So the world cannot be unreal (false).
The Supreme Reality Brahman is the basis of this world. The world is like its reflection. Hence the world cannot be totally unreal
(false).
False is something which is ascribed to nonexistent things, like Sky-lotus. The world is a logical thing, a fact which is perceived
by our senses and exists but is not the truth.
The world being both unreal and real is explained by the following. A pen is placed in front of a mirror. One can see its reflection. To
one's eyes, the image of the pen is perceived. Now, what should the image be called? It cannot be true, because it is an image. The
truth is the pen. It cannot be false, because it is seen by our eyes.
Status of ethics [edit]
Some claim that there is no place for ethics in Advaita, "that it turns its back on all theoretical and practical considerations of morality
and, if not unethical, is at least 'a-ethical' in character".[194]
Ethics does have a firm place in this philosophy. Ethics, which implies doing good Karma, indirectly helps in attaining true
knowledge.[195] Many Advaitins consider Karma a "necessary fiction".[citation needed] Karma cannot be proven to exist through any of
the Pramas.[note 44] However, to encourage students to strive towards Vidy (spiritual knowledge) and combat Avidy (ignorance),
the idea of Karma is maintained.
Truth, non-violence, service of others, pity, are Dharma, and lies, violence, cheating, selfishness, greed, are adharma (sin).
However, no authoritative definition of Dharma was ever formulated by any of the major exponents of Advaita Vedanta. Unlike
ontological and epistemological claims, there is room for significant disagreement between Advaitins on ethical issues.
Influence of Mahayana Buddhism [edit]
Many authorities from India and elsewhere have noted that Advaita Vedanta shows signs of influence from Mahayana Buddhism.
The Mahayana schools with whom Shankara's Advaita is said to share similarities are the Madhyamaka, founded by Nagarjuna,[196]
and the Yogacara,[197] founded by Vasubandhu[198] and Asanga[199] in the early centuries of the Common Era.
John Grimes writes that while Mahayana Buddhism's influence on Advaita Vedanta has been ignored for most of its history,
scholars now see it as undeniable.[200]
Eliot Deutsch and Rohit Dalvi state:
In any event a close relationship between the Mahayana schools and Vedanta did exist with the latter borrowing some
of the dialectical techniques, if not the specific doctrines, of the former.[201]
S. Mudgal noted that among some traditionalist Indian scholars, it was the accepted view that Shankara
Adopted practically all ... dialectic (of the Buddhists), their methodology, their arguments and analysis, their concepts,
their terminologies and even their philosophy of the Absolute, gave all of them a Vedantic appearance, and demolished
Buddhism ... Sankara embraced Buddhism, but it was a fatal embrace".[202]
This influence goes back at least to Gaudapada:
Gaudapada rather clearly draws from Buddhist philosophical sources for many of his arguments and distinctions and
even for the forms and imagery in which these arguments are cast.[201]
Michael Comans has also demonstrated how Gaudapada, an early Vedantin, utilised some arguments and reasoning from
Madhyamaka Buddhist texts by quoting them almost verbatim.
However, Comans believes there is a fundamental difference between Buddhist thought and that of Gaudapada, in that Buddhism
has as its philosophical basis the doctrine of Dependent Origination, while Gaudapada does not at all rely on this principle.
Gaudapada's Ajativada is an outcome of reasoning applied to an unchanging nondual reality, the fundamental teaching of the
Upanishads.[203]
Advaita-criticisms [edit]
In India, the similarity of Shankara's Advaita to Buddhism was brought up by his rivals from other Vedanta schools, while on the
other hand, Mahayanists such as Bhavyaviveka had to defend themselves from Theravada Buddhist accusations of the Mahayana
doctrine being just another form of Vedantism.[204][note 45][205]
Shankara defended himself against these accusations:
Shankara's criticisms of Buddhism are nevertheless powerful and they exhibit clearly at least how Shankara saw the
difference between Buddhism and his own Vedantic philosophy.[201]
Common core thesis [edit]

See also: Perennial philosophy
Western scholars like N.V. Isaeva state that the Advaita and Buddhist philosophies, after being purified of accidental or historical
accretions, can be safely regarded as different expressions of the same eternal absolute truth.[206] The comparison breaks down, of
course, when one realizes that Gautama the Buddha denied the existence of the Atman whereas Atman is central to Advaita
Vedanta.
Ninian Smart, a historian of religion, noted that the differences between Shankara and Mahayana doctrines are largely a matter of
emphasis and background, rather than essence.[207][note 46]
Relationship with other forms of Vedanta [edit]
The exposition and spread of Advaita by Sankara spurred debate with the two main theistic schools of Vedanta philosophy that
were formalised later: Vishishtadvaita (qualified nondualism), and Dvaita (dualism).
Vishishtadvaita [edit]
Main article: Vishishtadvaita
Yamunacharya, a 10th-century AD proponent of the Vishishtadvaita philosophy that opposed Shankara's Advaita, compared
Advaita to Buddhism and remarked in his Siddhitraya that for both the Buddhists and the Advaitins, the distinctions of knower,
known and knowledge are unreal. The Advaita traces them to Maya, while Buddhist subjectivism traces them to buddhi.[208]
Ramanujacharya, another prominent Vishishtadvaita philosopher, accused Shankara of being a Prachanna Bauddha, that is, a
hidden Buddhist[209]
Dvaita [edit]
Main article: Dvaita
The Dvaita, founded by Madhvacharya (12381317 AD), was partisan to Vaishnavism, building on a cogent system of Vedantic
The Dvaita, founded by Madhvacharya (12381317 AD), was partisan to Vaishnavism, building on a cogent system of Vedantic
interpretation that proceeded to take on Advaita in full measure. Madhvacharya's student Narayana, in his Madhvavijaya, a
hagiography of Madhva, characterised Madhva and Shankara as born-enemies, and describes Shankara as a "demon born on
earth".[210] Surendranath Dasgupta noted that some Madhva mythology went so far as to characterise the followers of Shankara as
"tyrannical people who burned down monasteries, destroyed cattle and killed women and children".[211]
List of teachers [edit]
Main article: List of teachers of Advaita Vedanta
Advaita Vedanta has had many teachers over the centuries in many different countries.
See also [edit]
Cause and effect in Advaita Vedanta

Shri Gaudapadacharya Math
Kashmir Shaivism an unrelated Hindu monistic / nondual school
Sringeri matha
Adhyatma Prakasha Karyalaya a non-profit organisation dedicated to Advaita Vedanta
Shastra Nethralaya
Notes [edit]
[dait ednt], literally, not-two

1. ^ IAST Advaita Vednta; Sanskrit:
2. ^ Literally: end or the goal of the Vedas.
3. ^ Although the common translation of jnanam[10] is "consciousness", the term has a broader meaning of "knowing"; "becoming
acquainted with", [web 2] "knowledge about anything", [web 2] "awareness", [web 2] "higher knowledge". [web 2] See also jnana, prajna and
Prajnam Brahma.
4. ^ "Brahman" too has a broader meaning than "pure consciousness". According to Paul Deussen, [12] Brahman is:
Satyam, "the true reality, which, however, is not the empirical one
See also satcitananda.
5. ^ "Brahman" is not to be confused with Brahma, the Creator and one third of the Trimurti along with Shiva, the Destroyer and Vishnu, the
Preserver.
6. ^ Nevertheless, Balasubramanian argues that since the basic ideas of the Vedanta systems are derived from the Vedas, the Vedantic
philosophy is as old as the Vedas. [20]
7. ^ Flood & Olivelle: "The second half of the first millennium BCE was the period that created many of the ideological and institutional
elements that characterize later Indian religions. The renouncer tradition played a central role during this formative period of Indian
religious history....Some of the fundamental values and beliefs that we generally associate with Indian religions in general and Hinduism
in particular were in part the creation of the renouncer tradition. These include the two pillars of Indian theologies: samsara - the belief
that life in this world is one of suffering and subject to repeated deaths and births (rebirth); moksa/nirvana - the goal of human
existence....." [25]
8. ^ Bharthari (c.450500), Upavarsa (c.450500), Bodhyana (c.500), Tanka (Brahmnandin) (c.500550), Dravida (c.550),
Bhartprapaca (c.550), abarasvmin (c.550), Bhartmitra (c.550600), rivatsnka (c.600), Sundarapndya (c.600), Brahmadatta
(c.600700), Gaudapada (c.640690), Govinda (c.670720), Mandanamira (c.670750). [16]
9. ^ Nakamura notes that there are contradictions in doctrine between the four chapters. [38]
10. ^ It is often used interchangeably with the term citta-mtra, but they have different meanings. The standard translation of both terms is
"consciousness-only" or "mind-only." Several modern researchers object this translation, and the accompanying label of "absolute
idealism" or "idealistic monism". [45] A better translation for vijapti-mtra is representation-only. [46]
11. ^ 1. Something is. 2. It is not. 3. It both is and is not. 4. It neither is nor is not. [web 4][47]
12. ^ The influence of Mahayana Buddhism on other religions and philosophies was not limited to Vedanta. Kalupahana notes that the
Visuddhimagga contains "some metaphysical speculations, such as those of the Sarvastivadins, the Sautrantikas, and even the
Yogacarins". [49]
13. ^ "An" means "not", or "non"; "utpda" means "genesis", "coming forth", "birth" [web 5] Taken together "anutpda" means "having no
origin", "not coming into existence", "not taking effect", "non-production". [web 6] The Buddhist tradition usually uses the term "anutpda"
for the absence of an origin[51][53] or sunyata. [54] The term is also used in the Lankavatara Sutra. [55] According to D.T Suzuki,
"anutpada" is not the opposite of "utpada", but transcends opposites. It is the seeing into the true nature of existence, [56] the seeing that
"all objects are without self-substance". [57]
14. ^ "A" means "not", or "non" as in Ahimsa, non-harm; "jti" means "creation" or "origination; [58] "vda" means "doctrine" [58]
15. ^ Sanskrit: , r Sansthna Gauapadcrya Maha
a b
16. ^ The term "mayavada" is still being used, in a critical way, by the Hare Krshnas. See [web 7] [web 8] [web 9] [web 10]
17. ^ Nicholson: "The Brahmasutras themselves espouse the realist Parinamavada position, which appears to have been the view most
common among early Vedantins." [64]
18. ^ B.N.K. Sharma: "[H]ow difficult he himself found the task of making the Sutras yield a Monism of his conception, is proved by the
artificiality and parenthetical irrelevance of his comments in many places, where he seeks to go against the spirit and letter of the Sutras
and their natural drift of arguments and dialectic ... he was fighting with all his might and ingenuity against a long line of realistic
commentaries." [63]
19. ^ After the Vedic period, between 500[69]-200[70] BCE and ca. 300 CE, [69] at the beginning of the "Epic and Puranic" c.q. "Preclassical"
period.
20. ^ These were:
In the east the Pala Empire[76] (7701125 CE [76]),
in the west and north the Gurjara-Pratihara[76] (7th10th century [76]),
in the southwest the Rashtrakuta Dynasty [76] (752973[76]),
in the Dekkhan the Chalukya dynasty [76] (7th8th century [76]),
and in the south the Pallava dynasty [76] (7th9th century [76]) and the Chola dynasty [76] (9th century [76]).
21. ^ This resembles the development of Chinese Chn during the An Lu-shan rebellion and the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period
(907960/979), during which power became decentralised end new Chn-schools emerged. [80]
22. ^ The authorship of this work is disputed. Most 20th-century academic scholars feel it was not authored by Sankara, and Swami
Sacchidanandendra Saraswathi of Holenarsipur concurs. [citation needed]
23. ^ slokrdhena pravaksmi yadukta granthakotibhih, brahma satya jagat mithy, jvo brahmaiva nparah
24. ^ Pande comes to the same conclusion: "Vivekachudamani, whether actually authored by Shankara or not, is traditionally held to voice
his views authentically". [89]
25. ^ Nakamura concludes that Shankara was not the author, for several reasons. [91] Shankara understood Buddhist thought, while the
author of the commentary shows misunderstandings of Buddhist thought. [91] The commentary uses the terms vijnapti and vjnaptimatra,
which is "a uniquely Buddhist usage", [92] and does not appear in Shankara's commentary on the Brahma-sutras. [93] The two
commentaries also quote different Upanishads. [94] Nevertheless, Nakamura also concludes: "Although the commentary to the Madukya
is not actually by sankara, it may be assumed that there is nothing drastically wrong in using it as a source when discussing early
Vedanta philosophy". [91]
26. ^ Neo-Vedanta seems to be closer to Bhedabheda-Vedanta than to Shankara's Advaita Vedanta, with the acknowledgement of the reality
of the world. Nicholas F. Gier: "Ramakrsna, Svami Vivekananda, and Aurobindo (I also include M.K. Gandhi) have been labeled "neo-
Vedantists," a philosophy that rejects the Advaitins' claim that the world is illusory. Aurobindo, in his The Life Divine, declares that he
has moved from Sankara's "universal illusionism" to his own "universal realism" (2005: 432), defined as metaphysical realism in the
European philosophical sense of the term." [139]
27. ^ Marek: "Wobei der Begriff Neo-Advaita darauf hinweist, dass sich die traditionelle Advaita von dieser Strmung zunehmend distanziert,
da sie die Bedeutung der benden Vorbereitung nach wie vor als unumgnglich ansieht. (The term Neo-Advaita indicating that the
traditional Advaita increasingly distances itself from this movement, as they regard preparational practicing still as inevitable)[142]
28. ^ Alan Jacobs: Many firm devotees of Sri Ramana Maharshi now rightly term this western phenomenon as 'Neo-Advaita'. The term is
carefully selected because 'neo' means 'a new or revived form'. And this new form is not the Classical Advaita which we understand to
have been taught by both of the Great Self Realised Sages, Adi Shankara and Ramana Maharshi. It can even be termed 'pseudo'
because, by presenting the teaching in a highly attenuated form, it might be described as purporting to be Advaita, but not in effect
actually being so, in the fullest sense of the word. In this watering down of the essential truths in a palatable style made acceptable and
attractive to the contemporary western mind, their teaching is misleading. [143]
[web 21] [web 22]
29. ^ See for other examples Conway and Swartz
30. ^ Presently cohen has distnced himself from Poonja, and calls his teachings "Evolutionary Enlightenment". [148] What Is Enlightenment,
the magazine published by Choen's organisation, has been critical of neo-Advaita several times, as early as 2001.
See. [web 23][web 24][web 25]
31. ^ Feuerstein's summary, as given here, is not necessarily representative for Feuerstein's thought on Advaita. It is quoted on nonduality-
websites, [web 28] which is informed by the Perennial philosophy and New Age thinking. It is also discerneable in Neo-Advaita. The quote
seems to give a subtle reinterpretation, in which the distinction between Real and maya is replaced by a notion of interconnectedness or
pantheism. The original quote is from Feuerstein's book "The Deeper Dimension of Yoga: Theory and Practice", p. 257258. It is
preceded by the sentence "The esoteric teaching of nonduality Vedantic Yoga or Jnana Yoga can be summarized as follows".
32. ^ Compare Shankara's own words, from his commentary on the Brahman Sutras: " It is obvious that the subject and the object that
is, the Self (Atman) and the Not-Self, which are as different as darkness and light are cannot be identified with each other. It is a
mistake to superimpose upon the subject or Self (that is, the "I," whose nature is consciousness) the characteristics of the object or Not-
"I" (which is non-intelligent), and to superimpose the subject and its attributes on the object. Nonetheless, man has a natural tendency,
rooted in ignorance (avidya), not to distinguish clearly between subject and object, although they are in fact absolutely distinct, but rather
to superimpose upon each the characteristic nature and attributes of the other. This leads to a confusion of the Real (the Self) and the
Unreal (the Not-Self) and causes us to say such [silly] things as "I am that," "That is mine," and so on ... [web 30]
33. ^ See also [web 33]
34. ^ See also [web 34][web 35]
35. ^ See also [web 36][web 37][web 38]
36. ^ See also [web 40][web 41][web 42][web 43][web 39]
37. ^ "Sat is absolute non changing truth." Maharishi Mahesh Yogi[web 44]
38. ^ Compare Radhakrishnan's notion of "intuition". See [web 47][web 48][web 49]
39. ^ "Consciousness", [164][web 52] "intelligence", [165][166] "wisdom" [web 53]
40. ^ "the Absolute", [164][167] "infinite", [167] "the Highest truth" [167]
41. ^ nivartitnmete tadvyatiriktaviayebhya uparamaamuparatirathav vihitn karma vidhin parityga[Vedntasra, 21]
a b
42. ^ Advaita Academy, Experience versus knowledge a brief look at samAdhi (Part 2 of 2)
43. ^ Kalupahana describes how in Buddhism there is also a current which favours substance ontology. Kalupahanan sees Madhyamaka
and Yogacara as reactions against developments toward substance ontology in Buddhism. [182]
44. ^ With the exception of gama, though this is contradicted, subtrated, by the Pramas such as Anumna, Upamna, or Arthpatti
45. ^ King: "In chapter four of his Madhyamakahrdyakarika (on the sravaka-yana), Bhavaviveka puts forward a Sravaka objection to the
Mahayana on the grounds that it is a form of crypto-Vedantism"
46. ^ Ninian Smart is a proponent of the so-called "common core thesis", which states that all forms of mysticism share a common core.
See also [web 66] and [web 67]
References [edit]
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2. ^ Nakamura.
a b
3. ^ Raju 1992.
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4. ^ Roodurmum 2002.
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a bc
7. ^ Nakamura 2004, p. 211.
a bc
8. ^ Nakamura 2004, p. 680.
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9. ^ Nakamura 2004, p. 691.
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a bc de fghi j
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18. ^ Deutsch 2004, p. 95-96.
19. ^ Balasubramanian 2000, p. xxx.
20. ^ Balasubramanian 2000, p. xxix.
21. ^ Balasubramanian 2000, p. xxxxxxi.
22. ^ Deutsch 2004, p. 95.
23. ^ Samuel 2010, p. 8.
24. ^ Svarghese 2008, p. 259-60.
a b
25. ^ Flood & Olivelle 2003, p. 273-274.
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a b
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a b
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59. ^ King 1995, p. 128-130, 140.
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61. ^ Shri Gowdapadacharya & Shri Kavale Math (A Commemoration volume). p. 10.
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66. ^ Michaels 2004, p. 41-43.
67. ^ a b Michaels 2004, p. 40-41.
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70. ^ Larson 2009.
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Further reading [edit]
History
Nakamura, Hajime (1990), A History of Early Vedanta Philosophy. Part One, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private
Limited
Nakamura, Hajime (2004), A History of Early Vedanta Philosophy. Part Two, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private
Limited
Potter, Karl H. (1981), Advaita Vedanta up to Sankara and his Pupils: Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, vol. 3, Princeton:
Princeton University Press
Comans, Michael (2000), The Method of Early Advaita Vednta: A Study of Gauapda, akara, Surevara, and Padmapda,
Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass
Introductions
Eliot Deutsch, Advaita Vedanta: a philosophical reconstruction, East-West Center Press, Honolulu, 1969
Kokileswar Sastri, An introduction to Adwaita philosophy: a critical and systematic exposition of the Sankara school of Vedanta,
Bharatiya Publishing House, Varanasi, 1979.
M. K. Venkatarama Aiyar, Advaita Vedanta, according to Sankara, Asia Publishing House, New York, 1965.
Ayyar, Krishnan, Introduction to Advaita Vedanta
Source books
Eliot Deutsch and J. A. B. van Buitenen, A source book of Advaita Vedanta, University Press of Hawaii, Honolulu, 1971.
A. J. Alston, A Samkara source-book, Shanti Sadan, London, 19801989.
Topical studies
Kapil N. Tiwari, Dimensions of renunciation in Advaita Vedanta, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, 1977.
Satyapal Verma, Role of Reason in Sankara Vedanta, Parimal Publication, Delhi, 1992.
Arvind Sharma, The philosophy of religion and Advaita Vedanta: a comparative study in religion and reason, Pennsylvania State
University Press, 1995.
Sangam Lal Pandey, The Advaita view of God, Darshana Peeth, Allahabad, 1989.
Adya Prasad Mishra, The development and place of bhakti in Sankaran Vedanta, University of Allahabad, 1967.
Shankara
Elayath. K. N. Neelakantan, The Ethics of Sankara, University of Calicut,1990.* Raghunath D. Karmarkar, Sankara's Advaita,
Karnatak University, Dharwar, 1966.
S. G. Mudgal, Advaita of Sankara, a reappraisal: Impact of Buddhism and Samkhya on Sankara's thought, Motilal Banarsidass,
Delhi,
A. Ramamurti, Advaitic mysticism of Sankara, Visvabharati, Santiniketan, 1974.
Natalia V. Isayeva, Shankara and Indian philosophy, SUNY, New York, 1993.
V. Panoli, Upanishads in Sankara's own words: Isa, Kena, Katha, and Mandukya with the Karika of Gaudapada: with English
translation, explanatory notes and footnotes, Mathrubhumi, Calicut, 19911994.
Sringeri Sharada Peetham
Madhava Vidyaranya, Sankara-Digvijaya, translated by Swami Tapasyananda, Sri Ramakrishna Math, 2002, ISBN 81-7120-434-
1.
Neo-Advaita
Madhukar, The Simplest Way, Editions India, USA & India 2006, ISBN 81-89658-04-2
Madhukar, Erwachen in Freiheit, Lchow Verlag, German, 2.Edition, Stuttgart 2004, ISBN 3-363-03054-1
Indian languages
Mishra, M., Bhratya Darshan ( ), Kal Prakshan.

Sinha, H. P., Bharatiya Darshan ki ruparekha (Features of Indian Philosophy), 1993, Motilal Benarasidas, DelhiVaranasi.
Swmi Paramnanda Bhrati, Vednta Prabodha (in Kannada), Jnnasamvardhini Granthakusuma, 2004
Contemporary criticism
Rao, Srinivasa (2011), Advaita: A Contemporary Critique , Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-807981-1
External links [edit]
Advaita Vedanta at DMOZ
v t e Hinduism topics [show]
v t e Indian philosophy [show]
Categories: Vedanta Advaitin philosophers Indian philosophy Hindu philosophical concepts Philosophical traditions
Philosophical schools and traditions Ancient philosophical schools and traditions Monism Mysticism Transtheism
Advaita Vedanta Nondualism
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2.1 Early influence

History of Advaita Vedanta [edit]

Pre-Shankara Vedanta [edit]

Earliest Vedanta [edit]

Bdaryana's Brahma Sutras [edit]

Between BrahmaSutras and Shankara [edit]

Mukya Krik [edit]

Buddhist influences [edit]

Shri Gaudapadacharya Math [edit]

Adi Shankara [edit]

Late-Classical Hinduism [edit]

Philosophical system [edit]

In half a couplet I state, what has been stated by scores of texts;

According to Sringeri Math, Shankara's message can be summarised even shorter:

Advaita Vedanta sub-schools [edit]

Later developments [edit]

Early influence [edit]

Advaita Mathas [edit]

Shankara, himself considered to be an incarnation of Shiva,[web 1] established the

Smarta Tradition [edit]

Unifying Hinduism [edit]

Contemporary popularization [edit]

Indian nationalism and Hindu Universalism [edit]

Vivekenanda's modernisation has been criticised:

Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan [edit]

See also: Works of Adi Shankara

Textual authority [edit]

Prasthnatray Three standards [edit]

1. The Upanishads, known as Upadesha prasthna (injunctive texts), (part of ruti)

1. Brahmasiddhi by Mandana Mishra (750850),

Introductory texts [edit]

Ashtavakra Samhita (pre-Sankara), with traces of Advaitism.[note 33]

Modern texts [edit]

Main article: Hindu philosophy

True Self [edit]

Moksha liberation through knowledge of atman [edit]

Pururtha Chief aims of human life [edit]

Identity of Atman and Brahman [edit]

According to David Loy,

Jivanmukta Liberation [edit]

Such a state of bliss when achieved while living is called Jivanmukta.[162]

Mahavakya The Great Sentences [edit]

Sr. No. Vakya Meaning Upanishad Veda

2. (aham brahmsmi) I am Brahman, or I am Divine[168] Brhadranyaka I.4.10 Shukla Yajurveda

3. (tat tvam asi) That thou art Chandogya VI.8.7 Samaveda

4. (ayamtm brahma) This Atman is Brahman Mandukya II Atharvaveda

Means to liberation [edit]

Necessity of a Guru [edit]

Guidance of a Guru [edit]

Qualities of the Guru [edit]

1. rotriya must be learned in the Vedic scriptures and Sampradaya

Ways to liberation [edit]

Jnana Yoga Four stages of practice [edit]

Bhakti Yoga and Karma Yoga [edit]

Bhakti Yoga [edit]

Karma Yoga [edit]

Epistemology Ways of knowing [edit]

Pramas Correct knowledge [edit]

Pramt, Prama and Prameya [edit]

Prama forms one part of a tripui (trio), namely,

1. Pramt, the subject; the knower of the knowledge