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Early Man in the New World: A survey of the archaeological evidence suggests that a number
of specialized tool complexes were widely distributed in the Americas before 12,000 years ago
Author(s): Richard S. MacNeish
Source: American Scientist, Vol. 64, No. 3 (May-June 1976), pp. 316-327
Published by: Sigma Xi, The Scientific Research Society
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Richards.MacNeish Early Man in the New World
A survey of the archaeological evidence suggests
that a number of specialized tool complexes were
widely distributed in theAmericas before 12,000
years ago

The peopling of the New World An important feature of the theory is discernible human activity of these
how and when itbegan and what may the "invisibility" of the Paleoindians early men is their subsistence pat
have been its consequences-is a as they proceeded southward. The terns. Thus, the stages to some degree
question of great interest to ar paucity of sites where human artifacts represent a classification of subsis
chaeologists and prehistorians. Be are found in association with mam tence systems, showing a general ev
cause of the scarcity of evidence, some moth kills-such sites might lend olutionary development (Nelken
controversial hypotheses have been credence to the model-is not only Terner and MacNeish, in press).
proposed to describe the event. explicable but inevitable, according
Among them is the "overkill" hy to Martin, owing to the thin distri The earliest stage, which is repre
pothesis of Paul S. Martin, most bution of hunters over a vast territory sented in the archaeological record by
thoroughly elucidated in an article in and the rapidity with which they a series of chipped-stone bifacial
Science in 1973 and its logistics re passed. hand-held choppers with sinuous
cently elaborated by means of com sharp edges, chipped cores, unspe
puter simulation by James E. Mosi Often, however, "invisibility" results cialized bifaces, and thick flake
mann and Martin in American Sci from the fact that the observer scrapers and spokeshavelike tools in
entist ("Simulating Overkill by doesn't know how to "see," where to association with a wide variety of
Paleoindians," 63:304-13). Briefly look, or how to understand what he is fauna and probably flora, may rep
stated, Martin's model proposes that looking at. In fact, early man was not resent the remains of peoples who
man, already a highly skilled hunter, quite "invisible" in the New World, were relatively unskilled hunters and
entered the New World in a single and the available archaeological evi gatherers and who possessed a tech
migration only about 12,000 years dence not only fails to support the nology that seems neither very spe
ago; a rapidly expanding population Martin hypothesis but tends to refute cialized nor well adapted for under
then moved swiftly southward, their it.About fiftyexcavated sites (see Fig. taking the food quest and dealing
highly specialized big game-hunting 1) have yielded eleven human skele with its by-products. The people of
subsistence patterns causing the ex tons, more than a thousand artifacts, the second stage were probably also
tinction about 10,000 years ago of the and three times that many bones of unskilled hunters and gatherers, but
resident fauna of large mammals extinct animals. From this evidence by this time the technology is better
such as mastodons, mammoths, we have obtained more than fifty ra adapted to these tasks and includes,
sloths, giant cats, horses, camels, etc. diocarbon determinations earlier besides the older types of imple
than 12,000 years before the present. ments, many specialized unifacial
In this paper I should like to review tools, including drills, spokeshaves,
the existing evidence for early man in end-scrapers, serrated tools (denti
Richard S. MacNeish isDirector of the Robert
S. Peabody Foundation He
North and South America, and to culates), and unifacial projectile
for Archaeology.
has done extensive work on prehistoric occu piece together some of the implica points. The people of Stage II also
pations and cultures in the Canadian arctic, tions from a different perspective. used bone tools, including perfora
the American Southwest and
Manitoba,
tors, scrapers, and projectile points,
Northeast, Kentucky, Illinois, Peru, and
In considering the evidence-which which were oftenmade by using stone
Mexico. Through his fieldwork inMexico at
Vera Cruz, Chiapas, and Puebla, ismeager at best and often very ten burins (slotting tools).
Tamaulipas,
Dr. MacNeish has provided most of the revo tative-it may be useful to divide
lutionary archaeological evidence for the long Paleoindian prehistory into four The people of the third and fourth
of Indian civiliza
general stages of development based stages were apparently more skilled
indigenous development
tions inMexico. His interdisciplinary studies
on tool assemblages (Fig. 2) and fau hunters, who used a series of rela
at Tehuacan, in particular, have given plant
specialists the materials for the continuing
nal remains. Essentially, the stages tively specialized tools both to bring
study of the prehistoric development ofmaize are developed from technological down the large mammals and to uti
and other Mexican is cur
features, for these are what an ar
domesticates. He lize the by-products of this game.
rently engaged in a similar study of the growth
and prehistoric in chaeologist most readily observes in Stage III sees the rise of the technique
of agriculture society
the artifacts and "ecofacts" he un ofmaking bifacial, laurel-leaf-shaped
highland Peru. Address: Robert S. Peabody
Foundation for Archaeology, Box 71, Andover, covers. Technological traits do reflect projectile points, often finely chipped,
MA 01810. human behavior, and themost clearly that may have been attached to lan

316 American Scientist, Volume 64

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ces used by a single hunter or by
groups in game drives. Associated
with these remains are blades
(razor-blade-like prismatic knives),
well-made haftable end-scrapers,
bifacial knives, bone awls and nee
dles, flint burins for working bone,
and other types of tools for working
skin, butchering, and preparing
food-all activities connected with
the remains from a kill.
The highly skilled hunters of the final
stage possessed a tool kit including
many of the same tools, as well as a
whole series of specialized bifacial
projectile points that probably tipped
not only lances but also darts, pro
pelled by atlatls (throwing sticks).
Other specialized tools had been de
veloped for a wide variety of tasks.
Distributions of these specialized
point types and their associated ar
tifact complexes suggest that the
Amerindians of Stage IV had adapted
their hunting techniques and tool kits
to specific large environmental zones
with certain indigenous fauna and
flora that would require slightly dif
ferent food-collecting techniques.
These were the big-game hunters
par excellence! Possibly these stages
reflect movement in the New World,
and at least three of them seem ulti
mately to have come out of northeast
Asia from as yet undefined or poorly
defined areas.
The discussion of each stage will
begin with evidence from the south
ernmost regions and move toward the
north. The reason for this choice is
that the most fruitful sites are in
Latin America.
complexes of the Fen-ho industry and
upper cave culture of Choukoutien in
China. Only time and more investi
gation will tell, but good evidence for
this group will come hard, for popu
lations were very small, the geological
contexts of the original deposits had
many opportunities to be disturbed
and contaminated, and resistance to
this hypothesis by our more conser
vative colleagues will be considerable.
Good evidence for the hypothetical
Stage I comes from two sites: Ayacu
cho, in highland Peru, and Lewisville,
Texas. The best information comes
from the excavations of Pikimachay
Cave near Ayacucho (MacNeish
1971). Important to this discussion
are thematerials from the south room
of this huge, 50-meter-long and 25
meter-deep rocksheiter. Stratified
deposits 1.8-3 m deep were capped by
about 60-90 cm of churned-up refuse
of the ceramic period (i.e. the past
3,000 years) over floors of pre-ceramic
materials going back to about 9,000
years ago, which in turn overlay a
layer up to 1.8 m deep of huge rocks
(some weighing 3 or 4 tons) that had
tumbled down from the cave's roof.
This roof fall, which was of the con
sistency of cement, securely sealed off
the earlier deposits from any possible
later intrusions. The top deposit of
the lower zones seems to be of final
glacial times, according to pollen Ph.D. diss., 1968); the Richmond Hill
analysis and soil studies. It overliesmaterials
two zones, H and HI, which have
been radiocarbon-dated at between crude tools found near Yale, British
13,000 and 16,000 years ago, and
paleontological studies of some 400
bones of extinct animals, pollen from Stage I but probably also in
studies, and analysis of the bricklike
soils themselves suggest that possibly
(MacNeish 1972). Artifacts include
crude large bifacial and slab choppers,
cleavers, hammers, scraping planes,
and crude concave- and convex-sided
unifacial scrapers or spokeshavelike
objects, as well as a single pointed
flake that could have served on a
projectile, and a flake showing blows
from a burin. The cave was appar
ently occupied during brief periods by
hunters and their families, who
probably attacked the 10- to 15
foot-tall giant sloths in their den and
then stayed to butcher and eat the
results of their kill.
In contrast to this rather full assem
blage is the one other that I consider
reliable for this stage: Lewisville. Here
a single pebble chopper, a hammer,
flakes, and burned bone were found
in association with hearths and ex
tinct animals (Crook and Harris
1958). The charcoal and burned bone
were radiocarbon-dated at more than
37,000 years ago, and this date was
confirmed by two UCLA dates for
hearth charcoal of more than 38,000
and more than 40,000 years ago.
Possibly related to these materials are
the crude tools from the earliest level
of the Alice Boer site at Rio Claro,
Brazil (Beltrao 1974); the Hughes
complex of Fort Liard in the North
west Territories of Canada (Millar,
of British Honduras (Pu
leston, lecture MS, 1974); and the
Columbia (Borden 1961). Another,
poorly documented group, possibly
cluding slightly later materials, in
cludes findings from San Isidro I,

The earliest stage they were deposited during glacial Nuevo Leon, Mexico (Epstein 1969);
interstadials or during an ancient Tequixquiac, central Mexico (Avel
Let us begin with the earliest and glacial advance. eyra 1964); and Calico Hills, Califor
therefore the most tentative stage, nia (Simpson 1972). All these tools
which dates tomore than 20,000 years Underneath them are four strata of bear some resemblance to those of the
ago in South America and possibly to earlier glacial epochs which contained well-documented Paccaicasa phase of
more than 40,000 years ago inNorth artifacts ofwhat has been termed the Peru and seem to have been tools of
America. We may guess that migrat Paccaicasa phase, delineated on the the trade of similarly unspecialized
ing bands crossed the Bering Strait basis of about 80 artifacts found in hunters and gatherers of Stage I.
landbridge some 70,000 30,000 association with extinct sloth, horse, Exactly how old they are remains to
years ago and subsequently moved deer, giant cat, and other bones be seen.

southward at a very slow rate. What (MacNeish, Nelken-Terner, and

Stage II
little evidence we have suggests that Garcia Cook 1970). UCLA radiocar
these people were technologically bon dates from all but the earliest
unsophisticated, making mainly zone, confirming the stratigraphy, While the evidence ismeager for the
bifacial tools by percussion. Perhaps were 14,700 1,400 B.P., 16,050 first stage, it is slightly better for the
they were also unskilled as hunters 1,200 B.P., and 19,600 300 B.P.; and second. There are many more dates
almost "collectors" of big game rather an Isotopes, Inc., date of 20,200 from South America ranging from
than hunters-like the people of the 1,000 on a bone from this earliest 12,000 to perhaps as much as 16,000
Lower and Middle Paleolithic of Eu dated stratum verifies the UCLA years ago, while dates from Central
rope and of the chopper-chopping calculation in a striking manner America range from 15,000 to 25,000

1976 May-June 317

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 Table 1. Principal sites providing evidence for the presence of early man in the New World. Site numbers are keyed to Figure 1.

Site and location Date (yrsB.P.) and source Site and location Date (yrsB.P.) and source
Stage 1 :Stone choppers, cleavers, hammers, etc. Stage IV: Specialized bifacial projectile points, well-made scrapers and knives,
1. Pikimachay Cave (Paccaicasa 14,700 1,400-20,200 1,000 many other tools for new subsistence options
phase), Ayacucho, Peru (MacNeish, Nelken-Terner, 36. El Inga, Ecuador 9,030 144 (Bell 1965)
Garcia Cook 1970) 37. Los Toldos Cave, Patagonia before 8,750 -480 (Cardich,
2. Lewisville, Texas 37,000-40,000 (Crook and Harris (Argentina) Cardich, and Hajdak 1973)
1958) 38. Fell's Cave, Patagonia (Chile) 10,720-11,000 (Bird 1946)
3. Alice Boer, Rio Claro, Brazil undated (Beltrao 1974) 39. Pali Aike Cave, Patagonia (Chile) 8,369 400 (Bird 1946)
4. Fort Liard (Hughes complex), undated (Millar 1968) 40. Arica, Chile undated
N.W.T., Canada 41. Tequendama Cave, Bogota, 10,025-10,920 (Correal 1974)
5. Richmond Hill, British Honduras undated (Puleston 1974) Colombia
6. Frazer Canyon, Yale, B.C., Canada undated (Borden 1961) 42. Alice Boer, Rio Claro, Brazil 14,200 (Beltrao 1974)
7. San Isidro, Nuevo Leon, Mexico undated (Epstein 1969) 43. Lagoa Santa Cave, Brazil 9,720 (Hurt and Blasi 1969)
8. Tequixquiac, central Mexico undated (Aveleyra 1964) 44. Las Casitas, western Venezuela undated (Rouse and Cruxent 1963)
9. Calico Hills, California undated (Simpson 1972) 45. Tres Ventanas, central Peru 9,000-10,500 (Engel 1972)
46. Geuitarrero Cave, Peru 9,000-10,500 (Lynch and
Stage ll: Unifacial tools, burins, bone tools Kennedy 1970)
47. Pikimachay Cave (Puente 9,100-10,500(MacNeish,Nelken
10. Pikimachay Cave, Ayacucho, 14,150 180 (MacNeish, Nelken Terner, Garcia Cook 1970)
phase), Avacucho, Peru
Peru Terner, Garcia Cook 1970) 48. Inca Cave, Mendoza undated (Aguerre, Distel, Aschero
11. Los Toldos Cave, Patagonia 12,600 (Cardich, Cardich, Hajdak 1973; Schobinger 1969)
Argentina
(Argentina) 1973) 49. Cueva Negra, Cuenca, 10,010 430 (T. F. Lynch,
12. Valsequillo, Puebla, Mexico 21,850 (Caulapan)Orwin Ecuador pers. comm.)
Williams 1967) 50. Chivateros ll, Lima, Peru 10,400 (Lanning 1967)
13. El Bosque, Nicaragua 22,000* (A. Espinosa 1974) 51. Anafagosta, Chile undated
14. Tlapacoya, Valley of Mexico 23,150, 24,000 (Mirambell 1973) 52. Sambaqui, Brazil undated (Hurt 1974)
15. Tagua-Tagua, Chile 11,300 (Montane 1968) 53. Ajuereado, Tehuacan 9,000-12,000* (MacNeish,
16. Cueva de la Indies, San 10,500-13,100 (Gonzalez and Nelken-Terner, Johnson 1967)
Valley, Mexico
Raphael, Argentina Lagiglia 1973) 54. Valsequillo, Mexico 9,150 (Irwin-Williams, inpress)
17. Guitarrero Cave, Peru 12,560 (Lynch and Kennedy 1970) 55. San Juan del Rio, ca. 10,000* (MacNeish, Nelken
18. El Abra Cave, Bogota, Colombia 12,400 (Hurt et al. 1972) Terner, Johnson 1967)
Queretaro, Mexico
19. Meadocroft Rocksheiter, 13,250-15,120 (Adovasio 56. Lerma, Tamaulipas, Mexico 9,720 (MacNeish 1958)
Pennsylvania et al. 1975) 57. La Calzada, Nuevo Leon, 9,550 130-10,640 210
20. Old Crow, Yukon Terr., 25,750-29,100 (Irving amd Mexico (Epstein 1966)
Canada Harrington 1973) 58. Devil's Mouth, Texas 8,780 310 (Epstein 1966)
21. Dawson City, Yukon Terr., Canada before 39,000* (Harrington 1975) 59. Los Tapiales, Guatemala 10,710 (Gruhn 1973)
22. Santa Rosa Island, California 11,300-29,700 (Orr and Berger 1966) 60. Ventana Cave, Arizona 11,290 500 (Warren 1967)
23. Levi Rocksheiter, Texas before 12,830 175* (Alexander 61. Duchess Quarry, New York State 12,530 (Funk 1972)
1963) 62. Folsom, New Mexico 10,850 550 (Haynes 1965)
24. Fort Liard (McLeod complex), undated (Millar 1968) 63. Debert, Nova Scotia, 10,466 123-11,026 225
N.W.T., Canada Canada (MacDonald 1968)
64. Clovis, New Mexico 9,890 290-11,630 400
Stage III: Burins, blades, well-made end-scrapers, bifacial leaf-points (Haynes 1965)
65. Hell Gap, Colorado 8,600 600-13,060 600
25. Taima-Taima, Venezuela 11,860-14,400 (Bryan 1973) (Irwin 1970)
26. Muaco, Venezuela 9,030-16,375 (Bryan 1973) 66. Plainview, Texas 500 (Haynes 1965)
9,800
27. Cucuruchu, Venezuela undated (Cruxent 1970) 67. Brohm, Ontario, Canada ca. 9,000* (MacNeish 1959)
28. Huanta, Peru 10,400-14,150* (MacNeish, Nelken 68. Great Bear Lake, N.W.T., Canada ca. 9,000* (MacNeish 1964)
Terner, Garcia Cook 1970) 69. Modoc Rocksheiter, Illinois 10,051 650-11,200 800
29. Hueyatlaco (Valsequillo), before 11,000* (Irwin-Wi Ihams (Fowler 1959)
Puebla, Mexico 1967, inpress) 70. Hardaway, North Carolina before 9,000* (Coe 1964)
30. Coxcatlan Cave, Puebla, Mexico before 11,000* (MacNeish 1975) 71. San Dieguito, California 15,000-20,000* (Warren 1967;
31 Wilson Butte Cave, Idaho 14,500 (Gruhn 1965) E. L. Davis Pers. comm.)
32. McGee's Point, Utah 12,500-22,000* (Haynes 1969) 72. Danger Cave, Utah 8,970 150-11,453 600
33. Fort Liard (Klondike com undated (Millar 1968)
(Haynes 1965)
plex), N.W.T., Canada 73. Lind Coulee, Washington
34. Flint Creek-Bedwell complexes
10,800-13,000 (Daugherty 1962)
before 8,450 130 (H. L. 74. Healy Lake, Alaska 11,090 170 (Cook, 1970)
Yukon Terr, and Alaska Alexander, Jr., pers. comm.) 75. Onion Portage, Alaska before 9,857 155 (D. D.
35. Chivateros I, Lima, Peru before 10,400 (Lanning 1967) Anderson, pers. comm.)
*Not directly dated.

years, and the few dates from North increase very slight, and movements ing stone projectile points, denticu
America, from 25,000 to 40,000 years. in the New World extremely slow. lates, end-scrapers, spokeshaves,
The peoples of this stage could con Although no necessary connection is burins, and distinctive bone tools in
ceivably have come across on a land intended, in a general evolutionary cluding projectile points, as well as all
bridge from Asia or developed in way this stage might be roughly the earlier Paccaicasa types of
northern North America some 40,000 compared to the Mousterian of Eu scrapers and choppers. All of these
10,000 years ago. Fair but still in rope or the Ordos industry of China, tool types were found in association
adequate samples suggest that their ofMiddle Paleolithic times. with themany (302 identifiableand
technology emphasized stone flake 215 nonidentifiable) bones of extinct
tools fashioned by percussion and Much of the best evidence for the scelidotherium and megatherium
pressure, as well as the making and second stage comes from Latin sloths, horse (Equus andium), and
use of bone tools. Some of these new America. Again, the Pikimachay Cave camel, as well as with bones ofmod
concepts may have been introduced site at Ayacucho is of central impor ern animals.

by migrants from Asia, after which
older New World complexes may
have assimilated the traits to sup
plement or replace their existing tool
kit. The meager faunal and tool evi
dence seems to indicate a subsistence
based upon hunting of a relatively
unspecialized nature. Populations
seem to have been small, population
tance. Two well-defined strata above
the Paccaicasa remains in the south These unifacial artifacts from Ay
room pertain to this stage. The later acucho seem closely related to the
one, convincingly dated at 14,150 abundant materials, dated about
180 years ago (MacNeish, Nelken 12,600 years ago (Cardich, Cardich,
Terner, and Garcia Cook 1970), con and Hajdak 1973), from the lowest
tained about 133 artifacts, while the levels of Los Toldos Cave inArgenti
earlier zone had about 76. The tools nian Patagonia. Perhaps that date
are predominantly unifacial, includ represents the end point of the com

318 American Scientist, Volume 64

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 _ 34 21 20 68
plex. A third complex with unifacial
75 tools including pointed flakes (per
-s flnllH _ haps projectile points, some of which
have been called Valsequillo knives),
blades, and burins has been identified
4 at many sites in the Valsequillo basin,
-;-ilflH
38
-IH Puebla, Mexico, including the lower
unit of Hueyatlaco. Remains from
24-:-jHjHHHHHHHIHV^ sites at Tescacayco, El
Mirador,
Horno, and Caulapan may also belong
6 to this stage (Irwin-Williams 1967).

73-^HHHHH
66
67 Due to the fact that these well-exe

J||B||M 61 cuted investigations were halted just

22 ^^^^^^^^^^^^^fc 63
69
after they had been begun, the arti
fact assemblage is neither well de
32- ^-
71
-W72 ^^^^^^^^K ^ ^^ I ^B ^r
19 fined nor well dated, but charcoal
wK I ^^ from Caulapan yielded a radiocarbon
determination of 21,850 years ago.
80
06
findings are our best repre
62-'-- These
I ^-- 23
sentatives of Stage II. A number of
'
other possible candidates all leave
56-:-9- much to be desired. For example, A.
Espinosa reported, in a speech at the
5=-^ 1974 Americanist Congress, finding
88
6
-^- 8 chipped stone unifacial implements
from a large fossil bed dated at about
--2^--69 22,000 years ago at the El Bosque site
44 -v
inNicaragua. Also, the Mexican site
27
25 -aaJMMk
?-Tili. of Tlapacoya has yielded C-14 dates
-^HHoH^Httb^ of 23,150 and 24,000 years ago, re
26-^^VH^^HHH^
ported to be in association with ex
18-;-JHHHH^L tinct animals, unifacial artifacts, and
49-^^H|^HHH|HHH^ a fine obsidian blade (Mirambell
36-^???^^??jjjjj^HHjjjj^A 1973). Unfortunately, the archaeolo
46-H^ffiWii^^nBf^MnKiii
17 --
i
gical contexts of these artifacts have
35-^HHHHHHHII^HHII^BK 10 not been adequately described, and
45
-"^IIHHHHHI^HHI^^Hi^^H^ the blade, a better trait of Stage III
so-?-^^^^^^HHH^^H^^^^^^^^^Hk than Stage II, was found in lake de
28-^BHI^HHHHHIII^^^I^HIIIHHi
47-^mB ^^^m lmm^S^m S ^m posits rather than in an occupation

?^ K^^^ Kj^^mHSj^^^m 43
context. Although the dates seem
about right for Stage II, both ar

^HHHHHH^^HH|^K- 42chaeological congeries are so small

that it is impossible to predict
whether, when large samples are
found, they will still be characterized
by unifacial and bone tools only. After
48-W ^^r all, even the assemblages of Stages III
and IV are about 95 percent or more
--16 unifacial.
15-'-m T The same doubt applies to a number
40
-:-O r of other small unifacial assemblages
with C-14 dates that appear too re
.37
38 wm_;__ 11 " cent for inclusion in Stage II. Among
-;-~^HF-
39-?--~ them are the few flake tools from
Tagua-Tagua, Chile, dated at 11,300
years ago (Montane 1968); the few
unifacial tools fromAtuel 2, in Cueva
de la Indies near San Raphael, Ar
Figure 1. The map shows the location ofmajor
sites where remains of early man have been gentina (Gonzalez and Lagiglia 1973),
found in the Western Hemisphere. The dated between 10,500 and 13,100
"stage," or characteristic technology complex,
of each site is indicated by the circular symbols.
years ago; the lowest levels of the in
Site numbers are keyed to Table 1, opposite, adequately analyzed Guitarrero Cave
which summarizes tool complexes, site names, of Peru with a few unifacial tools that
dates, and sources. may be associated with a date of

1976 May-June 319

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 12,560 years ago (Lynch and Kennedy
1970); the flakes from the lower levels
of El Abra Cave near Bogota, Co
lombia, that bear a radiocarbon de
termination of 12,400 years ago (Hurt
et al. 1972); and the recently exca
vated unifacial assemblage at Mead
owcroft Rocksheiter, Pennsylvania,
which bears dates of 13,250, 14,850,
and 15,120 years ago (Adovasio et al.
1975).
Other early dated materials include
the bone tools from Old Crow, in the
Yukon Territory, with dates
25,750, 27,000, and 29,100 years ago
(Irving and Harrington 1973), and
caribou antler flaker from near
Dawson City, Yukon, found in asso
ciation with a bison horn core, dated
at more than 39,000 years ago (Har
rington 1975). Finds from Santa Rosa
Island, California, have dates ranging
of geological evidence that a child's
skeleton from near Taber, Alberta,
may be between 40,000 and 60,000
years old.
In spite of the inadequacies ofmany
of the archaeological components of
this stage, there are three well-de
fined components in good strati
graphic contexts, five or sixmore that
probably belong, and a number of
remains that date from before 12,000
years ago. The dates ranging between
30,000 and 40,000 years ago in the Whereas
of north and the three dates in the south
of just over 20,000 years (as well as
the three or four more recent ones) might
be interpreted as indicating very slow
movements in the New World, and
the paucity of sites certainly hints at
very small populations and slow
population growth.
can archaeologists and geologists to
have blocked the Mackenzie River
corridor and when water flooded the
Bering Strait passage. If the dates of
Stage III are valid, and I believe they
are, then neither of these blockages
pertained, and the opinions of the
many Canadian archaeologists and
geologists who have studied the area
and who do not believe such block
ages occurred will be confirmed (see
e.g. Reeves 1969).
the peoples and cultural
elements of Stage III may have been
derived from Asia, many of the sub
sequent Stage IV complexes seem to
have evolved their specialized hunt
ing assemblages in the New World
from Stage III complexes. And, of
course, the possibility exists that
some of the complexes of Stage IV, as
well as elements of Stage III, may

Stage III
from 11,300 to 29,700 years ago (Orr have evolved from the still earlier
and Berger 1966), but their contexts New World complexes which I have
are such that one cannot accept them The third stage for the New World, termed Stage II. New World Stage III
with any degree of confidence. little better documented than the seems analogous to the early part of
second, is represented by complexes the Upper Paleolithic elsewhere-for
Some undated unifacial complexes in in the 11,000- to 15,000-year range in example, the Aurignacian and Solu
somewhat better context may also South America and Mesoamerica, trean of Europe and the Irkutsk
belong to Stage II, but, again, samples and there are hints that they are only Hospital industry of Siberia.
are small. These include three flake slightly older in North America
tools from Levi Rocksheiter inTexas, roughly 13,000 to 25,000 years old. Like much of the earliest evidence,
associated with extinct tapir bones The incomplete evidence from Latin our most numerous reliable materials
and under a layer dated at about America suggests that these peoples for Stage III come from Latin Amer
10,000 years ago (Alexander 1963); were specialized hunters of big game ica. Perhaps the most relevant are
the unifacial tools associated with or herd animals in a wide variety of from the Rio Pedregal area, east of
sabertooth tiger bones inFreisenhahn environments. Their technology Lake Maracaibo, Venezuela, where
Cave, also inTexas (Evans 1961); the seems considerably advanced over the abundant artifacts representing four
unifacial tools of the McLeod com previous stage, for they fashioned fine relatively well-defined complexes
plex from near Fort Liard, N.W.T. leaf-shaped bifacial projectile points Camare, Las Lagunas, El Jobo, and
(Millar, Ph.D. diss., 1968); and the as well as blades and produced skill Casitas-have been found on the
layer 4materials from the Alice Boer fully made flint burins, perhaps for surface of a series of four terraces
site in Brazil (Beltrao 1974). More making even better bone tools. Al (Rouse and Cruxent 1963). The Las
information is needed about each of though the sites of this stage have Lagunas and El Jobo complexes,
these assemblages. these diagnostic tools in common, which include leaf points and blades,
some Venezuelan assemblages are not in good archaeological con
A series of skeletal remains of typical suggest that future research may re text, and there is some question
American Indians, albeit slightly veal some regionally distinct com whether they are connected with our
primitive, that are difficult to classify plexes showing adaptation to specific Stage III. Fortunately, contextual
into my stage scheme might also be environmental conditions-perhaps data that have bearing upon the so
mentioned here. Among the most re the beginning of a development that lution of this problem are gradually
liably dated are Midland Man of becomes a fundamental characteristic coming to light (Cruxent 1970).
Texas and Marmes Man of Wash of Stage IV.
ington, with dates of about 13,000 Part of this contextual information
years ago, and Laguna Beach Man The new subsistence techniques, comes from three kill sites that have
and Los Angeles Man of California, ultimately derived from Asia, seem
dated at 17,150 1,470 (UCLA) and not to have noticeably diminished the
more than 23,600 (Berger et al. 1971), megafauna or led to remarkable in
respectively. J. L. Bada (1975), using creases in the human population, and Figure 2. The most important and plentiful
an amino acid dating technique, has the diffusion of the Stage III peoples remains of the Paleoindians are their tools,

reported dates of 70,000, 46,000, from the Bering Strait southward which may be categorized in four stages that
reflect evolving subsistence
45,000, 44,000, 39,000, and 28,000 seems to have been slower than a patterns. Diag
nostic artifacts for each group are illustrated
years ago for six other California snail's pace. It might be noted that here at one-half their actual size, except for
skeletons found near San Diego, while Stage III coincides with the time numbers 2 and 18-20, which are reduced to
Stalker (1969) estimates on the basis when ice is believed by many Ameri one-quarter actual size.

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9,000 B.P. i IV: Begins ca. 13,000 -InNorth America
and pa. 11.000 B.P. In southern South
America, ending oa. 0,000 B.P.
i;' "Webern Jntermontane point-Und Coulee,
Washington
22. Lerma point-tehuacah, Mexloo
23. Hardaway point-North Carolina
24. Plainview point-Texas,
25. Folsom point-Llndenmeier, Colorado
26. Clevie points-New Mexico
27. Fell' Cave fishtail point-Patagonia, Chile
28. Lau ricocha point-Peril ;
29. Broad-etem point-Tequendama, Colombia

Biaga III: Begins ca. 20,000 B.P. in northern North

America and ca. 13,000 B.P. in.southern
South America
12. L rma point-Valsequillo, Mexico
13. Serrated leaf point-El Jobo, Venezuela
14. Retouched prismatic blades-Wilson Butte Cave,
Idaho .'.
15. Pointed etde-blade-El Jobo/Venezuela
16. Plano-convex end-scraper-El Jobo, Venezuela
13,000B.P. 22 17. Burin-El Jobo, Venezuela
18. Bone needle-?Flinf Creek, Yukon, Canada
10. Bone pin-Flint Creek, Yukon, canada
20. Bone awl-Flint Creek, Yukon, Canada

Stage lit Begins ca. 40,000 B.P. in northernNorth

America and ca. 16,000 B.P. In southern
South America
6. Flake projectile point or knife-Valsequillo,
Mexico
7. Bone projectile point-Ayaouoho, Peru
8. Pebble chopper-Ayacucho^ Peru
9. Plano-convex denticulated scraper, Ayacucho,
'. Peru .
10. Burin-Ayacucho, Peru
11. Rib bone flesher-Ayacucho, Peru

Begins 70,000 30,000 B.P. Innorthern

North America and ca. 25,000 B.P. in
southern South America
1. Pointed flake-Paccaicasa, Peru
2. Slab chopper-Paccaicasa, Peru
3. Pebble chopper-Lewlsville, Texas
4. Retouched flake-LewiaviIle, texas
5. Volcanic tufa slab spokeshave-Paccaicasa,
Peru

70,000 30,000 B.P.

1976 May-June 321

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been excavated in the general area of from roughly 12,000 to 15,000 years 17,500 years ago by C. Vita Finzi
the Rio Pedregal. At all of them were ago. (1970). In addition, it has been esti
found the diagnostic leaf-shaped El mated that the species of antelope,
Jobo or Las Lagunas-like points. The Comparisons of these limited "El horse, and turtle found with the ar
site with the clearest stratigraphic Jobo" artifacts with the apparently tifacts became extinct about 11,000
information, dated by 21 radiocarbon later Casitas complex, possibly be years ago.
determinations and yielding a series longing to Stage IV, suggest that the
of extinct animal bones in association latter developed in situ-not as the To the north of Latin America the
with artifacts, isTaima-Taima, where result of a rapidly spreading migra artifactual evidence is less plentiful.
four clearly defined strata exist. The tion from Asia. Perhaps all the com A layer ofWilson Butte Cave, Idaho,
second zone, a black clay, has been ponents of this eastern South Amer dated at 14,500 years ago, contained
dated by six C-14 determinations as ican point tradition characterized by a blade, a bifacial lenticular point,
between 9,650 and 10,290 years ago contracting stems developed out of an and a burin (Gruhn 1965). Tending to
(Bryan 1973). In the lowest level, a El Jobo-like base. confirm this date was the obsidian
gray sand layer dated by eleven ra laurel-leaf bifacial point complex
diocarbon determinations ranging From Peru come further hints of this, found by McGee (1889) in a silt de
from 11,860 to 14,400 years ago, were but the materials are more limited posit in Nevada in 1882. Haynes
a whole series of bones of extinct an and undated. At Ayacucho, seven (1969) believes that these silts are
imals, including mastodon, glypto artifacts of the Huanta complex, in between 12,500 and 22,000 years old.
don, megatheridae, and horse. The cluding a lenticular bifacial point and Perhaps the Klondike complex of the
nature of the soil suggests that the a blade, were found in strata brack Northwest Territories and the Flint
animals were killed at a waterhole, eted by dates of 14,150 and 10,400 Creek complex of the Yukon (Mac
and with the bones were a number of years ago, beneath remains that also Neish 1959), with similar artifact
rocks that might have been used as contained leaf and stemmed points types, are related to the southern
hammers, axes, or choppers, a well (MacNeish, Nelken-Terner, and manifestations and are earlier,
defined anvil stone, and some crude Garcia Cook 1970). Further, on the northern representatives of Stage III.
flakes, blades, and a semilunar Peruvian coast near Lima, at Chiva Unfortunately, the artifacts from
scraper. More important than these, teros, remains with leaf points and these sites are too few to permit cer
however, was a nonserrated El Jobo blades were found beneath very sim tainty, and the dating techniques
point, possibly a specialized tip for a ilar artifacts dated about 10,400 years leave much to be desired.
lance shaft, which was found a few ago, in Stage IV times (Patterson and
centimeters from a mastodon pelvis,
and two other leaf-shaped points like
Lanning 1964). Other South Ameri
can complexes with leaf points but Stage IV
those found in the Las Lagunas and more poorly defined artifact assem The final stage, covering the period
the El Jobo terrace complexes blages and archaeological contexts 13,000 to 8,500 years ago, coincides
(Cruxent 1967). (such as those from near Arica and roughly with the time of Martin's
Anafagosta, Chile) may prove to be proposed migration of skilled hunters
A nearby kill site called Cucuruchu connected to the evidence given into the New World. Although Mar
yielded a similar find. Here, with a above, but solid proof is lacking as yet tin does not discuss in detail the
fauna like that at Taima-Taima but (Patterson 1966). technology of this group, one infers
lacking horses, were found two crude that the original single migration had
leaf-shaped points like those of Las Farther north inMexico, two adja a single artifact complex. Figure 1 of
Lagunas and El Jobo and a fine ex cent areas yield very similar artifacts, his 1973 Science article hints that it
ample of an unserrated El Jobo point including bifacial lenticular points, included long, relatively broad points
(Cruxent 1970). The stratigraphy and blades, and burins, all diagnostics of with distinctive grooves on both sur
the linking of artifacts with extinct Stage III. The remains from Hueya faces emanating from concave bases.
animals may be even clearer than at tlaco in the Valsequillo basin near Often called Clovis points, these are
Taima-Taima, but as yet a detailed Puebla, in association with extinct thought of as belonging to the Llano
site report has not been published. horse, antelope, turtle, camel, and complex or tradition. As we have seen,
mammoth, were found beneath a numerous tool complexes have been
The third kill site,Muaco, gives fur stratum containing artifacts belong documented more or less definitely
ther support to these finds, although ing to Stage IV (Irwin-Williams 1967, for the periods preceding 12,000 years
the stratigraphic situation is less clear in press). Other materials with similar ago. Even discounting this early evi
and the three C-14 dates range from leaf points and blades from the four dence, however, the artifacts from
9,030 to 16,375 years ago (Bryan lowest occupational floors of Coxca Stage IV are so varied, widespread,
1973). The extinct faunal complex is tlan Cave, Puebla, also associated and seemingly indigenous to North
like that of Taima-Taima and seems with horse, antelope, and giant turtle, America, that it is difficult to see how
to be associated with a pebble chop were found beneath remains with they could be interpreted to support
retouched a a theory of a single entry into the New
per, large flakes, possible specialized Plano points of Stage IV.
burin, and three leaf-shaped points, Although none of these remains have World at about that date.
one of which is like those of El Jobo. been directly dated as before 12,000
From all the above, one thing is clear: years ago, indirect evidence suggests Except for a few sites inAlaska which
large leaf-shaped bifacial points, that they are related to other Early have yielded microblades that may
burins, and blades-diagnostics of Ajuereado materials from the nearby have been derived from Asia, final
Stage III-are associated with extinct Tehuacan Valley which have been Stage IV seems uniquely American in
animals in Venezuela in the period indirectly dated at 9,750,10,050, and its development. The remains of the

322 American Scientist, Volume 64

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material culture everywhere seem to
have originated at the end of the
Pleistocene, roughly 10,000 to 13,000
years ago. Movement of these devel
oped complexes was apparently rel
atively fast within certain microen
virons, but there is little evidence of
inter- or even large-scale intraconti
nental migrations, either fast or slow.
Although tool kits are more varied,
implying technological advances, and
many more specialized projectile
point types or styles are found, the
significant difference between this
stage and the one immediately pre
ceding it seems to have been in the
patterns of subsistence. Not only do
the peoples of Stage IV seem to have
been expert hunters, but they hunted
with a variety of techniques particu
larly adapted to certain life zones. In
addition, they had developed a United States or northwest Mexico
number of secondary subsistence
options that aided them in their ad
aptations to these environments
and even to the seasonal and mi
croenvironmental differences within
them. These groups of big-game
hunters were certainly a factor in the
extinction of the megafauna, but
populations remained small and do
not seem to have diminished notice
ably when the big game disappeared.
The development of these groups is in
general analogous to that in the Old
World at the end of the Paleolithic;
but the artifact assemblages in
northeast Siberia-the source of
Amerindian migrations-fail to re
veal significant similarities.
Of the many known complexes based
mainly on point types from this pe
riod, the best-known South American
complex is one characterized by nar
row (2.5 cm), long (5-10 cm) points
with distinctive stems that give them
a general outline similar to that of a
minnow. These fishtailed points have
been reported from almost every
country of South America, as well as
Panama and Honduras (Bird 1969),
but only four of the reported sites
have been excavated and one, at El
Inga in Ecuador, has poor strati
graphic contexts (Bell 1965). In fact,
there is considerable reason to believe
that the El Inga site was occupied by
different groups at different times, for
a wide variety of point types were
found there, including broad
stemmed ones, points with narrow
stems and convex bases, various kinds
of leaf points, and a series of tools
made by a highly specialized blade
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burin technique not reported for the The best evidence for a late Pleisto
other excavated components. cene specialized-point complex comes
from the central Andes ofPeru, where
The other three excavated sites are a number of sites have been excavat
all in Patagonia. The next-to-earliest ed with large samples of associated
levels of Los Toldos Cave in south artifacts, which have been dated by
ernmost Argentina afforded a very C-14. These are Lauricocha I, with a
limited number of artifacts, including date of about 9,500 years ago (Cardich
fishtailed and leaf-shaped points 1964), Tres Ventanas I, with a series
(Cardich, Cardich, and Hajdak 1973). of dates on the 9,000- and 10,500-year
Both Fell's Cave and Palli Aike Cave level (Engel 1972), Guitarrero lb and
contained artifacts in association with 2e, with two or three dates of ap
bones from extinct horse and mylo proximately the same age (Lynch and
don as well as guanaco bones (Bird Kennedy 1970), and the Puente
1946). The existing dates for these phases of Ayacucho, with six C-14
remains, ranging from 8,750 to 11,000 dates ranging from 9,100 to 10,500
years ago, do little to clarify the time years ago (MacNeish, Nelken-Terner,
period of this complex. Because the and Garcia Cook 1970). In each of
materials have not been analyzed-or these 40 to 50 components there is a
indeed described with precision wide range of projectile-point types,
attempts to link them with the con including leaf-shaped points, a few
temporary (Llano) complexes in the like those of El Inga-long, wide,
contracting stems-and long, penta
are speculative (Bird 1946). Possibly gonal, collaterally flaked points like
this complex represents an adapta some fromEl Jobo. But the dominant
tion to the grasslands of the eastern types that allow us to differentiate
Andes-perhaps characterized by the this group from all others in Latin
hunting of horses-but this, too, re America are a series with either long
mains to be seen. or short contracting stems with sharp
or pointed shoulders.
Another complex that seems to have
existed at the same time in South Moreover, as distinctive as the pro
America is characterized by broad jectile points themselves, which per
bodied, wide, contracting-stem points haps indicate a number of kinds of
with keeled and plano-convex end hunting techniques, are the wide va
scrapers, scraper planes, large side riety of other chipped artifacts and
scrapers, and perhaps blade tools. foodstuffs found at these sites. Both
The well-excavated materials from suggest that, besides hunting, these
the lower levels of Tequendama Cave peoples had begun to collect a num
near Bogota, Colombia, are the best ber of kinds of plants and to trap
evidence of the existence of this smaller animals. In other words, they
complex in late Pleistocene times, had several subsistence options, albeit
and five dates on it range from 10,025 little used, in addition to hunting with
to 10,920 years ago (Correal, Ph.D. lances from ambush and stalking with
diss., 1974). A second excavated ex lances and darts.
ample is the lower four levels of stra
tum 3 of the Alice Boer site, on the Although this complex is defined by
Rio Claro in east-central Brazil, which the five or six extensively excavated
contained most of the tool types sites in central highland Peru, surface
mentioned above (Beltrao 1974). This collections from other areas of Peru
material bears a date of 14,200 years and Bolivia reveal that itwas wide
ago. Perhaps the materials from spread. A few of the diagnostic point
Lagoa Santa Cave number 6, also in types occur as far south as Mendoza
Brazil, dated about 9,720 years ago, in the Argentinian Andes (Aguerre,
with similar point types, may be of Distel, and Aschero 1973; Schobinger
the same complex (Hurt and Blasi 1969) and as far north as Cueva Negra
1969). Numerous collections of simi near Cuenca, Ecuador (T. F. Lynch,
lar point types in upland Brazil with pers. comm.). Perhaps it represents a
seemingly early contexts suggest that late Pleistocene adaptation to an
this complex extended into that re Andean ecosystem.
gion. Also possibly related is the
Casitas complex ofwestern Venezuela Although the evidence is slim from
(Rouse and Cruxent 1963). Perhaps the Pacific coast, the roughly con
this complex of broad-stemmed temporaneous complex of Chivateros
points was a late Pleistocene sa II near Lima, dated at about 10,400
vanna-selva adaptation. years ago, the Tortuga and Conchita
1976 May-June 323
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
complexes in the Lurin coastal valley
of Peru, and perhaps ones from
coastal Chile hint that, contrasting
with Andean cultures, there was a
coastal adaptation characterized by
hunting with large, leaf-shaped bifa
ces (Lanning 1967, 1968). Marine
shells found at some of these sites
suggest that gathering shellfish had
become an additional subsistence
option. Perhaps this was merely a late
development of the earlier cultural
pattern of Stage III in that area. Some
relatively early dates for complexes
like Sambaqui on the coast of Brazil
hint that a similar process may have
been taking place on the Atlantic
coast of South America, but as yet
this cannot be documented with ad
equate archaeological evidence (Hurt
1974).
For highland Mexico there is some
what better evidence that the earlier
Stage III complexes, often called
Cordilleran, were undergoing spe
cialized highland adaptations as well
as being influenced by specialized
"Plano" hunting groups from the
north. The resulting Stage IV tech
nology is called Planoid Cordilleran.
The best-documented example is the
later Ajuereado complex of the Te
huacan Valley of east central Mexico,
and although no C-14 dates are di
rectly associated with it, bracketing
dates suggest that it existed roughly
from 12,000 to 9,000 years ago (Mac
Neish, Nelken-Terner, and Johnson
1967). Although indigenous Lerma
points (named after one of the major
sites inTamaulipas) predominate
this latter part of the phase, Flacco
and Plainview points that were
probably derived from northeast
Mexico have also been found. Crude
blades, burins, gravers, spokeshaves,
and a host of special end-scraper
types were used, and the hunting of
herd animals by the lance-ambushing
technique, rabbit (or other animal)
drives, and the collecting of small
animals are the predominant subsis
tence activities, in that order, in all
seasons in all environments (Mac
Neish 1975). Proportions of deer
bones, as compared with horse and
antelope, increase in the floor layers,
suggesting new hunting strategies
such as stalking individual large ani
mals using atlatl-propelled darts with
barbed foreshafts. Mortars, grinding
stones, and mullers appear in associ
ation with spring seeds, agave, and
opuntia leaves; and the presence of
fall fruits suggests seed-collecting,
324 American Scientist, Volume 64
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leaf-cutting, and fruit-picking sub Somewhat better evidence comes
sistence activities. The leg bones of from the Lerma phase ofTamaulipas,
some of the smaller animals are bro dated at 9,270 years ago (MacNeish
ken in a manner that suggests the use 1958). Here, extinct beaver and deer
of traps (MacNeish 1967). All these bones were associated with Lerma
late additions strongly suggest that points that perhaps were fastened to
these groups had new supplementary lances, and other chipped stone tools.
subsistence options that could be Both a triangular Piano-type point
seasonally and environmentally that perhaps tipped an atlatl dart and
adaptive. one of the pebble hammerstones that
might well have functioned as a pestle
The materials from the nearby Val may indicate supplementary subsis
sequillo region, dated at just before tence options. North of Tamaulipas
9,150 years ago, are less numerous. A toward the Rio Grande, although the
concave-based, stemmed point found ecological data are less secure, there
along with laurel-leaf points among are hints from sites like San Isidro, La
numerous horse and antelope bones Calzada, and Devil's Mouth that the
suggests that a process similar to that Planoid Cordilleran gave way to
of Ajuereado was unfolding. The data Plano and other specialized com
from the Valley ofMexico, also mea plexes (Epstein 1966).
ger, are from two sites: the Iztapan
Mammoth Kill, dated at about 9,250 Most of the more easterly Mexican
years ago (Aveleyra 1953) and Tla sites in latest Pleistocene times form
pacoya, a campsite dated at 9,920 a unit, although they seem to have
years ago. Both sites seem related to been increasingly influenced by the
the above and indicate similar de many specialized contemporary
velopments (Neiderberger, M.A. complexes in the central United
thesis, 1974). Although household States, such as Plainview, Agate
tools including an obsidian blade, Basin, Scottsbluff, and Eden, all of
gouge, semilunar knife, and end-of which might be called Plano. Clovis
blade scraper were found at Iztapan, points found at a number of surface
itwas obviously a kill site and not a sites in northwest Mexico, a fluted
camp. Further, the occurrence of point in association with about 14
Lerma-type leaf-points in the same Lerma points, blades, burins, and
animals as at Agate Basin and a tri other artifacts found at Los Tapiales
anguloid point of the Plano tradition in Guatemala, dated at 10,710 years
of the United States suggests multiple ago (Gruhn 1973), hint that the basic
hunting techniques, the former being Cordilleran complex of western
used for lance-ambushing and the Mexico and the Pacific drainage area
latter for dart-stalking. These re of Guatemala was undergoing a sim
mains, obviously related to those ilar set of influences. In this case,
in from just across the lake at Tlapa however, the source of the influence
coya, may belong to a different sub seems to have been the Folsom and/or
sistence pattern, for while Lerma Clovis (Llano) complexes of the
of points, blades, and semilunar knives western United States. Perhaps this
still occur at Tlapacoya, choppers and should be called Llanoid Cordilleran.
mortars are found in association not
only with extinct megafauna like All in all, Stage IV iswell represented
horse and tapir, but also with deer in Latin America by at least four
and rabbit bones (Mirambell 1973). well-defined adaptive complexes and
possibly three more. Much more in
How far south this Planoid Cordil formation exists forNorth America in
leran complex or tradition extended this period 12,000 to 10,500 years ago,
is unknown, but there is some evi and I will only touch upon some of it.
dence that itmay have extended as Perhaps the best known and best
far north as the Rio Grande in studied complex inNorth America is
northeast Mexico. Although the evi the Llano tradition, characterized by
dence is poor, a related complex of its distinctive fluted Eastern and/or
Lerma points, blades, burins, chop Clovis points with concave bases.
pers, and snub-nosed scrapers was Sites of this complex have been found
found in the lowest levels of San Ni from southern California across the
colas Cave, near San Juan del Rio in Southwest and the northern Plains
Queretaro, associated with large and into the eastern United States north
small extinct and modern mamma of the Ohio River, and one has been
lian remains (MacNeish, Nelken excavated at Debert, Nova Scotia.
Terner, and Johnson 1967). Numerous dates on both mammoth
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
kill sites and campsites fall within the
range of 11,500 to 10,500 years ago
(Haynes 1970). Further, according to
Funk (1972), there is an earlier date
of 12,530 370 from as far east as
Dutchess Quarry Cave inNew York
State. Present New World evidence
and the lack of similar remains in
northeastern Asia-suggests that this
complex is a specialized New World
development that may be ancestral to
many of the later Paleoindian com
plexes such as Folsom, Milnesand,
Meserve, and Dalton.
Whether Llano was also ancestral to might be called the Intermontane
Plano, with its more generalized
Plainview and Frederick points which
in outline are similar to Clovis points,
remains to be seen. However, the points and, perhaps, a riverine ad
best-defined remains at Hell Gap,
dated at 10,500 to 9,500 years ago, do
include Plainview points (Irwin 1970),
and these follow directly after Clovis.
Moreover, the majority of Plano sites
are later than those of Clovis and ex
tend over a wide area, from the Rio
Grande on the south to Great Bear
Basin Lake, N.W.T., in the north, and
from the Rockies across the high and
low Plains to the eastern Great Lakes
region.
While a case might be made (albeit a
weak one) that these remains fit the Alaska, however, at Healy Lake, a
Martin model (a single all-encom
passing ancestral complex), there are
materials from the southeastern
United States that are almost im
possible to connect with the Llanoid
complexes or with the model. These
southeastern materials include the
lower levels fromModoc Rocksheiter
in Illinois (Fowler 1959), dated at
10,151 650, 10,947 900, and While future investigations may show
11,200 800, the Hardaway complex
of North Carolina (Coe 1964), and
Broyles's (1971) materials fromWest
Virginia, estimated to be roughly of
the same age. These are all basically
Archaic complexes, including notched
points, drills, and a series of scrapers
which suggest a collecting way of life 1964), and the Klondike
years ago, some archaeologists place
it even earlier, in Stage III times.
Projectile points are leaf-shaped, and
large scraper planes and choppers
occur, as do other tools that suggest a
specialized subsistence adaptation to
a xerophytic environment. Again, it is
difficult to believe that this complex
was derived from the Llano complex
in the brief period from 12,000 to
11,500 years ago. This western com
plex may be loosely related to a con
temporary one in the state ofWash
ington, estimated to date between
13,000 and 10,800 years ago, which
Western Tradition (Daugherty 1962).
However, this northwest complex has
distinctive long, incipient-stemmed
aptation that none of the others
had.
None of these American complexes
seem directly related to anything
either projectile-point types or arti
facts-representing a period slightly
earlier in northeast Asia. Dikov (1968)
has described microblade materials
dated at 14,000 years ago from just
across the Bering Strait that are ab
sent from any of the complexes just
described and which any hypothesis
about migration must consider. In
complex dated at 11,090 170 has
been found that, in terms of its dis
tinctive microblades, tongue-shaped
cores, wedges, and burins (types not
likely to be invented twice), definitely
seems derived from the "Dyuktai
Paleolithic culture" of Siberia (Mo
chanov, in press).
that there is a still-earlier blade-core
complex from the earliest levels of the
Healy Lake site (Cook 1970) which is
related to other manifestations in the
Northwest, such as the Denali com
plex inAlaska (Hadleigh-West 1967),
Kluane in the Yukon (MacNeish
complex in
Implications of the data
Having presented the evidence for the
presence of early man in the New
World, I would now like to contrast
my hypothesis based on archaeologi
cal data with the one presented by
Martin and Mosimann. Only in Stage
IV do the models coincide, and even
here the similarities are more appar
ent than real. Perhaps we are nearest
to agreement on the problem of
Pleistocene faunal extinctions. Cer
tainly there is a high correlation be
tween the appearance in Stage IV,
after 12,000 years ago, of highly spe
cialized point complexes-many of
which were probably those of highly
skilled hunters who employed a
number of specialized techniques
and the extinction of many Pleisto
cene mammals. This, plus the fact
that many of the important ar
chaeological sites of Stage IV are kill
sites, suggests that man was a major
factor in the disappearance of those
animals at that time. It seems prob
able, however, that other factors
contributed to extinction, for the ex
tensive deposits of this period, such as
the La Brea tar pits of California, the
Talara tar pits of coastal Peru, the
muck of the Yukon and Alaska, and
others, have yielded the bones of nu
merous extinct animals-but no evi
dence of man's agency. Possibly a
myriad of new conditions, some of
them local, came into being at the end
of the Pleistocene-climatic change,
vegetational change, new carnivores,
mammals able to compete better-all
of which not only reduced the num
bers of the Pleistocene megafauna but
made it more susceptible to easy
slaughter by skilled hunters. Man the
hunter may have dealt the coup de
grace to these animals, but in the
earlier three stages in the New World
(as well as in contemporaneous stages
in the Old World), man the hunter,
albeit not so skilled, seems to have
had little effect on megafauna popu
lations.

that is unlikely to have been rapidly the Northwest Territories (Millar,

derived from the Llano complex. Ph.D. diss., 1968; MacNeish 1954), The difference between my inter
there seems little likelihood that pretation of this event and that of
Equally dissimilar to our Llanoid connections to the more southerly Paul Martin, while perhaps seeming
materials is a complex called San Llano and Archaic contemporary to be largely a matter of emphasis,
Dieguito, in California, Arizona, and complexes will be found. Thus, no stems frommy very different view of
Nevada (Warren 1967). This complex where except right next to the Bering when man entered the New World
is not well dated, although the lower Strait is there any evidence that Stage and what his technology was when he
levels of Ventana Cave bear a radio IV complexes came rapidly from did so. Martin sees man entering the
carbon determination of 11,290 500 northeast Asia, and the Asiatic arti New World not before 12,000 years
years ago. Although most geological facts inAlaska do not seem to be an ago with a full set of hunting skills
estimates indicate that itwas roughly cestral to traditions found farther that had been developed in Asia. I
of the period from 13,500 to 11,000 south. have here presented considerable

1976 May-June 325

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evidence in contradiction of that hy I conceive of the various complexes of 1970). In fact, there is considerable
pothesis. There is considerable proof Stage IV as being specially adapted contradictory evidence.
that the firstmigrants did not have a for subsistence in certain broad ecol
full set of developed hunting skills ogical zones. Within these zones, The annual population growth rate of
but, as in Asia, their skills were de people would be able to move rela 0.1% that demographers project for
veloped over a long period of time tively rapidly, but movement from the New World seems to fit our ad
during the waning of the Pleistocene. one zone to the next (for example, mittedly inadequate population data
In addition, the final group of hunters from the deserts of northern Mexico better than does Martin's 2.4% rate.
who preyed upon the megafauna, al to the tropical jungle of Central Further, Deevey's (1960) rate of 1.4%
though they may have been in America) would require that they annually for prehistoric man's best
fluenced by Asiatic developments, build up a whole new adaptive sub effort,which in every New World case
apparently developed their special sistence complex-and that would seems to have come after the devel
ized techniques in the New World. take considerable time. I have termed opment of a sedentary agricultural
this the "Hurry up and wait" process way of life, suggests to me that per
Other aspects of Martin's model ofmigration (MacNeish 1972). While haps even the figure of 0.1% annually
concern the movement of these early it seems feasible to me that people is too high for early man in the New
migrants-both their route and the might migrate through a large single World. Certainly, the archaeological
speed of their migration. He implies environmental zone faster than evidence for Stages I to III, even
that the waters of the Bering Strait Martin's hypothetical 12 kilometers granting a certain "invisibility,"
were a barrier to man's early move a year, itmight take centuries tomove points to a much lower figure, and
ment and that glacial ice would have a few kilometers from one ecological whether population growth during
blocked the Mackenzie River drain zone into another. Martin's hypoth Stage IV ever approached 0.1% is
age, preventing man from moving esis that groups of this period moved open to question. Whether ar
south until 12,000 years ago. I con through dozens of radically different chaeological data will ever solve the
ceive of the Bering Strait not as a environmental zones from the Bering problem of determining early popu
barrier but, in the words ofDiamond Strait to Tierra del Fuego in 1,000 lation growth is at present unknown,
Jenness (the only anthropologist who years thus seems unreasonable. but certainly more data are needed.
lived there), as "a highway uniting
kindred on one side with kindred on On the matter of population growth, At this point, the remains of early
the other" (Jenness 1962). Nor have it can be said with certainty that there man in the New World are just "visi
I seen convincing geological evidence is no evidence so far for a growth rate ble" enough to lead to stimulating
that the Mackenzie River glacial ice of 3.4 or 2.4 percent as posited by speculation. We need more data on all
was ever a barrier, either tomigrating Martin-or that the population of the the problems relating to American
men or to Pleistocene animals in the area from Edmonton to the Gulf of prehistory before our hypotheses can
period under discussion. However, Mexico reached 400,000 before 9,000 be confirmed or denied. Obviously,
much more evidence is needed before years ago. Nor is there evidence that the best is yet to come.
these opinions can be confirmed or in this early period population growth
denied. was more rapid than in the following
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