CVEN2401 Week9 (1) Horizontal Alignment Part 2 Updated

CVEN2401
Sustainable Transport and Highway Engineering

Week 9: Horizontal Alignment (Part 2)
Kasun P. Wijayaratna
Review
Introduction - What is Geometric Design? (L7(1)) Assignment Progress Check
Design Standards (L7(1)) If you answer No to any of these
Road and Design Characteristics (L7(1)) questions, you need to catch up and get
organised!!!
Basic Kinematics (L7(1))
- Do you know what design group you
Speed Parameters (L7(2))
are in? Have you spoken to others in
Sight Distance (L7(2)) your design group?
Horizontal Alignment: Why do we need it? (L8(1)) - Have you or members in your group
Horizontal Alignment Design Procedure (L8(1)) downloaded and installed
Infraworks360?
Horizontal Alignment: Key Definitions (L8(1))
- Has your group developed a base
Stations and Chainage
model of the study area?
Design Controls for Horizontal Alignment
- Has your group completed an analysis
Critical components. of the existing road conditions using
Circular Curves and Superelevation Infraworks360?
Horizontal Curve Equation (L8(1)) - Has your group begun to test potential
horizontal alignments?
Stopping Sight Distance: Horizontal Curves (L8(1))
CVEN 2401: Sustainable Transport and Highway Engineering 2

Overview
Horizontal Alignment: Superelevation and
Cross Sections
Definition
Factors affecting Superelevation
Superelevation Design Procedure
Change in Superelevation
Length of Superelevation Development
Horizontal Alignment: Transition Curves
Definition: Why do we need it?
Transition Curve Design
Design Procedure The Overseas Highway, Florida Keys, USA
https://1amhsk.wordpress.com/2011/04/04/top-15-most-beautiful-roads-
Field Layout in-the-world-2/
Reference: Austroads Guide to Road Design

(AGRD) Part 3: Geometric Design

Horizontal Alignment: Superelevation
Definition of Superelevation:
The amount by which the outer edge of a curve on a road is banked above the
inner edge, i.e. the cross-sectional slope at a certain point on a road. (Week 8
Lecture)
Tilting of the roadway to help offset centripetal forces developed as the vehicle
goes around a curve
o (Source: http://techalive.mtu.edu/modules/module0003/Superelevation.htm)
Measured as a percentage: = 5% = 0.05 , for every 1m measured from the
inside edge of the road along the cross-section there is a 50mm increase in
elevation.
Curve on Superelevated Terrain

= angle of inclination
Superelevation rate :

= =
R

Factors affecting Superelevation
Austroads Guide to Road Design (AGRD) Part 3 - The superelevation applied to
a road should take into account:
o Operating (design) speed of the curve.
o Tendency of very slow moving vehicles to track towards the centre.
o Stability of high laden trucks where adverse cross-fall is considered, and
the need to increase superelevation on downgrades.
o Difference between inner and outer formation levels, especially in flat
country or urban areas.
o Length available to introduce necessary superelevation.

Superelevation Design Procedure (Section 7.7.1, AGRD Part 3)
Step 1: Select each curve radius to suit criteria and controls during horizontal
alignment design (Section 7.2, AGRD Part 3).
Step 2: Select the superelevation appropriate to the operating speed and the
curve radius using the linear distribution method in combination with Figure 7.7,
Figure 7.8 and Figure 7.9 (AGRD Part 3).
Step 3: Select or apportion the superelevation development length (Section 7.7.6
to Section 7.7.9, AGRD Part 3).
Step 4: Select the appropriate location for the superelevation development using
the advice in Section 7.7.10 and Section 7.7.11 (AGRD Part 3).
Step 5: Check the locations of flat spots, and take remedial action if required.
o Flat spots can be a drainage concern and should be remediated.
Step 6: Check the maximum depth of water flow through the superelevation
development and take any corrective action required (see also Step 5 above).

Step 2: Select the superelevation appropriate to the operating speed and the
curve radius using the linear distribution method in combination with Figure
7.7, Figure 7.8 and Figure 7.9 (AGRD Part 3).
Linear distribution method: a method to determine the balance between side
friction () and superelevation

=
+

= ,

Where:
: superelevation development length based on the rate of rotation criterion (m)
1 : superelevation value (m/m)
1, : rounded value of superelevation (nearest 0.5%) (m/m)
1 : coefficient of side friction
: maximum superelevation (Table 7.8, AGRD Part 3)
: maximum coefficient of side friction (Table 7.5, AGRD Part 3)
: operating speed (km/h)
= Curve radius (which is greater than (Table 7.6, AGRD Part 3) (radians/sec)

Maximum superelevation on different types of roads

Linear distribution method: a method to determine the balance between side
friction () and superelevation

=
+

= ,

If the values for 1, and 1 are less than the maximum values for
superelevation and side friction, then those values can be used for the design.
However, The subjective basis of the linear distribution method (and indeed
most other methods) and the practice of rounding the superelevation value,
allows a practical rationalisation to be made (AGRD Part 3)

Rural Road ( 80) : Relationship between speed, curve radius and superelevation

Rural Road ( < 80) : Relationship between speed, curve radius and superelevation

Urban Road ( < 90) : Relationship between speed, curve radius and superelevation

What is the cross-sectional slope for a straight section of road?
o A cross-fall is provided from the centreline to both edges of the pavement to
aid drainage of water away from the surface of the pavement. (normal
crown)
Remember the Week 7 Lecture: Water affects pavement properties which in turn
affect braking distances and overall stopping distances.
AGRD Part 3 suggests that normal cross-fall ranges from 2% to 3%, in general a
value of 3% is taken for sealed surfaces.
e%
3% 3%
How do we transition from normal cross-fall to full superelevation on the curve?

The cross-sectional slope can be altered (to develop the superelevation
necessary for a curve) about an axis of rotation (pivot) which is selected based
on:
o Type of road facility
o Total road cross-section adopted
o Terrain
o Location of the road
On a two-lane, two-way road, the superelevation is developed by rotating
each half of the cross-section about the carriageway centreline.
Two-Lane Two-Way Undivided Divided Road (narrow median) Divided Road (wide median)
Road Pivot: Centre line of median Pivot: Median edge of each
Pivot: Centre line carriageway

Figure 7.10 (AGRD Part 3)
Note: The guidelines use SSD for

stopping sight distance and start
of superelevation development.
Please refer to context in diagrams

Key definitions:
o Length of superelevation development
( ): Length required to transition cross-fall
from a normal roadway on a straight
alignment to that of a fully superelevated
cross-fall on a circular curve
o Tangent runout ( ): the length of roadway
required to accomplish the change in cross-
fall from a normal crown section to a flat
cross-fall.
o Superelevation runoff ( ): the length of
roadway needed to accomplish a change in
cross-fall from flat cross-fall to fully
superelevated cross-fall
= +
Centre line Centre line

Change in Superelevation: Superelevation Diagram
Tangent Runout = TS Superelevation Runoff = SC

= normal
cross-fall O.E.
(crown)
(2%-3%) =

= super-
2
elevation at
circular curve
C.L. 2
O.E : outside
edge of
pavement
I.E: inside
edge of I.E.
pavement
% % 0%

: Width of
carriageway
O.E. I.E.
Normal Crown O.E. Crown removed Crown Rate Full Superelevation

Change in Superelevation: Example
A horizontal curve is designed for a speed 100km/h joining two straight sections of a 2-
lane, two-way highway. Draw a schematic showing how the superelevation is
attained by rotating the road section around the centerline, and draw a cross
section of the road at a distance 20.0 m from TS.
Assume that the superelevation at the circular curve is 6%, the normal crown has a
cross-fall of 2%, and the width of the carriageway is 8.0 m. The length of the transition
curve is 80m (will learn how to calculate this length in the remainder of the lecture)

Change in Superelevation: Superelevation Diagram
Tangent Runout = TS Superelevation Runoff = = 80 SC

= 20m
O.E.
What is the 0.02
= = 80 = 26.667
cross-slope, 0.06
? 2
8
= 0.06
= 8 2
= 0.02 = 0.08 = 0.24
C.L. 2 2

20 = 80
0.06
= 0.015
Therefore slope
from C.L. to I.E.
O.E. is 1.5%
2% 2% 0% 2%
2%
O.E. I.E.
Normal Crown O.E. Crown removed Crown Rate Full Superelevation

Change in Superelevation: Example
= 1.5%
0.02 4 2%
+ 0.015 4 0.02 4
= . = .
Centre line Centre line

4m 4m
Outside Edge Centre line Inside Edge

Cross-Section lies in
between these two
phases
Cross-Section, 20m from TS

Length of Superelevation Development
By definition: = +
Therefore: =

Using geometry, =
+
Where:
: superelevation development length (m)
: superelevation runoff (m)
: Tangent runout (m)
1 : normal cross-fall (normal crown) (%)
2 : full superelevation cross-fall (%)
There are two approaches used in the AGRD Part 3, to determine

o Rate of Rotation ( )
o Relative Grade ( )
= ( , )

Length of Superelevation Development: Rate of Rotation ( )
The rate of rotation () of the pavement should not exceed 3.5% per second of
travel time at the operating speed.
radians
o = 3.5% = 0.035 for operating speeds < 80km/h
sec
radians
o = 2.5% = 0.025 for operating speeds 80km/h
sec
.
=

Where:
: superelevation development length based on the rate of rotation criterion (m)
= rate of rotation (radians/sec)
A rate of 3% per second is acceptable for higher speed roads and 4% for roads
constructed in mountainous terrain.

Length of Superelevation Development: Relative Grade ( )
The relative grade ( ) is the percentage difference between the grade at the
edge of the carriageway and the grade of the axis of rotation.
radians
o = 3.5% = 0.035 for operating speeds < 80km/h
sec
12.6
=

radians
o = 2.5% = 0.025 for operating speeds 80km/h
sec
9
=

o The relative grade calculated for the relevant rate of rotation is satisfactory
when it is less than the relevant maximum relative grade given in Table 7.10
(AGRD Part 3)
Where:
: relative grade (%)
= width from axis of rotation to outside edge of carriageway (m)


Where:
: superelevation development length based on the relative grade criterion (m)
: relative grade (%), from Table 7.10 or use calculated values for if < Table 7.10 values
= rate of rotation (radians/sec)

Length of Superelevation Development: Austroads values for designs

Transition curves are curves with changing radii, and are placed between
tangents and circular curves or between two successive circular curves.
o Tangent Transition Curve Circular Curve Transition Curve Tangent
o Circular Curve Transition Curve Circular Curve
o Tangent Transition Curve Transition Curve Tangent
Alignment with Transition Curves.

Transition curves are curves with changing radii, and are placed between
tangents and circular curves or between two successive circular curves.
Purpose:
o To provide a length over which steering adjustments can be made
(particularly between reverse curves).
o To facilitate positioning of the vehicle within narrower lane widths,
particularly in lower speed environments.
o To improve the appearance of the alignment, particularly in higher speed
environment, on large-radius curves that are visible at the end of a long
straight.
o To provide a length over which superelevation development can be applied.

Alignment and vehicle trajectory: The need for Transition Curves
R Difficult for drivers to

abide by this sudden
change in curvature
R
turning of steering wheel
Curvature
(= 1/R)
Wheel orientation Road alignment
straight circular

Without a Transition
curve this could
happen!
BANG!!
R
Curvature turning of steering wheel

(= 1/R)
Road alignment
straight circular

Without a Transition
curve this could
happen!
R
BANG!!
R
Curvature turning of steering wheel

(= 1/R)
Road alignment
straight circular

Transition curves are not necessarily required under these circumstances:
o Large radius horizontal curves (Table 7.3)
o Operating speeds less than 60km/h
o The associated shift in circular arc (needed for the transition length) is less
than 0.25m as drivers have sufficient room to make the transition path without
encroaching into an adjoining lane.
Though not always required, generally transition curves are provided for
aesthetics and comfort.

Transition Curve Design

Provide a road segment along which the lateral acceleration ( ) can be

developed gradually from 0 at the tangent to ( ) at the circular curve.

To have the acceleration development occur linearly over the distance, a family of
1
curves must be selected where the curvature ( ) varies linearly with distance:

Clothoids. A member of the Clothoids is the Spiral curve (reference to spiral
curve design).
Infinite Radius
: Curve radius (m)

: Point where alignment
shifts from Tangent to Spiral
: Point where alignment
shifts from Spiral to Circular
Curve
SC : Spiral Deflection angle
Tangent s
TS

Clothoids: Spiral Curve

Mathematical Properties:
o 2 = (where = spiral
parameter)
o is constant
o Increase of curvature is
proportional to length
o At the beginning and end both
elements must have a common
point and equal curvature

Clothoids: Spiral Curve
Let be the distance from TS to SC measured along the spiral (i.e. is the
spiral curve length).
1
o The curvature at some distance from TS is ( ) where is the radius of

the spiral curve at that point.
o As curvature changes linearly with distance:

= = =

o The constant in the above equation is labelled as 2 where is called the
spiral parameter (rate of lateral acceleration)
Once the value of is selected, a specific spiral has been chosen.
1
Since = , and as (radius of circular curve) has been selected earlier in
2
the design process, the length of the spiral ( ) can also be viewed as the single
parameter defining a specific spiral.

Clothoids: Spiral Curve Selecting the Value of
If is the design speed (m/s) and is the length of the spiral, a vehicle
travelling at will transition from an acceleration of 0 at point to 2 / at

point SC in time, = . Therefore:

.
= = =

Where: = design speed (km/h)
Considerations which influence the value of A are:

Aesthetics and Comfort: Drivers must make a
transition path of a length between 2 and 3

seconds ( 2 < = )

Superelevation Transition: Ensure that is
at least equal to the

Design procedure for spiral curves (AGRD Part 3, Section 7.5.4)
Step 1: Select each curve radius to suit criteria and controls during horizontal alignment
design (refer to Section 7.2).
Step 2: If the radius is less than the value shown on Table 7.3 for the operating speed, a
spiral may be required, go to Step 3.
Step 3: If circumstances make it difficult to provide a transition curve, consideration can be
given to the use of wider traffic lanes and/or sealed shoulders. However, it is likely that the
difficulty in fitting the transition is due to some other geometric parameter being
compromised.
Step 4: If the curve is on a loop or a braking area, the approach alignment should be
reviewed and made as straight as possible, without a spiral. Otherwise, continue to Step 5.
Step 5: Select the superelevation development length ( ) from Table 7.11 and calculate
the superelevation runoff length, .
Step 6: Use the greater of or length from Table 7.4 as the spiral length.
Step 7: Calculate the spiral shift from the formula in Appendix J (Equation A 20). If the shift
is less than 0.3 m (desirably 0.25 m for operating speeds > 100 km/h), no transition is
necessary.
Step 8: If convenient, round the spiral length up to the next 5 or 10 m. Calculate set out
points for the horizontal alignment at the required chainages.
Transition Curve Field Layout

Field Layout
After determining the
value of we need to
determine how the
transition affects the
layout of the curves.
The transition results in a
shift of the original curve
by a distance must be
calculated based on
Appendix J of the AGRD
Part 3.

Field Layout
Important parameters of the spiral curve include:

o Spiral angle at SC =

o Coordinates of points on the transition curve, and (assuming a distance
along the transition curve

=

=
(

o Shift of curve, =

o Distance to previous TC, =

o Tangent to TS, = + +

o Length of curve (SC to CS):

=


Field Layout
Spirals are laid out in the field in a manner similar to that for circular curves. In
this case, the TS is occupied by the transition, and successive points along the
spiral are established by turning deflection angles and measuring chords
For a point on a spiral whose coordinates have been calculated

o Deflection angle: =

o Chord: = +
Critical station points:
o =
o = +
o = +

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CVEN2401

Sustainable Transport and Highway Engineering

CVEN 2401: Sustainable Transport and Highway Engineering 2

Reference: Austroads Guide to Road Design

CVEN 2401: Sustainable Transport and Highway Engineering 3

CVEN 2401: Sustainable Transport and Highway Engineering 4

CVEN 2401: Sustainable Transport and Highway Engineering 5

CVEN 2401: Sustainable Transport and Highway Engineering 6

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CVEN 2401: Sustainable Transport and Highway Engineering 9

CVEN 2401: Sustainable Transport and Highway Engineering 10

CVEN 2401: Sustainable Transport and Highway Engineering 11

CVEN 2401: Sustainable Transport and Highway Engineering 12

How do we transition from normal cross-fall to full superelevation on the curve?

CVEN 2401: Sustainable Transport and Highway Engineering 13

CVEN 2401: Sustainable Transport and Highway Engineering 14

Note: The guidelines use SSD for

CVEN 2401: Sustainable Transport and Highway Engineering 15

CVEN 2401: Sustainable Transport and Highway Engineering 16

Tangent Runout = TS Superelevation Runoff = SC

CVEN 2401: Sustainable Transport and Highway Engineering 17

CVEN 2401: Sustainable Transport and Highway Engineering 18

Tangent Runout = TS Superelevation Runoff = = 80 SC

CVEN 2401: Sustainable Transport and Highway Engineering 19

Centre line Centre line

Outside Edge Centre line Inside Edge

CVEN 2401: Sustainable Transport and Highway Engineering 20

There are two approaches used in the AGRD Part 3, to determine

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Alignment with Transition Curves.

CVEN 2401: Sustainable Transport and Highway Engineering 27

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R Difficult for drivers to

CVEN 2401: Sustainable Transport and Highway Engineering 29

Curvature turning of steering wheel

CVEN 2401: Sustainable Transport and Highway Engineering 30

Curvature turning of steering wheel

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: Curve radius (m)

CVEN 2401: Sustainable Transport and Highway Engineering 33

Clothoids: Spiral Curve

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Considerations which influence the value of A are:

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