The object is represented by its geometric model in three dimensions (X, Y and Z).

The
mathematical representation reduces creation of views like orthographic, isometric, axon
ometric or perspective projections into simple viewing transformations. 10 Thou
rotation, reflection, shearing and zooming.
GEOMETRIC MODELING
Types of Curves and Their Mathematical Representation
Types of Surfaces and Their Mathematical Representation
Types of Solids and Their Mathematical Representation
CAD/CAM Data Exchange
TYPES
OF CURVES AND THEIR MATHEMATICAL REPRESENTATIONS
Wireframe Model ( 2D in 1960s for drafting, 3D in 1970s)
Wireframe Entities
s and Bezier curves)
, end points of existing entity, center point, intersection of two entities.
or perpendicular to a line, tangent to entity
point, a radius and tangent to a line passing through a point.
ter and axes lengths, four points, two conjugate diameters), parabola (vertex and
foc lopes), Bezier curves (a set of data points), B-spline curves (interpolate a set of
data points with local control possible). Curve Representation: Two types of
representation are parametric and non-parametric representation. In parametric
representation all variables (i.e., coordinates) are expressed in terms of common
parameters. For example, a point can be expressed with respect to a parameter as
Non-parametr
ic representation is the conventional representation as Ex. Non-parametric form of
a circle: x^2+y^2=r^2, parametric form: 1. This form can be used to find slopes at
a certain angle for example.
PARAMETRIC REPRESENTATION OF ANALYTIC CURVES
The following list shows most of the analytic curve that are used in CAD/CAM
system for part design and modeling.
es
LINE AND CIRCLE
A line between two points P1 and P2 can be expressed with respect to a parameter.
Ac
ircle for a center and the radius can be written as 22 EL
An ellipse with a center and major and minor axes of 2A and 2B can be expressed
as.
PARABOLA
A parabola in the local coordinate system that is parallel to the global coordinate
system with the vertex and the focal distance A from the vertex in a plane is given
by An ellipse with a center and major and minor axes of 2A and 2B can be
expressed as.
PARABOLA
A parabola in the local coordinate system that is parallel to the global coordinate
system with the vertex and the focal distance A from the vertex in a plane is given
by An ellipse with a center and major and minor axes of 2A and 2B can be
expressed as.
PARABOLA
A parabola in
the local coordinate system that is parallel to the global coordinate sy System with
the vertex and the focal distance A from the vertex in a plane is given by When the
parabola is inclined at an angle relative to global x-axis, the equation for the
parabola is given by
Problem 1: Determine the equation above for given three points, p1(5,10), p2(3,4),
and p3(12,1). The parabola is inclines at an angle of 30orelative to global x-axis.
Plot the curve by varying the parameter u from *5 to 5.
This is a set of nonlinear equations. The solutions and the graph are
,,
Problem 2: Determine the parabola for given three points , P(5,10), P1(3,4), and
P2(12,1). P is the vertex of the parabola. Plot the curve by varying the parameter u
from -5 to 5.
Solution: Applying the six conditions (two for each point), the equations to solve
become 24 23 When the parabola is inclined at an angle relative to global x-axis,
the equation for the parabola is given by
Problem 1: Determine the equation above for given three points, p1(5,10), p2(3,4),
and p3(12,1). The parabola is inclines at an angle of 30orelative to global x-axis.
Plot the curve by varying the parameter u from *5 to 5.
This is a set of nonlinear equations. The solutions and the graph are
,,
Problem 2: Determine the parabola for given three points , P(5,10), P1(3,4), and
P2(12,1). P is the vertex of the parabola. Plot the curve by varying the parameter u
from -5 to 5.
Solution: Applying the six conditions (two for each point), the equations to solve
become 24 Solving these equations for A, , u1, and u2 yields the solutions as
A = 0.543, = -4.372, u1 = -4.372, and u2 = 3.835
A hyperbola with the center (xy, xy) and the distance A and B in a plane z = zy in
the figure below can be expressed as
x = xy + A coshu
y = yy + B sinhu, -
z = zy 25
A hyperbola and its asymptotes
Problem 3: Determine the hyperbola for given three points (2,1), and A=1, is the
vertex of the hyperbola. Plot the curve by varying the parameter u from -2 to 2.
Solution: Applying the seven conditions (two for each point), the equations to
solve become
A cosh( ) cos B sinh( sin x1 xy
A cosh( ) sin + B sinh( cos y1 yy
A cosh( ) cos B sinh( sin x2 xy
A cosh( ) sin + B sinh( cos y2 yy
The solution is B = 0.503, = 0.464, u1 = 2881, and u2 = -2.881. The graph of the
curve is shown as 26 The most general form of planar quadratic curves is conic
curves or conic sections that include the previously covered curves; lines, circles,
ellipses, parabolas, and hyperbolas. The general implicit nonparametric quadratic
equation that describes the planar conic curve has five coefficients and naturally
needs five con
UNIT I INTRODUCTION TO CAD/CAM
The design process Morphology of design, Product cycle Computer Aided Design, Benefits of CAD.
Basic concepts of CAD - principles of computer graphics. CAD/CAM data base development and
data base management systems. Programming and interface hardware computer aided process
monitoring - adaptive control, on-line search strategies.
Computer-aided design (CAD) is the use of computer systems to aid in the creation, modification,
analysis, or optimization of a design.CAD software is used to increase the productivity of the
designer, improve the quality
of design, improve communications through documentation, and to create a database for
manufacturing.CAD output is often in the form of electronic files for print, machining, or other
manufacturing operations.
Computer-aided design is used in many fields. Its use in designing electronic systems is known as
electronic design automation, or EDA. In mechanical design it is known as mechanical design
automation (MDA) or computer-aided design (CAD), which includes the process of creating a
technical drawing with the use of computer software.
A COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING system uses CAD-generated data to create the code
needed to operate a CNC machine. CAM software facilitates the programming of machine tools. It
lets users define part geometry and set machining strategies, create and confirm toolpaths, and share
programming data with other shop-floor machines.
The two basic types of CAM system
s are process-oriented and geometry-oriented. Process-oriented CAM systems are geared toward the
process part of manufacturing engineering, which includes the effective use of tooling and machining
operations, advantageous tool changes and the management of complex processes. In contrast,
geometry-oriented CAM systems lean toward the geometric aspects of manufacturing engineering,
including compl
ex part geometries, sizeable CAD models, and running process details through geometric conditions.
CAD/CAM Many CAD vendors market fully integrated CAM systems, aptly called CAD/CAM
systems. These CAD/CAM packages deliver many advantages. For starters, they feature a common
user interface that allows CAD operators to quickly learn the software. Moreover, users can easily
transfer CAD data to the CAM system without worrying about translation errors or other difficulties.
And finally, some integrated systems provide full
associativity, which means 2 that any modification to the CAD model will prompt the associated
toolpath to be automatically updated.
Computer Aided Design (CAD) has completely changed the drafting business and made the storage
and retrieval of projects much easier. However, manual drawing is still very important and provides
the basics of learning to draw.
Some of the advantages of CAD over manual drawing are:
No need for scaling. All drawing is done full size.
Both two and three dimensional drawings can be produced.
The screen drawing area can be set to any size with the click of a button
work is copied and stored off the computer for security you may never lose your work again!
All of the tools needed are supplied by the program.
Drawings are stored on disk rather than in a bulky folder.
Absolute accuracy can be maintained.
Dimensioning is almost automatic.
Production details can be extracted directly from the drawing.
Parts of drawings can be saved and used in other drawings.
Eliminates the need for full size set outs.
Everything you learn about manual drawing technique applies to CAD/CAM drawing
development.
The images are displayed on the PC screen and, with the click of a button, can be put on paper
using printers or plotters.

top advantages to adding CAD-CAM software

1. Increase Programming Potential.

By adding CAD-CAM software to your CNC toolkit, you can open up possibilities for your business
that may not have been there before. An example of this is gaining the ability to take on harder, more
complex 3 Axis machining jobs. CAD-CAM can help a shop manage and create toolpath and NC
programs for complex machining projects such as mold work. These types of jobs are next to
impossible to calculate by hand or even through using machine canned cycles. A CAD-CAM system
completely auto
mates the process. 3 2. Makes You More Accessible by Clients. By having a CAD-CAM software
product in your shop, you can receive CAD models from clients faster and easier than ever before.
You will be able to open CAD files easily, setup the toolpath for machining and perform simulations
that provide valuable information for you in the quoting process such as the calculation of cycle
times. Manufacturing can deliver products to market faster and more affordable than ever before.
This has a lot to do with technological advancements in CNC machining and in CAD-CAM software.
The software allows users to design faster, manage projects, test and simulate as well as machine
faster than ever.
3. Improved Control Over Job Programming.

Modern CAD-CAM functionality includes a CAM Tree Manager that allows you to track the job
from beginning to end. You have full control over post processing, stock, work coordinates, material
and tooling as well as access to machining operations that determine how the part will be machined
as well as the output of the NC Program. The CAM Tree has many built in benefits such as saving
and loading machining templates, copying and pasting machining operations, reordering how the job
is sequenced, toolpath associativity so that if a CAD edit is made to the part, all of the toolpaths are
updated and much more. Higher control capabilities lead to perfectly finished parts being completed
faster.
4. Machining Wizards Remove The Guesswork.

CAD-CAM provides the automation required to maximize programming efficiency. Machining

wizards remove the guesswork from programming as they step the operator through the process of
setting cutting depths, selecting tools, choosing toolpath styles, managing cutter lead-ins and lead-
outs, choosing compensation settings as well as many other important parameters that have to do
with creating m
achine toolpath. Wizards allow new programmers to be successful faster while still providing
advanced programmers with the utilities and confidence to program error free parts regardless of
their complexity.
5. Getting The Most Out of Your CNC Machine Tool.

CAD-CAM software provides high-speed machine toolpaths that deliver a host of benefits that all
equal up to reduced cycle times, less tool wear and a reduction in machine wear and tear over the
long term. High-speed toolpaths allow you to improve the quality of cutting by eliminating the stop
and go actions that traditional offset toolpath creates. The rounded more circular cutting motions at
higher speeds allo w a constant tool engagement with the material, 4 deeper cuts an d the ability to
use more of the cutting tool itself. High speed machining can improve CNC machine productivity by
as much as 50%. 6. Eliminate Costly Mistakes & Waste. CAD-CAM software provides powerful
simulation features. Simulation allows you to visually inspect the machining process, catch costly
tool gouges and collisions before they reach the CNC machine. This alone makes adding a CAD-
CAM product to the shop a good decision. Simulation also provides detailed information about the
toolpath, cycle times, part deviation analysis, the ability to create simulation presentations and much
more. Higher levels of simulation will allow you to use your machines kinematics to simulate
machining with the actual machine tool visually.
Work holding can also be modeled and added to simulation to complete the visual inspection of the
part being mach
ined as well as everything else involved.
7. Powerful 3 Axis CNC Programming Operations.

CAD-CAM software provides the ability create complex 3 Axis machine toolpath quickly and
efficiently. Without CAD-CAM, programming complex parts is practically impossible as often time
there are multiple toolpaths required from advanced roughing, semi-finishing and then multiple
finishing toolpath strategies. In addition, the latest releases of BobCAD-CAM provide Dynamic
Machining Strategies allowing the programmer to apply multiple roughing and finishing
operations to a single CAD feature.
8. Multiaxis CAM Technology Makes Complex Machining Simple and Cost Effective.

Simultaneous 4 and 5 Axis CNC machining can be the most difficult to create NC programs for.
CAD-CAM software provides the solutions to make these types of CNC jobs much easier than ever
before. This starts with 4th Axis indexing and rotary machining jobs that require toolpath and special
post processing that only a CAM system can offer. Posting can even be customized by the operator
with a little training for a wide variety of 4 and 5 Axis machines. Full 5 axis toolpaths include
surface-based machining operations that accommodate port milling, SWARF and undercutting type
toolpath strategies as well as 3+2 programming. Without a CAD-CAM system this level of CNC
programming is nearly impossible. CAM systems can also provide full 4 & 5 Axis simulation, which
is critical when programming these types of parts to visually inspect the machining process before an
r reaches t
he machine. 5
9. Turn Art Into CNC Programs & Finished Parts Easily. Artistic CAD-CAM technology has
evolved to support a wide range of custom applications. Two of these specialized industries would be
the custom woodworking and jewelry making industry. These types applications require the ability to
turn a picture into a 3D relief model that can be machined in a variety of ways. This also includes the
ability to turn a picture into 2D profiles that can be used for engraving, pocket milling and profile
milling. These industries have to then be able to create these programs to me machined on a CNC
Mill or Router in 2, 3 and 4 Axis. Some even require 5 Axis CNC programming capabilities.
10. Seamless Integration with Popular CAD Design Products.

Some CAD-CAM providers have teamed up with highly popular CAD vendors such as SolidWorks
to create powerful CAM machining modules that integrate into the CAD software as a plug-in. This
allows existing CAD users to create the necessary machining for the part, simulate everything and
create the NC programs for them. This is highly beneficial, as the CAD users do not have to
completely re-learn a new CAD-CAM system; they only need to learn the machining side. By going
this way, a CAD Designer can acquire more value and seek more clients for being a full service
design and programming facility. Typically CAM products that plug-in to CAD systems can be
easier to learn and use after some training.
BASIC D
ESIGN PROCESS need: When someone realizes that problem exists, for which a product can be
designed.
Define the problem: Specify the item to be designed. This includes the cost, operating performance
and characteristics functions.
Synthesis: Each subsystem of the designed is thoroughly conceptualized and analyzed, and if some
shortcomings are ther
e, improve this with the help of software like CAD. Analysis and optimization: The product is
redesigned and analyzed again and again. This process will go on till the designed is optimized.
Evaluation of design: Measure and test the design as specified in the problem definition phase.
Tests are to be conducted on prototype model.
Presentation: Make the final drawing of the design by mentioning its material, size and assembly
list. It means a database of the design is created for manufacturing.
CAD/CAM Database
With the advent of the CAD and CAM software there has been integration of designing and
manufacturing processes. Just like computer aided designing (CAD) we have concept ofcomputer
aided manufacturing (CAM). CAD software enables direct link between CAD and CAM.
On its part CAD enables automation of designing, while CAM enables automation of manufacturing
processes. The combination of CAD and CAM enables automated transitionfrom designing to
manufacturing.
For the product that has been designed using the CAD software on computer, all the process planning
and management of the manufacturing operations for the manufacture of the product can be done by
the computer systems. All the data from the CAD systems can be directly used for the CAM systems.
The database created by the integration of CAD/CAM is also called as manufacturing database. It
includes all the data about the product generated during design like shape and dimensions, bill of
materials and part lists, material specifications etc. It also includes additional data required for the
manufacturing purposes.
Thus in the integrated CAD/CAM system the two processes of designing and manufacturing are
combine
d together. There is no time gap between the two processes and there is no duplication of efforts
required on the parts of designer and the production personnel. 7 Data ba The manufacturing
database and its management are major issues in CIM. The issues are complex but they are beginning
to be addressed in a number of ways, including schemes for organizing data, standards for product
data exchange and standards for communication protocols. The standards for product data exchange
are discussed and communication protocols have been discussed elsewhere. This ch nagement
The manufacturing database and its management are major issues in CIM. The issues are complex
but they are beginning to be addressed in a number of ways, including schemes for organizing data,
standards for product data exchange and standards for communication protocols. The standards for
product data exchange are discussed and communication protocols have been discussed elsewhere.
This ch nagement The manufacturing database and its management are major issues in CIM. The
issues are complex but they are beginning to be addressed in a number of ways, including schemes
for organizing data, standards for product data exchange and standards for communication protocols.
The standards for product data exchange are discussed and communication protocols have been
discussed elsewhere. This ch apter hence is devoted to the organization of data. 8 A major problem to
be solved to impleme
nt CIM has always been that of distributing information among different computer based systems. As
indicated in earlier chapters CIM is typically integration of islands of computer aided functions
running on different computers using different databases.
Joining those islands into an effective CIM enterprise requires proper methods of processing
information. Information, if it is to be useful, must be appropriate, machine-interpretable, and
available when and where it is needed.
FEATURES OF A DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
A database management system consists of a collection of interrelated data and a set of programs to
access that data. Database management involves:
Organize a database.
Add new data to the database.
Sort the data in some meaningful order.
Search the database for types of information.
Print the data into formatted reports.
Edit the data.
Delete the data.
DATABASE ADMINISTRATOR
The person responsible for managing the database is often referred to as database administrator. His
functions include:
Creating the primary database structure
Backing up and restoring data in case of crash
Modifying the structure
Transfer data to external files
Allocate and control user access rights
Monitoring performance
COMPARISON OF DATABASE AND TRADITIONAL FILE SYSTEMS

File system represents a tight coupling between physical data and users program. They lack almost
all the flexibilities offered by DBMS. Most of the indispensable facilities of DBMS of are, therefore
forced to be ab
sorbed
by users program. 9 In other words besid es the logic of the application the user has to provide logic
for constructing the logical view of data, has to interpret the operations on the logical view and
translate them in to the primitive file operations, and has to be responsible for maintaining the files
that store the physical data. The tight coupling and interdependence of between a users application
and the physical data would not allow sharing of the same data by other applications that may need to
view and manipulate them differently.
This then forces the data to be duplicated among various applications. File systems lack dynamism in
the sense that the application programs are designed, coded, debugged, and catalogued ahead of time
for the preconceived requests and applications. The following list summarizes the problems of file
systems that can be overcome by DBMS.
i. Data dependence
ii. Rigidity
iii. Static nature
iv. Lack of integration
v. Data duplication
vi. Inconsistency
vii. Difficulty in sharing information
viii. Inefficiency
ix. Inability to handle ado requests.

PRINCIPLES OF COMPUTER GRAPHICS

Traditionally drawings are prepared on plane drawing sheets. This has several limitations. The
sketches have to be made only in two dimensions. Though the depth can be represented by pictorial
projections like isometric and perspective projections, the projections have to be necessarily reduced
to two dimensions. Use of computer graphics has opened up tremendous possibilities for the
designer. Some of them are listed below:
Use of computer graphics has opened up tremendous possibilities for the designer. Some of them are
listed below: