EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT DESIGN

OF STRUCTURES
 EARTHQUAKE
RESISTANT DESIGN
OF STRUCTURES

PANKAJ AGARWAL
Assistant Professor
Department of Earthquake Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee
and
HANISH SHRIKHANDE
Assistant Professor
Department of Earthquake Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee

,t.

Prentice.. Hall of Inelia [;tfRB~ [ljj[j]~

New Delhi-110001
2006
 To
Our Parents

Rs. 425.00

EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT DESIGN OF STRUCTIJRES

Pankaj Agarwal and Manlsh Shrikhande

It! 2006 by Prenti(",.;;-Hal! of India Private Limited, New Delhi. All rights reserved. No part of this book
may be repfOdoced in any iorm, by mimeograph or any other means:, without permission in writing
from the publisher,

'SBN-81-203-2S92-2

T'le export rights of thiS boCll\ are vested solely with the publisher.

Second Printing July. 2006 ~.

L
Puhlished by Asoke K Ghosh, Prentice-Hall of lndia Private limited, Mw97, Connaughl Circus,
New Delhi-110001 and Printed by Jay Print Pack Private Limited, New Delhi"110015,
 Contents

Preface .................................................... ,.. ,......................... , ............... ,... , ................... , ........ xxi

Contributors .................. ,., .... ,......... ,............... ,....... ,... , .. ,...................... ,...... ..................... ,nv

Part I
EARTIlQUAKE GROUND MOTION
1. Engineering Seismology ._...._................................_..................... 3-44
1.1 Introduction ... ,... ., ............. ,................ ,............ ,............. ., ....... ,....... ." ...... ." .. . ............... 3
1.2 Reid's Elastic Rebound Theory ...... " ....... ",., ................ ", ..... _., ............. " ......................... 3
1.3 Theory of Plate Tectonics ................................................................................................. 4
1.3.1 Lithospheric Plates ........................... ., ........... ., .................. " ............... ,.................. 6
1,3.2 Plate Margins and E.a.rtllquake Occun:ences .. ,. ... ,....... _..... ,... " .............. , .. __ .... " .... 7
1.3.3 The Movement of Indian Plate"."... .. ............... """ ........... ,, ................... , 9
1.4 Seismic Waves .............. " .. " ................ " ... ,..... .. .................... 10
1.4.1 Body Waves." .............. ., .......,., ................. 10
1.4.2 Surface Waves .. " .................... . ................................. I J
1,5 Ear[hquake Size .............. __ ... .. ...... " .......... ,." .. ,.......... " .......... ,. .................. ,.... , ] 3
1.5.1 Intensity .... " .......................................... ,. ...... ,. ................. " ............. ,." ................. 13
1.5.2 lsoseismal Map ...................................................................................................... 18
1.5.3 Earthquake Magnitude ................................................................................... 18
1.5.4 Energy Released in an Earthquake ..... ,............... " .......... "," ............................... 23
1.5.5 EarthqUake Frequency........... ......................... ................... 23
1.6 Local Site Effects ............................................ .................... 24
1.6.1 BasinlSoil Effects." ............................................................................................ 24
J ,6.2 Lateral Discontinuity Effects ....... ,... ,.... ,... . .27
1.6.3 Effect of the Surface Topograpby ....... . .......................... "., ................. 28
i.

L
 444.... (=CQ~n~'~.n~t~s==================--------------____________________
~=-------------========~
Contents )
r.7 lnternaI Structure of the Earth
4.2 Terminology of Strong Motion Seismology .............................................................. 73
1.7.1 Crust ................................ ::::::::::: .. ::::::::::::.::::::::::.::............................................. 30
L7.2 Upper Mantle .............................................. 30 4.2.1 Amplitude Parameters ........................................................................................... 73

J. ~ l:,L~::~~:;~~>: .: : : : : :: : :: : :. : : : "': : : :. : : : .: : : : :. ': '.: il

1.9 Seismicity of India ....................................................................................................... 32
J.lD Classification of Earthquake; ................................................................................... 34
4.2.2 Duration of Strong Motion ................................................................................. 74
4.2.3 Fourier Spectrum ................................................................................................. 74
4.2.4 Power Spectrum ..................................................................................................... 75
4.2.5 Response SpeCtnml ............................................................................................... i6
4.2.6 Seismic Demand Diagrams ................................................................................... 79

:.:~fFt~;;;~7i:i=.;;~:~:;-;;:;::;;:;-:-: 11
4.2.7 Spatial Variation of Earthquake Ground Motion .............................................. 80
4.2.8 Damage Potential of Earthquakes ....................................................................... 81
Summary ................................................................................................................................ 86
References "", ................... ,......................._... ".... ,.... "............................................................... 86
Glossary Of EarthquakelSeis;uology ... "...... 38
References ................................................................................................................................................................:..::.:.. :..:. ::..::..::.:: ::::. 38
Ii. Evaluation of Seismic Design P ....ameters ................ m ............ 88-107
41 5.1 Introduction ., ................................................ ,", .................. ,........... " ................................. &8
2. Seismic Zoning Map of India .._. _.._.... __ ..._.... 45-58 5.2 Types of Earthquakes ...................................................................................................... 88

;:~ ~~~~c~M"',,,'", ....... ".................,....... "......................................, 45

5.2.1 Intensity ................................................................................................................. 89
5.2.2 Magnitude .............................................................................................................. 89

~ f[f~2~;;;:(-;~S-~--;~j2j~-_~-H
5.3 Fault Rupture Parameters .................................................................................................. 90
504 Earthquake Ground Motion Charaeteristics ..... ",., ..... ,"", ...... ,', ..................................... 91
5.4.1 AmplitUde Properties .......................................................................................... 91
5.4.2 Duration ................................................................................................................. 93
5.4.3 Effect of Distance .................................................................................................. 93
2.6 Seismic Zone Map of 2002 ................................................................... 52 5.4.4 Ground Motion LeveL ...................................................................................... 96
2.7 Epilogue.. .. ............................................................................................ 56
, .................... , ... . 5.4.5 Geographical. Geophysics and Geotechnical Data ............................................ 96
'" ........ ,', .............. ., .......... ,., .. ,. .. , .... -.. ,.......... " .. 56
SummorJ' 5.5 Detenninistic Approach .................................................................................................... 97
Rejeren(es .................................... ,', ..... ,.. ,.. ,.... ,.......................... ,.................. " ........ ,", .... ." 58
5.6 Probabilistic Approach ..................................................................................................... 98
58
5.6.1 Example ............................................................................................................... 100
Strong
3. 3 Motion Studies in India ......................... m ......................... 59-69 5.7 Response Speetra ............................................................................................................. 101
.1 Introduction 5.8 Design Spectrum .............................................................................................................. 101
3.2 vnderSlandin~.. ili~N;~~;~ ~fG~undM~~~~s .. ........... "............"...........................
59
Summary ,.. ,', .... ,.... ,', ... ," .. " ... .,., ......... " .......................... " ....... "... ..,., .. ,", .. ,.. " ...... 105
3.2.1 Source Effect .................... ,..... .. ............ 60
References ....................................... ................................. ................... .. ........... 106
3. 2.2 Path EffccL.::::::::.:::::: .... ...... ....... ...... ............... ........ 60
3 .2 .3 Site Effect ................................................................ 62
Part II
3.3 Esrimation of Ground Moo P 63
3.4 Tbe Indian PeTS tive on arameters .......... " ............... "" .................................... " 64 STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS
3.5 Utilizalion of S=g M~ti~~.,D~~~"' ...... "..........'....." ...........,..................................
65
Summary ................ .. ...................... " ........ """ .............. ", ......... " ....... ,,, ... 65 6. Initiation into Structural Dynamics ......................................... 111-114
.............. ,,'
Rcfcrettces ................. . .......................................... 66 6.1 Introduction .............................. ,.... .,., ...... ""', .... ,'.", .. ,' ................................................... , 111
........................................................................................... ......... 66 6.2 Mathematical Modelling ................................................................................................ 112
4. Strong Motion Chal'llctel'istics .......................................................................................................................... 114
4. 1

Introdu:::tlOn .................. .. ............................
U.h........H. . . ...... ~ u ~ . . . . . . . . . o.a_ .. 70--87
Summary
References .................. " ...... " ......... ,........................ _"." ...... ,"" .... " ................... u, ........ " ......... 114
.. .... .. .. .. .... .. .. ...... .. ................... 70

L
_ (Contents
..................................... 146
10.3 Response Speerra ............................................................. ..
7. Dynamics of Single Degree of Freedom Systems ................ 1l5-128
7.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 115 10.3.1 ~~:~~~~~iti~ii;;;. R~~;::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: :151~~
. : . : . .: : : : :~ ~ .: ~: :~ :~: :~: :~: ~: : ~ ~ ~ ~ :~ 1~~
7.2 Free Vibration of Viscous-Damped SooF SyStems ..................................................... I I 6 10.3.2 ..

7.2.1
7.2.2
Underdamped Case (~< 1) ................................................................................. 118
Critically-damped Case (~= 1) .......................................................................... 118 19'~:; ~::~n~;:;::~~::.::.:.:::::
7.2.3 Overdamped Case (~> I) ................................................................................... 118 Summary ............................................~............................. 155
References .................. ,., .. ,.... ..
.................................................................................
7.3 Forced Vibrations of SOOF Systems ............................................................................. 120
7.3.1 Response of SDOF Systems to Harmonic Excitations ..................................... 120 Dynamics of Mnlti_Degree-of-Freedom Systems .................. 157-188
7.3.2 Excitation by Base Motion ................................................................................ 122 11. 157
7.3.3 Response of SDOF Systems to a FInite Duration Excitation ......................... 122 11.1 Introduction .................... ~ .................................................................................................. 158
11.2 System Property Matrices ............................................................................................. 159
7.3.4 Response of SDOF Systems to a Short Duration Impulse .............................. 124
113 Dynamics of Two Degree of Freedom Systems .......... ,. ... " .................. ,., ., ............. ,. .... 162
7.3.5 Response of SooF Systems to General Dynamic Excitation .............. ,""" ...... J 25 J 1A Free Vibration Analysis of MDOF Systems ........... ,.. " ................ "P. . ........... " ....... .
7.4 Vibration Isolation ..................................................................... "" .............. ", .. ,", ........ 126 11.4.1 Orthogonality Conditions ............................................................................... 163
Summary .............................................................................................................................. 128 165
11.5 Determination of Fundamental Frequency ................................................................. , 165
References ............................................................................................................................. 128
11.5.1 Rayleigh Quotient ........................ ...... ...... .. ................................................. 165

8. Tbeory of Seismic Pickups .......................................................... 129-136 :;;:; ~::;~~:t~:~i~~;M~d;::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::

................................... 169
166
8.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 129 11.6 Forced Vibration Analysis ...................................................... -
8.2 The Physics of Operation ............................................................................................... 129 11.6.1 Mode-superposition Method .................................................................. ~ ........ ; ~~
8.3 Which Parameter to Measure? ........................................................................................ 131 11.6.2 Excitation by Support Motion ........................................................................ 5
8.4 Seismometers ...... ,.."" ...... ,........... .,.,,, ............................................................................... 132 11.6.3 Mode Truncation .............................................................................................. :;;,
8.4.1 Displacement Pickups ......................................................................................... 132 11.6.4 Static Correction for Higher Mode Response ................................................ 1-7
8.4.2 Velocity Pickups ................................................................................................. 132 Model Order Reduction in Structural Dynarmcs ....................................... ................ I
11.7. ~_.' . .. .... 178
8.5 Accelerometers ....................................................~ ............................................................ 133 11.8 Analysis for Multi-Support ""cltabOn .................................................................. 181
11,9 Soil-StrUcture Interaction Effects ., ..................... " .......... ,',., .................... " .................. .
8.5.1 Servo-accelerometers ..................... " .. ,.... ,............. ", ... ,....................................... 135 11.9.1 Dynamic Analysis including SSl Effects ....................................................... 1~;

~:;:n;es ~ 87
8.5.2 Calibration of Accelerometers ........................................................................... 136
Summary .............................................................................................................................. 136 :::::::::::::::::::'::::::::::::::::::::::.:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::.:::::::::::::::.:::::
References ............................................................................................................................. 136
Pari m
9. Numerical Evaluation of Dynamic Response ........................ 137-143 CONCEPTS OF EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT DESIGN OF
9.1 Kumerical Solution Based on Interpolation of Excitation ..,.......... ..... _137 REINFORCED CONCRETE BUILDING
9.2 Numerical Solution Based on Approximation of Derivatives ,.. _................. " ............. 139
Stability and Accuracy Consider.tions ......................................................................... 141
12. Earthquake and Vibration Effect on structut:es:
9.3 06
Summary ............................ .. ...................................................................................... 143 El ts f Earthquake Resistant DeSIgn ................ 191-2
BaSIC emen 0
Ref<'rences ............................................................................ ~ ................................................ 143 .................... ...................... .................... 191
12.1 Introduction ........................ " ................. ,.. .... ,.......... ,"'" ... 192
12.2 Static and Dynamic Equilibrium ....................... ........ .... .... .. .......... 194
10. Response Spectra ............................................................................ 144-156 12.3 Structural Modelling . 194
10.1 Introduction .................... ~.~ .............................. ~ ............................................................... 144 12.3.1 Structural Models for Frame Building ..................... ...... .......... .... ........ .. .
10.2 Fourier Spectra ................. ~ .............................................................................................. 144

ii$'ii (~C~o~n~t~en=t~8__________________________________________________~
12.4 Seismic Methods of Analysis.. .................................................................................... 196
12.4.1 Code-based Procedure for Seismic Analysis .................................................. 191
12.5 Seismic Design Methods ............................................................................................... 198
12.5.1 Code-based Methods for Seismic Design ....................................................... 198
12,6 Response Control Concepts ........... ,.............. ,......................................... ., ...... ,.... " ... .", 199
12.6.1 Earthquake Protective Systems ....................................................................... 200
12.7 Seismic Evaluation and Retrofitting .................... "" ................................... ,", ...... _." .. 201
12.7.J Methods for Seismic Evaluation ..... ,............. ,', ........ ",.", ....... ,,, ........ ,, ............ 202
12.7.2 Methods for Seismic Retrofitting ................................................................... 203
12.8 Seismi{; Test Methods ., ..... " ..... "''' ..... "''" .......... ",,............. ,.204
J 2.S,! Methods for Seismic Testing ... ,.................... .,.",,, ....... ,,,, ......... ,, .... ". 204
Summar,v
........................................................... .. .. ............... 205 SUI1IJ1Ulry
Referen.ces
................. ...................................................................................... 205
lc
==::========::========::=================-=-~____~C~o~n~t.~n~'s~) ""."
14.2 Vertical Irregularities ..................................................................................................... 221
14.2.1 Vertical Discontinuities in Load Path .............. "............................................ 227
14.2.2 Irregularity in Strength and Stiffness ............................................................. 230
:::;:! ~:~rre~~:~ .i;;:;;;;;j;;;;-~.:::: .:::::::::::::::::::::::::::.::::::::::::::::::::::.:::::: ;~;
14.2.5 Proximity of Adjacent Buildings .................................................................... B3
14.3 Plan Configuration Problems ........................................................................................ 234
:!.~:~ ~::EJ~7:::::.:.:.:.::: . : : .: .:.: : : ::.: .: : . . .:.:. . . . .: :. .: .: . :. . .:.:. .: ~~~
14.3.4 Diaphragm Discontinuity ............................................................................... 237
]4.4 Recommendations ........................................................................................................ 237
.... ,., ... " ................. ,., ............................................................................ 238
References "" ....... " .......... ,." .. ..................................................................... 238

13. Identification of Seismic Damages in RC Buildings

15. Seismoresistant Building Architecture ... _..__......................... 289-248
during Bhuj EarthqUake _....._......._...._m _ 207-225
~::~:~ R;;~;~~~s;~;;;;;::::::.:. . .:.: ::. .~.:::.:.::::::::.:::::.,:. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
d . ................................... 239
13,1 Introduction
13.2 Reinforced Concrete BuHding Construction Practices ........... " .......... ,................ ,..... 208
207
:;:;
:~~.~
13.3 ldemification of Damage in RC Buildings ............................................. " ...." ............ 210 Moment Resisting Frame ." .... " ..... ,", ... ,....... ,.... " .. ,.".,' ........ ,.... ,....... ,', .. ,......... 240
Building with Shear Wall or Bcaring Wall System ...................................... 240
13.3.1 Soft Storey Pailure ............................................................................................ 211
15.2.3 Building with Dual System ............................................................................. 240
13.3.2 Pioating Columns ............................................................................................. 212
13.3.3 Plan and Mass 1rregularity ............................................................................... 21:; 15.3 Building Configuration ............................................................................................... 241
13.3.4 Poor Quality of Construction Material and Corrosion of Reinforcement .. 214 15.3.1 Problems and Solution, ..................................... ,.......................................... 24 I
13.3.5 Pounding of Buildings ..................................................................................... 215
15.4 Building Characteristics .. ,... " ....... ,.. " ...... ,......................... " .. ,.. ,... ,... ,., ...... ,"',., .......... " 243
13.3.6 lnconsistenl Seismic Performance of BuHdings ................................... 216
,,"< . . . . ,

13A Damage to Structural Elements .................................................................................... 217 15.4.1 Mode Shapes and Fundamental Period ......................................................... 243
J3.5 Damage to !'1on~Structural Panel Elements ..... ,....... , .. ,................ ,....... ,.", ................... 2J9 15.4.2 Building Frequency and Ground Period ...................................................... 244
D . ................................ 244

:~:~:; ~:!~~;~~i~~t::::::.:.::.:.:.::.:.:. . . : :.::.:. :: :': :'.: :.: : ': : : : : : : : .: :::::: ~:~

13.5.1 Damage to lalill Walls............ ....................................... . ................... 219
13.5.2 Damage to E'terior Walls ................................................................................ 220
1.1.6 Damage to Water Tank and Parapets ...................................................................... 220
13.7 Damage [0 Vertical Circulation Systems....... ."."................ ..,_. .... 221 15.4.6 HyperstaticilylRedundancy ............................................................................. ~45
15.4.7 Non-stn.lctural Elements ................................................................................... ":5
13.7.1 Damage to Staircase ............................ " ....... ,,"'........ . .... 221
f3.7.2 Damage to Elevator ........... ''' ........................ , ........................ ,........ ......... 222 1548 Foundation SoiJiLiquefaction ................................... ::::.:::: .:.... .... ;4:
15,4.9 Foundations ...... ,........................................................ ,...... ",'
13.8 Effect of Eanhquake on Code Designed Structures .................... "" ...... ,.............. " .. 222
. 1s .... ,... "., ..... ,., .......... ,............ , ................ ,
15.5 Quality of Construction an d Matena ..... 246
! 3.9 Lessons Learnt from Damages of RC BUildings ......................................................... 223
Summary 224 15.5.1 Quality of Concrete........... ..... .......... .......... ........... ... ....... ..... ........ 247
Rejerencr?1 ..... "................. " ............................................. ,,,.,, ........... ,, ........... ,, """""'" 224 J5.5.2 Construction Joints .... ,.... ,', ... ,.,.,., .......... ,', ......... ".' ...................... ,,', ....... ,',., .. .
J5,5.3 General Detailing Requirements ,.""" ................................... " .................. " .... 247
14. Effect of Structural Irregularities on the Performance Summary ................................... 248
of RC Buildings during Earthquakes ...................................... 226-288 References ................................. 248
~ 4.1 h't(ruduc;ioll ................. ,................................................................................ . 226 ('

,I
L
 Part IV 18.4
SEISMIC ANALYSIS AND MODEIJJNG OF
REINFORCED CONCRETE Bun.DING
16. Code Based Procedure Cor Determination oC Design
lteral wads u .................u . u u,. . , . _...._ . . . . . ._ ............_ ............"". . .~...... H ......... _. 251-281
J6.J Jntroduction .................................................................................................................... 25J
16.2 Seismic Design Philosophy ........................................................................................... 251
16.3 Detenninmion .of Design Lateral Forces ...................................................................... 252
16.3.1 Equivalent La~ral Foree Procedure ............................................................... 253
16.3.2 Dynamic Analysis Procedure ........................................................................... 259
SwrtmJry ........................................................................................................................... 280
References .... """,." ........... ,..... ,.,.,.,.,., ................. ".~.... ,.................................................... '" 280

17. Consideration oC Infill Wall in Seismic Analysis o(

Be Buildings u ............................................... u ~
n . n ..... ........ 282--291 19.1
19.2
17.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 282
17.2 Structural and Constructional A,peelS of InfIlls ......................................................... 282 .
17.3 Failure Mechanism of lnftlled Frame ........................................................................... 283
17.4 Analysis of Inftlled Frames ........................................................................................... 284
17.4.1 Equivalent Diagooal Strut ............................................................................... 285
Sumlnary ......................... n'""' ....................... "" ................................................................. 290 19..3
References ........................... ,'''', .. ", .. ,.............. ,'', .......................................... ,.......... ,. .......... 290 19.4
19.5
18. Step-by-Step Procedure Cor Seismic Analysis oC a Four-
storeyed RC Building as per IS 1893 (Part 1): 2002 .......... 292-826
18.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 292
18.2 Equivalent Static Lateral Force Method ..................................................................... 293
18.2.1 Step 1: Calculation of wmped Masses to Various Floor Levels ............... 293
18.2.2 Step 2: Detennin.tion of Fundamental Natural Period ................................ 294
18.2.3 Slep 3: Detennination of Design Base Shear ................................................ 294
18.2.4 Step 4: Vertical Distribution of Bas. Shear ....................................................... 295
18.3 Response Spectrum Methed .......................................................................................... 296 Part V
A: Frame without Considering the Stiffness of lnftlls ............................................... " .. ". 296 EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT DESIGN (ERn)
J8.3.1 Step 1: Determination of Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors ............................. 296 OF REINFORCED CONCRETE BUlLDINGS
18.3.2 Step 2: Determination of Modal Participation Factors .................................. 299
18.3.3 Slep 3: Delennination of Modal Mass ............................................................. 299 20. Ductility Considerations in EarthqUBke Resistant
18.3.4 Step 4: Detennination of Lateral Force at Each Floor in Each Mode ........ 300 Design of Re Buildings ................................................................ 341-370
J 8.3.5 Step 5: Determination of Storey Shear Forces in Each Mode ....................... 30 I
18..3.6 Step 6: Detennination of Storey Shear Force due to All Modes ................. 302 20.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................................ ;~~
18.3.7 Step 7: Determination of Lateral Forces at F=h Storey ................................. 304 20,2 Impact of Ductility ....................... " ... ,..... -_................................... 342
20.3 Requirements for Ductility ,,, ....... ,., ... ,,."-"_ ... _.. ,, ..
B: Frame Considering the Stiffness of Infills ....................................................................... 305
 .U. ( 0,,"0,,":.:'''''='::.'_ _ _ _ _ _ __

20A Assessment of Ductility ................................................................................................ 342

"':=J (~------------------------------------------------CC~on~.~.;n.~s) ii"'"
23.3 Step-by-Step Procedure for Capacity BII.SI!d Design ................................................... 409
20.4.1 MemberlElement Ductility .............................................................................. 343
23.3.1 S",I' I: Seismic Analysis of Frame (0+3) ...................................................... 409
20A.2 Structural Ductility ........................................................................................... 345
23.3.2 Step 2: Determination of Flexural Capacity of Beams ...........:..................... 412
20.5 Factors Affecting Ductility ............................................................................................ 346 23.3.3 Step 3: Establishing a Strong Column-Weal: Beam Me.::hamsrn ............... 414
20.6 Ductility Factors ............................................................................................................ 347 23.3.4 Step 4: Determination of Moment Magnification Facto", for Columns ..... 415
20.7 Ductile Detailing Considerations as per IS 13920: 1993 .......................................... 348 23.3.S Step 5: Capacity Design for Shear in Beoms ................................................ 411
Summary ........................................................................................................................... 370 23.3.6 Step 6: Capacity Design for Shear in COlumns.. ........................................... 418
References ., ...................................... ,.",.", .............,........................... ., .. "",., ...................... 370 23.3.7 Step 7: Detailing of Reinforcements ..............................................................
419
21. Earthquake Resistant Design of a Four.storey Summary ............................................................................................................................ 421
References ........... ,................ __ .............................................................................................. 421
RC Building Based on IS 13920: 1993 ............................._._._ 371-391 Appendix 1: Beam Flexural Capacity Calcu/aJion as per Design Aid 1S456: 1978 ...... 422
21.1
IntroduClion .................. "" .......................................................... ., .................................. 371 Appendix 2: Determilwtwn of Moment Magnification Factor a1 Every Joint ..... "." ..... 423
21.2
Preliminary Data for Example Frame ........................................................................... 371
21.3 Loading Data 373
21.4 Part VI
Analysis of Subframe 4-4.. ........................................................................................ 373
EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT DESIGN (ERD)
21.4.1 Dead Load Analy';s ......................................................................................... 373
21.4.2 Live (Imposed) Load Analysis ........................................................................ 375
OF MASONRY BUILDINGS

21.5
21.4.3 Earthquake Load Analysis ............................................................................... 376 , 24. Identification of Damages and NonDamages in
21.6
~:~nC:~~~~~:..:k::~. ::.:::. .::: . . :: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .:. . . :. ::::::::::::::::::::::::: ;~~ 1
f
.. Masonry Buildjngs from Past Indian Earthquakes ........_.427-448
21.6. J
21.6.2
Design of a Flexure Member ........................................................................... 382
Design of Exterior Columns ............................................................................ 385 ;::~ ~:~tO~~i~n~~~~~.::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::;;
24.3 Features of Damages and Non-damages ....................................................................... 429

II
21.6.3 Design of Interior Columns ............................................................................. 387
21.6.4 Detailing of Reinforcements ............ " .................. " ....................... ,.............. ,,"' 389 24.3.1 Bhuj Earthquake, January 26. 2001 ............................................................... 4429
Summary 24.3.2 Chamoli Earthquake, March 29. 1999 ........................................................... 31
............................................................................................................................ 390
References 24.3.3 Jabalpur E3J!hquake. May 22. 1997 ............................................................... :33
............................................................................................................................ 391
24.3.4 Kiliarl Earthqnal:e. September 30.1993 ........................................................ 36
22. 24.3.5 Uttarkashi Earthquake. October 20. 1991 ...................................................... 4/~
Earthquake Resistant Design of Shear Wall as per
24.3.6 Bihar-Nepal Earthquake. August 21. 1988.................................................... 4

i!; I
IS 13920: 1993 ......-................................... _ ..-.................... 392-403

;; ~ ~~~~~~~i~~n~;:B~;i~i;~:::.::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::':::::::::::::::::.:: ,
;::~ ~~:~~:::~~~;...::::.::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
Summary
:::
........................................................................................ 445
22.3 DeterminatIon of Design Lateral Forces ................................................. " .................. , 393 ...................... "",, .................... ,....... 446
R ,e'r'nees ....... " ...... " ,.......... "
;i:: ~!r::n~f!h:!~!~~~~~;.::.::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::.:::::::::.:. . : ..........
5;um.mary
397
............. 402
403
'GJ~.. .." .. ,"", ....... , , ............................................ .

Appendix 1: M.zafJarabad Earthquake of October 8.2005 ............................................. 446

Re/I?rrnccs
403
25. Elastic Properties of Structural Masonry .............................. 449-462
23. Capacity Based Design-An Approach for Earthquake 25.1 Intro~uctinn .................................................................................................................... 449
25.2 Materials for Masonry Construction ............................................................................ 449
Resistant Design of Soft Storey RC Bulldin 04-4
gill .... ........... 4 24 449

~Hi E*::::::::. .:: :.: : : : :: : . :.: : : : : : : :: : .: : : : : : : : :.: : : : :.: : : : : : : : : : : : : :;~

23.1
Jntroduction ....... ,................................................ " ....... ,.................. " ...................... ,....... 404
23.2
Preliminary Data for (0+3) Plane Frame ....................................................................... 405
23.2,1 Determination of Loads
,t 25.2.4 Reinforcement ................... .......................................................................... 451
................................................................................... 406 [
t
L
 c___ ._ _ _ _ _ _ _ _....~.... _ . Content~) . , .

28.2 Components of Seismic Evaluation Methodology ........................................ .... .... 506

25.3 Elastic Properties of Masonry Assemblage ................................................................. 452
Condition Assessment for Evaluation ............. " ...................... ,................ ,." .. 506
i~:~:; ~~;:~.~=~~:"ngth ...................................................................................... 452 28.2.1
28.2.2
Field EvaluationNi.ual Inspection Method ................................................. 509

25.3.3 Shear Strength ... S.'::'~~.::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: :~~ 28.2.3

28.2.4
Concrete Distress and Deterioration Other than Earthquake ....................... 519
Non.de,\rUctive Testing (NDT) ....................................................................... 519
Summary
References ...................................................................... .. .. ".,",." ....................................... 460 ............................................................................................................................ 522
.......... ," .......... ,"', ..................... ,., .......... ,.,.,., ... ,., .................................... ,... 460 Summary
........................................................................................................................... 522
References
26. Lateral Load Analysis of MasoDrY Buildin'gs .. _ _ - 463-485 29. Seismic Retrofitting Strategies of Reinforced
Concrete Buildings ......... _.................... _._................................... - 524-555
i~:~ =:~:;J;;;;i~;.dA~;;j~;;;;;tM;;; . 'ii'uil..:;fu;gs..
nry
............................ 463
..................................... 464 29.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 524
;~:;:; ~:;: ~~:~r::~~~o~f ~a~~:-d. ..............................................
2623 S 3 D' ces ............................................................ 468
465 29.2 Consideration in Retrofitting of Structures ..... , ... ,',....... .............
29.3 Source of Weakness in RC Frame Building ............................................................... 528
................. , 528

26'2'4 step 4: eterm;nation of Rigidity of Shear Wall ......................................... 470 29.3.1 StrUctural Damage due to Discontinuou. Load Path .................................... 529
. _ tep: Deternunation of Direct $hear Forces and Torsional 29.3.2
structural Damage due to Lack of Deformation ............................................ 529

26.2.5 ~::;5;~~~~i~~~ij;;;:;:.;;;;i~A~;;;jr;;;dD~~;;;O~~;;;;;~::::::: :;~ 29.3.3 Quality of Workman.hip and Material.......................................................... 533

26.2.6 Step 6. Wall. Subjected to Out-of-plane Bending ....................................... 483
Summary
References ., ....... ,,""', ................................. ., ................. ., ............................................ " .. " ... 484
............................................................................................................................ 485
27. Seismic Analysis and Design of Two-storeyed
Masolll")7 Bwldings ~",_" ....".~"."".u~"",.".""".""""""."""._"."".,"",.""."" 486-602
29.4 Classification of Retrofitting Techniques ................................................................... 533
29.5 Retrofitting Strategies for RC Buildings ................................................ .................... 535
29.5.1 S\rUCturai Level (or Global) Retrofit Method............................................... 535
29.5.2 Member Level (or Local) Retrofit Methods .................................................. 541
.29.6 Comporative Analysis of Methods of Retrofitting ..................................................... 550
Summary ........................................... "" ............................................. " ......................... ,,.,. 553
Reference,~ .............. ,....... ,', .............................................. ,.... ,......................................... ,..... 553

~;:~ ~~~~1~;::::=~~~~:~i:~::::::~~:=:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: :~~ 30. Seismic Retrofitting of Reinforced Concrete

27.4 Step 2: Determination of walfru iditi ........................................................... 488 Buildings-Case Studies ..__ ....................................................m 556-575
27.5 Step 3: Determination of TorsionJ FO.:".... .... ...................... .. .. .................. 489
27.6 Step 4' Det . . In ................................................................. 492 Introduetion ................................................................................................................... 556
30.1
27.7 Step 5:
De=~:~:: ofc;:",~:~ Load duedt~:ertuming ....................... 495 30.2
Methodology for Sei.mic Retrofitting of RC Building ........................ :.................. 557
27.8 Step 6: Design of Shear Wall, f A
'a10~ts ~ Mar ........................................ 498 30.3 Case Study 1: Seismic Retrofitting of RC Building with Jacketing and
Shear Walls .................................................................................................................... 558
27.9 Step 7: De.ign of Shear Wall. f : Sh" an aments ................................... 500
27.10 Step 8: Structural Detail. .. ear ..................................................................... 500 Case Study 2: Seismic Retrofitting of RC Building with 'Bracing and
30.4
Shear Wall ..................................................................................................................... 560
~:;:,;es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : . : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :': : : : : : : ".:.:.: .: : .: : : : : : : : ~~~ 30.5
Case Study 3: Sei.mic Retrofitting of RC Building with Steel Bracing ................ 562
Ca.e Study 4: Sei.mic Retrofitting of RC Building by Jacketing of Frame......... 564
.............................................................................................. 502 30.6
30.7
Case Study 5: Sei.mic Retrofitting of RC Building with Shear Walls and
Jacketing ........................................................................................................................ 565
Part VII Case Study 6: Sei.mic Retrofitting of RC Building by Adding Frames ................ 567
SEISMIC EVALUATION AND RETROFITI'lNG OF 30.8
30.9
Case Study 7: Seismic Retrofitting of RC Building by Steel Bracing and
REINFORCED CONCRETE AND MASONRY BUILDINGS lofill Walls ................................................................................................................... 568
Case Study 8: Seismic Retrofitting of RC Building with Shear Wall................... 570
30.10
28. !e=~ E~aluation of Reinforced Concrete Buildings: ea.e Study 9: Seismic Retrofitting of RC Building by Seismic Base loolation .. ' 571
c Approach .......... h ................ u ................................................ 505-523
30.11
30.12
Case Study 10: Seismic Retrofitting of RC Building by Viscous Damper ............ 573
........................................................................................................................... 574
28.1 Introduction ......... .. ....................................... 505 Summary ...... ,............. 575
References

l
 31. Seismic .Provisions for Improving the Performance of
Non-engtneered Masonry Construetion with
Experimental Verifications - . __._ _. ___..... _...... _. __576--590
; ~.~ ~troduction .. . H H " " " " ' H " ' H ' " H ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ""H'''''HH'''''''''HHH'H 576
31', S nl~enaFfor Eartbqualre Resistant Provisions ""'''''''''HHH''''''''''H'''''HH''HH'HH''''H"." 577
.... a lent eatures of Earthquake Resistant Provisions
31.4 Seismic Siren thenin F "H""H"''''''''H'''''''''''''''''''''''''H 577

31.5 Experimental terific:tiO::~~d~i"p~~:":""""""'"''''''''''-'''''''''''

31,5.1 Features of Mode
",,.,,,.577
lSlOns ................................................. , ........ 582
.." .. ... "... Preface
31,5,2 Seismic Strengt~~;~~~i~;;;~~;;;:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: ;~;
31.6 Shock Table Test on Structural Models H " "
3 I.6.J BehavIOur of Models in Shock Tes~' H"H"'''H . H."".", 'H H'''''''''HH''H'''",,, 585
31,6.2 Recommendations ." ... " ........................ :::::::::::::::::::::::::::.:::~::::::~:::::,.,',',.,' ....... "."" 586
HHH589
5ummaJy ...... M . . . . . . . . . . , " . , . ,

References ............. '._.. ..... " ..................... ,,, ............. ,................... .. ....................... 590
...... "".""""''' .... " .... " ....... " ... " .......... " .. "" .... "''''" .......... ,,'''',, .. 590
32. RetrOfitting of Masonry Buildings.. ......................... 591-624
32.' Introduction ,., ....... ,... ,........... ,.. ,..... ,', .. ,.. ,.... ,.".,., ... ".... "" .... ,,. .. ,., .... ,................. '........... 59 J
32,2 Failure Mode of Masonry BUildings ." ... '" .... " ...... "."."" ........ "''''"'',, ... ,,'''''',, ...,''''''' 592
32.2.1 Out~of-plane Failure """'""",,,,.., .
The vast devastation of engineered systems and facilities during the past few earthquakes has
exposed serious deficiencies in the prevalent design and construction practices. These
disasters have created a new awareness about the disaster preparedness and mitigation. With
increased awareness carne the demand of learning resource material which directly address
the requirements of professionals without any circumlocution. While the recommended codes
of practice fOT earthquake resistant design do exist but those only specify a set of criteria for

~fHg~~4~-:;:;i;it;;;~~;t~;jl~
compliance. These design codes throw little light on the basic issue of how to design. The
problem becomes more acu~ as students graduate with degrees in civil/structural engineering
without any exposure to earthquake engineering in most of the universities/institutes. The
short-term refresher courses routinely offered by various institutes and universities for
professionals achieve little more than mere familiarization with the subject matter. Any
32,3 Methods for Retrofitting of Masonry Bulldings .... '''''''''''''''' .. "''''''".,,''''''''''',,.... ,,'' 595 sMrt-tenn approach to the learning process, which requires the relevant ideas and concepts
to be assimilated. is doomed to faiL Realizing the practical difficulties of professionals in
;;:~~ ~~~~~;;;t;;R~~;~fi;~i~"""''''''''''''''''''''""""'"'''' 596
32,3,3 StructuraUGiObaI Retrofi~~''''''''''''' .. ' .. ''''''''''''''' .... '''' .. '''''' .... '''''''' .. '''''''''''' 596
attending any long-term direct contact academic programme on earthquake engineering, a
six-month modular courile in distance education mode was offered by lIT Roorkee in 2004,
. . g """"""" ...... """".""" .. ""'''''''''"."."'''',,.,, .. ,,'' 596
32.4 Rep:nrmg Techniques of Masonry ..... " .................................. " The course was well~received and culminated in a lwo--day workshop at Roorkee which was
. """""."''''"""",,,.,,. 596 attended by a large number of participants, providing valuable feedback, This book derives
~2.4. J Masonry Cracking "".""" ...... """ .... "."".",,. ."" ............. " ................ ,,"" ....... . 596
."12.4.2 Masonry Deterioration .. its origin from the set of lecture notes prepared for the participants with later additions to
... ............................ ...... " .......... " ........ 60]
incorporate some of the suggestions made in the feedback workshop.
32.5 Member Retrofitting ..... ,., .. .,................... ................ ';"02
'2 ,U Tbe guiding principle in developing the content of this book has been to provide
- .5. I Relrofitting Techniques .......................... ............. ,' enough material-at one place--(o develop the basic understanding of the issues as required
'" 6 S ...... 602
d_. tructurd! Level Retrofitting Methods.. ............ " ........ , .. ,",.,., ......... , for correctly interpreting and using the standard codes of practices for earthquake resistant
",,,,,,,,.,,,,,,605
32.6.1 Retrofitting Techniques .. " ................... ,. ...... ",,,,, .. design. The objective is to present the essentials in a clear and concise manner with adequate
32.7 ~eismjC Evalu~tion of Retrofitting Measures in Slone' ~~~~~"~.~~.;~'::::~:~~:~.:,...:. :~~ illustrations~ whiie intentionally steering clear of some of the advanced topics which require
,,2.7.1 Beh{tVlOUr of Retrofitted Model;; ...... more rigorous mathematical treatment.
32.7.2 Findings.. ............. " . . . " .... ,. ........................ .. '",,'''',,''' 620 This book is divided into seven parts, each dealing with a specific aspect of earthquake
Summary "",621 engineering. We slart with the discussion of the physics of the earthquake generation~ the
Re,fprenct's
....... ,..., .............. ......... " ... < ...... H .......... 621
''''., .....

evolution of the seismic zoning map of India. characteristics of the earthquake strong ground
""'"'''''''''', 622 motions, and determination of seismic design parameters in the first part on Earthquake
Index ............... ,. ... ,.. Ground Motions. The second part on Structural Dynamics is concerned with the study of
"."""" .....,.. ""...''''''''''''" .. "''"."."'', ....,,'''_.,,'''',, .. ,,',, .. ,,'""""""'''''''''''' 625-634 f

L
 _____________~ ------------'Pi>:,..;:;iif.;;';;'e) 4g'"
( Preface (-~..--~
bI . earthquake resistant design and construction, Only the problems
2nalytical treatment of vibration problems. Starting with an introductory chapter on enl~~'::t~:~qu= :::Sistant design of buildings have been addressed in. this book to
Mathematical Modelling for Structural Dynamics Problems, the theory of structural re. ble ize It is planned to address the problems concerrung earthquake
dynamics is developed gradually to the level of dynamics of complex structural syStems restrict It to a reasona s . . b I th t SO e errors
. . of other structural types in another volume. it IS ut natura a m
including multi-support excitation and dynamic soil-structure interaction analysis. The :~~~~~~!Pt into the text of such volume, We will appreciate if such errOrs are brought
treatment is intentionally focused on deterministic problems in time domain as most of the to our notice. Suggestions for improvement of the book are also welcome.
professional engineers do not fee) comfortable wjth the probabilistic framework and
frequency domain methods. The basic philosophy of the earthquake resistant design is
discussed along with the deficiencies in the prevalent design and construction practices with PANKAJ AGARWAL
the help of several case studies in the third pan on Concepts of FArtJ.4uake Resistant Design MANISH SHRIKHANDE
of Reinforced Concrete Buildings. Simple architectural considerations that go a long way in
improving the seismic performance of reinforced concrete (RC) buildings are also discussed.
The modelling issues, including the modelling of infill panels, and seismic analysis of RC
framed buildings are el.borated through several worked-out e.amples in the fourth part on
Seismic Analysis and Modelling of Reinforced Concrete Buildings. The actual design
caleul.hons as per relevant IS codes are presented for the seismic design of four-storey RC
framed buildings and RC shear walls are described in the fifth pan on Eanhquake Resistant
Design of Reinforced Concrete Buildings. A detailed example on the capacity desigo method
to handle the soft-storey problem in RC framed buildings has also been presented. The
modelling, analysis and design of masonry bUildings to resist earthquake load forms the I
thrust of pan six: entitled &T1hquake Resistant Design of Masonry Buildings. Finally, the
seventh part on Seismic Evaluation and Retrofitting of Reinforced Concrete and Masonry
Buildings elaborates upon the very challenging problem of seismic evaluation and
I
retroftttingfstrengthening of eXisting buildings. A state-of-the-art compilation of methnds and
materials has been presented along with experimental verification in some case studies. Thus
a gamut of earthquake engineering starting from seismology and seismic hazard analysis to
analytical study of dynamic behaviour to design and retrofit of RC aod masonry buildings
has been presented in single volume.
I
This book is the result of team work. We have received tremendous support and
cooperation from our colleagues and students in bringing it to this form and are greatly
indebted to them, in particular, to Prof. Susanta Basu and Prof. S,K, Thakkar who read
early drafts and offered useful suggestions for improvement in addition to contribUting
some chapters for the book. Dr. J.P, Narayan pitched in with his expertise in the
I!
engineering seismology to contribute a chapter introducing me basic seismological concepts.
Mr, V.V.S_ Dadi belped with the calculations and Mr, J.P. Singh and Mr. Hemant Venayak
helped with the figures. We greatly appreciate the kind support extended to us by the staff
of Prentice-Hal! of India, New Delhi. We particularly admire the seemingly infinite patience
of Ms. Seema Zahir, who readily accepted numerous revisions/corrections till the last
moment. Finally. we are grateful to our wives, Mahima and Ashwini. for their suppon
during the period when time was at a premium.
Although this book is primarily designed to serve as a textbook for undergraduate and
postgraduate students of civil engineering, it can also be used as a reference book for regular
academic courses on design of reinforced concrete and masonry buildings. The book will
also serve the needs of structural designers as a ready reckoner for most of the commonly
!

l
 j

Contributors
I
I
I Jay Prakash Narayan
Assistant Professor, Department of Earthquake Engineering

I Indian Institute of T""hno!ogy Roorkee

I
Shashikant Thakkar
Rmlway Bridge Professor
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee

SlISanm Basu
Professor, Department of Earthquake Engineering
Indian Institute of T""hnology Roorkee

,
t

L
 PART
_ _ _I _-Cl=~""== .!

Earthquake Ground Motion

!
I
!
I
I

Il Chapter 1

Engineering Seismology
I
,
1.1 INTRODUCTION

) Seismology is the study of the generation, propagation and recording of elastic waves in the
earth, and the sources that produce them (Table I.l). An earrhquake is a sudden tremor or
movement of the earrb's crust, which originates naturally at or below the surface. The word
natural is important here, since jt excludes shock waves caused by nuclear tests. man-made
explosions, etc. About 90010 of all earthquakes result from tectonic events, primarily movements
on the faults. The remaining is related to volcanism, collapse of subterran:ean cavities or man-
made effects. Tectonic earthquakes are triggered when the accumulated strain exceeds the
shearing strength of rocks. Elastic rehowtd theory gives the physics behind earrbquake genesis.
This chapter includes elastic rebewtd theory, plate tectonics, earrhquake size, earrbquake
frequency and energy~ seismic waves, local site effects on the ground motion characteristics.
interior of the earrb and seismicity of India.

TABLE 1.1 A list of natunol and man-made eartbquake sO\lrte,

Seismic Sources
Natural Source Man-made Source
Tectonic Earthquakes Controlled Sources (Explosives)
Volcanic Earthquakes Reservoir Induces Earthquakes
Rock Falls/Collapse of Cavity Mining Induces Earthquakes
Microscism Cultural Noise (Industry, Traffic, etc.)

1.2 REID'S ELASTIC REBOUND THEORY

After the devastating 1906 San Francisco, California earthquake, a fault trace was discovered
that could be followed along the ground in a more or less straight line for 270 miles. It was
found that the earth on one side of the fault had slipped compared to the earth on the other side
of the fault up to 21 feet. This limIt trace drew the curiosity of. number of scientists, but

3
 ( Earthquake Resistant Design oj Structures
nobody had yet been able to explain what was happening within lhe earth to cause earth uakes
;rom an .examlnatIO? of the displacement of the ground surface which accompanied th~ 1906
e:~qu~e, H.F. ~eld, Professor of Geology at lohns Hopkins University concluded that the
19l1i ;h
u
es m~sll ave lnvol~ed an "'elastic rebound" of previously stored ~elastic stress (Reid.
rebou~d t:;~~'?~/~~~~:~:~~~ and release of stress and strain is now referred to as the "eJastic
C - __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _._-'C'--hG"':P~er
_,_ j Engineering Seismology) +.
ranges also found in these zones, too? An explanation to these questions can be found in plate
tectonics, a concept which has revolutionized thinking in the Earth Sciences in the last few
decades. The epicentres of 99% earthquakes are distributed along narrow zones of interplate
seismic activity. The remainder of the earth is considered to be aseismic. However, no region
of the earth can be regarded as completely earthquake-free. About I % of the global seismicity
is due to intraplate earthquakes, which occur away from the major seismic zones. The seismicity

eXisti;:~:te(~~:~~~u~.~~J. ~uc~~:~~n:s::: t~:tC~e::satrCe'sinsegsonaret~~.mgblocks

map is one of the important evidences in support of the plate tectonic theory, and delineates the
of an unstrained presently active plate margins (Figure 1.2).
bl k h d " to move the western
J
jn~al ~ort war and the ea~lem block southward. Because of friction, there is no movement
U

" 1},(bFut the blocks are d,storted So thaL lines originally straight across the fault have become
obi 'que 'gure l.lb).

,
(al ,, (b) ,, ,,
,, ,, (e)
,,
. :
,,,
, ~
, ~
,,
,, -"~
,,, ,, ,,
--

Itt=
~-{:
= ...
~, ,,
,
,, t- 'i'l
1i~

1tJ
!
1
- __ iiI
O) -,
: Rupture
"-,,
,, ,,,
,
,,, -~
, ,, , 1i~,,
,,, ~
, ~ FIGURE 1.2 Geographical distribution of epicentrcs of 30,000 earthquakes occurred during
,
No strain Slr.1ined eanhquake 19611967 illustrates the tectonicaJly active regions of the earth (after Barazangi and Dorman,
FIGUR El.1 SclJ I%g),
2(00). ema~c representation of elastic reboond theory (afler Mussett and Khan,
The pioneering work was done by Alfred Wegener, a German meteoroJogist and
The weakest part the faulL slips s dd I h th . geophysicist, towards the development of the theory of plate tectonics. He presented his
can support. The ru ture fro . u en y w en e steal.n becomes more than what the fault
the blocks on either~ide of i~:~e ::akest p;rt
exre~ds rnpldly along the fault plane, allowing cominental drift theory in his 1915 book JOn the Origin of Continents and Oceans'. He
proposed that at one time all the continents were joined into one huge super continent. which
fault jn Fi ure I Jer In:o a ess stramed condition. The half arrows beside the
accumuhU!d en~::yS~:;~h~~~~:~ ~~l~~su~den di.spJacement. called th.e elastic rebound. The
he named Pangaea and thar at a later date the continents split apart, moving slowly to their
present positions on the globe. Wegener's theory was not accepted since he could not
waves and a pan lS converted ," to h
n
0 h
rock
IS suddenly reJeased to the fonn of seismic
eat or ot er forms.
f satisfactorily answer the most fundamental question raised by his critics, i.e, what kind of forces

1.3 THEORY OF PLATE TECTONICS

II COuld be strong enough to move such large masses of solid rock over ~uch great distances?
Further, Harold Jeffreys, a noted English geophysicist, axgued correctly that it was physically
impossible for a large mass of solid rock to plough through the ocean floor without breaking
uP. al'; propOlled by Wegener. But, Wegener persisted in his study of the idea, finding more and
The epicentres of earthqu' k mOre supporting evidences like fossils and rocks of vastly different cHmates in the past that
tend to be concentrated. a es are not randomly distributed Over the earth's surface. They
In narrow zones. Why js it SO! And why are volcanoes and mountain could only be explained by a relocation of the particular continent to djfferent fatitudes.
M'A l~art~e Resiatant Design 0/ Structunt8
I c.----- Chapter 1 Engineering Sei8mclcgy ) .IB.
~
Wegener died in 1930 and his continental drift theory was not accepted by most of the
scientific community in spite of numerous supporting evidences. Continental drift theory was
hotly debated off and On for decades even after his death and was largely dismissed as being
eccentric, preposterous, and improbable, However, in the beginning of 1950s, wealth of new
evidences emerged to revive the debate about Wegener's provocative ideas and their
11 4D'N
implications. In particular, four major scientific developments spurred the formulation of theory
of the plate tectonics.
200N
(i) Demonstration of the ruggedness in the fonn of oceanic ridges, island arcs, trenches
and youthness of the ocean floor.
Oil Confirmation of repealed reversals of the earth magnetic field in the past and
development of paleomagnetism.
(iii) Emergence of the seafloor'spreading hypothesis and associated recycling of oceanic
crust. Hess (1962) first recognized the sea floor spreading at the oceanic ridges.
(iv) Precdse documentation that the world's earthquake and volcanic activity is concentrated
76
along oceanic trenches and sub~arine mountain ranges.
After fifty years of publication of Wegener's continental drift theory (1915), finally the
science of plate tectonics, aJthough in a modified fonn) came to the rescue of his intellectual wow ()" 90" 1SO"
honour and his Hfe's work was vindicated, L ~~:;
, 1813" ...,. ....:.::-.::~t
r ':::::.,
. .~
. . . Tran&fonn
boundazy
Uncertain,. 1f23 Relative motion
"""boundary (mmlyrj
According to the theory of plate tectonics. the outermost layer of the earth, known as
lithosphere, is broken into numerous segments or plates. The plates comprising crust and upper FIGu~~e major and minor lithospheric plates. The arrows indicate relative velocities
mantle are floating on the asthenosphere, which is viscous in nature. A plate may be purely in mmlyear at differenl types of actin plate margins (After: DeMets .t IlL, 1990),
continental, oceanic or both continental and oceanic,
1.3.2 PlLl:te Margins and Earthqllllke OcclllTellCes
1.3,1 Uthospheric PlLl:tes
Barazangi and Donman (1969) published the locations of all earthq~akes o~curred in. period
The crust and uppermost mantle down to a depth of about 70,100 kIn under deep ocean 1961-1967, to relate the earthquake occurrences with plate tectomcs (FIgure L.). The eplcentre;
basins and 100150 km under continents is rigid, forming a hard outer shell called the of most of the earthquakes are confined to narrow belts, which define the boundanes of the
lithosphere. Beneath the lithosphere lies the asthenosphere, a layer in which seismic velocities plates. The interiors of the plates are largely free oflarge earthquakes, but they are not aSelSmlC.
often decrease, suggesting lower rigidity. It is about 150 kIn thick, although its upper and lower The different lithospheric plates comprising both crust and upper mantle ~ove relauve t~ ~ch
boundaries are not sharply defined. This weaker layer is thought to be partially molten; it other acrosS the surface of the globe (Figure 1.3). There' are three types of plate margIns.
may be able to flow over long periods of time like a viscous liquid or plastic solid. in a way
(i) Con.structive plate margin/Divergent boundaries-where new crust is generated as the
that depends on temperature and composition. The asthenosphere plays an important role in
plate tectonics, because it makes possible the relative motion of the overlying lithospheric plates pull away from each other. . te
(ii) Destructive plate margin/Convergent boundaries-where crust 15 destroyed as one pIa
plates.
Earthquake epicemres are not evenly distributed over the sulface of the globe, but occur drives under another. . .
(iii) Conserva':i~>e plate marginITransform boundaries-where crust IS netther produced nor
predominantly in well-defmed narrow sejsmic zones that are often associated with volcanic
activity. These narrow zones are: (a) the circum-Pacific 'ring of fire'; (b) the Alpine,Himalayan de'troyed as the plates slide horizontally past each other.
belt and (c) the wor1d~circ1ing oceanic ridges. These seismic zones subdivide the lithosphere
laterally into tectonic plates (Figure 1.3). There are twelve major plates (Antarctica, Africa, Divergent bonndaries
Eurasia, India, Australia, Arabia, Philippines, Nonh America,. South America. Pacific, Nazca, Divergent boundaries occur alono spreading centres where plates are moving apart and new cru~l
and Cocos) and ,everal minor plates (e.g., Scotia, Catibbean, Juan de Fuca, etc,). is created by upward movementl:>of molten magma (Figur: 1.3). Figure 1.4 ~epicts 2. .sche~a~c
representation for divergence boundary. The weB-known dwergent boundary IS the MJ~-Atlantlc
Ridge. The rate of ,preading along the MidAtlantic Ridge average, .bout 2,5 cmlyr. DIvergence
 k the location where the fast~moving Pacific Plate converges against the slow moving
boundaries in continental regions are known as rift
mllla,rl,s, Plate Subduction processes in oceanic-oceanic plate convergence also result III th~
zone', The distribution of earthquakes defines a narrow P 'ppme
formation , 0 f voI' canoes. Su ch "oleanoes
..
"h
are typically a
s!rung out ' Jl d ; I d n
In C lOS ca e ..": an ~rL".
>-

band of seismic activity close to the crest of an oceanic

ridge and rift zone, The earthquakes occur at shallow
depths (2-8 km) and are mostly small, The occurrence Continental-continental convergence
of earthquake with magnltllde greater than six is rare. The H" la an mountain range dramatically demonstrates one of the m~t vi~ible and l)'P~ctacub(
The paint is that the lithosphere is very thin and 00 ~c~s of plate tectonics. When two contment.~ meet hea~-~n. l~elther lS SUb~C1OO ~c~~~,,~
weak at divergence boundaries, so the strain build up th::ntinental rocks are relatively light andr like two colhdmg Ice~ergsj resls.t do\..\'n~'~'L'
mo 'iOn. Ins tead ~ the crnst tends to buckle and be pushed upward or sldeways (Flgur~ 1.0,.
is not enough to cause large earthquakes. FIGURE 1.4 Schematic representatiOD t
of divergence boundary.
Convergent boundaries
fht; earth'~ unchanging size implies that the crust must be destroyed at about the same rate as
it j~ hcing crealcd ai divergence boundaries, as surmised in sea floor spreading hypothesis. Such
d...:str:.H.:tl{lTI of crust takes placc along convergent boundaries where plates are moving toward
l~,ach other, and one plate sinks under another. The location where sinking of a plate occurs is
called subduction zone. Convergence can occur between an oceanic and a continental plate, or
he! we~n two oceanic plates, Of between two continental plates. The len jargest eanhquakes since
1900 on the globe have occurred along the subduction zones, inclUding the 26'" December 2004
I Lithosphere Lithosphere

~:
earthquake in Indonesia which had triggered a massive tsunami. [A~~
FIGt:RE 1.6 Schematic representation of continental-continental convergence.
!,
Oceanic-continental convergence
If by magic we could pull a plug and drain the Pacific Ocean. We would see the most amazing About 40 to 50 million years ago the boundary
sight, a number of long narrow, curving trenches thousands of kilometres long and 8 to 10 km
deep cutting into the ocean floor. Trenches are the deepest parts of the ocean floor and are
created by subduction. At the oceanic-continent boundaries, oceanic plate subducts due to higher
between Indian plate and the Eurasian plate was
oceanic-continental in nature and later on it became
continental~continental convergence after consump~
t
t,
density (Figure J ,5), Strong, destructive earthquakes and tbe rapid uplift of mountain ranges lion of the Tethys Sea,
towards the side of ovcrriding pJate are common at the- convergenee boundaries. Oc~.\njc
continental convergence also sustains many of the earth's active volcanoes on the side of Transform boundaries
overriding plate.
The ZOne between two plates sliding horizontally
past one another is called a trans/orm.-faull boundory. FIGt7RF.. 1.7 Scbematic H'presentati\Hl
or simply a transform boundary (Figure 1.7), ~e of transform boundary.
concept of transform fault originated with CanadIan ,
t geophysicist J, Tuzo Wilson, who proposed that these large faults orjracfure zones ,~Jn~'<,;c~ ~~;:
spreading centres (divergent plate boundaries) or; less commonly, trenches ,(c~m,_ft6.~n: ~,!::,';
boundaries), Most transform faults are found on the ocean floor. Howevcr, a lew occm ~t. 1",,,1,

I
Litho!iphere :;=:>
r.or exampe.
I th " Andreas Fault zone in California, Along the tmnsform boundan"" the
e ,.an Th f" h 1
ASthenospbere ' earthquakes 'occur at shallow depth. unaccompanied ?y
volcanic activity, e n~:lOn e.:~~~
the plates can be so great that very large strains can bUild up before they are pCT10dtcaJly !Cll~. ! ... ",
f
f by large earthquakes,

Oceanic-oceanic convergence 1.3.3 The Movement of IndiDn. Plate

When 1wo uctanic plates converge, older one j<; u~ually subducted under lhe OTher, and in th~ \ AmonO' the most dramatic and visible creation~ of plate-tectonic forces are the. h~ny H.i~nalayas,

L~
proCe-~:S}l j,,~ljch i" f{'Ieme;), 'rIl{, MarJ:,n~~'s Tn~n(:h (J1<l111Ikling the :\.itlri:!n:l hl.1nd,,), for exmnp!c:, which :tretcbcs 2,900 km along the border between lndia (lDO Tibet Alt.er spilHIl1L', (If ,lqn;,),CY
 ... CEarthquake Rerutont St1"Ucture.~ M'M
Design of
~==~==~------------~ c Chapter 1 Engineering Seismoio!l!l )

about 200 minion years ago, India began to
forge northward. Abollt 225 million years ago.
India was a large island still situated off the
Australian coast, and Tethys Sea separated India
from the Eurasian continent About 80 million
years ago, India was located roughly 6,400 Jan
south of the Eurasian continent. moving north-
ward at a rate of about 9 m a century. By study-
ing the history and ultimately the closing of
the Tethys Sea, scientists have reconstructed
India's no!1hwardjourney (Figure 1.8). Immense
HimaJayan mountain range began to form
between 40 and 50 million years ago, when two
large landrnas:-.es, India and Eurasia, drjven by
plate movement, ~ollided. Both these continen-
tal Jandmass~s have same rock density. so one
plate could not be subducted under the other.
Further, the rate of northward movement of
India reduced to about 45 m a century after
collision. Thc coUision and associated decrease
in the rate of plate movement are interpreted to
mark the beginning of the rapid uplift of the
Himalayas.
SV-wave and SH~wavef respecti,,'dy. They are sometimes called secondary waves because they
EURASIAN PLATE travel more slowly than P~waves in the same material. S-waves do not change the instantaneous
volume of tbe materials through which they pass, but as they pass through materials, they distort
tbe instantaneous shape of those materials, The velo;;ity of S-wave is directly related to the shear
strength of materials. S-waves do not propagate through fluids as those do not have any shear
strength.
1.4,2 Surface Waves
A disturbance at the free swface of a medium propagates away from its source partly as seismic
surface waves. SUlface waVes, sometimes known as L-waves., are subdivided into Rayleigh (1<)
and Love waves (LQ ). These surface waves are distinguished from each other by the type of
motion of particles on their wavefronts.
Equator /.
Rayleigh waves
~:l!~:+- Lord Rayleigh (1885) described the propagation of Rayleigh wave along the free surface
of semi-infinite elastic half-space. In the homogeneous half-space, vertical and horizontal
i
i F~-"
INDIAN
OCEAN components of particle motion are 90* out of phase in such a way that as the wave propagates.
(j~~~l the particle motion describes a retrograde ellipse in the ve..-rtical plane. with its major axis vertICal
L/ and minor axis in the direction of wave propagation, The resulting partjcle motion can be
regarded as a combination of P- and SV-vibr.tions (Figure 1.9), In the case of a layered and

i / ' _ " . ______ -~c:.:".

, ",",,"-_.,/
1.4 SEISMIC WAVES
!
I ":->;
!
SRI LANKA
Seismic waves are cIass:ified into two groups: Direction (Jf
body waves, which traveJ through the earth in propagation
an directions and to all depths and surface FIGURE 1.8 S~em.atic representation of
. . . . .' movement of indIan plate.
waves, whose propagatIon lS limlted to a volume
of rock within a few seismic wavelengths of th"e earth's surface. The uses and analysis methods
for the !wo types of waves are substantially different. Body waves are used for resource
exploratIon .purposes and for the study of earthquakes, Surface waves are used to delineate the
laycred-(;':artn ~tructure"

1A.l Body Waves ,

,,:SV
~w~ types of body waves eXlst: compressional waves (P) and shear waves (S). P-waves are ___ 1.. __ _ Particle
:"J{r~laT to .so~nd ",:aves. They obey all the phy!o;:icallaws of the science of acoustics, The ma;;s : p
,, motion
partH.;lc motIOn of a P~wave is in the direction of the propagation of the wave, In addition,
p. waw:~ cau::;e f! momentary volume change in the material through which they pass, but no
concomItant momentary shape change occurs in the materiaL
FIGURE 1.9 Schematic representation of movement of particle during Rayleigh wave
S-:-'av~s, or shear waves, as they are commonly called, move 1n a direction perpendicular propagation (after Lowri~ 1997).
In the dlrectIOn of particle motion. vertically and horizontally polarised S. waves are known a.:;
f

L
~ l~.~.~~qv.o.ke Resistant Design of Structure..,
dissipative medium, the path is always elliptical but not necessarily retrograde, Further, the axis
("If the ellipse may not be vertical and horizontaJ since the phase difference between vertical and
Q
l'orizonta] displacement can be different from 90 The velocity of Rayleigh wave is very much
dependent on the Poisson's ratio and it is equal 00,9194 times to that of S-wavein the Poisson's
,olid (poisson's ratio = 0.25). The particle displacement is not confined entirely to the surface
of the medium but the passes of the Rayleigh waves also displace the particle below the free
",;face up to a depth equal to the wavelength. In a uniform half space, the amplitude of particle
'.;ispl.{ccmenl decreases exponentiaUy with depth,
I'.J:.H, Love (191]) explained the mechanism of generation of Love waves in horizontal soil
ltl.ye.r ht;\rlying the half-space (Figure 1.10), When the angle of reflection at the base of soil
;s more than the critical angle, SH-waves are trapped in the soU layer. The constructive
'!i"'t'('!\'nce of reflected SH-waves from the top and bottom of the soil layer generate
',:,r:':':ouiOiHy travelling Love waves. The particle motion is in horizontal plane and transverse
~;~ the direction of wave propagation. The velocity of Love wave lie.<; between the velocity of
::;. w;;.ve in the soil layer and in the half-space, The veJocity of Love wave with short wavelength
ic.: close 10 the velOCIty S-wave in soil 1ayer and velocity of longer wavelength Love wave is close
to the S-wave velocity in half-space, This dependence of velocity on wavelength is termed
dispersion. Love waves are always dispersive, because they can only propagate in a velocity-
:".;-'ered medium.
(h) I Love wave (LO)
i . .__._....:;:Di",rec=ti",on=ofc...
r'" propagation
1IIIIIIII
"
SH / Particle
~; motion
}INj!,
LH, Schematic representation of movement of particle during Love wave
,,;".~ag(ifn (ane,. J~owrie, 1997).
)
1.5 EARTHQUAKE SIZE
1.5.1 Intensity
Seismic intensity scale is a way of measuring or rating the effects .of an e~hquake at different
site . The assignment of intensity of an earthquake does not requtre any mstrumentaJ records.
It d~pendS very much on the acuity of the observer, and is in .principle sub~ective. l~tensi~y to
different places of an affected area can be assigned based on vlsuai observa?ons and mterVJews
of residents or based on evaluation of questionnaires completed by res~dents: of tha~ area.
Intensity data are very much useful for the development of s,eismic risk map of ~ regIOn or
CQuntry, Seismic risk maps are useful in planning safe sites ~or Important stru~tures hke ~udear
power plants Or large dams. Ris~ maps are a~so v~u~b~e to msura~ce compames. lntenslty data
is also important in determjnatlOn of htstonc se1smIcity of a regIon.
The Rossi-Ford intensity scale, developed in the late 19th century, have ten stages to
describe the earthquake effects in increasing order. Mercalli (1902) propos~ an i~ten!\.jty f-cale
in which earthquake severity was classified in twe1ve stages. The Mercalh mte~slty ~cal~ w~s
modified in 1931 to suit the building conditions in the United States, The moddied versJOn 15
widely known as Modified MereaHi Intensity (MMI) scale. The Medvedev-Spoonheuer-Karnik
(MSK) intensity scale introduced in 1964 also has twelve stages and differs from the MMI scale
mainly in details. The MSK (Table 1.5) and MMI (Table 1.6) intensity scales are commonly used
to seek information on the severity of effects of an earthquake. lntensuy raungs are expressed
as Roman numerals. The intensity scale differs from the magnitude scale in that the effects of
anyone earthquake vary greatly from place to place, so there may be many intensity values fOI
one earthquake. On the other hand~ there is only one magnitude value for an earthquake.
MSK intensity scale
In assigning the MSK intensity at a site due attention is paid to the type of structures (Tab.l~ J .2),
percentage of damage to each type of structure (Table 1.3) and grade of damage to dtlferent
type of structures (Table 1.4) and details of intensity scale (Table 1.5). The maIO features of
MSK intensity scale are as follows:
TABLE 1.2 Type of structures (buildings)
----
Type vf structures Definition:;
in fieldstone, rur<il structures, unburnt-btkk house'S. J)OU/C';.
B Ordinary brick building~, buildings of the large~block and pr::Jauric:ucd
type, half-timb(~red structures, bu!.~.~jng$ ...in natural hewn wJfJe.,~
_~ ____
c__~_.. Reinforced bui~~ings, w.:J1-built ~~oden "'trunu,es
TABLE 1.3 Definition of quantity
.i!.::~'n~fIJ'____ ......._- ....--~_.. ____P_e!_"c~'2~!!!i~ __..
AbolJt 5
Single, few
About 50
Many
Most About 75
M'M ( Earthquake Resistant Design oj StruciU'l"'e$
TABLE 1.4 ClassificatioD of damage to buildings
Intensity
Grade Definitions Descriptions
G) Slight damage Fine cracks in the plaster; faU of smal1 pieces of plaster.
G2 Moderate damage Small crack, in walls: fall of fairly damaged large pieces
of plaster, pantiles slip off: cracks in chimneys; parts of
chimney brakes,
-_._-_.-._---
03 Heavy damage Large and deep cracks in wal1s; fall of chimneys,
G4 Destruction Gapb in walJs; parts of buildings may collapse; separate
parts of the huilding lose their cohesion; and inner
walls collapse,
G5 Tota] damage Total coIl.~pse o~ build~.=n.'".s=._ _ _ .. _ _ .. _ .. _._
TABLE 1.5 Details of MSK intensity scale
Not no[iceable The Jnlensity of the vibration is below the limit of
sensibiJity. the tremor is detected and recorded by
seismographs only,
n Scarcely noticeabic \fibration is felt only by individual people at rest in
(vcry Slight) houses, especially on upper floors of the buildings.
ill Weak, partially The earthquake is felt indoors by a few people, outdoors
observed only only in favourable eircumstances. The vibration is like
thiit due to the passing of a light truck. Attentive observ-
ers notice a slight swinging of hanging objects, some-
what more heavily on upper floors.
TV Largely observed The earthquake is felt indoors by many people, outdoors
by few. Here and there people awake, but no one is
frjghtened. The vibration is like that due to the passing
of a heavily loaded truck. Windows. doors and dishe-;;
rattle. Floors and walls erack. Furniture begins to shake,
Hanging objects swing slightly. Liquids in open vessels
are slightly disturbed, In standing motorcars the shock :5
noticeable.
f\wakcnJn (a) The earthquake is felt indoors by all. outdoors by
many. Many sleeping people awake. A few run
outdoors. Animals het-ome uneasy. Buildings tremble
throughout. Hanging objects swing considerably,
Pictures knock against walls OT swing Qut of place.
Occasionally pendulum docks stop, Cnslabie
objects may be overturned or shifted, Open doors
and windows are throst open and slarnback again.
L
Canld,
c Ciwpter 1 Eft:!,in.eering Sei.mUJ io9!l ) _,a
TABLE J.5 Contd.
Descriptions
Liquids spill in small amounts from well~fined open
containers, The sensation of vibration is like that
due 10 heavy object fa\l\lIg inside \he b\lillilllgs.
(b) Slight damages in building' of TYpe A are possible.
(c) Sometimes changes in flow o_f_s::.p_n_n.:g_s._ _ _ __
Frightening (a) Felt by most indoor and outdoor people. Many
VI
people in buildings are frightened and run outdoors.
A few persons lose their balance, Domestic animals
run out of their staUs. In few instances dishes and
glassware may break, books fall down. Heavy
furniture may possibly move and small steeple beUs
may ring,
(b) Damage of Grade I is sustained in single buildings
of Type B and in many of Type A. Damage in a few
buildings of Type A is of Grade 2.
(c) In few cases cracks up to widths of 1 cm is possible
in wet ground; in mountains occasional landslips;
change in flow of springs and in level of wen water
are observed.
(a) Most peopJe are frightened and run outdoors. Many
Vl! Damage of buildings
fmd It difficult to stand, The vibration is noticed by
persons driving motorcarS. Large bells ring,
(b) In many buildings of Type C damage of Grade. I is
caused; in many buildings of Type B damage 15 of
Grade 2. Most buildings of Type A suffer damage of
Grade 3. a few of Grade 4.
(c) In single instances landslips of roadway on steep
slopes; cracks in roads; seams of pipelines dam-
aged; cracks in stone walls.
(a) Fright and panic; also persons driving motorcars are
Vlll Destruction of
disturbed. Here and there branches of trees break off.
buildings
Even heavy furniture moves and partly overturns
Hanging lamps are damaged in part.
(b) Most buildings of Type C suffer damage of Grade 2,
and a few of Grade 3, Most buildings of Type B suf
fer damage of Grade 3, and most buiidings of Type A
suffer damage of Grade 4. Many buildings of Type C
suffer damage of Grade 4. Occasional breaking of
pipe seams. Memorials and monuments move and
twist, Tombstones overturn. Stone~walls collapsc.
(c) Small iandslips in hollows and on banked roads on
cracks in up to WIdths of several
Con/d.
 TABLE 1.5 Conld.
TABLE 1.5 Conld.
Intensity
Descriptions -----,---,-----
Intensity Descriptions
cm. Water in lakes becomes turbid, New reservoirs
investigated specially.
come inlo existence, Dry wells refiil and existing
wells become dry. In many cases change in flow and )<11 landscape changes (a) PracticalIy aU structures above and below the
ground are greatly damaged or destroyed.
IX
~~______~~~I~e:v~el==O~f~~~'a~t~er~iS:;O~bs~e~rv~e~d~,~____~__~____
(a) Ge~eral panic; considerable damage to furniture.
(b) The surface of the ground is radically changed.
General damage
to buildings A I Considerable ground cracks. with extensive vertical
Olma S run to and fro in confusion and cry. and horizontal movements are ohserved. Falls of
(b) Many buildings of'lYpe C suffer damage of Grade 3, rock and slumping of river~b:anks oVer wide areas-,
and a few of Grade 4. Many buildings of Type B lakes are dammed: waterfalls appear, and rivers are
show damage of Grade 4, and a few of Grade 5. deflected. The intensity of [he eanhquake rcquires
Many buildings of 1Ype A suffer damage of Grade 5. to be investigaled specially.
Monument~ and columns fall. Considerable damage .-.~~ ... ~.. ..~~.--~.- .. ~~.-~

~ ~e.servolrs; underground pipes parlly broken. In The details of Modified MercaHi Intersity (MMI) scale is given in Table 1.6 llnd i:;, also
mdlvlduaJ cases raHway lines are bent and roadway
damaged. used to seek information on the effects of an earthquake ljke MSK intensity scale.
(c) On flat land over11ow of water. sand and mud is
TABLE 1.6 Details of MMI intensity scale
often observed. Ground cracks to widrhs of up to -~~~-~-~~---- .. -~-~-~- ----~-,-,--

IO em, On slopes and river banks more than 10 cm;
furthermore a Jarge number of slight cracks in
ground; faUs of rock, many landslides and earth
flows; large waves in water. Dry wells renew their
- - - -,_ flow and eXisting wells dry up.
X General destructio'::n;--~--;(:):-M;::=7~::::=~':::=~:!:..2:-'-_-.~-----
of buildings
a ~ any
d
buildings of Type C suffer damal1e of Gr"de 4,
& ..
an a lew of Grade 5. Many buildings of Type B
show d~mage of Grade 5; most of Jype A have
desuucUon of Grade 5; critical damah"e to dams and
dykes and severe damage to bridges. Railway lines
are bent slightly. Underground pipes are broken or
bent Road paving and asphajt show waves.
(b) I~ ground, cracks up to widths of several Cm, some~
times up to 1 m. Parallel to water Course OCCur broad
~ssures. Loose ground slides from steep slopes. From
rIver-bank and steep coasts, considerable lands.lides
are possible. In coastal areas, displacement of i'iand
and mud; change of water level in weJls; water from
canals, lakes, rivers, eIC., thrown on Jand. New lakes
occur.
XI Destruction
(3) Severe damage even to weH built buildings, bridges.
water dams and raHway lines; highways become
useless; underground pipes destroyed.
Intensity Descriptions
Vibrations are recorded by instruments. People do nO( feel any earlh movement.
n People at rest upstairs notice shaking. A few peopJe might notice movement if they
are at rest andlor on the upper floors of tall bUildings,
ill Shaking felt indoors; hanging objects swing. Many people indoors feel movement.
Hanging objects SWing back and forth. People outdoors might not realize thaI an
earthquake is occurring.
----"-------"---- - ' - . - ' -.. -'--'~-'~
IV Dishes rattle; standing cars rock:; uees shake. Most people indoors fee! movement.
Hanging objects swing. Dishes, windows. and doors raule. The earthquake feels
like a heavy truck hitting the walls. A few peopJe outdoor~ may feel movement.
- Parked cars rock.
..--~- .. ~~-~-~~-----
V Doors swing; liquid spills from glasses: sleepers awake. Almost everyone feels
movement. Sleeping people are awakened. Doors swing open or close. Dishes are
broken. Pictures on the wall move. Small Objects move or are turned over. Trees
might shake. Liquids might spi1l out of open conlainers.
VI People walk unsteadily: windows break; pictures fall off walJs. Everyone feels
movement. People have trouble Walking, Objects falJ from shelves. Pictures fall
off walts. Purniture moves. Plaster in walls might crack. Trees and hushes shake.
Damage is slight in poorly built buildings. No structural damage.
"11 Difficult to stand; plaster, bricks, and tiles faU: jarge beBs ring. People have difii M

(b) Ground considerably dj,[ened by broad crack, and culties in standing. Drivers feel their cars shaking. Some furnilUteS break.. Loose
slighl-to~m{)derate

I --
flss~es, ~s welt as by movement in horizontal and bricks faB from buildings. Damage is in well-built huildings;
vMIca} dUcctions; nUmerous landslips and falls of considerable in poorly buHt buitdjngs.
rock. The intensity of the earthquake requires to be Vm Car steering affected; chimneys faU; branches break: cracks in wet ground. Drivers
.. ~~.-- .. ~-.. ..--~-~-~-.~~-----'. -~-~~

Contd. Conlrl.

L
8M ( Earthquake Re.sistant Design oj Structures
TABLE 1.6 Details of MMI intensity scale
Intensity Descriptions
have trouble steering. Houses that are not bolted down might shift on their
foundations. Tan structures such as towers and chimneys mjght twist and fall,
Well-built buildings suffer slight damage, Poorly built structures suffer severe
damage. Tree branches break;, HHlsides might crack; if the ground is wet. Water lev~
els in wells might change.
-'---
IX General panic; damage to foundations; sand and mud bubble from ground. WeU-
built buildings suffer considerable dam.age. Houses that are not bolted down m.ove
off their foundations. Some underground pipes are broken. The ground cracks.
Reservoirs suffer seriou$ damage.
x Most buildings destroyed; large landslides; water thrown out of rivers. Most build-
ings and their foundations are destroyed, Some brjdges are destroyed. Dams are
seriously damaged. Large Jandslides occur. Water is thrown on tbe banks of canals,
rivers, lakes. The ground cracks in large areas. Railroad tracks are bent slightly.
XI Railway tracks bend; roads break up; large cracks appear in ground; rocks f.ll.
Most buildings ooUapse. Some bridges are destroyed. Large cracks appear in the
ground. Underground pipelines are destroyed, Railroad tracks are badly bent.
XII Total destruction; "waves" seen on ground surface; river courses altered; vision
distorted. Almost everything is destroyed. Objects are thrown mto the air. The
_ _ _~gr~.~nd ~~~.:s in waves or ripples. Large amounts of rock ma.y move,
1.5.2 lsoseismal Map
A contour on a map bounding areas of equal intensity is an isoseismal and a map having different
isoseismals for a particular earthquake is an isoseismal map. The intensity is usually strongest
near the earthquake epicentre and decreases with distance and at large distance the earthquake
is no longer felt by anyone. Oilier factors such as the loca) geology beneath a particular site,
the regional geology and the orientation of the earthquake fault can affect intensity. The
numbers on the map represent relative shaking strength and can be qualltatively interPreted.
Earthquake isoseismal maps provide valuabJe documents of macro-seismic effects of large
earthquakes. lsoseismal maps of past earthquakes help us to understand the nature of the
earthquakes in a particular region. Scientifically. it is still a far cry to predict an earthquake,
and to be able to take effective steps for minimizing the damage due to the same. So, in the
absence of earthquake prediction, the use of isoseismal map for long term planning and
development of seismic zoning maps or seismic hazard maps is the best approach.
1.5.3 Earthquake Magnitude
Eanhquake magnitude is a mea"ure of the amount of energy released during an earthquake.
Depending on the sjze, nature, and location of an earthquake. seismologists use different
methods to estimate magnitude. Since magnitude is the representative of the earthquake itself,
there is thus only one magnitude per earlhquake. But magnitude value.'i given by different
C-
.--~--~----------rC;;;"a;'p;;te;'r::j,EE;;;,,:;;g<inn.~~-~i'tlg Seismology) -p-
seismological observatories for an event may var~. The u~certajnt! in an estimate ?f the
magnitude is about O.3 unit. Seismologists often reVIse magmtude estimates as they obtam and
analyze additional data.
lUchter magnitude (Hz)
One of Dr. Charles F. Richter's most valuable contributions was ~o reco~nize tha~ the seismic
waves radiated by earthquakes could provide good estimates of thetr magmtudes. Richter (1935)
collected the recordings of seismic waves from a large number of earthquak~ and constructed
d' am of peak ground motion versus distance (Figure 1.11). The loganthm of recorded
:m~~~de was used due to enormOUS variability in amplitude. Richter inferred ~at the ger
the intrinsic energy of the earthquake, the larger the amplitude of ground mouon at a glven
ta:
distance.
100
Distance (km)
FIGURE 1.11 A plot of log of peak amplitude in mm versus e~central distance of earthquakes
recorded in Southern California (different symbols represent dIfferent earthquakes).
The idea of a logarithmic earthquake magnitude scale struck into the mind of Richter after
analysing the roughly parallel curves generated by different size earthquakes on the plot of log
of the recorded amplitude at various epicentral distances. The parallel n~ture. of cUf;es for
different earthquakes suggested that a single number could quantify the re)allve sIze of dlffen:nt
earthquakes He proposed zero magnitude for an earthquake that would produce a record WIth
amplitude ;f 1.0 ;Lm at a distance of 100 km from the epicentre. on Wood-Anderson (WA)
seismograph with 1.25 Hz natural frequency and 2800 magmficauon factor. The Ioganthmtc
fonn of Richter magnitude scale (MJ is given as:
(1.1 )
where Ao is the amplitude for zero magnitude earthquakes at different epicentral distan~s an~
A is th~ recorded amplitude in ;Lm. The zero magnitude amplitude can be computed for dlfferenf
epicentral distances taking into account the effects of geometrical spreading and absorption a
considered wave.
 ;--_ _ --- - _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _-:::c..... .-.---.,-----,
;_ _- - - - - - - - - ______.....:C'",h~pte.,. 1 Engineering SeismoLogy -'
("E~a=r~th~qu~~~~Be~M~st~a~n~t~D~.~~gn~o~f~S~t~ru~,~'~u~~s______-================== .:=J
The Richter scale used in Southern CanI orma. ~or dIfferent epicentr.l distances and 18 kIn surface wave magnitude
fixed focal depth is as follows.
As more seismograph stations were installed around the world, it became apparent that the
method developed by Richter was strictly valid only for eertain frequency and distance ranges.
. . ML = logloA (mm) + Distance correction factor 'cr' (1.2) Further, at large epicentral distances. body waves are usually attenuated and scattered so that the
resulting motion is dominated by surface waves. On the other hand. the amplitude of surface
DIstanCe correctwn factor '(i' is log of inverse of
at an epicentral distance <A' in km Th di zero ma~Hude
. ,
amplitude measured in mm waves, in case of deep focus earthquakes is too small. So, in order to take advantage of the
distances are ulven in Table 17Th d' e stance co.rrectlOn factors for different epJcenual
.:;r " e lstance correctlon factors' . T bi 1 growing number of globally distributed seismograph stations, new magnimde scales that are an
used in other regions of the worJd since considered f; a1 d th gIven In a e .7 cannot be extenSion of Richter's original idea were developed. These include body-wave magnitude (mB!
ML in any other region like Himalayas fi t oc. ep w~s constant. So, to compute and surface-wave magnitude (Ms ). Each is valid for a particular period range and type of seismic
distances should be determined acco;di~rs ze~ ma~n~tude amp~l~ude at different epicentraJ
different focal depths tiling into account
b . .
jf
to e onglmal defimtlOn of ML at 100 kIn and
e geometnca spreadino and appropn I f
wave,
A commonly used equation for compuling M s of a shallow focus 0 (" 50 krn) earthquake
a sorption, Smce, sufficient time resolution of h' h fr a e measure 0 from seismograph records between epicentral distances 20"< a <. 160 is the following one
there~ore, correcti~~ fac~~:n~a~:~O:S,.l~ nRo.l~nger
l;;>.

frequency dependent distance a problem,

km dIstance have been developed based. , e \\1 IC ler scale at 100
proposed by Bath (1966).
(J 4)
0;'
and Boorc, 'J987; Kim, J 998; Lang;ton "1j~~~:/S well as hypo-<:entral dislances (Hutton
Where As is the amplirude of the horizontal ground motion in 'jlII1' deduced from the surfaee
i:S~E 1.7 Distance correction factors (a) for ML (Elementary Seismology. Richter, wave with period T (around 20 2 seconds) and epicenlral dislance Ll is in degree.

L\ (km) ,1 (Jan) oIJ) J (l<m) 01 ,j) Body wave magnitude (msl

Gulenberg (1945) developed body wave magnitude me for teleseismic body-waves such as p.
o 260 3.8 440 4.6 PP and S in the period range 0.5 s to 12 s. It is based on theoretical arnptitude calculations
10 280 3.9 460 4.6 corrected for geometric spreading and attenuation and then adjusted to empirical observations
20 300 4.0 480 4.7
from shallow and deep-focus earthquakes.
30 320 4.1 500 4.7
40
m. ~ IOglO(AITJ"", + O"(Ll, h) (1.5)
340 4.2 520 4.8
50 360 4.3 540 4.8 Gutenberg and Richter (1956) published a lable with dislance correclion faclors cr(Ll, h)
60 380 4.4 560 4.9 for body waves, which enable magnitude determinations. These distance correction factors are
70 400 4.5 580 4.9 used when ground motion trace amplitudes are measured in 'ilm' ,
80 420 4.5 600 4.9
--.-:
Duratiou magnitude (Mlll
Although, Richter magnitude was original! de .
WA-seisrnomeler in Southern California bul h Y veloped usmg earthquake records of Analogue paper and tape recordings have a very limited dynamic range of only about 40 dB and
use . ~~ow, procedures are availabJe to
be d "'! t e records of any short peri d . 60 dB, respectively. M L cannot be determined since these records are often clipped in case of
th.. 0 seIsmometers can
WA-seismograph from digital broadb d syn d~sJse prec~sely the response characteristics of strong and near earthquakes. Therefore, alternative duration magnitude scale MD has been
Magnitud . . . an recor lOgS (Plesmger el aL, J996). developed. Durallon from the P-wave onset to the end of the coda (back.~scattcred waves from
w IC , ~n tum, IS proportional to (Aln ,
e 1S a measure of seiSmIc energy released h" h . , 2
where A is the ground motion trace am litude an numerous helerogeneities) is used in computations. Aki and Chouet (1975) reported that for a
the general form of Richter magnitud:scale b
ddr as the penod of the considered wave. So, given local earthquake at epicentnU distances lesser than 100 km the total duration of a signal
'l!np!:tudes A nf considered wave w,'h . d aTse. on measurements of ground dIsplacement is almoBt independent of distance. azimuth and property of materials along the path. This allow::
. l peno 5 15, f development of duration magnitude scaJes without a distance term.
t (16)
,. .. M ~ loglU (AITJm" + crill. h) + C,. + C, (1.3)
\\hele cr(A. 11), cJlslaoce correction facto at " .
is the regjonal source correction term tofa an ~p;cenu:al distance ',::\' and focal depth th'. C}
I MD~ "0+ a, log D
<.i{)and at are constant and D is the duration in seconds. The values of these constants vary region
Cif is the station correction factor de d c;:ou~ or aZimuth dependent sOUrce dlrectivity and to region according to crustal structure t scattering and attenuation conditions. They have to be
computed alld maximum of them' peneden th n ocal site effects. (AITJ for different periods are
determined locally for a region wilh the help of available ML'
IS us 10 e magmtude computation.
 ) ( C/w.pter 1 Enginee"'!11 Se.i.8molo!l1l )
Moment magnitude
1.5.4 Energy Released in an Earthquake
~case of large earthquakes. the various magnitude scales (ML m. or Ms) based on maximum
The earthquake magnitude is defined in tenns of logarithm of the amplitude of recorded seismic
plltude. and penod of body waves or surface waves under estimate the ener released due
to saturation. Recently, seismologists have developed a standard maonitude sgeYI k wave, and energy of a wave is proportional to the square of its amplitude, So, there should be
moment rna 't d M '. e a e, nown as no surprise that the magnitude is also related to the logarithm of the energy, Several equations
gm u e, oment magmtude IS calculated using moment released durin
::,!q:~:"Pture. The moment released depends on the physical dimension of the mplUr:(:)n have been proposed for this relationship in the past. An empirical formllla worked Ollt b~
'. ~th of the rock (iL) and the average displacement on the fault plane (d) Gutenberg and Richter (Gutenberg, 1956), relates the energy release E to the surface-wave
FIgure 1,12 shows a schematic diagram of the strained fault just before the rup~e In th' magnitude Ms
Iiigure, a couple of the shear forces acti th 'the . . IS
d' t ng on e eJ r SIde of the fault are considered '2b' (1.9)
is ance apart. The moment of the couple (Mol is Simply 'F "b' Now if'd" th d' I '
the strain (y) developed by the couple is 'dl2b' Th I '-f' . ' IS e ISP acement, where E is in Joules, An alternative version of the energy-magnitude relation. suggested by
In tenos of shear strength rock and at of . e va .ue 0 conSIdered force can be obtained
ea rupture. usmg stress-strain relationship.
, Bath (J 966) for magnitudes Ms > 5, is,
I
cr FIA = iL'Y = /idl2b or F = iL,A.d/2b r 10glO E = 5.24 + 1.44 Ms (LlO)
The logarithmic nature of each formula means that the energy release increases very

I rapidly with magnitude, For example, when the magnitudes of two earthquakes differ by I, their
correspooding energies differ by a factor 28 (=101.44) according to Bath's equation, or 32 (101.')
according to the Gutenberg-Richter fonnula,

I
More recently, Kanamori came up with a relationship between seismic moment and seismic
wave energy. It gives:
Energy = (Moment)I2O,OOO (1.11)
For this relation moment is in units of dyne-cm, and energy is in units of erg.

,, 1.5.5 Earthquake FreqlU!lll:y

, ",,"

~~~ ! ~~t/"/;trained On this globe, tbe annual frequency of smaU earthquakes is very large and that of large

L.==--::-~-:--
- ... ~..!../
volume
just before rupture
_ _ _ _---...J.
I earthquakes is very small (Table 1,8). According to a compilation published by Gutenberg and
Richter in 1954, the mean annual number of earthquakes in the years 1918-1945 with
FIGURE; 1,12 Schematic diagram Co seism' magnitudes 4-4.9 was around 6000, while there were only on an average about 100 earthquakes
2000). r JC moment determination (after Mussett and Khan, per year with magnitudes 6-6.9. The relationship between annual frequency (N) and magnitude
FjnaJIy. moment can be computed as TABLE 1.8 Earthquake frequencies since 1900 (based on data from the USGS! NEIC)
and Ibe estimated mean annUliI energy release based on Batb (l!l66)
Mo = J1 A d (1.7)
The moment magnitude M'. b b ' d ' , Earthquake magnitude Number per year Annual energy {l015 Joule yr- I)
and Kanamori, 1979). w L n eo tame usmg followmg relation (Kanamori, 1977; Hanks ~~~~==~~~==~~=---~~~=
;, 8.0 0-1 0-600
2 7-7,9 18 200
M. ~ 3' [log" Mo(dyne-cm) - 16,OJ 6-6.9 120 43
0.8)
'The rigidity 'J!' is measured using samples of rock . " 5-5.9 800 12
In the area. AHershocks are believed to reveal the or IS estnnated from knowledge of the rocks 4-4.9 6,200 3
plane. The simplest way to measure the len th' , rupture area t:ccause most of them 1ie on a 3-3,9 49,000
look at the newly faulted surface Or fault br:ak ThL and av~ge dISplacement 'd' of a fault is to 2-2.9 ~350,OQ() 0,2
th I ' ' . e seIsmiC moment ean also be estimated from
e Dog penod components of seismograms (Bullen and Boll, 1985),

L
1-1.9 ~3.000,Q()0 0.1
----------------- .._-_.---=.:.:...--_.
 r
L - . -- - - - - - - - - - -
Chapf.er 1 _ Engineering Seismology)

(Ms) is logarithmic and is given by an equation of the form damping are neglected, the conservation of elastic wave energy requires thallhe flow of energy
(energy flux, P VsV') from depth to the ground surface be constant. Therefore. with decrease in
10gN= a -bMs (1.12) density (p) and S-wave velocity (Vs) of the medium, as waves approach the ground surface, th.e
The value of '0' varies between about 8 and 9 from one region to another~ while 'b' is particle velocity (v), must increase. Thus, shalcing tends to be stronger al Sites WIth softer soli
approximately unity for regional and global seismicity. Most of the time' /J' is assumed to be layers.
equal to I; 'b'>1 in an area generally means that small earthquakes occur frequently; 'b'<l
indicates an area that is more prone for a larger earthquake. In volcanic areas where there is lots Resonance
of earthquake swarm, 'b' >1. Along subduction zones and continental rifts the value of 'b'<1. Tremendous increase in ground motion amplification occurs when there is resonance of signal
The mean annual numbers of earthquakes in different magnitude ranges are listed in Table 1.8. frequency with the fundamental frequency or higher harmonics of the s.oillay~r. Various spectral
peaks characterize resonance patterns. For one-layer ID structures, thiS relation IS very sImple:
1.6 LOCAL SITE EFFECTS io ~ V,,/4h (fundamental mode) andi, ~ (2n + I)io (harmonics)
where V is the S-wave velocity in the surficial soil layer, and h is the thickness. The amplitudes
Significant differences in structuraJ damage ed' d .
in basin as compared with the surrounding
TABLE 1.9 Classificallon or local geology SI
of these spectral peaks are related mainly to the impedance contrast and S Iment ampmg.
in different category
exposed rocks~ or even in the basin itself from
place to place, have been observed during LOCAL SITE EFFECTS Damping in soil
earthquakes. The amplitude of shaking in -A~.~B~o~SI~nI~S~O~ilr::::====~B~.~~~~~= Absorption of energy occurs due to imperfect elastic properties of medium in which the collision
basin can be more than 10 times stronger ..: between neighbouring particles of the medium is not perfectly elastic and a part of the energy
Q. Ridge
than the surrounding rocks. Other geological a. Impedance contrast in the wave is lost instead of being transfenred through the medium. This type of attenuation
conditions, which affect amplitude and signal b. Reson(lnce h. Volley of the seismic waves is referred to as anelastic damping. The damping of seismic waves is
duration, are topography (ridge, valley and c. Trapping c. Slope/slope described by a parameter called as quality factor (Q). It is defined as ille fractional loss of
slope variation) and the lateral discontinuities. d. Focusing variation energy per cycle, 2;r;1Q = -llEIE. where llE is the energy lost in one. cycle and E is the total
The historical references regarding earthquake e. Basin~edge C, Strong Lateral elastic energy stored in the wave. If we consider the dampmg of a selSIlUC wave as a functJon
ti_"u_i"ti"e"-s
damage due to 10caJ site condition extend back -=-f_D_o_m-'-p_in...:8'--_ _ _ _ _ _d_is_c_o_"e.- of the distance and the amplitude of seismic wave, we have
to nearly 200 years (Wood, 1908; Reid, 1910).
Mac Murdo (1924) noted that the buildings situated on the rock were not much affected as A = A" exp ( - ~~) =A"exp(-ar) (1.13)
those situated on the soil cover during Kutch earthquake (1819). Recent examples regarding the
intense effects of local site conditions include Michoacan earthquake (J985) which caused only where IX ai2QV is absorption coefficient. This relation implies that higher frequencies will
moderate damage in the vicinity of its epicenter but caused heavy damage some 400 km away he absorbed at a faster rate.
in the Mexico city (Dobry and Vacetie, 1987), damage caused by ille Lorna Prieta, California
earthquake (1989) in the city of San Francisco and Oakland (USGS, 1990) and damage pattern Basin edge
observed during Bhuj earthquake of January 26, 2001 (Narayan et al., 20(2).
Intense concentrations of damage parallel to the basin~edge had been observ~ due to strong
generation of surface waves near the edge, during recent earthquakes (Nonhndge earthquake,
1.6.1 Basin/SoU Effects 1994; Kobe earthquake, 1995 and Dinar earthquake, 1995). The conclusion that basin-edge
Study of different aspects of ba"iin effects on the ground motion characteristics needs special induces strong surface waves had been drawn in many studies by examining the phase and group
attention since most of urbanized areas are generally settled along river valleys over young, soft. velocities, polarity and arrival azimuth (Bard and Bouchan, 19l1O " b 1985: Hatayama et aJ.,
surficial soil deposits. 1995; Kawase, 1996; Pitarka et al., 1998; Narayan, 2003a, 2004, 2005). Suriace waves start
generating near the edge of the basin when frequency content in the body wave exceeds the
lm,proanc.e c.llutrast fundamental frequency of the soil and their amplitudes decrease with increase of edge-slope
(Narayan, 2004, 2005). .' .
Sei~mic waves travel faster in hard rocks than in softer rocks and sediments. As the seismic Figure 1.13. shows the vertically exaggerated basin-edge models haVIng dIfferent thIckness
waves pass from hard medium to soft medium, their celerity decrease, so they must get bigger of single soil layer over the bed-rock. Figure J.l3b dep~cls the vertical component of groun~
in amplitude to {;any the same amount of energy. If the effects of' scattering and material motion, computed for thickness of soill.yer as 195 m uSlllg a double-couple source (dIp ~ 45 .
 _n. ( Eart~-.-t.
,..... _e
D
n.eSJ8tant DesJg1l 01 Strueture.s
( Chapter J Engineering SeismfiiOiiiJ Mi[.
rake = 60 and strike = 90) just below the edge at a depth of 13 7 km w,th. do' fr
J 0 Hz Th P dS .. . mman! equency The major conclusions drawn in papers of Bard and Bouchan (I980 a. b). Hatayarna
. ' . e . an -waves velocl!Jes and densities were taken as 13965 mis 400 0 mi d
1.9 g/cm" for soil and 3464.! mis. 2000.0 mls and 2.5 glcm' for half s~ace <hard ~ock s;;:.,
et .J. (1995). Kawase (1996) Pitarka, et al. (1998) and Narayan (2oo3a. 2004, 2005) are listed
ground respo~se was computed at 26 eqUidistant (105 m apart) receiver points. Fi ure i.13b
J below.
:~eals f~ur weB-separated wavelets at receIver points some distance away from the edge lbe
8
Basin-edge induces Strong surface waVes near the edge.
1 erentta] ground motion in north-south direction cl I d" . Edge-induced surface waves propagate normal to edge and towards the basin.
surface waVes since vertjcally travelling bod ear y eplcts hOrIzontally travelling
y waves are more or less removed (Figure 1.13c). Surface waves start generating near the edge of the basin when frequency content in
the body wave exceeds the fundamental frequency of the soil deposit.
--+~N Surface wave amplitude deereases with increase of edge-slope.
p. A, /1-'; 0
Rl Receivers is RlO Vacu Damage caused by edge-induced surface waves is confined in a narrow zone (width

" \~~Y~"~I~6:i=m~Ygt105m
"~Y~t~Y~Y~t ~~um~
2.5-3.5 km) parallel to the edge, and at some distance (0.5-1.0 km).
Surface wave amplitude increases with the decrease of propagation velocity in soiL
150m Soil - Further, their characteristics are highly variable with change in propagation velocity
14.5" 195 m and thickness of soil deposit.
The characteristics of edge~induced surface waves are also very much dependent on the
angle of incidence of body waves.
Hard rock Edge-induced surface waves develop significant differential ground, the main cause
of damage during earthquakes. in addition to amplification and prolongation of the
signal.

I'V-" ..
. , Basement topography

=
<lAW
1U'
The focusing and defocusing effects caused by basement topography are strongly dependent
# II or,'" on the azimuth and angle of incidence of waves. Seismic waves traveling upward from depth
1/'" ... may be redirected by subtle irregularities at geological interfaces. particularly the basement
topography. The effects of focusing and defocusing are maximum for normal incidence of
waves and it decreases with increase of angle of incidence. Similarly. azimuth also affects the
focusing and defocuslng effects. This effect reveals the importance of considering not only the
s.urficial soil layer but also the basement topography for seismic mJcrozonation.

'Ifapping of waves
The fundamental phenomenon responsible for the increase of duration of motion over soft
sediments is the trapping and multiple reflections of seismic waves due to the large impedance
contras.t between soft sediments and underlying bedrock. Sometimes. when a wave cnters a basin
~ ~ 9 /2~; /82\ *2'4 ~ 6 ~ 12 115j';~'Tt~ through its edge, it can become trapped within the basin if post-critical incidence angles develop+
TIme (sec) Time (SL-'C) causing total iutemal reflection at the base of the Jayer. Waves that become trapped in deep
(b) (e) sedimentary basins can therefore be potentially very damaging.
HGt;RE 1.13 (a) Vertically exaggerated basin-ed e .
displacement,. and (c) the differential ground displa~e model, (b) ve.rU.cal component of ground
ment 1.6.2 Lateral Discontinuity Effects
Dent of ground motion at 26 reiver 'points (aft N correspondmg to the nrtieal wmpo-
. er arayan, 2Dil5).
There are numerous consistent macroseismic observations showing a significant increase in
The generation of surface waVes near the ed e was confi
coherence in recording stations increase of tr ' J Iff "
Inned on the baSiS of the Jarge intensity of damage in narrow zones located along lateral discontimlities, Le. areas where a

j
tb ed . d ' a\e tme 0 atcr phases as we move away from softer material lies besides a more rigid one. An amplitude amplification and local surface wave
(Neara::~.e~~:t B~~r velocity ~~ater phases and the analysis of differential ground motion generation in the softer medium and large differential motion caused by shorter wavelength
wave an -wave have caused generation of Rayleigh waves. of the suIface wave can explaln the observed damage. In past, .a number of field observations

L
.1. ( Earthquake Resiqtant Design 0/ Structures

(Narayan and Rai, 2(01) and theoretical studies have reported significant increase of damage
c De-amplification (2ltl<\> rimes) occurs in valley relative to the top.of .the valley.
Topographic amplification decreases with increase of angle of mCldenee of body
in the narrow zone located along strong latetal discontinuities (Moczo and Bard, 1993),
waves. 5)
Ridge amplification increases with elevation (Pigure l.l .
1.6.3 Effect of the Surface Topography

:r
It has often been reported after destructive earthquakes in hilly areas that buildings located at
bi)) tops suffer much more damage than those located at the base: examples of such observations I
may be found in Levre! et al., 1986 (Lambesc, France, 1909 earthquake), Siro, 1982 (lIpini.,
Italy, 1980 earthquake), Celebi. 1987 (Chile, 1985 earthquake) and Narayan and Rai, 2001
~cre~
350m'
(Chamoli, 1999 earthquake).
There are also very strong instrumental evidences that surface topography considerably S ~' Base
affects the amplitude and frequency contents of ground motion (Pedensen et al., 1994). A review
I Ridge profile /
of such instromental studies and results may be found in Geli et al. (1988), Aki (1988) and more
recently in Facdoli (1991). The theoretical and numerical models have also predicted a
, III
, I
I
I '

systematic amplification of ground motion at ridge crest (convex part) and deamplification in 2 .J
valley (concave parts) of the surface topography (Kawase and Ald. 1990; Sanchez-Sesma, 1990;
Faccioli, 1991; Narayan and Rao, 2003; Narayan, 2oo3b).
Narayan and Rao (2003) reported sorface wave generation near the top of the ridge and
their propagation towards the base of the ridge, in addltion to amplification of ground motion
J
with elevation and slope of the ridge using 2.5 D model (Narayan, 2(01). Narayan (2oo3b)
reported strong generation of surface waves for weathering thickness more than one~eighth
of wavelength. He reported on the basis of the simulated results that damage to the built
environment may be maximum on the top of the ridge, if it is not weathered. But, if the velocity 0.2
of the weathered material is very Jess as compared to the underlying rock formation. maximum
damage may be more near the base of the ridge, due to large amplitude and duration of the
generated surface waves. Some of the findings of the above-mentioned studies are listed below,
o o 50 100 150
Ground motion amplification increases with ridge-slope. Elevation (m)
Maximum amplification (2n:'$ times, where <\> is the crest angle) occurs at the crest of Variation of average amplification factor with elevation (after Jibson, 1987).
the triangular wedge type topography relative to the base for wavelength comparable FIGURE 1.15
to width of the base (Figure 1.14). Sumcc waves are generated near the top of the topography. .
The presence of neighbouring' ridges accentuates the topographIC effects,
x 1 terference between the incident waves and outgoing diffracted waves rroduces
"- Crest

~
r:pidly varying amplitude and phase, thereby causing differential ground motion along
Trough
~
Z~I the slope of the topography. . . bal 'f
M~_~

.... . G The amplitude of ridge_weathering-induced ~urface wave lOc~eases towards Its se,l
~ ~ thickness of weathering is more than one-elgbth of the wavele~gth- ,
Decrease of weathering velocity increases the amp1itude of rIdge-mduced surface
>
{a) (b) ~~:;iicat.eddamage pattern occurs on hills with variable slopes. Generally, house-s
situated on or near the slope-change suffer more d~mage. .
fiGURE 1.1~ CharlIcterization 01' simple topographic irregularities; (a) notation for a trion- " In general, theoretical studies predict lower amphficatIo n than those obtaIned by
gular wedge; (b) approximation of actual ground surface (soiid line) at trough and crest by
wedges, (after FaccioJi, 1991). analysis of recorded motion.

L
 i. ( Earthquake Re8i6to.nt

1.7 INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH

D~Bign oj Stf"'UCtut'es

increase of velocity occurred was 54 km, Now. this seismic discontinuity between crust and
~:r:~~~eation ~f i:ernal ~t~c,tun~ of ~e Earth, different discontinuities and nature of material mantle, where there is sudden increase of seismic wave ve1ocity~ is called as Mohorovicic
discontinulry, o~ simply Moho.
refracted wo major sconlmultles IS mamly based on the analysis of the recorded reflected and
. seJSmIC waves. In broad sense, the internal structure of the earth is divided int th V. Conrad (1925) found faster P-wave (P*) and S-wave (S*) as compared to Pg and Sg
concentnc ceHs namely crust mantl d ' 0 fee waves during the analysis of T.uem earthquake of 1923 (Ea.stem Alps) in upper crnstallayer.
materials (Figu;'; LJ6). Purthe;' crust i: ~~Vid:e accordrng to the chemical property of the The estimated velocities of P* and S* waves (6,29lan1s and 3.57 kmis, respeclively) were lesser
lower mantle and core as inner core as upper and lower crust, mantle as upper and than the velocities of Pn and Sn waves refracted from the Moho, Conrad inferred the ex.istence
classjfied as lithosphere asthenos here~ outer core. The crust and mantIe together are also of a lower crustal layer with higher velocity as compared to the upper crustal layer. The interface
materials, Following s~bheadin:' deSCri~:esos~here. ~n the basis of physical property of the separating the crustal mass into upper and lower crust is caUed as Conrad discontinuiry, in
discovery of major discontinuities. crus mant e and core in bnef along with the honour of V. Conrad.
Worldwide analysis of recorded reflected and refracted seismic waves reveals that the
structures of the crust and upper mantle are ve..-y complex. The thickness of crust is highly
laterally variable, It is 5-10 km in oceanic region, below the mean water-depth of about
4,5 km. The vertical' structure of continentaf crust is more complicated than that of oceanic crust.
, The thickness of continental crust varies from 35 to 40 km under stable continental areas and
50 to 60 kIn under young mountain ranges,

1.7.2 Upper Mantle

!.<>wet
a ITUlnIJe The Mohorovicic discontinuity defines the top of the mantle_ The average depth of Moho is 35
km, although it is highly variable laterally. Several discontinuities of seismic wave velocity and
velocity gradients exist in the upper mantle, The uppermost mantle. 80-120 km thick. is rigid
- - - - -2889 in nature in which velocity of seismic wave increases with depth. This rigid part of uppermost

'
mantle together with crust forms the lil/w"phere, The lithosphere play an important role in plate
tectonics.
Ouler There is an abrupt increase of seismic wave velocity (3 - 4%) at depth of around 220
'\ core

h
30 km. This interface is called as the Lehmann discontinuity. Between the base of lithosphere and

:j'
the Lehmann discontinuity, there is low velocity layer (LVL) with negative velocity gradients,

'---.'-..~'=============='--
\-1; The average thickness of LVL is around ISO km. This LVL is known as asthenosphere, which
also plays an important roJe in plate tectonics. Asthenosphere behaves as viscous fluid in long
term and thus decouples the lithosphere from the deeper mantle.
The travel-time versus ePicentraJ-distance curves of body wave show a distinct change in
slope at epicentraJ distance of about 20"'. This is attributed to a discontinuity in mantle velocities
FIGURE 1.16 Inlrnal structure of !be eartb based .
Kennett and Engdahl, 1991). on p~ and S~waves velocity variations (after at a depth of around 400 kID. This is interpreted as due to a petrological change from an olivine-
type lanice to a more closely packed spinel-type lattice, A further seismic discontinuity occurs
at a depth of 650-670 km, This is a major feature of mantle structure that has been observed
1.7.1 Crust world~wide. In the transition zone between the 400 kID and 670 km discontinuitie& there is a
further change in structure from J3-spinel to ,),-spinel, but this is not accompanjed by appreciable
Alldrija Mohorovicic (1909) found only direct P.wav ( . .
lhe analysis of an earthquake in Croatia B t b d 1~ .Pg) amvals near the ep1centre during chilnges in yhysical properties.
and direct P-wave was overtaken bv;h u ey~n p km two P~wave arrivals were recorded
possible when Pn has travelJed t ~ e secon -wav~ (Pn). He conduded that it is only 1.7.3 Lower Mantle
from the upper mantle Accord' a gre~ter speed,. MohoroVIcic identified Pn as a refracted wave
P-wave was 5.6 km/; and 7 ~n:~7 hIS calculaMns, the velocity of direct Pwave and refracted The fower mantle lies just below the important seismic discontinuity at 670 km, lts composition
" 5, respectIvely; and the estimated depth, at which sudden is ralher poorly known, but it is thought to be consisting of oxides of iron and magnesium as
eM ( Earthquake Resistant Design oj Structures

weH as iron~magnesium silicates with a perovskite structure. The uppermost pan of the lower
mantle between 670 and 770 km depth has a high positive velocity gradient. Beneath it, there
is great thickness of normal mantle, characterized by smooth velocity gradients and the absence
of seismic discontinuities. Just above the core-mantle boundary an anomalous layer approxi~
j

mately 150-200 km thick, has been identified in which body-wave velocity gradients are very
small and may even be negative.

1.7.4 Core
R.D, Oldham first detected the fluid nature of the outer core seismologicaJly in 1906, He
observed that, if the travel-times of P~waves observed at eplcenrrat distances of less than l00()
were extrapolared to greater distances. the expected travel~times were Jess than those observed.
This meant that the P~waves recorded at large epicentral distances were delayed in their path.
Oldham Inferred from thIS the existence of a central core in whieh the P-wave velocity was
reduced. Gutenberg (1914) verified the existence of a shadow zone for P-wave!> in the epicentral
range between lOS and 143", Gutenberg also located the depth of top of outer core at about
2900 km, A modern estimate for this depth is 2889 km, It is characterized by very large seismic
velocity change and is the most sharply defined seismic discontinuity, In honour of Gutenberg.
the core~mant1e boundary is known as the Gutenberg seismic discontinuity.
lnga Lehmann (1936), a Danish seismologist, reported weak P-wave antival, within the
shadow zone. She interpreted this in terms of a rigid inner core with higher seismic velocity
at depth of around 5154 km, Thus core has a radius of 3480 km and consists of a solid inner
core surrounded by a liquid outer core.

1.8 SEISMOTECTONICS OF INDIA

Himalaya is one of the tectonically most active belts of the world and one of the rare sites of
active continent-continent collision. A major portion of the strain due to collision is taken up
in the thrusting phenomenon along the Himalayas while the remaining strain is distributed
north of it in a wide area from Tibetan Plateau to Pamirs. The push from the Asian side has
given rise to compression from north producing gigantic thrusts progressing from north to
south.
The northward movement of the Indian pJate and the continued convergence process along DrrCl'uon ofVch'rClly r:::; )Mtmal\()"~' fk'll)ldary
the Himalayas has transmitte.d large northerly compression in the Indian Peninsula. causing
NE oriented faults (Figure U7). The other tectonic features like ENE trending Narmada Son . 'morphologic features in India and adjoining
FlGt:RJ<: 1.17 Tectonic map showmg the maJor geo d' R',dfle" CB--Cuddapah Basin;
graben and NW trending Godavari and Mahanadi grabens are older, Sometimes the NW faults R'd ASK Andaman sprea mg e , lh'
regions. AR-Aravalll I ge; -: B ' DG-lY.lmodar Graben; DHR-De 1-
have been displaced by the younger ~~E faulL<t, Present-day tectonics as indicated by seismicity CG-Cambay Graben; CHB-C.bba~~;;_G:':~~' Boundary Fault; GG-Godavarl Graben;
study :<hows :-trikc-sHp fault either along NE or NW trending faults by reactivation. Normal Hard"., Ridge; FR-F.lZObad Rtdge. KR K tcb Ridge' MG-Maban.di Graben; MROF-
fau!ts a[ong N.:::rmada" Godavarj and Koyna rifl"> are also reactivated occasionally. However, the HK-Hindukush; KOF-Koyoa Fault; - n~d NT' ~.ga Thrust" SGF-Sagaing F3ull;
" M n.h , S.h.rs. ~ ge;. - " , 4)
faulL' in Peninsular India are small and so only moderate earthquakes have occurred except in Moradabad Fault; MS",-, o~"J:r'Y, WCF-Wesl Coast Fault (after Khan, 20U .
Kutch region. The ~ource of stress respon'iible for tectonic activity in the Kutch region is not SlfF-~I';umatra Fanl., 'fST- Tif"O Shan Thrust, '
well dcfinfJt
 w M lEarthq'kake. ~e8ill'tant Deei.gn of Structvrea
(L_______________ wp
--~.-----) ------~Cr;h"o;;;.t.t"':;:_;_l. E"gi"eeri~.9 Seinnology )
1.9 SEISMICITY OF INDIA
TABLE 1.11l List of damaging earthqnakes in India
Earthquakes have been occurring in the Indian subcontinent from the limes immemorial but __ima~!oyan R~gw~ _______~__~~_~~~
__________H
reliable historical records are available for the last 200 years (Oldham, 1883). From the --.,------
S. No. Name Location
.----
Ye-ar Mognirude/ Death
beginning of 20'" century, more than 700 earthquakes of magnitude 5 or more have been Intensiry
recorded and felt in India, as given in the catalogues prepared by US Nationa1 Oceanographic
and Atmospheric Administration. India Meteorological Department, National Geophysica1 1. Kashmir Eanhquake Srinagar, J. & K. 1885 3.000
Research Institute (Figure 1,18). The seismicity of India can be divided in four groups, namely, 2. Shillong Earthquake ShHlong, Plateau 1897 8.7 1.600
Himalayas region, Andaman Nicobar, Kutch region and Peninsular India. Some of the damaging 3. K.ngra Earthquake Kangra, H.I' 1905 8.5 20,000
earthquakes which have occurred in these fOUT regions are listed in Table 1.] O. 4. BiharNepal E.rthquake Bihar-Nepal border region J934 8.3 10,000
5, Assam Earthquake Assam 1950 8.5 1,526
6. BiharNepal Earthquake Bihat~Nepal border region 1988 6.5 1.000
7. Indo-Burma EarthqUake India-Burma Border 1988 7.3
8. Uuarkashi Eanhquake Ultarkashi, Uttarancbal 1991 7.0 768
9. (hamuli Earthquake Ch.moli, U~t~tar~.~n~c~ha~I_____~~
1999 ___~~
6.8 _____103
___
Andaman Nicobar
~---'---~:::=-:-:::=::::-:;::::T
1. Andaman-Nicobar Andaman~Nicobar
=h~
rene 1941 8.1
Earthquake
Kuu:h Region
I. Samaji Earthquake Samaji, Delta of Indus 1668 X
2. Kutch Earthquake Kutch. Gujarat 1819 8.0 2,000
3. Anjar Earthquake Anjar, Gujarat 1956 6.1 115
Q 4. Bhuj Earthquake Bachan, Gujarat 2001 6.9 20,000
N D
Peninsular India
o I. Bombay-Surat Earthquake Bombay~Surat 1856 Vll
o
o 2. Son Vaney Eanhquake Son ValJey 1927 6.5
3. Satpura Earthquake Satpura 1938 6.3
4. B.lag!lat Earthquake Bal.ghat, M.P. 1957 5.5
o S. Koyna Earthquake Koyna 1967 6.0 177
6. Ongole Earthquake Ongole, Bhadrachalam 1967. 5.4
7. Broach Earthquake Broach 1970 5,4 26
o >t.Ial:'lU";C 8. Latur Earthquake Latur, Maharoshtra 1993 6,2 10,000
o:t YOw<.6,D
9. Jabalpur Earth~uake J abalpur, M.P. 1997 6.0 54

t
o (,<11<><' (',S

H~"'~;'''rc" (> o ~5I!>':7.{j

o
,
J.'hh,d~
.
'I(JV1"";\.\
MYsw'-'

o
0
o
o
7OIu"'-7.5
15,.,""jL1
Mortc!h;m~\)
I.Ul CLASSIFICATION OF EARTHQUAKES
I (104m)
@ D:v jh.\J~ slltn::::' 1, Ba~ed on location 2. Based on eplccntral distances
X" r 0 ':'h"''''''1,"",1I'" 0' i'I'''''liwlm" ltl 'l.-.:4(,,)
I Pu,.~m I'rcm:: the Sl,me rn'g~1 la) lnterplale (a) Local earthquake
t_~.?-----.~_~ ---.. . .-~:::---~-7::-.-. -.~-=;;--.-----c=-- (b) Intraplate (b) Regional earthquake
I'll
(c) Teleseismic earthquake
3. Based on focal depth 4. Based on magnitude
1'-I(:lJRE 1.18 Seismicity map of India (.fter, 15:1893 (Pt. 1): 2002).
{al Shallow depth ()..71 km (a) Mircocarthquake < 3.0
(h) hHcrmcdiate. depth 71-300 km (b) [ntannediate earthquake :1-4
 ~ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ~. _ _ _ . . ~c_
_ _ ~ _ _ ~c
ChapU:1' 1 Englneel"'tn~
, s l ..... ' i _
eUfflO 0,:<, " __ ~

)

(c) Deep earthquake > 300 km (c) Moderate earthquake 5-5.9

(d) Strong earthquake 6-6.9
(e) Major earthquake 7-7.9
. (f) Great earthquake> 8.0

111 1 1l1lUlami Velocity I 1 ompared to !he

1.11 TSUNAMI . ) whose wavelenath is sufficient Y arge c
The velocity of a tsunamJ wave (VT.m "" b the following expression (Satake, 2002):
TSllnamj is a series of large waves of extremely long period caused by a violent, impulsive . ter depth (25 or more times the depth) is gnen Y
wa - r- (1.]4)
undersea djsturbance or activity near the coast or in the ocean. The waves become extremely V",; .,}gh
dangerous and damaging when they reach the shore, The word tsunami is composed of the the depth of water. TIle
Japanese words "tsu" (which means harbour) and "nami" (which mean" "wave"), They are some . h's ravity field an d 'I'
1 IS
where 'g' is the ac.celeratiOn due to ~r to ~50 kmfhr for the range of water depth 10 m to
times called seismic sea waves or, erroneously. tidal waves. In case of tsunami wave);, energy tsunami velocilY may vary from 3S k
extends to the ocean bottom and water flows straight. Near the shore, tsunami energy is 7.0 km (Figure J.l9).
concentrated in the vertical direction by the reduction in water depth. and in the horizontal
direction by shortening of the wavelength due to reduction in velocity. There are various aspects
of tsunami waves which are studied by researchers namely plate tectonics responsible for 1.11.2 HUIlUP and InwuIation .. omena
. on the most terrifying and complex physiCa) phen
generation, propagation and observation. inundation, run-up build-up llear the coast due to Although infrequent, tsunarrus are am g f rfe and extensive de:;trUction to property. Damage
geometry of coast. resonance in bays, etc. and have been responsible for great loss 0 1 . h d by seawater measured relative to
The destructive tsunamis are generated from large (dislocation of several metres)~ shallow . . ed b large run-up (eievatlon reac e )
due to tsunami IS callS y . b the inundation line and the shore, wave
earthquakes with epicentre or fault line near or on the ocean floor. Tsunamis generally occur !'iome stated datum), inundatioll (dlstanCe etween
in the oceanic subduction zones of lithospheric plates. The sudden vertical displacements over impact on structures and erosion, h the st the wavelen(tth is shortened and the wave
1arge areas, disturb the ocean's surface, displace water. and generate destructive tsunami waves. As the tsunami wave appx:oac ::in th:~; hclghts conslde~ably, as shown in .Figure 1.19.
A 'tsunami earthquake' is defined as an earthquake that excites much larger tsunami than energy is directed upward. thus lncre, g 30-35 m near the shore. Dependmg upon the
expected from its seismic waves (Kanamori. 1972; Abe, 1973). Usuallg. earthquakes with Richter The amplitude of tsunami waves may grow up to
magnitude larger than 7.5 produce destructive tsunami waves. Table 1.11 shows a list of ten
deadliest tsunamis in 1ndian Ocean. The wavelength of the tsunami waves and their period
depend on the generating mechanism and the dimensions of the source event. The period of the

TABLE 1.11 List of ten deadliest tsunamis in Indian O<:ean 213 km

~~~ .. ~~ .... ~-------~ ~------ ---~--
Year Deaths Localiorr"'
. - -.. --~~ .. -~--- ..
Dec. 26, 2004 220000+ Sumatra
Aug. 27. 1883
Jan. 26. 1941
Sept. 3. 1861
36500
5000
1700
Java/Sumatra
Andaman Sea
Sumatra
4000rn r Depth !speed
(metres) I (kID/i;. )
Iwavelensth "
(km!b) \
Jun. 16. 1819
Nov. 28, J945
1543+
1000+
Arabian Sea
Arabian Sea
. 7000n42.9
4000
2000
7127
504.2
I 282
213
t 51
Feb, )6, US6i 905 2QO 159,0 i 47,7 , I
April 2. 1762 500
Sumatra
Bay of Bengal ! . In I 35.6 '..
50 '79.0 23.0 I
1O.6_,="--.J
son I -------.....
I
Aug. 19, 1977 SUllda lslallds "th period
lan. 4" 1907 400 Sumatra ' ty a nd wave.Iength nal'lun ~itb water depth of a tsunami WI
FIGURE 1.19 Velf)CI r va litude amplification near the son:.
b
+ Includes dcathli frum tbe tsunami and the earLhqu;lke. ahout 18 mimUes. and an iIlustratmn or amp

L
 . . l.Earth9uake Re,'JiJJtant De$igJ:,:oT~::c:;tu=",,=.------- - - - -.===-.- ) ;---------- ------
---C;;hc.;-p"C"-'-:';-E;;"",:-:::;:::,,:::,,=,,:::.~:::g:C<S"':::i,=m-o"logy="":"1) .M.~

water depth and the coastal co~figuratjon. the waves may undergo extensive refraction., another
p~cess that ,may c~nverge therr energy to particular areas on the shore and thus increase the
heIghts and Inundauon even more. FieJd surveys are carried out after every larcre tsunam' f
assessment of :un-ups and inundation limits and to coUect associated data fro;; ey~witn~ or
such as the number of waves, arrival time of waves and the largest wave.
SUMMARY
Seismology is the study of generation pronagation and r'"~rdl'ng of l ' . th
e aSHe waves In e canh
and of so.urces Y:at.. 'to" -....
produce them. An earthquake is a sudden tremor or movement of eanh's
crust. WhJc~ ongmates ~atu~dHy at or below the surface. About 90% of aJ1 earthquakes re~mI~
from tecu:mc events, pnmanly movements of the faults. The remaining proportion is reJated
to volcafl)sm, collapse of sub-terranean cavities, Or man-made effects. The epicenters of
earthquakes are nol randorrJy distributed over the earth's surface They tend [0 b d liquefaction. tectonic deformation, tsunamis, and seiches.
. ) T " . e conCentrdte
l~ narro~ lOnes. hIS cha~ter descnbes in detail the elastic rebound theory, seismic waves local
SHe effe~ts ~n g~und motIo,n characteristics, interior of the earth and movement of India~ plate
along WIth ItS selsmolectomc features.
GLOSSARY OF EARTHQUAKE/SEISMOLOGY
Active fault. A fault that is likely to have another earthquake some time in the futur
~auJts are commonly considered to be active if they have moved one or more tim:~
In the past.
Aftershocks. Earthquakes thal follow the largest shock of an earthquake sequence.
They are smaJJer than the mamshock and continue over a period of weeks months
or years. In general. the huger the mainshock. the larger and more num~rous th~
aftershocks, and the longer they will continue
AIl~viu.m. l-e:0se gravel, sand, siJt, or day de~sjted by streams.
AseismIC: ThIS term describes a fault on which no earthquakes have been observed.
Attenuabon~ "'hen you throw a pebble in a pond, it makes waves 'on the surface that
move out from the place where the pebble entered the water. The waves are largest
,,:here they a~e funned and gradually get smaller as they move away. TIDs decrease in
s.lze, Of amphtude, of the waves is ca1ied attenuation
" B;~ment. Harder and usually older igneous and me~orphic rocks that underlie the
mam sedImentary rock sequences (softer and usuaUy younger) of a region and extend
Body wave. A seismic wave that moves through the interior of the earth, as opposed
to the surface wavt;.S that travel near the earth's surface. p~ and S-waves are body waves.
Crust. The outermost major layer of the earth, ranging from about 10 to 65 km in
ses thickness worldwide. The uppermost 15 to 35 km of crust is brittle enough to produce
earthquakes.
Core. The innermost part of the earth. The outer core extends from 2500 to 3500 miles
below the earth's surface and is liquid meta!. The inner core i. the central 500 miles
and is solid metal.
Earthquake. This tenn is used to describe both sudden slip on a fault, and the resulting
ground shaking and radiated seismic energy caused by the slip, or by volcanic or
magmatic activity, or other sudden stress changes in the earth.
Earthquake hazard. Anything associated with an earthquake that may affect the
normal activities of people. This includes surface faulting, ground shaking. landslides.
Earthquake risk. The probable building damage, and number of people that are
expected 10 be hurt or killed if a likely earthquake on a particular fault occors.
Earthquake risk and earthquake hazard are occasionally used interchangeably.
Epicentre. The point on the earth's surface vertically above the pOint in the crost where
seismic rupture begins
Fault. A fracture along which the blocks of crust on either side have moved relative
to one another parallel to the fracture. Strike-slip faults are vertIcal (or nearly
vertical) fractures where the blocks have mostly moved horizontally. If the block
opposite to an observer looking across the fault moves to the right, the slip style
is termed righllateral; jf the block moves to the left, the motion is termed left lateral.
Dip-slip faults are inclined fractures where the blocks have mostly shifted vertically.
If the rock mass above an incUned fault moves down~ the fault is termed normal,
whereas if the rock ahove the fault moves up, the fault is termed revetse (or thrust).
Obliqueslip faults have significant components of both slip styles.
Foreshocks. Foreshocks are relatively smaller earthquakes that precede the largest
earthquake in a series, which is termed the mainshock. Not all mainshocks have
foreshocks.
Hypocenlre. The point within the earth where an earthquake rupture starts. Also
commonly tenned the focus.
Intensity. A number (written as a Roman numeral) describing the severity of an
earthquake in tenns of its effects on the earth's surface and on humans and their
structures. There are many intensity values for an earthquake, depending on where you

I
downward to the base of the crus!. are~ unlike the magnitude, which is one number for each earthquake.
~ ~~r~~~.~elaliveJy hard, soHd rock that commonly underlies softer rock, ~ediment, Intraplale and interplale. Intraplate pertains to process within the earth's crustal
or so~l. '" .)UbSCf of the basement
plates. Interplate pertains to process between the plates.
/{ -.sen~on: zone~ A dipping planar (flat) zone of earthquakes that is produced bv the lsoseismal A eontour or line on a map bounding points of equal intensity for a particular
lfllcwcllOfl oj u downlJoino- oceanic crust'l I t <th -

I
h uk l:> 0 a p a e Wl a contInental plate. The<;e earthquake.
eart_ qu. c.s can be prod~ced by slip along the subduction thJUst fault or by slip on Left-lateral. If you were to stand on the fault and look along its length, this is a type
fault:.. wnhm the downgoJna plate as a result of bend' . d . . . of strike-slip fault where the left block moves toward YOll and the right block moves
. J' he'. 1l1g an extenslOn as the plate JS
;)0 Jlce Into t e manrle. Also known as the W~adati-Benjoff zone,

L
away.
WliM (Earthquake Re,ststc:nt "Design of Structures
Lithosphere, The outer solid part of the earth, including the crust and uppermo't
mantie, The lithosphere is about 100 krn thick, although its thickness is age dependent
(older lithosphere is thicker). The lithosphere below the crust is brittle enough at some
locations to produce earthquakes. by faulting, such as within a subducted oceanic plate.
Love wave. A type of seismic surface wave having a horIzontal motion that is
iIansverse (or perpendicular) to the direction the wave is travelling.
Magnitude. A number that characterizes the relative size of an earthquake. Magnitude
is based on measurement of the maximum motion recorded by a seismograph. Several
,cales have been defined, but tbe most commonly used are (1) local magnitude (MJ,
commonly referred to as "Richter magnitude," (2) surface-wave magnitude (Ms), (3)
body-wave magnitude (me), and (4) moment magnitude (Mw).
Mainshock. The largest earthquake in a sequence. sometimes preceded by one or more
foreshocks, and almost always followed by many aftershocks.
~Mantle. The part of the earth's interior between the metallic outer core and the crust
Moho. The boundary between the crus.t and the mantle in the earth. The boundary is
between 25 and 60 krn deep beneath the continents and between 5 lUld 10 km deep
be.neath the ocean floor.
Oeeanic spreading ridge, A fracture zone along the ocean bottom where molten
mande material comes to the surface) thus creating new crust. This fracture can be seen
beneath the ocean as a line of ridges that form as molten rock reaches the ocean bottom
and solidifies.
Oceanic trencb. A linear depression of the sea floor caused by the subduction of one
plate under another.
P-wave, A seismic body wave that shakes the ground back and forth in the same
direction and the opposite direction as the wave is moving.
Plate tectonics. A theory supported by a wide range of evidence that considers the
earths ernst and upper mantle to be composed of several large, thin. relatively rigid
plates that move relative to one another, Slip on faults that define the plate boundaries
commonly results in earthquakes. Severa] styJes of faults bound the plates. including
thrust faults along which plate material is subducted or consumed in the mantle, oceanic
spreading ridges along which new crustal material is produced, and transform faults
that accommodate horizontal slip (strike slip) between adjoining plates.
Rayleigb wave. A seismic surface wave causing the ground to shake in an elliptical
motion, wjth no transverse, or perpendicular, motion,
Recurrence intervaL The average time span between large earthquakes at a particular
she. Also termed rerum period.
Reflection. The energy or wave from an earthquake that has been returned (reDected)
from a boundary between two different malerials wiibin the earth, jU!>i as " mirror
reflecL" light.
Retraction. The deflection, or bending 1 of the ray path of a s.eismic wave cau!ied by
its passage from one material to another having djfferent elastic properties. Bending
of a tsunami wave front owing to variations in the water depth along Ii coastlille.
.. Right-lateral. If you were to stand on the fault and look along its length, this is a type
of strike~slip fault where the right block moves toward you and the left block mnves
,rv.-'fiy.
Chapter 1 Engineering Seismology J . , .
Ring or Fire. The zone of earthquakes surrounding the Paciftc Ocean which is called
the Circum-Pacific belt about 90% of the world's earthquakes occur there, The .next most
seismic region (5-6% of earthquakes) is the Alpide belt (extends from MedIterranean
region, eastward through Turkey, Iran, and northern India). .
S-wal'e. A seismic body wave that shakes the ground back and forth perpendicular to
the direction the wave is moving, also caned a shear wave.
Sand boil. Sand and water that come out onto the ground surface dunng an earthquake
as a result of liquefaction at shallow depth. .
Seismic gap. A section of a fault that has produced earthquakes in ~e ~ast but 1S ~o~
quiet. For some seismic gaps, nO earthquakes have been observed hlstoncaUy, but It .1S
believed that the fault segment is capable of producing earthquakes on some other basls,
such as plate-motion infonnation or strain measurements.
Seismicity, The geographic and historical distribution of earthquakes.
Seismic moment. A measure of the size of an earthquake based on the Mea of fault
rupture the average amount of slip. and the force that was required to overcome the
friction' sticking the rocks together that were offset by faulting. Seismic moment can
also be calculated from the amplitude spectra of seismic waves.
Seismic zone. An area of seismicity probably sharing a common cause. Example: "'The
Himalayan Zone."
Seismogenk Capable of generating earthquakes, .
Seismngram. A record written by a seismograph in resp~nse to ground motIOns
produced bv an earthquake, explosion. or other ground-mouon sources.
Seismolo!lY. The srudy of earthquakes and the structure of the earth, by both naturally
and artificially generated seismic waves.
REFERENCES
[IJ Abe, K., "Tsunami and Mechanism of Great Earthquakes", Physics of the Earth Planer
Interiors, 7: 143-153, 1973. .
[2J Aki, K. lUld Chouet, B., "Origin of Coda Waves: Source, Attenuation and Scattenng
Effects", Journal of Geophysical Research, 80: 3322, 1975. , .
[3] Aki, K., "Local Site EffecL, on Strong Ground Motion':' In EarlhquakL Engmeermg
and Soil Dynamics II-Recent Advances in Ground MOlton Eval~atlOn, J .~. Von ~u~
(Ed,), Geotechnical Special Publication No. 20, 103-155, Amencan Soc,ety of CIvIl
Engineering, New York, 1988. , '
[4] Barazangi, M. and Dorman, J" "World Seismicity Map Complied from ESSA, Coat
and Geodetic Survey, Epicenter Data, 1961-J961", Bulletin of the SClSmologlCal
Sodetv of America, 59: 369-380, 1969.
15] Bath, ].,1" "Earthquake Energy and Magnitude", Physics and Chemistry of the Earth,
> Ahren, LH. Press. 115-165, 1966.
I [6] Bard, P,Y and B~uchon. M., 'The Seismic Response of Sediment-filled ValIeys~
Pnrt 1: The Case of Incident SH Waves", Bulletin ~f the Setsmologlcal SocJety of
I! America, 70: 1263-1286, 1980.
L.
 - - - -)
[7] Bard, P.Y. and Bouchon, M., "The Seismic Response of Sediment-filled Valleys-
Pan 2: The Case of Incident P and SV Waves", Bulletin of rhe Seismological Sodety
of America, 70: 1921-1941. 1980b.
IS] Bard, P.Y. and Bouchon, M .. "The Two-dimensional Resonance of Sediment-filled
Valleys", Bullelin of the Seismological Society of America, 75: 519-541, 1985.
[9] Bullen, K.E. and Bolt, B.A., An Introduction to the Theory of Seismology, Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge, 1985.
[10] Celebi, M., ''Topographical and Geological Amplifications Determined from Strong-
mmion and Aftershock Reconds of the 3 March 1985 Chile Earthquake", Bulletin of
Ihe Seismological SocielV qfAmmca, 77: 1147-1167, 1987.
f111 Conrad, Y., -"LaufzeitkuTvcn Des Tauernbebens", vom 28: 59; 1-23. MiH.Erdb.-
Komm. Wien. 1925.
112] DeMel', el aJ., Current Pia" Mnlions, 101: 425-478, 1990.
[13] Faccioli. E.. "Seismic Amplification in the Presence of Geological and Topographic
Irregularities", Proceedings of 2nd lmernoli-onal Conference on Recent AdvQn<es
in Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering and Soil DY1Ulmics. SL Louis, Missouri, 2:
1779-1797, 1991.
114] Geli, L., Bard, P.Y. and Jullien, B .. "The Eff""t of Topography on Earthqu.ke Ground
MOtlon: A Review and New Results", Bulletin a/the Seismological Society of America,
7K: 42-63, [988.
[15] Gutenberg, B., Th,' Energy of Eartlu/uakes, 112: 1-14, 1945.
116] Gutenberg, B. and Richter, c.F., Seismicity of Earth OM Related Phenomenon,
Princeton University Press, Prineeton, New Jersey, 1945.
117] Gutenberg, B., "Magnitude Determination for Deep Foeus Eanhquakes", Bulletin of
the Seismological Society of America, 35: 117-130, 1956.
11S] Hatayam., K., M.atsunami, K .. Iwata, T. and Irikur., K., "Basin-induced Love Wave
in tbe Eastern Part of the Osaka Basin", foumal of Physics of the Earth, 43: 131 -155,
1995.
[19] HUllon, L.K. and Boore, D.M., "The Me Seale in Southern California", Bull<tin of the
Seismological Society of Americo, 77: 6: 2074-2094, 1987.
[20] Jibson, R., "Summary on Research on the Effects of Topographic Amplification of
Earthquake Shaking on Slope Stability", Open-File-Reporl87-268, USGS. California.
1987.
[21] Kanamo,;, H .. "Mechanism of Tsunami Earthquake", Physics of ,he Earth Pinnet.
Interiors, 6: 246-259, 1972.
[22] Kanamo';. H, "The Energy Release in Great Earthquakes", Tectonophysics, 93: 185-
199. J977.
[23] Hank, TC. and Kanamo]'i. H" "A Moment Magnitude Seale", fGR, 84: 2343..2350,
1979.
1241 IS: lH93. indian Standard Criteria for Earthquake Resistant Dt::,rgn of Structures,
Part 1, BIS, Ncw Delhi. 2002.
I Narayan,
[25J Kawase, H.. 'The Cause of Damage Belt in Kohe: 'The Basin-edge Effect',
Constructive Interference of the Direct S-Waves with the Basin Induced Diffracted!
Rnylcigh W3\,(';';". Seismologicm ReselJfrh Lel1ers, 67: 25-34. 1996.
I
I
L
[26) Kawase, H. and Aki. K., "Topography Effect at lhe Critical SV Wave Incidence:
Possible Explanation of Damage Pattern by the Whitter Narrow", Earthquake of I
October 1987, Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 80: 1-22, California.
1990.
127] Kennett, B.L.N, and Engdahl, E.R., "Travel Times for Global Earthquake Loeation
and Phase Identification", International Journal of Geophysics, 105: 429-465, 1991.
[28] Khan~ P.K . "Recent Seismicity Trend in India and Adjoining Regions" ~ ISET~ New
Lett.. October 2003-July 2004, 10-14, 2004.
[29] Kim, W.Y., "The ML Scale in Eastern North America", Bulletin of 'he Seismological
Society of America, 88(4): 935-951, 1998.
[30] Langston, c.A., Brazier, R., Nyblade, A.A., and Owens, TJ.. "Local Magllitude Scale
and Seismicity Rate for Tanzania. East Africa:' Bulletin of the Selsmo[ogtcal SOCiety
of America, 88(3): 712-721, 1998.
[311 LeV!et, A., Loup, C., and Goula, X., "The Provence Eanhquake of June II, 1909
(France): New Assessment of Near Field Effects", Proceedings of the 8th European
Conference of Earthquake Engineering, Lisbon, 2. p. 4.2.79, 1986.
[32] Love, A.E.H., Some problems of Geodynamics, Cambridge University Pres" 191 L
[33] Lowrie W. Fwufamenla/s of Geophysics, Cambridge University Press, 1997.
[34] MacM~rdo, J., "Papers Relating to the Earthquake which Occurred in India in 1819",
Philosophical Magazine, 63: 105-177,1824. ..,
[35] Moczo. P. and Bard, P.Y., "Wave Diffraction, Amplification and Dlfferenttal Mollon
Near Strong Lateral Diseontinuities", Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America,
83: 85-106, 1993.
[31\1 Mohorovicic, A., "Das Beben Vom 8 x 1909", lb. Met. Obs. Zagreb, 9, 1-63, 1909.
[37J Musselt, A.E. and Khan, M.A., Looking into the Earth: An Introduction to Geological
Geophysics. Cambridge University Press, 2000. .
[38] Narayan, J.P., "Site Specific Strong Ground Motion Prediction Using 2.5-D Modelling",
Geophysical Journal Imernalianal. 146: 269-281, 2001. . .
[39] Narayan, J.P. and Rai, D.C., "An Observational Study of Local SIte Effects In th~
Chamo1; Earthquake", proceedings of Workshop on Recent Earthquakes of Chama/.
and Bhuj', 273-279, 2001.
140] Narayan. J.P. Sharma, M.L. and Ashwani Kumar, 'A Seismological Report on the
January 26, 2001 Bhuj, India Earthquake', Seismological Research Letters, 73:
343-355, 2002.
(41) Narayan, J.P. and Prasad Rao, P.V., "Two and Half DimensionalSimulation of Ridge
Effect' on the Ground Motion Characteristics". Pure and Applted Geophys.cs, 160:
1557-1571,2003. .
f~2] Naravan, J.P., "2.5D Simulation of Basin-edge Effects on the Ground MotIon
Char~cterj5tics" > Proceedings oj Indian. Academy of Sciert("es (Science of the Earth
Planet), 112: 463-469, 2003a. .
143] Narayan, J.P., "Simulation of Ridge Weathering Effects on the Ground MotIon
Char1teterislics". Journal of Earlhquake Engineer/nR, 7: 447-461, 2003b. .
J.P., "3D Simulation of BaSin-edge Effects on the Ground Monon
1M]
Characteristics", 13WCEE, August 1-6. P'dper No. 3333. Vancouver, Canada, 2004.
. , . ( Eart~ Resistant Design oJ Stf"UetUW$ )

[45) Narayan, J.P., "Study of Basin-edge Effects on the Ground Motion Characteristics
Using 2.5-D Modelling", Pure and Applied. Geophysics, 162: 273-289, 2005.
[46] Oldham, R.D., "A Catalog of Indian Earthquakes from the Earliest Time, to the End
of A.D., J 869", Memoir X, Geological Survey of India, J 883.
Chapter 2
[47] Oldham, R.,?., "The Constitution of the Interior of the Eanh, as Revealed by
Eanhquakes , Quarterly Journal of Geological Society of London, 62: 456-75, 1906.
[48] Pedersen,H., ~tzfeJd, D., CampiIJo, M., and Bard, P.Y., "Ground Motion Amplitude Seismic Zoning Map of India
Across RIdges , Bulletin of rhe Seismological Soceiry 0' America 84: J786-1800
1994. ""
[49] Pitarka, A" Inkum, K., Iwata. T., and Sekiguchi, H.~ '''Threc dimensiona1 Simulatlon
R

of the Near Fault Ground Motion for 1995", Hyogo-ken Nanbu (Kobe). Japan
earthquake, Bullerm of rhe SelSmoiogicai Soceicv of America, 88: 428-440, 1998.
[50] Pl~SInger A., Zm~s~al, M . and Zednik, J., Automau~d Pre~processing of Digital
Smmogroms: PrlflClples and Software. Version 2.2, E. Bergman (Ed.i, Prague and
Golden, 1996. 2.1 INTRODUCTION
[511 Rayleigh, Lord, "On-wave Propagated Along the Plane Surface of an Elastic Solid",
The goal of seismic roning is to delineate regions of similar probable intensity of grou~d moti~n
Proceedmgs of the London Mathematical Society, 17: 4-11, 1885.
in a country, for providing a guideline for provision of an adequate earthqua~ reslstan~ in
[52] Reid, H.F., The California Earthquake ofApril 18, 1906, Publication 87, 21, Carnegie
constructed facilities, as a step to disaster mitigation. Various social, economIC, and pohtIcal
Institute of Washington, Washington, D.C., 1910.
considerations govern the prescription of a minimum standard of safeguard against earthquake
[53] Reid, H.F., "The E1a,<tic Rebound Thenry of Earthquakes", Bul.ierin of DepanlMn! of
in the design of a structure. These are 0) economic concept of, 'acce,ptable ~isk', and (ii) ans~er
Geology, 6: 413-444, university of Berkeley, 1911. to social question 'How safe is safe enough;. The strongest mtenslty of likely ground motIOn
[54] Richter, c.P., "An Instrumental Earthquake Magnitude Scale" Bulletin of the
is based on the anSwers to the above tWO posers, In terms of pure economic theory. earthquake
Seismological Soceity of America, 25: 1-32, 1935. '
causes two types of losses known as primary and secondary losses. A primary. loss is
[55] Richter, c.F., Elementary Seismology, W.H. Freeman, San Francisco, 1958.
irrecoverable loss, which results in the losS of human life in earthquake. All other losse5 incurred
due to earthquake that can be recouped are termed as secondary losses. Thus minimum standa~d
[56] Sanchez-Sesma: FJ., "Elementary Solutions for the Response of a Wedge-shaped
MedlUm to InCIdent SH and SV Waves'\ Bulletin of the Seismological Soceirv of in a code to withstand earthquake is prescribed such that complete collapse of structure t$
America, 80: 737-742, 1990. ..
prevented which ensures that no human life is lost. This requires a forecast of the strongest
[571 Sa~ake. K.. Tsunamis, International Handbook of Earlhquake and Engineering
intensity of likely ground motion at a particular site during the service life Of. struclure. Thm';
Sel1mwlogy-Pan B, Lee, et .1. (Eds.), 437-451, 2002,
estimate of acceleration. velocity. displacement, frequency content and duratlOn of expected
[58] Siro, L. "Southern Italy November 23, 1980 Earthquake". Proceedings of 7th
maximum strong motion is required for a site. Seismic zoning map of a country segregates
European Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Athens~ Greece, 1982.
country in various areas of similar probable maximum intensity of ground m~tion. ~e
[59] Wood, RO., "Distribution of Apparent Intensity jn San Francisco. in the California
maximum il1lensity is fixed in such a way that the lifelineJcritica~ struet~res WIll re:n~m
Earthquake or April 18, 1906", Report ofthe Slate Earthquake investigation Commission, functional and there is low possibility of colJapse for structures deSIgned WIth thc provlsiOn
1: 220--245, Carnegie Institute of Washington, Washington. D.C., 1908. -
provided in the code even for the occurrence of earthquake with higher intensity. Thus (\
structure designed with the provision of code can suffer damage of both structural and non~
Struchmil type. The damage is repairable but its economic viability is not warranted.

2.2 SEISMIC HAZARD MAP

GeologicaJ Survey of India (GSt) prepared a seismic hazard map in 1935 (Audel1, 1959.' of t~r~e
ZonC}; (Figure 2.1) depicting likely damage scenario namely. severe, moderate an~ sllg~. [lw,
map also showed areas. which experienced damaging ~odjfied Mercalli ~MM) mtenSIty YIn
CRoss}-Ford intensity 'higher than VII') in the past earthquakes.
45
 Mr. ( Earthquake ReMst<f.ttt De~ign Of StructurES
) c Chapter:: Seismic Zoning Map of IndiG) _'*
(i) danger zone that encompasses epicentres of an past earthquakes causing severe damage
SEISMIC ZONES or INDIA (MM intensity 'X and above') since 1850,
~h...
!"be ~aI Sun;' ~nnd", (il) a zone of moderate damage, which might be caused by earthquakes originating in the
w 19,5~1ddi1"",UJ'\o 1'>50;
ScRk. J mdt - 240 ",;//#<. danger zone and severe damage close to the epicentre region might be caused by the
earthquake Originating within this zone, and
(iii) areas of comparative safe zone of slight or no damage,
These two maps relied on the epicentre data of past earthquakes without any reference to
the tectonic setting of Indian subcontinent.
By evaluating peak horizontal ground acceleration based on earthquake occurrence data
from 1904 to 1950 Ja; Krishna (1958 and 1959) developed four-zone seismic map (Figure 2.3).
These zones are
(I) very heavy damage zone corresponding to magnitude 8 anywhere in this zone,
(ii) heavy damage zone with probable maximum accelerations of 0.3 g due to all cpjcentre
'PJ<c",,,,,,rllUll
~'Ik"k"",""
'.OO),;lOI>;"; ,~,.,. ;
, of magnitude 8 earthquake along southern margins of very heavy damage zone .
, (iii) moderate damage zone of ground accelerations between 0_ )-{).3 g, and
(iv) light damage zone corresponding to ground accelerations less than 0.1 g. This map also
" advocates no seismic consideration in Indian peninsular regions as it was considered to
be stable plateau.
FIGURE 1.1 Seismic zones or Indian subcontinent compiled by the Geological Survey of India
i. 1935 (with additions up 10 1950),
Jai Krishna 19588< 1959
West (1937) presented a seismic hazard zone map (Figure 2.2) showing three zones. These
zones were .

Very heavy
Damage zone

Light damage

Bombay S",ble
plateau

Madras
,,
.,
,; : '1;'

Scale
100 0 100 4<)0, km

FIGUR~; 2.1 ~;.rl.l!qu.ke Damage Zone oflndi. by West (1937). F1GURE 2.3 Seismic Zoning Map of lodia by Jai Krishna (1958 and 1959).

L
eM ( Earl/Uluake .Resistant Design of Stt'"Uct'Uf'CS ) '- _..

.
_--...
.. 'I
Chaptc1' 2 Sei$mic Zoning Map of India) -U-
than V' V VI vn VIII IX and 'X and above' in twelve point MM
Mithal and Srivastava (1959) classified occurrence of earthquakes in India on thickness of produced mtenslues ess ".., 1
continental shelf using geophysical data and based on Assam (J 897 and 1950), Kang'" (1905) scale. Enve10pes for various MM intensities stated as above were drawn. ,These enve opes were
and Bihar-Nepal (1934) earthquakes. Three seismic zones (Figure 2A) named as belt of odifi d to take into account of past seismic activity of smaller magmtude earthquakes, the
frequent. occasional and rare earthquakes are of continental shelf thickness of more than 1500 J.1l d Je ' - al tectonic features and local ground condition (lithological groups),
f
tren ThO p~ncl~ t round Deihl' were modified in conformitv to the trend of Aravalli Hills.
m, less than 1500 m and sh~eld blocks of marginal overburden. respectively. e lSOselsmal a ~ - h
DeUary isoseismal was also modified in the activity trend of mmor ~hocks that occurr~d ]n ~ e
re 'on ~tending from Chennai in Tamil Nadu to Thiruvananthapuram In KeraJ~. A SelSmlC ~n~ng
Zone 1-Frequent earthquakes zone Ill. (F' 25) was, adopted in IS: 1893-1962. In thIS recommendatIon
Zone 2...()ccasiQnal earthquakes zone map havmg reven zone~ 19ure . ,
Zone 3FeW Or rare earthquakes zone

SEISMIC ZONES
(1962)

FIGURE 2,4 Seismic Belts of India by Mithal and Srivastava (1959),

2.3 SEISMIC ZONE MAP OF 1962

The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) constituted a multi-disciplinary committee of Engineers,
Geologist and Seismologist in 1960 to pr~pare a code of practice for earthquake resistant design
of Structures, The first comprehensive seismic zoning map was developed by the consensus view
of the above committee drawn from various organizations that deaf with physics of earthquake
I c:::::
c::,
Z"O~
l",'~
z""~u
II
I

7"'1'..,:11
7.."",;V
7o:r~V
and mitigation efforts 8.'isociated with the earthquake hazard. In view of s.canty data of pas.t 7-<1o:\I(

earthquakes in the country, the committee agreed that evolution of zoning map based only on \
statistical approach is. not likely to provjdl! a representative sei~mic bazard appraisal. Broad I
seismotectonics framework of the country was considered to be the basis of the ~ismk zoning. I
This wa, augmented by preliminary tectonic map prepared by GS] and map of epicentres of past i
canhquakcs: prepared by the india Meteorological Department (IMD), These maps wl!re
included in the Indian Standard Recommendation for Earthquake Resistant Design of Structure
IS: 1893-1962. The committee utilized the average intensity attenuatjon (intcnsity-magnitude-
l'IGURE 2.5 Seismic Zuning Map .f IS: 1893-1962,
distance) relationship to draw idealized isos.ci'>mal of twenty-three major earthquakes. that
.,j
l
 the ZOne corres~onding to MM intensity of less than five is termed as Zone 0 (zero), to sug est
) _ _ _ _~Chapter 2 Seumic Zoning M(Jp of India.)
that Iatera~ loadmg On .the stnJcture was envisaged to be s.mall so that the design of structu! to
carry verueal loads wIth proper factor of safety was considered to be adequate.
. Guha (1962) prepared a seismic regionlisation map (Figure 2.6) with the premise that past
earthquake data (eplcentres) contams all the information pertaining to seismotectonic setup of
~~~=u~tr~I I~~~l~~:S l~ere drs'NIl and five seismic regions corresponding to MM intensity
d "~~. -X and Xl were termed as no damage. moderate damage heavY
. a~~g.e ~nd very heav~ damage. The presumption of availability of historic seismicity'data is
Imp tCIl In the assumpUOn made to prepare the seismic regionalization map.
.i.
map included in the published vo1ume was so small that the regions bet\Veen MM intensity
v-VI (seismic zone 1-11) boundaries were not visible at the southern part from the east of
Vadodara in Gujarat. Moreover. IMD had assigned magnitudes to many historical earthquakes
using correlation between magnitude and felt area. Tectonic Map was published by GS} in
1964 at the time of International Geological Congress. The BIS committee revised the seismic
zoning map to account for new available information of the historic data and to provide
additionaJ emphasis on ge{)iogy and tectonics in demarcating zones. The committee also decided
that the number of zones and methodology need no changes. The major modifications can be
grouped as:

2.4.1 Grade n.h.aru::emen.t

Magnitude 8.3 Kutch earthquake of June 16. 1819 had similar grade of damage as of June 12.
1897 Shillong earthquake of magnitude 8.7, January 15, 1934 BiharNepal earthquake of
magnitude 8.3 and August 15, 1950 Rima (Assam) earthquake of magnitude 8.6. Based On
higher felt area data it was inferred that source of Satpura and Rewa earthquake was of higher
potential and consequently the grade of isoseismal of these earthquakes were increased.
Consequently isoseismal of Satpura and Rewa earthquakes were elongated taking into account,
alignment of Naramda rift as the causative tectonic feature. In this revision isoseismal of
Coimbatore earthquake of February 8, 1900 were drawn, the location of Kangra earthquake of
1905 was corrected and tbe area of MM intensity 'X and above' were drawn, based on the
observed data. The area of 'X and above' intensity at Kangra waS graded as ZOne VI. A region
of Zone V based on intensity~magnitude..djsta.nce relationship was also introduced around this
'lOne. Bellary earthquake was associated to Dharwarian strike resulting in re~orientation of
isoseismal to Northwest-Southeast direction corresponding to Dharwarian trend. Isoseismal V
was redrawn taking into account of Oldham's hypothesis of faulted coastal line (Krishnaswamy,
1977). Based on tectonic setup and occurrence of earthquake in the region it was extended to
cover only the 'marginal depression' that forms a mobile belt in Maharashtra that underlie the
Deccan traps, corresponding to the GSl's tectonic map.

2.4.2 Review of Tectonic

The activity of past eanhquakes were associated to deep-seated trends of Moradabad and Sohna
faults in the basement rock of the Gangetic plains from the studies of I?-.1D. which resulted in
changing the shape of MM intensity vm isoseism.!. Intensities of ?-.1anipur. Tripura and
Andaman were enhanced based on available seismic data and tectonic setup. The origin of
earthquakes in the Kashmir region was associated to the Himalayan thrust. resulting in the
i change of shape and grade. The shapes of isoseismals of the entire Northern region {Himachal

2.4 SEISMIC ZONE MAP OF 1966

I Pradesh. Haryana and Uttar Pradesh) were modified in the direction parallel to the Himalayan
trend. The same philosophy was followed in the north-eastern region also. h;oseismal around
Nagaland was modified to conform to tectonics of the region. Corresponding to the trend of
r v.~stem Ghat, isoseismal in the Kerala region was also redrawn.

I The incorporation of cbaoges as above is recommended in IS: 1893-1966 (Figure 2.7)

reSUlted in reduction of the embayment of Zones III and lV in the northern region and the extent
r of Zone () in the southern part of Indian Peninsula in comparison with that of IS: 18931962.

L
._ , . M
_ (BC1'''"'l
,,_....~ke Resistant Design of Structures
.~--------~ I c_---
to one and termed as MM intensity 'IX and above' zone. Epicentre location, steep geothermal
gradient, movem.ent of crust, geomorphic evidence of offset of small landfonns. strati.graphic
evidence. gravity anomalies, were utilised in demarcating seismo-tectonic setup of India.
SEISMIC ZONES
(1966)
I Krishnaswamy (in Srivastava, 1969) proposed five principal seismo-tectonjc units (Figure 2,8
and Table 2.1) based on these. The proposed seismo-tectonic units are as follows:

I 140 lW ?
Stale
12.0 21" km

I
I

....= -"
z....,l

-
""" z-J
=
E3
_m
,-w
7_Y

""" I~ .... \I,

FIGURE 2.7 Seismic Zoning Map of IS: 1893-1966.

2.5 SEISMIC ZONE MAP OF 1970

FIGURE 2.8 Generalised tectonic unit of indian subcontinen' (Krlsbnaswamy (in Srivasta\'a~
earthq~ake of December I J 1967 (lCCU d' P . IS. 1893-1966.
Just after the publicatiun of the first revision o f ' - "
magrutude 6.5 Kovna 19(9)).
e ~cond revision
flS 1893 fre In cmnsu!.r Shield of I ct' Th .
(1 .: _ was taken up in 1968 turevicw the ivcn'( ., n. la.
regIOn and the revised version appeared in 197~ as I;' )~& 'SelSffilC status of Ule ~dl(ln peninsular
>
Shield unit of peninsular India with ancient faults and localized seismic activity
J.
of compromise and consensus view of the d'ff d' " c~~ 1970. The commJttee by a process encompassed by MM intensity 'less than VI' and VI.
app . h b . . I erent Isclplmes agreed ttl U' _. , Gondwana rift unit of peninsular India with Mesozoic fault movements and the later
adjustments that jncludes the Gondwana graben and adjacent platform cover of pe-n~
roac y recogmzmg geolog' I h' . se :-;elsmO-lectomc 2,
lea lstory and tectonic ch t f d'ff
country. 1 y"as decided that the number of . _ 3f'dC er 0 I erent area}' of the
\'ersion IMicad of seven The "ll'l'gnl'fl'c" sell.c;ml.c ~ones ~ould be reduced to five in the revised
insular shield with Mesozoic Tertiary sediments were in general of MM intensity VII.
,
conespondino to MM intensity 'bel
"
~ 1~ intensity below VI would be k . h
M'1 b ow
V'
on vanallon 01 d SI"
.
' .
e, /!!In provIsIon between tbe zones
and V leadmg to the d . - h
I 3.
West Coast and Narmada-Tapti unit of peninsular shield that is segmented by Thrtiary"-
Quaternary fault movements including the West Coast, Narmada-Son and Tapti rift

of l' .
_ , ec.;lSIon t at a single zone of
data indicated that zones correspon:E~gl~~ Me MreV,lsed ~.e~swln. The availability of strong motion
In ten,.."ttes X and 'X and' Po
pro( ucmg comparable ground cu;celeraf10 n, Th us, these two zooes were decided 3 ve were capabJe
10 be merged
i, zone and their extension corresponding to MM ;ntensity VII wlth lslands of MM
intensity VIII.

l
 TABLE 2.! Generalised tectonic units of India with decreasing magnitude and frC4{Uency of earth(IUukc occurrence (after
Krishnaswam3' (in Srivastava, 1969).
-.~--~ ... -
I
Tectonic unir Eorthquake occrtrnmce Seismic

~'S:
ZOlles
-<-----
Name De5uipliol/
-~.~.-.-- ~--

Orogenic Orogenic unil of Cenozoic folding
and faulting. The Sbillong Massif,
which has been greatly affected by
this faulting. has been included in
this zone.
2. foredeep and marginal Duit of Himalayan foredeep and mar~
depression ginal depression {where the boundary
is llot positively established, sOlUe of
the marginal parts of the shield may
Common shocks of magnitude 5~6.5 IV and V 111
I~
with a number of shocks of magnitUde
6.5-7.5, a few shocks of magnitude 7.5-- . .,
8 and occasional shocks greater than 8
originating on some of the major Hima- ~
layan thrust and faults (Satlitta thrust,
Pinjal thrust, Central Himalayan Ihrust.
Dauki faults, etc,)
i
iIl.'"
Common shocks of magnitude 5,6 with III and IV with
a few shocks of magnitude 6-7 and islets of V
occasioual shocks of magnitude 7.5--8
originating along active faults in the

~
really be included in this zone. The basement (patna fault? Of other base
Tectonic Map provisionally defines ment faults, Kutch faults),
the boundary at 200~ 1000 m contour of

3. West coast and

the ba~emcnt at margin of the shield}.
Unlt of Shield with Tertiary-Quater-
Narmada~Tapti nary fault movement including the
West coast seismogcnic zone, the
NarrnadaSun rift zone, tbc Tapti rift
zone and their postulated extensions,
4. Gondwana dfts Unit of shield with Mesozoic fauit
movements and later adjustments,
include Gondwana rift rone and adja~
cent parts of the shield. marginal
parts of the peninsular shield to the
east and north with platform cover of
Mesozoic-CenozoIc sediments.
5. Shield Generally aseismogenic and parti-
tioned areas of the peninsular shield
with ancient faults arId with localized
sejsmogenic features.
Common shocks of magnitude 5-6 with HI with isiets ~
a few shocks of magnitude 6-7 in ofIV
Nannada and Tapti rifts. Past epiccntres
can be related to extensions of partly
mapped faults. Maximum recorded mag~
nitudc on West coast Zone 6.6-7> on
Narmda rift 6.5, Tapti rift 6,25.
Occasional shocks of magnitude 5-6 III
with few centres, which may have mag-
nitude 6-6.5 and may be related to the
boundary faults of the Gondwana basin
and faults of limited extent in the Meso-
zoic-Cenozoic cover on the platform.
Occasional shocks of magnitude 5-6 I and II with
with exceptional activity along local islets of III
faults in tbe Archaeans wilh magnitude
6-6.5.

r
r
"<
~a
Vi o
~O'S'f;f~
ot::!:tQ..o
"~"'1i~\l~'"
" 0 _. _. t;; " ~ ;>

8 it '~p;
"
....
g~~~O!:::T'~::f
::;:l P
I;::l .... ..0 ~ 01
_o9a::;:l~(;U)
~ ~ 8. ~ ~ c. ~, g ('\l ('\I ~ tn ae.
"O~oE=~~e
v> ..,::::l1
o 'g ::t (") ~ 0 0 o 0""'"'
"'""'10" :;::, - ' <

e'j;lo~.e.."""~N ""::::!
&;<1'9 g ~ e:;;;.g ~'l!!. [:::: S'
__ . 0 ~ ~ El " _<~. r;l 511.
s fl~;;S.~S-Oio~ ~i1qo!?~
l:1'a::J~O:::l*7' =~a~p.
,;q' ~ II (l 0 '" :::, 0 <
~
.. ~ ~~ ~~ e:.
:r..o:::1Il:
~
~0 ~0
~_.
:!'gfl'O &:0-
t:! E '<: Q g (il e::
~ ~~. -< ()'
'"
~'~g"ag.gg~ E3 a.
" , , 0 , . , . - 0 ""
a
""'" ::I S '" '" <l - _. -
""g0CJ..~::r'fi;('J')
t') no til til .,

8.~e!l
I:l-;:;;

i< 1,1>

h. R3'
cT o
tl'
5' .....
0;;
'Os-<\:
~ g- ~. ~ I:l ~
;; o~s.:::s,
'0
V>/:I)
(l8.a,;-e II
..~".
!::'
.... til 0 -
c:: "1
'7l;:::J.c .

'" i'i s-i'i ~I!!.-.J

o~o~~
'C;
_.o6~<5.
as- El ~

ort "S- -<e:

is: "<
o t=l - e"'"
g. Ii) 0 .... '
~ ('\I
~ ""'" Sl -,
J::'
.:[ ~fJQ i:'
.
... \ ~
...... _
r;E: (lIe(\>~
;;-l)1)Q.tfQ
~ 1); 0 1'.'> ~ g
Ie.
o.
0
.oS: o.N-'gO ~ge;g,o: n
6 ~O""'N
'I- ~
Iii. -~ ~.g ~
tn..oo~-:9
(Ot::I Q.'1 "

~ ()'S
:::,1 ....
,,< '" :::: (l~ o

-t
:!II"> El" ~.
~~ oil' "
e;;6:
11 <!i ;;: 0"
0' ~ 0.. f,:I. a
flI 0. s 'a.
~ t z :::t> ~ ~~~g i!:.
&~ g:;' oS t;;<~
..... ,<; N ...... ;!i:!
~< 0: "

.'>C
;>
- \:l
s-
.o~
PE..
1lo~a."..,
03
09
2-
::so~ .... -
9 a~ 5_.
,,< '"
::;:l
o()Q-V:
So ~~
oil

.
Il.
~i g~g~~
5'
;o~R
" e: " il ~
....; < g ~ . . . :T
0" og.o.t;:::;
:::r 0", e;...........
"'g ~ ~" !l- ..,
~- .a. I!Il
=~
(") ""

a ~ gE.
0.....
~~
~~o
~?~~.o
IJ.> 0

;.;l~i'ig.
oo-[!~
0 i
"""
!? ~ ~~
:::l.... t::I

'"
I
 (
----- ..... ~-
mm~~ _____ - - -
" , I, ~., ,"-
( .,IfI]' ...
S-,',m'" Zoning _M
.....".p of j:n~
~.~)

(i) around Srinagar relating to down-dip extension of Pinjal thrust,

(ii) epicentr.1 tract of 1905 Kangra earthquake was related to the extension of Samlata SEISMIC WNf;S
thrust and an island around Dharmshala in Himachal Pradesh was introduced, (20021
mm :::;-)

(iii) around western Nepal and Pithoragarh ofUttaranchal was associated with extension of
Himalayan thrust and
(iv) epicentral tract of 1934 Bihar-Nepal earthquake in seismic zone IV.
An islet of zone IV encompassing epicentral region of ] 967 Koyna earthquake was also
introduced in the new Western coast seismic zone III. Seismic status of entire Assam, Mizo hills,
Tripura and northeast part of Kashmir were enhanced by one based an tectonics and seismicity,
In recognition of total tectonic framework entire Andaman island was demarcated as zone V.
Two new seismic zones of leveJ III were introduced along Western coast and along marginal
depression jn Rajasthan. Seismic status of parts of Indo-Gangetk trough was raised due to
fe-demarcation in accordance to tectonic features. Narmada~Son-Tapti zone was merged with
Damodar graben in the east. The fsosei::.mals fur BeHar)' and Coimbatore earthquakes were
redrawn due to revi'>ed estimates of magnitudes. The islet around Coimbatore was nonexistent
due to introduction of costa) belt of seismic zone III in the Western coast. The entire
Lakshadweep group of islands was in seismic zone ill in confrumity to Western coast belt. The
seismic zone I was limited on the basis of extent of platform cover and past earthquake data
resuhlng in curtailment of extent of zone 1.

-
Srivastava (1974) indicated that the correlation of likely maximum Richter magnitude with
the seismic zones I-V was 'less than 5', 5-6,6-6.5,6.5-7 and 'greater than 7'. The maximum _ ,""",11

magnitude as indicated might be 'maximum considered magnitude'. C ",... /H

;,,,,,-"
_ 1M<"

2.6 SEISMIC ZONE MAP OF 2002

DIS constituted a committee to review seismic status of Indian peninsular shield due to
magnitude 6.2 Killari (Latur) earthquake of September 30. 1993. The committee decided to
enhance seismic zone I to seismic zone II. It was also decided that an interim revision to review FIGURE 2.10 Seismic Zoning Map of IS: 1893--2002-
seismic status of penin~ular Ind13 be made as a revised map based on probabilistic hazard
.analysis would be made in future. The committee decided to do a pattern analysis of earthquake Srivastava (1959) did not consider 18.19 Kutch ea~hquakc. fO~c~~~~it~~in~h~h~e~:~<;i~i~o~~~~
hazard using a combination of seismo-tectonics and probabilistic method for Peninsular India More importance was given to gcolOg1C and te~to~lc. setU~l~n the BIS co~e In the Bhuj region
below latjtude N 22"'. The recently available instrumental seismic data were used in this study. map from the revision of 1966 onwards. The SClsmlC zone J . f
The result of (he study had enhanced extent of seismic zone III to include area beyond Chennai in Gujarat can o~ly he justified by the detcrministic z?nin g method. Th~o~C~~:~~z.a~d
in the south and removal of islets of zone III surrounding epicentral tract of Bellary earthquake. I' , _' h' ' . verv infrequent that re<;t:lt In long return pen. .
earthq~ake ;n l ,l!j re~lon I~ .- h' hT (c theory will be lower than that determined USl11g
Thus a four-zone seismic zoning map was adopted in IS: 1893-2002 (Figure 2.10). It is to be If dctermmed m tins regIon usmg pro a 1 lS I . .' IV' h northern
noled that probabilistic assessment portrays the total hazard from aU sources around a site deterministic theory. Similarly islets o~ seisn:l~ :?"onc V, m the s~l;;.m,lc zone., l~ ;:1 ~1C zoni:1!:!,
whereas the deterministk nssessment is in genera] based on a single source. f' rcoion is due to the observed estimated mlCD:qllt:S ofpa'>t earthquake:::. These Islet ~-
lfi:P are due to thc usc of deterministic theory. . ' . - l ahilisti;.:
i The dedsion of the SIS is to have a new reVised l.omng map u~lhng, 1.~flO) I 'r
2.7 EPILOGUE , . , ' . , .. \able rl;;k' and answer jo t c sa ety eve.

The proposed hazard maps prior to IS: 1893-1962 presumed that earthquake processes in the
~~~~~~~~ ~~~~;~~~' ~:' ::;~:l ~:::;e~~e~"'~~fnclude :~ClTIh~r (;r~~:~;i:;dc~:::~'~;~nr~~:
fim1llec/l.:ommefce ministry to e..;;;tab-lish the m.IOJmum reqUJfcmC'Jl ..oh '" h dance; of
recent past in aU likelihood would be the same a'i those in the near future. These maps were . . h hI~l n' q. ha!,;ls man lor l C cOllnlt'r, Qlln "
Moreover. prior lO cmbarkmg on pro a I I.,) h... 1.0 lllz:,' ,l,." "
primarily based on the effect::: of four Himala.yan earthquakes. and Kutch earthquake. Milhal and diFferent scismo~ledonic block of the entire country should lit> fhaOl:.
 C!?arthquake ResIstant Dliul'ign of StMlctUF'etl
)
SUMMARY
:::'e d~scription. of perceived threat from ea~~quakes in different pans of the country in the form Chapter 3
n1 a map began Jfl 1935. The most recent reViSIOn of this map was taken up 'tn 2002 Th' l'
f " . ' JS~~oo
o selSm.c zomng map of Ind.an subcontinent is described in this chapter, The basis and data
u~ed .In 1~~ pre~aratJon of these zO~Jng maps are discussed. The future trends in the preparation
of selsmIC zonmg map on the basts of the probabiiistic hazard analysis is also discussed,
Strong Motion Studies
REFERENCES
in India
Il] AUden~ J.B.,."Earthquake in Relation to D~modor Valley Project", EarrhqlUlke Engi-
n~trmo ,Sem;,nar, H.L. Sally (Ed.), UmversJty of Roorkee, India, pp. 212-216, 1959.
[2] ~eS!, WD .. Earthquake Tn Ind.a ,Presidential Address)" 24 bu:1' S" C
pp. 199-227, 1937. ' wn "enee ongress,
r3) Kri;;~na, J., "~arthquake Engineering Problems in lndia", Journal of Institution. 0/
Enf!,tneers, IndIa. 1958. 3.1 INTRODUCTION
(4] ~ris:lI1a, ~., "S~ismic Zorl:ing of India", Earthquake Engineering Seminar, H.L Sally,
(Ed.), UmversJlY of Roorke<:, India, PI', 24--31, 1959. The UNESCO had dec1ared the nineties as the international Decade for Natural Disaster
[5] Mirhal, KS. and Srivastava. LS., "Geotectonic Position and Earthquakes f G Reduction (lDNDR). Ironically, this decade also witnessed four earthquakes of magnitude 6.0
Brahma t R . " . HL 0 anga- and above occurring in the Himalayas. centra] India, and the peninsular region resu1ting into
, pu fa eglOn. 111 , . SalJy~ (Ed.). Earthquake Engineering Seminar,
UniverSIty of Roarke<, India, Pl'. 217-233, 1959. approximately 10000 casuaJties and many more injuries. These figures would have been much
[6] IS: 1893-1962, lmiian Srandard RecommendaJions for Earthquake Resistance of higher, if these earthquakes had occurred in the neighbourhood of large urban centres, as was
Stru('tures. Indian Standards 1nstitute, New Delhi. 1962. seen in the case of the Bhuj earthquake of January 2001. This earthquake alone accounted for
[7] Guh~, S.K. "Sei~miC Regionalisation of India", Sec-ami Symposium on Eanhquake more than 15000 Jives in addition to having a crippling effe<:t on the eeonomy of the region.
Engmecnng, UnlVerSlty of Roorkce, India, 1962. These disastrous consequences eouJd have been avoided had the systems been designed to
IS] IS: 1893-1966, Indian Standard Recommemialions for Earrhquake Resistance of withstand earthquake ground motions, Quoting from the declaration of the United Nations
S,rU(/ures (FITS! RevlS.on), IndIan Standards Institute, New Delhi 1967, Inremational Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (UNlDNDR) Yokohama Convention 1994:
[9] Knshnaswamy VK" "The Evolution of Seismic Zoning Map of India", Souvenir The Impact of natural disasters in tenns of human and economie losses has risen in recent
Volume, RM. Choudhury, (Ed.), Surh World Conference of Eanhquole Engineering years, and SOciety in general has become more vulnerable to natural disasters. Those
Prabhat Press, Uttar Pradesh, pp. 77-89, 1977. ' usually most affected by narural and other disasters are the poor and soeially disadvantaged
[lO] IS: 1893-1970, Indian Standard Criteria for &rthquake Resistance of Structures groups in developing countries as they are least equipped to eope with them.
(S~ond Revlslon), Indian Standards Institute! New De1hi, 1971. Disaster prevention. mitigation, preparedness .and relief are four elements which contribute
Ill] Snvastava LS., "A Note on the Seismic Zoning Map of India", Bulletin of the Indian to and gain from the implementation of sustainable development policies. These elements,
.I0c/CI)' of Earthqunke Techn%ilY, 6(4): pp. 185-194, 1969, along with environmental protection and sustainable development, are closely interrelated.
! 121 Snvaslava, LS., "Seismic Zoning Map of India" Earthquake Eng' . J' Therefore. nations should incorporate them in their development plans and ensure efficient
K "hn S' f ' ' . " l f u : e T m g - al
r~~ a IX, tetft BErth AlUuversary Commemoration Volume, Sarita Prakashan Me rut follow-up measures at the community, sUb-regional, regional, national and international
lna.a, pp. 49-65, 1974. ' e , levels.
I cq 1~: 1893. /lIdi~~ SI.aruiard Crileria far Earthquake Resi'ito17Ce of Structures-Part l: Disaster response alone is not sufficient. as it yields only temporary results at a very
(Jeneral Pr,()VlJum.~ and Buildings (Fifth Revision) Bureau of Ind' St d high cost. We have followed Utis limited approach for too long. This has been further
New DeihL 2002. ' lan anUm s.,
demonstrated by the recent focus On res.ponse to complex emergencies which, although
compelling shouJd not divert from pursuing a eomprehensive approach.
The facts are clear-we cannot prevent big~ destructive earthquakes from occurring.
These pose a continUing threat to lives and property in more than 55% of the area of this country.
HOwever, it is possible to avoid the disastrous consequences of an earthquake and that precisely
59
-B1- (EQ,l'thqwzke Resistal'tt De8ign of Structure8 L-....
, I e to "- velocl'ru of shear waves in the rock mass near the source. The
is the objective of every sejsrruc design code of practice. The seismic design codes are framed locity of rupture is C os Ule OJ . . '
ve. .c waves observed at a site in the direction of fault rupture WIll have hIgher frequency )0
primarily with the objective of prevention of loss of life, In order to meet this objective it is m1
selS . th aves observed at an equally spaced site in the direction away from the
companson to e w , II 'J" 3 I J
essential that the structures/constructed facilities res.pond to the expected earthquake ground . .on of fault rupture. This phenomenon is illustrated schemauca y Ill. ~lgure ". n
dlre~u 1 the rupture directivity effect results in a large amplitude, short duratlOn pu.ls .at lhe
motions at the site in a designated manner which in turn depends on the nature of ground motion
j

exciting the structure. Thus the reHability of achieving the life safety penormanee objective of
any constructed facility is governed by the mos.t uncertain element in the chain--expecled
::7: e
:~ direction of rupture and a small amplitude, long duration pulse at the SIte In the
direction oppos.ite to the direction of fau1t rupture.
ground motion. The strong motion studies are aimed at reducing the uncertainties in the
specification of expected earthquake ground motions for designing any structure.

3.2 UNDERSTANDING THE NATURE OF

GROUND MOTIONS
DIrection of Faul! Rupture
The complexity of earthquake ground motion is primarily due to three factors: (i) the seismic
..- .. ---,,-
waves generated at the time of earthquake fault movement are not of a uniform character (source
Pulses
effect), (ii) os tbese waves pass through the earth on their way from the fault to the project site, _ _ ....J-~_
o
they are modified by the soil and rock media through which they pass (patlJ effect), and (iii) once
the seismic waves reach the project site, they undergo further modifications. which are dependent 2
upon the characteristics of the ground and soil at tlJe site (local site effects), Each of these factors 3
will be discussed with reference to the possible implications for design recommendations.
~-"L
Resultant in the direction away Resultant in the direction
3.2.1 Source Effect of fault rupture
from direction offault rupwre
Earthquake is a manifestation of rapid release of stress waves during a brittle rupture of rock FIGURE 3.1 Illustration of directivity elff:Ct on ground motion al siles towar-d and awa)' from
mass along a geologic fault zone. The size and type of rupture has a significant influence on din:ctlon of fault rupture (after [29]).
the nature of ground motion. The size of the earthquake is proponional to the size of fault
rupture area which, jn (urn, is proportional to the total energy released-a measure of the
(ii) Fling effect
magniJude of the earthquake, The potential of a geologic fault to generate large earthquakes is '"'ttal equipment during the 1999
estimated from the past seismicity dala, In general. a large magnitude earthquake (with large S f eld strong motion data recor ded on mOd ern d Ie>
fault rupture area) will result in a longer duration of shaking and vice versa. T~:': n:~~ ~ajwan earthquakes show some permanent ground displacement th~t o~cur~ across
These inferences about the characteristics of earthquake ground motions have been drawn a ru l~red fault. This static displacement, termed fling step. oc~urs over a fimle u~~ mt~rva'
from the study of strong motion data recorded over the years. Nevertheless, the nature of the of ~veral seconds as the fault slip is developed. The fling step mvol,vcs ~ large, ~mdirectlOnal
', 'I odare th'ts displacement in the s.Jip~parallel dlrecnon and 1S. nol strongly
ground motion in the neighbourhoed of fault rupture (near-field say, widlin a radius of 20-60 veocltypusetoaccomm
I ' - " ' ) ' 'on
km) is further influenced by the movements aJong the fault, which are not accounted for in these coupled with the rupture directiVity pulse. In strike-sUp faultmg. the dJ~ecttVlty pu se occurs
, I t w'h'le the fling Slep occurs on the stnke~parallel componenL
inferences, Though existence of ,orne of these effects had been postulated as early as 1985 [29J, the strike norma componen I ' "I I
those could not be verified for the lack of recorded s.trong motion data in the near-field. WIth In di -sJi faulting both the fling step and the directivit~ pulse occur on th c . stn ,(~~norm~
the deploymenf of dense arrays of strong mOl ion recording instruments, the databas.e of quality com:Cme!.. A schematic illustration of the orientations of fimg step and rupture dlfcctrv Ity pulse
s.trong motion records is building up (r.ee, e.g., http;l/db,cosmos~eq.org) which abo includes the are shown in Figure 3.2, . ,. ,.'. . '\.rllctun.:s i~_: the large
The feature of rupture dtrectivJty effect, that ts: most damaoJl)~ ,to s
(1'

ncar-field strong motion data from s.everal recent earthquakes, Analyses oftbe near-field strong
mNion data pointi'> to three d~stinct effect,.:; described as folJows:
(i) Rupture direclivity "ffect
The rupture direcLivjty dYed i:-; essentjally a manifeslatioll of Doppler's effect in seismic wave
propagation and affects the 1',rOllnd molion in fault parallel direction. ThiS occurs when the
velocity pulse. which can lead to one Yleid reversal Wit11 a large ducuhty ~e~d, ~n th.e .~th~r
hand, fling ste'p affects the peak velocity and displacement of groun,d mollons, rhes~ n:a! a~ I
Source effects which comprise of brief and impulsive ground mOflons. can nol be <ldcqua~e y
described in fj:e uency domain whIch characterizes iJ unifor',fl distribu~ion of energy t~rou~ out
the duration of ~ollon, Thus the t;onvel1tional charactenzatHln or
deSIgn grOlmd motion 10 the
 CEarthqu.ake ReHiittant Design of Structures
-M
STRIKE SUP
DIP SUP
J c Chapter 3 Strong Motion Studies in India)

(Plain view) attenuation wIn cause the amplitude of the body waves to decrease at a rate of l/r, where r
Fault
,c,, {Cross Section)
..... represent<; the radius of the wavefront. It has also been shown that the geometric attenuation of
surface waves occurs at a rate of 11,,"[7], Thus the surface waves attenuate much more slowly
Fiing St~"~~
than the body waves, which also explains the fact that the ground motion at large epicenttal
Ground Surface
distances predominantly comprises surface wave. In addition to lhese geometric attenllllUOl\
I \ Directivity Pulse
\ I' q Directivity Pulse effects, the seismic waves also experience an attenuation of amplitudes on account of the
; Fling Step ~
Fault,\:::
dissipation of seismic energy due to material damping in the soH. A combination of both these
effects represents the influence of path effects on the nature of ground motion at a site.
,,t,,
~'l~UR~ 3.2 S~h~~Hic illustration of the orientations of fling step and directivity I I 3.2.3 Site Effect
,trike.shp and dlp-sbp faults (after [32]). pu50 n
Incorporation of the site effects in ground motion estimation procedures is aimed at reducing
form of reBponse spectra need!> to be augmented with a simplified description f th the uncertaiuty in the ground motion estimates as mea$ured by the standard error of the
pulses in tim d . A . I 0 e near-source regression anaJysis and also to remove the potentia) bias in median estimates. The site effects
H ." e ,omam., lHmp e characterization is indeed possible with the use of Peak
.onzontal Vel<>C1ty (PHV), approximate period of the dominant pulse (T,), and lbe number of represent the local influences on the nature of ground motion and include the local ground
"gmficant half-cycles of motion in the larger, fault-normal direction [16J, response. basin effects, and the surface topography. The local grou.nd response refers to the
response of shallow geological deposits to the vertically propagating body waves, The modelling
(iii) Hanging wall effect should ideally involve lbe full soil profile up to Ihe bed rock level at the site but for deep alluvial
deposits, reasonable estimates can usually be obtained by considering the soil profile only
~: ~anging v.:an effect is primarily due to the proximity of much of the fault to the sites on up to a depth of 100-120 m. The basin effects correspond to the influence of two or lbree
gmg wall Side, It has been observed to have lbe most pronounced effect for periods shorter dimensional extent of the sedimentary basin structures on ground motions, including critical
~": about J s, and at locations away from the topedge of lbe fault on the hanging wall side, body wave reflections and surface wave generation at basin edges. The dividing Hne between
rupture d1fec~vtty effect, on the other hand, is due to rupture propagation and radiation the local ground response effects and the basin effects is rather arbitrary and USually the local
pattern effects, It IS more pronounced for periods longer than I s, and is concentrated over the ground response effects refer to the one-dimensional response of soil column and basin effects
top edge of the fault Tbe relationship between lbe rupture directivity effect and lbe han in are considered account for the observed ground motion characteristics that deviate from the
wall effeci IS th~ complementary both In the region of influence and lbe affected period ~.eg predictions of one-dimensional analysjs, The presence of ridges and valleys at the site can also
!herle~y mcreasmg the degree of spatial variation of strong ground motion around dippi;g' have some influence on the nature of ground motion, An approximate estimate of these effects
.au ts (2J,
for certain cases of ridge-valley terrain is possible by using analytical solutions for some
'ha Sites on lbe hanging wall of a dipping fault have closer proxintitv to the fault as a whole idealized geometries [24J,
'- ~ do the SItes at t~e same closest distance on the foot wall side. ca~sing larger short period The effect of soil layer on the nature of surface ground motion can be divided into two
motIOns on the hangmg wall than on lbe foot waiL The hanging wall effect is observed to be principal components: (i) the predominant period of surf... ground motion. and (ii) spectral
lhe greatest In the closest distance range of 8 to 18 km for pen' ods of 0 t 06 dd amplification with respect to the bed rock motion, These effects may be studied by analyzing
to UOlty at 5 s I J 1. 0 . s, an ecreases
the recorded strong motion data after eliminating the source and path effects from the strong
motion recordings. Two different approaches have been adopted to achieve this end: (i} by
3.2.2 Path Effect comparing the strong motion recorded on soil site with motions from a reference site (usually
rock) 15, 31J. and (ii) without using any reference site recordings [11, 19J,
Although the lotal energy released during an earthquake is a constant parameter for a particular
'lclsmlC event the specific energy, which is defined as the seismic energy per unit volume (i) kll'rence Site Approach
\ ecre2SC':: du'" to advancin fT' - ,
'. < v g wave r(lIlL hIS decrease is purely geometrical jn nature as the
vo I ume 01 the medium over wh' h th I" , If a reference site can be found in the dose vicinity of the soil site then the motions at both sites
. f lC e tota seIsmIC energy IS distributed Increases as the
W<:lVe ront advances When the earth
, yf. I '.
k .
qua e energy IS released from a fault below the ground are cxpe<:led to have similar source and path effects. Thus a comparison of the two motions
su. ace. )~dy waves travel away from the source in all directions, ]fwe assume the ru ture zone prOVide!>; an estimate of the local site effect. In practice ratios of either response spectr'd, or
to he D pOint .'.;(JUree, the wavet'ronts wiH be spherical and it can be proved that the ~eometric (smoothed) Fourier spectra of the motions recorded at soil site and the reference site is taken
to be a representative of the transfer function. of the soil column at the site. The predominant period

MtfM ( Earth.qu;J.;e Re~i.stant Deaign of Stf"UCturea
and amplification factor can be estimated from the location and amplitude of peaks of derived
transfer functions.
(ii) Non-reference Site Approach
Since the availability of a rocky outcrop in the dose vicinity of the site can not always be
~teed., a f~~ approaches have been proposed for estimation of site effects, which do not
reqUIre avadabllity of reference site data, A very popular approach is to take the ratio of the
spectrum of horizon~l component of motion with respect to the spectrum of the vertical
component of the mouon (termed as HIV ratio) at the same site. This spectral ratlo is considered
as thde tranhsfer funetion ?f the site. The ease of applicability of this approach has lured many
to a opt t IS approach In slte characterization studies. However, it has been shown that the
estimates (predominant period and amplification factors) predicted by HAl ratios are not stable
for me ,sa~e site using differe~t records [25], Yet another nonreference site approach involves
nonnahzatlOn of the spectra ot recorded motions by a reference spectrum for rocky site obtained
from some attenuation relationships {30], ~ recorded by this network of strong motion instnlments has been of immense help in develo~rnent
. Since the data from large, strong earthquakes in near-field region of intense motions is
qUIte sparse, the use of microtremor data and/or records from small, frequent earthquakes has
been proposed to study the site effects [14, 17]. Unfortunately, the behaviour of soil column
du~ng strong motions generated by large, strong earthquakes diffeTS substantially from that
dunng small earthquakes (weak motions). In particular, the large strain levels associared with
the str?ng ~orions during lar~e earthquakes force the soil ro respond non~linearly as against an
~se?t1allY bnea: response dunng sman strain weak motions. It has been shown in several studies
m dif~erent regIons of the world that site effects estimated by using weak motion records~ or
the mlcrotremor data do not correlate well with the observed behaviour of the soil during strong
earthquakes [3, 6, 18,25,38,40, 41. 42, 44J.
3.3 ESTIMATION OF GROUND MOTION PARAMETERS
I,D such a scenario, the estimates of site effects using the transfer function theory of linear
s~stem.s do not seems to .be of much use in estimating the expected motions due to strong,
~amagm~ earth~uake,\, It 15, therefore, more rational to relate the ground motion parameter of
Ulterest dlIcctly "tn tenn5 of earthqu<Jke size, type of fault rupture. source to site distance, surface
geol"ogy at the SIte, depth to bedrQ~k level at the site. etc" to represent the mechanics of ground
mOll.on process .as ~!osely a<; pOSSible. The co-efficients of these predict.ive relationships are
o~taJ~cd by regtessJon analyses of recorded strong motion data, \\lith the inclusion of more data
WIth tn~e. the un~rtaintjes in the eKtimated design ground mOlions should decrease, A Q'eneric
expressIOn r~}r tbls purpo~t gt',neraBy takes the form [15]: b Tecltnology~
1n Y = cj+czM+c:;Mc!l.+c:" In [R+Cb exp(c,M)] + CXR+!l(source) +!2(sJte)
where t' rep~esents the desired ground motion parameter, (assumed to be distributed log-
lJormal~y), M IS a measure of the size of the earthquake, R is a me<tsurc of source-to-site distance
fl, and 12 ~e some suitable functions of sollrce parameters (e.g., type of faulting, etc") and locai
slfe condltJon:>: (soil/rock), respecfively. UsuaIly, such relations provide the median estimate of
Chapter S Strong Motion Studies in India} M$_
)
the ground motion parameter in question. Th~ uncertainties ~s~ociated .with this ~stimale are
reflected in the error term (fJI) y of the regresslOn. Such predlctive relatIons. have mdeed been
developed for the Fourier and pseudo-spectral velocity spectra [36, 37, 39J, peak ground
acceleration [8, 10, 12, 13) and strong motion duration [21, 22, 43], etc.
3.4 THE INDIAN PERSPECTIVE
The strong motion studies were taken up in India in 1976 on the recommendations of the
planning commission. Two types of strong motion recording instruments namely. Roorkee
Earthquake School Accelerograph (RESA) and the Structural Response Recorders (SRR)
were designed and fabricated at the Department of Earthquake EngIneering, Indian Institute of
Technology, Roorkee (then, University of Roorkee). Today, the department maintains a network
of over 200 acceJerographs and 350 SRRs in the HimaJayan and sub-Himalayan bell as shown
in Figure 3,3, Seventeen earthquakes have been recorded by the instruments of this network
tiU dale with the most recenl one being the Kutch earthquake of January 26, 2001 i9J. The dala
of the standard spectral shape in the recent revision of the seismic design code IS-1893 (Part
I): 2002 [23J. Currently work IS in progress for the installalmn of 3-dimensional array of strong
motion acceJerographs In Tehri to study the effects of soil column response at variolls elevations,
The analysis of data recorded by this network will aid in the development of a more rational
basis for design of underground facilities- The strong motion data recorded by this network, will
also allow studies on the effect of topography, and basin structure. In addition to the free-field
earthquake recording instrUmentS, the department also maintains networks of accelerometers in
,everal high-rise buildings in different parts of the country.
......-
~ -
.-...........
,.-
FIGURE 3.3 Installations of free--field Strong Motion Accelerographs (SMA) and Structural
Response Recorders (SRR) by Department of Earthquake Engineering., Indian Institute of
Rooikee.
3.S UTILIZATION OF STRONG MOTION DATA
There can he nO sholt~uts for developing specifications for design earthquake ground motIons,
whicb have lO be derived on the basis of analyses of recorded !:trong motJOo data. The commoo1y
L
 ) C=~_~~~"________-,C",M=p!:.:t~r
recommended approach of using easily available weak motion data instead of data from less
frequent stron.g earthquakes may Jead to gross errors in iand-use planning in addition to leadin
to unsafe desIgns [251. Strong motion data helps in developing a better under<tanding of (i~
g~ound response near fault ruptures of large earthquakes, (ii) effects of severe shaking on
dIfferent sub-surfaee structures and geologic materials, and (iii) ground response in areas that'
~re prone to llquefacuon, Ana.)ysls ~f s:rong motion records also leads to the development of .
Improved methods for gcneraung artificIal earthquake motions for regions where the data fro
~eal "eart~quak~s ~re not aValIable 127, 28), The data recorded by the network of instrumen:
In hIgh-n.se .bUlJdmgs ca~ be used for deriving infonnation for remote monitoring of the health
of the ,bulldmg, the locatrons and extent of repair works required. and to verify adequacy of the
analytical modeling and design guidelines.
. The strong motion datu as recorded by the strong motion instruments. however, are not
dlfectl~ useful ~or strong motion studies. The raw data has to be first processed and corrected
for var~ous P?SslbI~ sources of er:ors which might have crept in during the proeess of recording.
A detaIled. dis~ussJon of the varIOUS is!'ues of strong motion data processing may be found in
other publIcatIOns [4, 20, 26. 33, 34. 35].
SUMMARY
T~i~ c~apter. cont~ns discussion of the various issues involved in strong motion studies-
prImarIly a dlscussJOn of w~a:. why, ~d how. The emphasis is on developing an understanding
?f the problem of charactenzmg deSIgn earthquake ground motions. This will help readers to
~nterpr~t carrectly the relevant clauses in design codes and also in making a judicious decision
10 SpecIal case:, requiring special attention beyond the scope of the standard codes of practice.
REFERENCES
[11 Abrahamson, N.A. and Silva. WJ., "Empirical Response Spectral Attenuation
Relations for Shallow Crustal Eanbquakes". Seismological Research Letters 68: 94-
127, 1997. ' Evaluation?", Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 84: 135()...1364, 1994.
i21 Abrahamson, KA. and Somerville, P.G., "Effects of the Hanging Wall and Foot Wall
on Ground r..-1olious Recorded during the Northridge Eanhquake", Bulletin of the
Seismological Sodctv (~f America, 86: S93-S99, 1996. . [191 Nakamura, Y. "Clear Identification of Fundamental Idea of Nakrunura's Technique and
1,_~J Ak'1, K.. C'hin. B.-!'!.. and Kate, K., "Seismological and Geotechnical Studies of Local
Sitc Effects on Strong and Weak Motions t " In Proceedings of tlte International
Symposium on !he Effects a/Surface Geology on Seismic MOlion, ESG1992, Odawara,
Japan. Pa~e, I: 97~1 10, lASPElIlAEE Joint Working Group on ESG. Association for
Earthquake Dlsasier Prevention, Tokyo. Japan, 1992. . [211 Novikova, EJ. and Trifun.c, M.D .. "Modified Mercalli lnstensity Scaling of the
14~. Boore, D. IvI., Stephens. CD" and Joyner, \V.B., "Comments on Baseline Correction
O! Digi1.aJ Strong :"v1otion Data: Examples from the 1999 Hector Mine CaIifornia
Earthquake", Bulletin oj th('" Seismological Socie1v of America 9'1(4)' i543-1560
2001. ' . ' '" .
S Strong Motion Studie$...~!1 India) - .
[5] Borcherdt, R.D., "Effects of Local Geology on Ground Motion ~ear San Francisco
Bay". Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 60: 29"'{)1, 1970.
[61 Bresnev, l.A. and Wen, K.-L., "Nonlinear Soil Response-A Reality?", Bullerin of the
Seismological Sociel)! of America, 86: 1964-1978, 1996.
[71 Bullen, K.E., An Introduction to !he Theory of Seismology, Cambridge University Press,
London, 1953,
[8J Campbell, KW., "Near Source Anenuation of Peak Horizontal Acceleration", Bullelin
of the Seismological Society of America, 71: 2039-2070, 1981.
[9) Chandra, B., Thakkar S.K., Basu S., Kumar A., Shrikh.nde M., Dos J., Agarwal P.,
and Bansal M.IL, "Strong Motion Records", Eanhquake Spectra, Supplement A to
Volume 18: 53"'{)6, 2002.
(10) Crouse, C.B., "Ground-motion Attenuation Equations for Earthquakes on the Cascadia
Subduction Zone". Eanhquake Spectra, 7(2): 201~236, 1991.
[111 Field, E.H. and Jacob, K.H., "A Comparison and Test of Various Site Response
Estimation Techniques, Including Three that are Non Reference-site Dependent".
Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 85: 1127~1 143, 1995.
[121 Joyner, WB. and Boore, D.M., "Method for Regression Analysis of Strong Motion
Data", Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 83: 469-487, 1993 (Errata in
1994).
[131 Joyner, W.B. and Boore, D.M., "Errata: Method for Regression Analysis of Strong
Motion Data". Bu/letin of the Seismological Society of America, 84: 955~956, J994.
[l41 Konno, K. and Ohmachi, T., "Grouod-motion Characteristics Estimated from Spectral
Ratio between Horizontal and Vertical Components of Microtremor". Bulletin of the
Seismological Sodel)! of America, 88(1): 228-241, 1998-
[l5] Kramer, S.L., Geotechnical Eanhquak Engineering, Pean;on Education, Singapore,
1996 (Indian reprint 2003).
[16] Krawinkler, H. and Alavi, B., "Development of Improved Design Proeedures for Near
Fault Ground Motions". In SMIP98. Seminar on Utilization of Strong MOlion Data,
Oakland, California. 1998.
[17J Lermo. J. and Chavez-Garcia, F.J., "Are Micro-tremors Useful in Site Response
[18] Mohammadioun, B., "Nonlinear Response of Soils to Horizontal and Vertical Bedrock
Earthquake Motioo", Journal of Eanhquake Engineering, 1(1): 93-119, 1997.
its Applications", In Proceedings of rhe 12th World Conference on Earthquak
Engineering, VoL 5, Paper # 2656, Auckland, New Zealand, 2000.
(201 Novikova, E.l. and Trifun.c, M.D., "Digital Instrument Response Correction for the
Force Balance Accelerometer". Earthquake Speclra, 8(3): 429-442, 1992.
Frequency Dependent Duration of Strong Ground Motion", Soil Dynamics and
Eanhquake Engineering, 12: 309-322, 1993.
[22] Novilwva, E.!. and Trifunac, M.D., "Duration of Strong Ground Motion in Terms
of Earthquake Magnitude, Epicenrral Dislance, Site Conditions, and Site Geometry",
Eanhquak Engineering and Structural Dynamics, 23: 1023~1043. (1994),
 )
:1 Strong Motion Studies in India -m-
'f M D and TodofOvska, M.I., "Nonlinear Soil Response as a Natural Passive
[40] T n unac, . - ;' S ./ D . d
[23] 1S-1893, Indian Standard Criteria for Eanhquake Resistant Design of St",ctures-Pan IsoIatlOn .-- .c.
Mech aDl:sm--UA: 1994 Northridge California. Earthquake, 01 ynamlc' an
1; General Provisions and Buildings. Bureau ofIndian Standards, New Delhi, 2002. Earlhquake Engineering, 17: 41-51. 1998. . . . .
[24] Sanchez-Se8ma, E, "Elementary Solutions for Response of a Wedge-shaped Medium 'f M D and Todorovska. M.l., "Can Aftershock Studtes Pred,ct SIte Amphfl-
[41] Trl u n a c , . . . HS"D . d
to Incident SH- and SV-Waves", Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 80: cation Factors: Northridge. CA, Earthquake of 17 January 1994, ou yn.amu::s an
737-742, 1990. Earthquake Engineering, 19: 233-251, 2<JOO. . .
[25J Shrikbande, M. and Basu. S., "Strong Motion versus Weak Motion: Implications for T 'fu M D and Todorovska- M.I . "Long Period MicrotremofS, MlcroselSms and
[42]
Microzonation Studies", Journal of Eanhquake Engineering, 8(1): 159-173,2004. E~~~~~ D';"age: Northridge, CA, Earthquake of J7 January J994", Soil Dynamics
[26] Shnkhande, M . Basu, S., and Kumar, A., "Earthquake Strong Motion Data Process- and Earthquake Engineering, 19: 253-267, 2000. .
ing", In Atlas of Indian Strong Motion Records. M. Shrikhande (Ed.), Department of .f M .D, and Westermo , B .D ., "A Note on the Correlanon of Frequency-
[431 T n unac, . Goo] ,
Earthquake Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Rooritee, 2001. De dent Duration of Strong Eatthquake Ground Motion With the MMI and ~gtc
[27] Shrikhande, M. and GuPta, V.K" "Synthesizing Ensembles of Spatially Correlated Co~~tion at the Recording Stations". Bulletin 0,1 lhe Seismological Society of Amenc(}.
Accelerograms", Journal of Engineering Mechanics, ASCE. 124(11): 1185-1192, 67(3): 917-927, 1977. .
1998. . d' FE and Trifunac. M.D .. "Comparison of Earthquake and MIcro-tremor
[441 Udwa la, . . . IS' .r
[28] Shrikhande, M. and Gupta, V.K., "On the Chardeterization of the Phase Spectrum for Ground MotIons in El Centro, California", Bulletin of the Seismologu..-a oCiery OJ
Strong Motion Synthesis", JourlUJ.1 of Earthquake Engineering, 5(4): 465-482, 2001. America, 63: 1227-1253, 1973.
[29] Singh, I.P" "Earthquake Ground Motions: Implications for DeSigning Structures and
Reconciling Structur.1 Damage". Eanhquake Spectra, 1(2): 239-270, 1985.
[30] Sokolov. Y.Y., Loh, c.R., and Wen, K.L., "Empirical Study of Sediment-ftlled Basin
Response: TI10 case of Taipei city". Earthquake Spectra, 16(3): 681-707, 2000.
[31] Steidl, H.I., Tumarkin, A.G. and Archuleta. R.I., "What is a reference site?''- Bulletin
of the Seismological Society of America. 86: 1733-1748, 1996.
[32] Stewart, J.P" Chiou S.-I" Bray J.D., Graves KW" Somerville P.G., and Abrahamson
N.A~ "'Ground Motion Eva]uarion Procedures for Performance Based Design", PEER
Report 2001109, Pacific Earthquake Engineering Research Centre, Berkeley, 2001.
[33] Sunder, S. and Connor, J., "A New Procedure for Processing Strong-motion Earthquake
Signals". Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 72(2): 643-661, 1982.
134] Sunder, S. and Schumacker, B" "Earthquake Motions Using.Jl New Data Processing
Scheme", Journal of Engineering Mechanics, ASCE, 108(EM6): 1313-1329, 1982.
135] Trifunac, M.D., "A Note on Correction of Strong-motion Accelerograms for Instrument
Response'" Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 62(1): 401-4{)9. (1972).
[36] Trifunac; MD., "Influence of Local S'oil and Geologic Site Conditions on Fourier
Spectrum Amplitudes of Recorded Strong M(Jtion Accelerations"; Technical Report
87-04, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Southern California, Los
Angeles, 1987.
1371 Tlifunac, M.D., "Fourier Amplitude Spectra of Strong !\1otion Acceleration: Extension
to High and ww Frequencies", Eanhquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics, 23:
38'1-411, 1994.
138] Trifunac, M.D., HaD, T.Y.. and Todorovska, Ml., "On the Recurrence of Site Specific
Resjl<mse". Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, 18: 569-592, 1999.
[391 Tlifun.c, M.D. and Lee, V.w., "Preliminary Empirical Model fol' Scaling Fourier
Amplitude Spectra of Strong Ground Ae<:cleration in Terms of Earthquake Magnirude,
Source 10 Station Distance, Site Intensity and Recording Site Condjtions". Technical
Report 85-D3, Department of Civi) Engineering, Univer~ity of Southern California,
Lo~ Angeles. I ()g:').
 c Cil4lpter -4 Strong Motion Characteristics J 4'M
(i) peak acceleration by using acceleration trace and it.:; calibration data.
(ii) duration of strong sbaking.
(iii) frequency of predominant wave and rough idea of frequency range,
Chapter 4 (iv) amplitude and frequency relation between horizontal and vertical accelerogram. and
(V) approximate distance of hypocentre from the recording station.

Strong Motion An accelerogram is a time history of acceleration composed of non-periodic sequences of

Characteristics
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The characteristics of strong motion in the vicinity of causative fault (near field) is strongly
depend~nt on the n~ture of fault,ing. ~e motion depends on source panllneters such as fault
s~~pe, It.. area, maxImum fault dIslocatIOn. complexity of slipping process, stress drop and the
dIStance of fault plane from Ihe ground surface. The elastic properties of the malerial tIlrough
WhICh the generated seIsmlC waves travel also influence the strong motion characteristics. A
component trace of acceleration is known as accelerogram. Figure 4.1 shows a record of analog
~ccelerograph. obtained during Uttarkashi earthquake of October 20. 1991 in epicentral area,
10 fact. at Uttarkashl IL<elf. It shows traces of tIlrec components (accelerograms), two fixed
:races and two tn:ces ,of relative time marks-two pulses per second. Conventionally trace two
IS termed as longltudmaI (N JSl:iW), trace four is termed as vertical and trace six is termed as
trans.verse (!\'7S:lE). By visual inspection fonowing approximate estimate can be made of the
parameters of tile shock:
acceleration pulses. The earthquake ground acceleration is a random fUnction of time and thus
its instantaneous value can not be predicted in detenninistic sense. However, the unpredictable
fluctuations show some degree of statistical regularity. This makes it possible to describe
instantaneous value within a specified range. The area under the aeceleration puls.e is a measure
ofvibr-&tions transmitted to tile structure witll foundation on tile ground. The amplitude of the
pulse is often taken as a measure of severity of ground shaking which could be termed as
satisfactory if the duration of all pulses are similar. However, an acceierogram is generally
composed of pulses of various durations. Thus not only peak of amplitude but also frequency
content of the record is necessary in characterization of accelerogram. The temporal evolution
of an accelerogram is composed of three parts (Figure 4.2). viz. rise, strong motion and decay.
The effect of ground shaking is mostly dependent on duration of strong motion part. The
accelerogram is rich in high frequencies near tile causative faults. The high frequency compo
nents atlenuate fasler tIlan tile low frequency components, therefore tile contribution of high
frequency components is reduced in tile accelerograms recorded at large <listances from the fault.
Funher, the amplitude of ground acceleration decreases with increasing distance from the
causative faults. Moreover, the vertical component of the ground acceleration is richer in high
frequencies than the two horizontal components at a recording station. Figures 43 and 4.4 show
the Wee orthogonal components of the motion recorded at Uttarkashi and Karoaprayag during
the Uttarkashi earthquake. The epicentral distance of Karnaprayag is greater tIlan that of
Uttarkashi and this difference shows up in the ground motion characteristics at the two locations.

::-:,..:. - ~..:. . r.;....~_Ul.r::._:~:~"'~,f!_L.".r:_Ul..l..\::"'~I.llilI:..r...Ji."!}.J.).l.D l..1!L U c..o..QJ.i.JlJ"..J 1..:\

.. - - ...... - ....... ~ - - - .~ ~ ~ ~ - ~ii~e ";';ark

- -...",.V\';\J~V~l\;~V!t 15"W
CFixedtrnce Q 10 15 20
-~~~!*,(Vflk~'fIfif(~~.,."" qt,." PI lit * 9ertt~ Time (s)

=-.w~";'f'.J;;':IJ\I'i\vVi+J'N:' .......,~ ..- :NRE trnce

FIGURE 4.2 Temporal evolution of an accelerogram.

11H:~ b'Tuund velocity and displacement can be obtained by direct integration of an

, , j' ~]emgram. For an analog accderogram, integrated record to obtain velocity and displacement
1S an approximate one, as the initial conditions at trigger of aceelerograph are not known. For

FIGURE 4.1 Traces of analog records of Uttarka,bi earthquake. engineering purposes~ the ground acceleration is the most significant parameter of strong
motion. being directly proportional 10 the inertia force imposed on tile structure<. The ground
70
. . . ( Earthquake ,Q~si ..tant _!J:.:e;::":J!gn=-0:11'..::;St""'=:ctu""re~,:.-_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
c
3 0.4 r--...----r---....--.....-..,...-....,..-~=:-::71 velocity is better correlated with the intensity of damage and it is a]so directly related with the
.8 0.2 energy transmitted to the structures, The ground displacement, however. is imponanr for design
~ 0.0 of underground pipelines and is also an indicator of the amOUnt of s.train the foundation of a
ilo -0.2 large structure will be subjected to.
." -O.4~--~ ____ ~._. __ ____
~ ~ __ ~ ____ ~ __ ~ __ ~

0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0 35.0 40.0

Time (s)
4.2 TERMINOLOGY OF STRONG MOTION
3 0.4 r--~----.--~---.-- .......--...--......-=:-::"1 SEISMOLOGY
0.2
!g 0.0
-0.2
Doe to the random nature of ground motion during a strong earthquake, it is not possible to
characterize it for design purposes by means of the time histories of a recorded ground motion .
." -0.4 '-- - ..--'-----'----'-_ _' -__-'-___......__~_--J
Some of the pbysical quantities and derived parametel'~ which are used 10 describe various
0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30,0 35.0 40.0 aspects of the ground motion are described a::; fonow::;:
Time (s)

Vert 4.2.1 AmpUtude Parameters

:
t

15.0
:'1 " :. I

20.0 25.0
:
30.0
: 1
35.0 40.0
The amplitude parameters of the ground motion were the earliest of the strong motion
parameters to be proposed. Typically, the peak values of the ground acceleration, velocity and
displacement give an idea of the severity of shaking at a site, predominant period of vibration,
etc.
Time (8)
FIGURE 4.3 Th~e components of the motion recorded at Uttarkashi. Peak Acceleration

flE~''':--l
The Peak Horizontal Acceleration (PHA) is the most commonly used measure of the intensity
of shaking at a site and is taken to be the Jargest absolute value of the horizontal acceleration
recorded at a site. It is also possible to extract the maximum oftbe vector sum of two orthogonal
components of the horizontal ground acceleration recorded at a site. Ground motions with high
." - 0 . 1 0 _ . _
........_ _--'._ _ _ _-'_
peak accelerations are usually, but not always. more damaging than those with lower peak
0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 acceleration, However, a short duration stray pulse 'kith large amplitUde may not Cause any
Tune (s) significant damage as there is very litde time available for the system to respond to such

lJE~~"w,~'-l
excitation. Therefore, the duration of the excitation is al,.:;o an important consideration in
estimating the damage potential of a ground motion.

via ratio
0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 As the peak accelerations (aJ and peak velocities (v) are usually associated with the motion of
Time (s)

:3 D.lOr , , different frequencies, the ratlo via can be related to the frequency content of the motion. For
eanhquake motions that include several frequencies, the parameter 21rVla can be interpreted as

j
Vert.

j ~.~ ~W'l' It'f''4/>0fr'''hoWlr' ~ _

the period of vibration of an equivalent hannonic wave. thereby providing an indication of the
" .A , , predominant period of me ground motion. It has been observed that vfa ratjo for rocky sites are
] -0.05 ~ SUbstantially lower than those fOT alluvium.
~ .{) 10 :'- - - - ' -____' -_ _--"_ _ _-'-_ _----'
0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 lUll,,' ratio
Time (5)
The ratio of the peak acceleration~displacement product to the square of the peak velocity can
F1GURE 4.4 Three components of the motion recorded at Karnaprayag.
be related to the sharpness or flatness of the response spectrum. For hannonk motions, this ratio
 Chapfer.. Strong Motton ChOtiJcteristic8 J
EM ( Earthquake Re$tstont Design ~"-!-:S:.:',,ruc=t=u"'=$_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _~
E
if{ unity and for steady~state
square acceleration wave it is 112, whereas for most earthquake E
2
,;
1.0
Disp.--
.s
u
u
1.0
0.9
Vel.--
motions this ratio ranges between 5-15. ~ 0.9 51- 0.8
51- 0.8 i

4.2.2 Duration of Strong Motion ~

l:
0.7
0.6
l"!l 0.7
0.6
Severa1 definitions have been proposed for the strong motion duration of an accelerogram, 0.5
~
0.5
-~
However. one of the most widely used definitions refers to the duration of the strong motion ,
'C 0.4 5
0.4
OJ
"""
as lhe time interval in which 90% of the total contribution to the energy of the accelerogram 0
"- 0.3

..E ~ 0.2
."
(J[i(t)]'dl) takes place [22J. Usually the time interval between 5% and 95% contributions is .~ 0.2
taken as the strong motion duration.
0.1 ~0 0.1
0 0.0 Z 12 14
Z 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Frequency (Hz)
Frequency (Hz)
4.2.3 Fourier Specl:TJJ.m
E
The frequency content (distribution of energy with respect to frequencies) of an accelerogram .sg 1.0
0.9
is represented by Fourier Spectrum. The Fourier transform of an accelerogram x(t) is given by. 5!- 0.8
~

(4.1) 11 0.7
~ 0.6
E
Assummg ground acceleration as non-zero in t E (0, T] the Equation (4.1) can be written as, .g 0.5

X(m) ~ r xu) cos (mt)dt ;ri(t) sin (1lJI) dt (4.2)

"0
""
1a
0.4
0.3
0.2
O.t
FourIer amplitude and phase spectra of earthquake ground motion are defmed using Equation
(4.2) as, 2Q 25
Frequency (Hz)
rr~ 2r 2
FIGURE 4.5 Normalized Fourier amplitude spet;trum of displacement,. velocity and acceleration
IX(m)' = V[i/{I) cos (mt) dt] +[X(t)Sin(/lJI)dl] (4.3)
at UU....k hi (Component: NlS"W).

r J,rTx(t) sin (mt) d t '}'

I 4.2.4 Power Specl:TJJ.m
Ib(m) = -lan-11~~----- (4.4)
,I
Wt) cos (1lJI) dt
, 0
The p<N'er spectrum is an alternate representation of the frequency content of a time history.
It is closely related to the Fourier amplitude spectrum of the records as.
Although phase spectrum is considered to be relatively of Iesser importance than amplitude
spectrum. both amplitude and phase spectra are required for unique definilion of ground S{m) = ~l~ e[IX(m)I'] (4.5)
21rT
acceleration. It has long been established that the non-stationary characteristics of an
aL"Celerogram arc described by its phase spectrum [15, 16, 20, 21]. Fourier amplitude spectra where S(m) power spectrum,
of velocity and displacement can be obtained by dividing acceleration and Fourier amplitude IX( m)1 = Fourier amplitude spectrum,
spectrum ordinate by frequency and square of frequency value res.pective]y. Figure 45 shows cf.1 ; ; ; mathematical expectation operator, and
DOfmaUzed Fourier amplitude gpeClra for displacement, velocity and acceleration of NIS"W T = duratioll of the record. . . ed b a
componenl of Utlurkashi eanhquake, recorded at Uttarkashi. It is to be noted that the bandwidth In routine accclerogram processing, the expectabon operator IS generally replac y
of predominant frequency for displacement is narrowest and that of acceleration is the broadest. moving window averaging operator.
It aJso demonstrates that acceleratJon, velocity and di!'pJacernent are controlled by different
fw.quency b~n0<;
 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _....... _ _......~c;._t
-; S'O-~n~ Motion. CM'N1.Ctn8tics I
_
. . ( EarthquaJ;e Resistant Dceign oj StrttCtU-TeS
c:_-----------
'!be relative velocity spectrum is similarly defined as.
.~ape,.., uv '" ...... ~

4.2.5 Respo1lSe Spectrum (4.12)

S, (I;. W.) '" S, (', Tn) = [i(I)]~
Ever since Housner [6] presented the use of response spectrum in seismic analysis, it has been
adopted as a standard way of representation of effect of ground acceleration on structures. It . I d ped tructure r ~ 0 the second term of Equation (4.1 I) can be neglected and
For hoht y am s "
reflects frequency content, ampJitude of ground motion and effect of subsequent filtering by the thus the expression for relative velocity spectrum reduces to
structure. The response of an oscillator, initially at rest, is given by,
[J>,(~)COSWn(t-r)d'rJ"""
x(t) -I-I'
Wd 0
xg(r) e-,w.(t---t') sin W o (1 - r) d1: (4.6)
S,(O,"'.) = (4.13)

. (48) the undamped relative pseudo velocity response spectra can be

From E q uatlOn .
J
where COd;;:; (On 1 - 1;2 is the damped natural frequency. The plot of maximum relative response obtained as,
x(l) of linear elastic SooF system. initially at rest with prescribed damping ratio Ssubjected
sPI' (0, (b,) = Jof' X,,('r) l (4.14 )
.. sin (b,(t-'r) dr ,'m:u:
to a ground acceleration versus natura] period, or frequency of vibration is defined as relative I:

displacement response spectrum and is denoted as;

. f tbe Equat'lon (4 13) that as (b, -t O. the relative velocity spectrum
Sd(I;, (bn) Sil;, Tn) = IX(I)I"", It IS easy to see r o m 0 b
S -t Ii (t)1 and from the Equation (4.14) the relative pseudo-response Sp, -t as t em::

Wd [(S; ig(!) e-CW"-" sin (bd(t - r) dr}l", (4.1)

, g ':'''' H d
remams stationary. u son 1
[10 JI] has shown tbat numcncally S,{O, (b,) and Sr'(O. "',)
. cd structure However variation is conslderab1e 10 case
almost equal except for very ong pen ws relative velocity spectra S, and pseudo-relative
where natural period of vibration Tn = 21Tiw. For a specified ground motion the Equation (4.6) of highly damped structure. FIgure 4.6 ,~o 002 and 020 of longitudinal (N 15'W) component
is numerically integrated and the resulting maximum relative displacement value gives one value ~l~::!:u::~~;:~:~~fu:t~:el~ti'on respo~se of the oscillator can be written as,
of Sd for a given set of I" and t;. Typically this integration is carried out at uniform frequency
interval in a prescribed range of frequency for different ratios of 1;. The quantity within the xm(t) =X(I) + i,(r)
curly brackets of Equation (4.7) has the unit of velocity. The absolute maximum of this quantity = _ (b;X(I) - 2S(b, x(l)
(4.15)
is termed as pseudo relative velocity response spectrum (psv) Sp,(!;;. 1,,) and is given as,
The absolute acceleration spectra is similarly defined as,
(4.16)
Sp,((;' /4,) ;;; 51',,(1;;, Tn) = [J;X,(r) e-(w.(Hi sin (bd (t - r)drJ_ (4.8) Sp;, run) = S,(S, T,J =[xm(t)lm~
Thus for ligbtly dampcd system (i.e., (bd ~ 1,,)
80 [
Sa(I;, /4,) '" -l-SfA(I;,(b.)~_1 Sp,((;,(bn) (4.9) 70 I
ffJ d mil
The relative displacement response spectra asymptotically approaches maximum ground
displacement for highly flexible structure. Formally the limiting value of Sd(t;. /4,) is.
I t
~ 60
50
"g 40
(4.10) ~
<'l 30,
Th;~ implies. thar the m3..<:;s remains stationary for all practical purposes and only the ground
moves.. as the linear elastic SDOF system is composed of spring with negligible stiffness.
! 20
to
Differentiation of Equation (4.6) with re.ipect to time f gives,
0.1 I
xU) "",-l'.x f
o

(1')t':-'W,,(l -r)cOS{i)d(t "C)dr Period (s)

" . f -I
FIGl:RE 4.6 Compan50n 0 specUG an y-- y--
d nu-udo-srwctr.d velocity of longitudinal component

+ ~-'--ll i .(r) e -'t~,,{/-f"! sin Ci) (t 1') dr: rteorded at Uttarkashi for different damping rahos.
F7 0 ~ d
(4.11)
 Chapter" Streng Motion Charocteri6tica J. _
It may be seen that for damping ratio i; E (0,0. 0,20)
For an undamped linear elastic SDOF system, substitution of x(t) by the Equation (4,6)
S,(I;, ll\,) = W,S",<i;, w,) S",,(I;, ll\,) and ):(t) by tbe Equation (4,11), the Equation (4.21) reduces to,
(4.17)

?E;n(t) = ~[J~ x,(t) COS(OJ"t) drT+[J; x,(t) sin(OJ,t) drT

where Sp( t;, w,) is called absolute pseudo-acceleration spectral response and the Equation
(4.17) becomes equality for I; = 0, Absolute pseudo-acceleration spectra Sp,(/;. w,) 5; Sa(I;, w,), (4,22)
fhJS dIfference mIght be Important for rigid systems. Figure 4.7(a) shows absolute acceleration
response spectra S,(~,05, w,) and absolute pseudo acceleration response spectra S",,(0,05, w,) wbich at the end of accelerogram t = T is identical to Fourier amplitude spectrum IX(w)1 of the
of longltudmal (NJ5 WJ component of motion at UttarkasbL Figure 4,7(b) shows the enlarged ground acceleration evaluated at frequency co", The maximum of the Equation (4.22) is pseudo-
vIew of the plot In the penod range 5-15 s to illustrate the difference in Sand S ordinates relative velocity spectrum Spv(O. co,,). If the relative response reaches maximum at the end of
at long periods. Tbe limiting value of absolute acceleration spectra is achieved for infinitely stiff acceJerogram duration, then IX(w) I ~ Spv(O, w,), In general, IX(w)1 5; Sp,(O, wn)' Figure 4,8
structure, as there is no relative motion between ground and mass, hence shows relative velocity response spectrum Spv for undamped system and Fourier spectrum IX(co)!
of longitudinal component recorded at Uttarkashi.
(4.18)
0.14 I
FS--
0.12 ~
-;;;- Sp,(~= 0.0) ----,
~ MDS
.;;! ~ 0.10
~

,- 0.004 ] 0,08
~ "11
E
" 0.06
] 0,()()3 t
'~

~ 0.04
J ::: \
~

!t 0,002 0

"" 0.02
0,00 ':::---::",-_~'~
0,01 O,} 1
"-,_~_~ '" 0,00 L'~~~~~
10 100 5678910 5 10 15 20
Period (,) 15 20
Period (s) Frequency (Hz)
(aJ
(bl
FIGURE 4,8 Comparison of pseudo-spectral velocity spectrum ror 0% damping and tbe
FlGURE 4.7 Comparison of spectral and pseudo--spectral acceleration of longitudinal compo- Fourier spectrum of longitudinal component rKorded at Uttarkashi.
nent recorded at Uttarkashi for S% damping.

The maximum spring force developed in the oscillator is kS (T, W ) = mS

whe eas S (r )' h . d., p<! ,...>
wJ ( 4,2,6 Seismic Demmut DiLlgrams
r . t'h ~l:" co" lS t e maXImUm of total elastic and damping forces. The maximum strain
It '"
{J
energy IOpn! IS. The recent rllrust in the development of performance-based engineering concepts has necessitated
representation of the ground motion spectral characteristics in a new format, viz., Acceleration-
Displacement Response Spectrum (ADRS) format The spectral accelerations are plotted against
(4.19) speClral displacements, with the periods (T.) being represented by radial lines, An estimate of
;-lll{J the maximum :it.ain energy per unit mass is, inelastic demands imposed on a structure by an earthquake is obtained from the linear elastic
response spectra computed for equivalent damping ratios related to a specified level of ductility_
The capacity diagram of a building is obtained from the relationship between the base sbear and
(4,20) Toof displacement {push..over curve}. The roof displacement and the base shear are converted
to the spectral displacement and spectral acceleration by the use of mode participation factor
and effective modal mass for the fundamental mode, The perfonnance of a huilding in any
,,()m .. z k 2
earthquake can be assessed by superimposing the capacity diagram on the seismic ~emand
"-, J '"-1-1)1 + -tx(t)] (4.21) diagram. The intersection of the capacity curve and the seismic demand curve provldes an
2 2
estimate of the yield strength and the displacement demand, The elastic demand diagrams for

tbe motions recorded at Ahmedabad during the Kutch Earthquake of January 26, 2001 are shown
in Figurc 4.9.
o.os 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25
Spectral displaccmelll (m)
42;,7 Spatial Variation of Earthquake Ground Motion
In several situations, the seismic input is required to be applied at different points in space. e.g.,
in the case of long~span bridges, or pipelines. For seismic anatysis of ~uch spatially extended
structures, it is important to account for possible variations in tbe earthquake ground motion
at different points in space. Even in the case of simple building systems with raft foundations.
it has been reported that the spatial variation of ground motion results in increase in rocking
and torsional componems of excitation due to averaging of gruund motion by the rlgid
hasemat ;I4).
The spatial variatiun of sei!)mic ground motions is generally modeled as the product of two
functions re~re,el\t\ng two distinct phenomena, viz., (i) the incoherence effect-caused by
changes in waveform due to muJtiple reflections, diffraclions, etc, owing to heterogeneities and
asperities along the ltavcl path between two stations and, Oi) tf1c wave propagation effect-
accounting fOT the finite delay in wave arrivaJs at a distant station due to finite propagation
LC
__~-~_-_~_'___ ~ Chapter 4 Strong M5'ti~Characternt~~ MUM
velocities. and is given as
(4.23)
where Yjk(iCO) is known as the coherency function and is a measure of correlation between the
given pair of time-histories, Sjk(iW) is the cross-power spectral density function for the pair
of motions recorded at stations} and k. Sjj(})) and Su(w) are the respective auto-power spectral
density functions of the motions at stations} and k. riJ represents the projected horizontal
separatIon between stations j and k. and Yapp denotes the surface apparent velocity of
propagation of the wave at frequency fJ).
Although seismic waves of different frequencies, in genera], travel with different speeds
it is common to prescribe a constant value for vapp for aU frequencies because of inherent
difficulties in the estimation of this parameter. The first factor, on the right hand of Equation
(4.23), represents the effect of incoherence and can be either derived from entirely theoretical
considerations [12, 25], or is empirically obtained from the anaJysis of strong motion array data
[4,5], and the second factor represents the effect of propagation delay due to finite velocities.
4.2.8 Damage Porentiol of EJuthqrw.kes
The potential of an earthquake to infHct damage on engineered facilities has always been a
matter of great concern to all engineers. Very often a situation is encountered wherein one is
forced to choose between several alternative ground motion time histories to verify the adequacy
of a particular design to resist the design level earthquake motion_ Since the design earthquake
loads are usually specified in the form of design spectra, artificial/synthetic accelerograms are
generated so as to be compatible with the design specifications. However, the solution to the
problem of synthesizing a spectrum compatible acceierogram is not unique and it is possible to
have severa) <ljfferent synthetic accelerograms which are compatible with the specified design
spectrum. Thus it is desirable to use that time history which has the maximum potential for .
damage. It is therefore necessary to derive a set of parameters derived from earthquake records
that may be considered as measures of the severity of ground Shaking at the site. Further. the
correlation between three onhogonal components of the ground acceleration vector at a location
is assumed to be negligible in seismic analysis. However, the recorded components are generally
COrrelated which may introduce SOme bias in the analYSis results. To eliminate these correlation
effects, the resolution of the ground motIon components along the principal direction has been
suggested in the past [13, 17). The principal directions and resolution of the ground motion
components along these principal directions have been discussed beJow. Further. severa) strong
motion parameters which are used to measure the severity of the ground motions have been
eXplained.
l!arthquake motions along principal axes
The seismic design loads on structures are usually specified in terms of a set of nonnalized
desIgn {response) spectra for horizontal and vertical motions expected at a site. These speetraJ
shapes are generaHy derived from the statistical analysis of the spectral ordinates of previously
eM (Earthquake Resistant D~~ign of Structures
recorded earthquake motions in the region. In derivjng the spectral shape for horizontal motions,
it i$\ common to consider the stronger of the two horizontal components of ground motion in
these analyses Since the directivity of a future earthquake is random, the same spectral shape
is used for the l wo orthogonal horiZonlal directions for a conservative estimate of the expected
seismic loading. Further. the two orthogonal horizontal components of design earthquake are
generally .assumed to be uncorrelated. However, if these spectral shapes were derived from the
recorded (:omponenrs of the ground motions, the estimates of the expected spectral ordinates are
likely to he biased and also unconservative, The bias in these estimates results from the finite
currelation between the recorded components of the motions. In order to eliminate this bias, it
is desirable to con8ider the uncorrelated components of the ground motion in statistical analysis.
Let the three translational (;omponents of ground acceleration recorded along the three
.1i1hogonal lrafJ;,Juccl axes 01' lIte acceJerugraph denoted by a,(l); (r ;::: x, y, z) he defined as,
aAt) ~ eU)b, (I)
0, {if dt)hl,(t) (4.24)
aN) = c(t)b,(t)
where h,(I),- U x, y. ;::) arc stationary nmdom processes and eU) is a deterministic modulating
function. Assnming the round acceleration process to be Gaussian with zero mean, the three
dimensional ground acceleration process can be completely characterized in a probabilistic sense
through the covariance matrix
(4.25)
where. Pi/= ,U!/I, T) Efa/t)oj(t .... r))) represents the covariance between two orthogonal
components (Ji(t) and a.(t) and E[] represents the mathematical expeetation (ensemble average)
operator. As a fir'::l app~oximatjon. rear earthquake accelerograms can be represented by shot or
white noise processes [71. In such 2 situation, the random variables ai(t) and ait + 1) would be
statjstically uncorrelated for non~zero values of time difference T. Hence, the elements of the
covariance matrix of the ground acceleration proces::: may approximated by Pi} =: E[ar(t)a;{t}].
Substituting from Equation (4.24) into Equation (4.25), the covariance matrix can be written
(4.26)
where. f.tq(!) = Elo,(t)a;Cti1 .and (;r;(= E[bi(t)blt)]) js the time invariant covariallce of stationary
processes bi(t) and b/t), fOf i; j = x, J, z, Furlher, the components of motion along an arbitrary
::.ti of orthogOlllJI ax~s x', y', Z can be transformed to components- along orthogollal axes x, y.
F
1 hy " 2implc ir:m~;ff:rlTlatic" G:';,
(4.27)
( ~_ _ _~'0haptcr 4 Strong ~~~ion Chllrac:teris~ Mm+
where [A] is the orthogonal transformation matrix satisfying the relation [AnA] = [I]. Thus
the covariance matrix for the axis x', y', z' is obtained as
[1"(1)] = [Ar'!.u(t))(Ar'/
= [AJT !.u(t)][AJ
= e 2(t)[Af[PJ[A]
This transformation of three-dimensional ground motion is identical to {he transformation
of three-dime~sjonal stale of stress. Therefore it can be proved that there exists a set of principal
axes ~ong which the components of motion have maximum~ minimum and intermediate values
of vanance and zero covariance. The directions of the principal axis are given bv the ejcrenvectors
of the covariance matrix of the recorded motlons whereas the con a.')ponding eigenva1;es are the
prinCipal variances [13, 17J. Since the off-diagonal terms in a covariance matrix jndjcate
q~an~itative1y the correlation between the corregponding components, the components along the
pnnct~al axes are fully, u~correJated with r~s~ect to each other. Moreover. the three Components
of mouon a~ong the pnnclpal axes are stausttcaHy independent of each other, provided that the
ground mOUons are. assumed to be adequately represented by Gaussian random processes. For
a small class of stationary random processes, viz., ergodic processes, the ensemble statistics are
same as the temporal statistics and thus time averages taken over a single sample of the random
process provide complete statistical infonnation about the process. For aU other types of random
pr~~s such a duality between ensemble and temporal statistics does not exist. In a practical
apphcatIOn, however. the desired statistical properties of r'dndom processes are often estimated
by eXamining individual members from the ensembles of processe!o; (3], Thus the covariances
in Equation (4.26) can be obtained by conSidering the temporal averaging over any single
member of the process, i.e.;
Pi) ~ (b:U)bj(/
where, the superscript r denore.s the rth sample from the ensembJe of the process and angular
braCkets represent hme averagmg over the duration of motion.
It has been reported [17 J that there exists a strong correlation between the direction of
one of ,the pdncipal axis (most often the major principal axis) and the general direction to the
f.uJ'-shp zone. However. analysis of data from San Fernando earthquake of February 9, 1971
~~dlc~tes t~atthis eorrel.atlon is ~ot very strong. Further, it was observed that one of the principal
lCectlOns l~ usually aligned WIth the vertical direction [13]. For the Indian earthquakes also,
no COrrelatIOn could be established between the directions of principal components of the
recorded motions and the direction of the rupture of fault plane [l8, 19J.
Measures of severity
Various parameters have heen defined to cbaracterjze severjty of strong Shaking. Tht; Peak
~round Acceleration (PGA) is the most widely used parameter to measure severity of eaJthquake.
o~ever, the PGA js a rather poor parameter for mea<;uring severity of strong motion due to
vanous. reasons such as, its possible association with a pulse of very high frequency, ampHfication
due to J~guJar loca1 topography, interaction of large structure at the site of recording, etc. The
Populanty of PGA as a measure of severity of ground motion is partly because of it being the
 Chapter /; Strong Motion Characteristics) _ _
c
only parameter that can be directly measured by an instrument-all other strong motion This measure is defined as spectral intensHy and is given by

1"
parameters are derived from the processing of strong motion data, Further, the PGA measure (4.33)
is intuitively appealing to the engineers as it is proportional to the maximum inertia force Sl(O = S,,(s, T)dT
0.1
imposed on a structure during an earthquake. Several parameters that have been proposed as , (' n re re.'l.ents. the relative velocitv spectrum. Although
replacements for PGA as a measure of severity of ground shaking are discussed below. wbere, T is the period of SOOF, and S~, . P f Y _ 0 0' but presently it is customary to
Arias defined earthquake intensity as sum of the total energy per unit weight, stored in .. 1 . sed for dampmg ratiO 0 , , - . -, r
ongmal y tt was propo . d T [01' 5] and for lightlv damped structure S,("
undamped oscillators uniformly distributed with respect to their frequencies at the end of the cilcula te SI(0.05). In the range of pene E . , -.
earthquake [2]; ot) ~ Sp,(" %l and the Equation (4.33) reduces to
2" 1 r2.5 " (4.34)
(4.29) SI( 0 ~ f,;'Sp,,(', T) aT = 2" J01 S'" (S, TiT dT
. f th seudo-velocity and pseudo~acceleration spectra. The
where, x(t) refers to the ground acceleration, g is acceieration due to gravity and TD represents Here, Sir' and Spa. resp.ect)ve1y re er to , ee~sit is higher for strong motIon with ricber content
the earthquake duration. Thus duration and amplitude is implicitly considered in the definition Equation (~J4) unpbes that spe~r:u l~n of ~I as a measure of damage potential parameter of
of IA- Since x(l) = 0 for t > TD , the Equation (4.29) can also be written as, of long penod waveforms. The hmltati f ~rtra The ef:&ect of dt1.fation of strong
.. . f th d finition 0 response S r - - ' l' .
earthquake IS tnhented rorr: eel tra Thus spectral intensity SI value of strong motIon
motion is not accounted form response.spec ld b p"red for anv meaningful conclusion.
(4.30) . I ' '1 duration shou e com '" J ,
records. of appr?Xlmate Y slml ar _ rd could be due to large amplitude stray pulse, It IS
Smce a hIgh value of PGA In a reeo . fundo motion An alternative parameter
where, IX(w)1 is the Fourier amplitude spectrum of x(I). Thus IA will be large for strong motion not a reliable parameter to measure the severd't~ 0 dgrb W. tabe and Tohdo [23]. The EPA is
with significant amount of high frequency components, high amplitude and long duration. . A I . (EPA) has been e,me Y a .
Effective Peak cce eratlon ed d acceleration time history for which the
Hausner used the mean square acceleration during the rise tjme of strong motion to define defmed as the pe.ak ~alue of amplitude uuncat .. gr~Ut~me history. This way lhe effect of any
earthquake average power [9]. Let spectrum inlenslty IS 90% of that for the ~ngl.na.
. . h ded time history is elimInated. ,
spunous peak 10 t e reco: . ccounted for the effect of maximum amplitude,
(4.31) Araya and Saragom slmuJtaneously a , . escribing earthquake destructiveness
duration and frequency content of strong motton lTI pr
be the total energy in a strong motion. The earthquake average power is defined as, potential factor as [I]:
(4.35)
(4.32)
_ ..' . th 'ntensity of zero crossing defined as No/TD' No is ~he
where, to.05 and .0.95 are the time t at which J has 5% and 95% value respectively and the rise where IA IS Anas mtensl~ an~ J1fJ is e 1 am in lotal duration TD with positive and negallve
tolal number of zero crossmg ill an accelerogr. I t . the Equation (4 35) is most rational
time is defined as (Ts = 10.95 -10.0,) the duration of strong motion part of an accelerogram [22J. ed d' age potentia parame ers ,. .
The foot mean square of P(1 is the measure of average rate of input energy to an elastic system slope. Among all t he propos am. not consider effect of inelastic deformations wbJch
for linear elastic structure, However, It does
and is denoted as rmsa ::: Fa. The larger valu&'of PQ is obtained for an accelerogram which is primarily responsible for damage. 'd 1 (N)-based on inelastic deformatl0ns
is of short duration and impulsive in nature. The value of earthquake power and Arias intensity A criterion of equivalent number of Yle~ eyc es . d by Zahrah and HaH 124J. This
is comparable. Both lA and Pa are fairly good indicator of damage potential for brittle structure. . fi d d tility ratlo was propose
of SnOF systems for a speCl e ue d. . ted bv yieJdin'-' \E/,\ in a structure
The elastic response spectra indicate directly how a linear elastic single degree of freedom .' . f the lOtal energy lsslpa J ,,-,j
parameter IS defmed as the rat~o 0 under the resistance-dispJacement curve tor the
(SDOF) system responds to strong ground motion. It aiso indicates maximum elastic deformation
When sUb.jeeted to ground motton to. the area' 't reache(' the same maximum displacement it
produced in structures having periods in the range of computation. However, it cannot be a good structure when it is loaded monotomcally unt)l 1 ~
predictor of damage potential as the damage is primarily an inelastic phenomenon. For ductile expeci~;nces during Ule excitation, i,e"
structure tne daIDllge depends on duration of strong motion, number of 'tress reversals and
(4.36)
amplitude of vibration excursions. Number of stress reversal and inelastic defonnatjon are
largely dependent on strong motion duration. To measure intensity of ground shaking from the
elastic response of structure Hausner {S] proposed an average response in a range of periodS.
where, (J) denotes the natural frequency of the SDOF structure, U y represents the yield
deformati~n, and f1 is the specified ductility. The smallest value N can have js 1; in this case,
the structure yields only in one direction and reaehes its maximum displacement.
SUMMARY
A discussion of various issues involved in the engineering interpretation of strong motion
data is presented. Starting with the explanation of basic tenninology used. jn ~trong motion
seismology the reader is guided through the different forms of charactenunon of ~round
motions. The chapter concludes with a diseussion of the various parameters used to quantIfy the
damage potential of the earthquake ground motion recorded at a site. This wili help in
developing an understanding aboul the ground motion characterization and the parameters used
to indicate the severity of the motion at a site.
REFERENCES
llJ Araya, R and Swagoni, GK, "Earthquake Accelerogram Destructiveness POlential
Factor". In Proceedings of the Eighth World Conference on Earthquake Engineering,
San Francisco, California, U.S.A., Pl'. 1I: 835-842, Prentice Hall Inc., New Jersey,
1984,
[2] Arias, A . "A Measure of Earthquake Intensityll. In Seismic Design/or Nuclear Power
Piant", R.l, Hansen, (Ed.), pp. 438-469. MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass.chusetts,
1970.
13J Benda! 1.S. and Piersol A.G" Random Data, 2nd nd" John Wiley and Sons, 1986,
14J Hao, H" Oliviera, C.S" and Penzien, J., "Multiple-Station Ground Motion Processing
and Simulalion Based on SMART-I Anay Data", Nuclear Engineering and Design,
Ill: 293-310, 1989.
[5J Harichandran, R.S. and Vanmareke, E,H., "Stochastic Variation of Earthquake Ground
Motion in Space and Time", Journal of Engineering Mechanics, ASCE, 112: 154-174,
1986.
(6J Hausner. G:W., '"Calculating the Response of an OscilJator to Arbitrary Ground
Motion", Bulletin of lhe Seismological Society of America, 31: (43-149, I94L
[7] Housner, G.w., "Characteristics of Strong Motinn Earthquakes", Bulletin ~f the
SeL,mological Society "j'America, 37(1): 19-31, 1947,
fSl Hausner, G.W., "Spectrum Intensities of Strong Motion Earthquakes", In Proceedings
of the Symposium of Earlhquake and Blast Effects on Structure", Eartllquake
Engineering Research Institute, Los Angeles, California, pp. 21-36, 1952.
19] Housner, G.W., "Measures of Severity of Earthquake Ground Shaldng'. In Procedings
of the US National Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Earthquake Engineering
Research Institute, Ann Arhor. Michigan, pp. 25-33, 1975.
l Wi Hudson, D.E., Response Spectrum Techniques in Engineering Seismology", In
Proceeding." of the Firs! World Conference on Eartr.quake Engineering, Earthquake
Engineering Reseatch Institute, Los Angeles, California, Vol. 4. pp. 1-12, 1956.
IllJ Hudson, DE, "Some Problems in the Application of Spectrum Technique to Strong
Motion Earthquake Analysis", Bullelin of the Seismological Society ofAmerica, 52(2):
417-430, (1962).
[12J Kiureghian, A. Der, "A Cohereney Model for Spatially Varrying Ground MQUQru;",
Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics, 25: 99-111, 1996.
[13J Kubo, T, and Penzien. J., "Analysis of Three-dimensional Strong Ground Motions
Along Principal Axes, San Fernando Earthquake", Earthquake Engineering and
Structural Dynamics, 7: 265-278, 1979.
114J Luco, J,E. and Wong, H.L., "Response of a Rigid Foundation to a Spatially Random
Ground Motion", Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics, 14(6): 891-908,
1986.
[15J Nigam, N.C., "Phase Properties of a Class of Random Processes", Earthquake
Engineering and Structural Dynamics, 10: 711-717, 1982.
[16J Ohsaki, Y, "On the Significance of Phase Content in Earthquake Ground Motions",
Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics, 7: 427-439, 1979.
[l7J Penzicn, J. and Wat.be, M" "Characteristics of 3-dimensional Earthquake Ground
Motions", Earthquake Engineering and Srructural DYlUlmics, 3: 365-373, 1975.
[18J Shrikhande, M" Das, 1.D., Bansal, M.K., Kumar, A .. Basu, S., and Chandra, B"
"Analysis of Strong Motion Records from Dhannsala Earthquake of April 26, 1986",
In Proceedings Of the l:.1eventh Symposium on Eanhquake Engineering, Department of
Earthquake Engineering, University of Roorkee, India, Dec. 17-19, pp. 281-285,
1998,
[1~l Shrikhande, M., Das, J.D., Bansal, M.K., Kumar, A., Basu, S., and Chandra, B.,
"Strong Motion Charaetertisties of Uttarkashl Earthquake of October 20, 1991 and its
Engineering Significance", In Research Highlights in Earth System Science; Volume 2:
Seismicity, O.P, Vanna, (Ed.), Indian Geological Congress, Roorkee, India, pp. 337-
342, 200!.
120J Shrikhande; M. and Gupta, V.K., "Synthesizing Ensembles of Spatially Correlated
Aceelerogr.ms", Journal of Engineering Mechanics, ASCE, 124(11): 1185-1192,
1998.
[21] Shrikhande, M. and Gupta, VK" "On the Characterization of the Phase Spectrum for
Strong Motion Synthesis, Journal of Earthquake Engineering, 5(4): 465-482, 2001.
122J Trifun.c, M.D. and Brady, A,G., "A Study on the Duration of Strong Earthquake
Ground Motion", Bulletin of the Seismological Society ofAmerica, 65: 581-626, 1975.
[23J \Vatabe, M. and Tohdo, M., "Analyses on Various Parameters for the Simulation of
Three-dimensional Earthquake Ground Motions", In Transaction afthe 51h Imernational
Conference on Structural Mechanics in Reactor Technology, 13~17 August 1979,
",umber Klfl in K(a), pp. 1-11, Berlin, Germany, 1979.
1241 Zahl1lh, TE and Hall, W.J" "Earthquake Energy Absorption in SDOF Structures",
Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, 110(8): 1757-1772,1984.
[251 lerva, A. and Shinozuka, M.~ "Stochastic Differential Ground Motion", Structural
Sq{ety, 10: 129-143, 1991.

Chapter 5
Evaluation of Seismic
Design Parameters
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Most of the earthquake occurrences are concentrated in narrow belts along plate boundaries.
These earthquakes are known as interplale earthquakes. The earthquakes occurring within a
plate are known as intraplate earthquak... The origins of intraplate earthquakes are still
poorly understood. Tectonic earthquakes are generated by the process of faulting. Sudden
deformation of rock causes earthquake. Earthquake originates at depth (joeus) and thus theory
of earthquake occurrence has inherent uncertainties because of its development from the
inference on the rocks at the surface, A fault is a fracture or a zone of fractures aJong which
rocks on opposIte side have been displaced relative to each other. The manifestation of fault is
the differential movement paraHel to the suIface of fracture. The plate boundaries are the main
faults (sources). There also exist some intraplate faults in Indian region. These faults are in a
state of Stress due to natural forces acting on them. The very rapid release of this state of stress
generales earthquake motion. This release produces seismic waves that cause Shaking of the
ground, The structures supported on the ground are subjected to this shaking and as a result,
experience deformations (stresses), that mUst be accounted for in earthquake resistant design.
Thus understanding of earthquake process and it.o;; effect on ground motion is needed for
evaluation of seismic design parameters,
5.2 TYPES OF EARTHQUAKES
The earthquakes can be dasslfied into three categories according to it:-. depth of focus, These are:
Ii) Shatlllw focus earthquakes are earthquakes with depth of focus < 70 km. Nearly 80%
of towl earthquakes are shallow focus earthquakes. Thc;.., types of earthquakes are of
greater concern for earthquake resistant design.
(ii) Intermediate focus earthquakes are earthquakes with depth E [70, 30] krn.
(iii) Deep focus earthquakes arc carthquakes having focal deplh > 300 km.
88
5.2,1 Intensity
Intensity is a qualitative measure of the strength of an earthquake. It gives a gradat~on of
t gth of earthquake using observed damage to structures and/or ground and reaction of
~:':ans to the earthquake shaking. An earthquake has many intensities, the highest near the
maximum fault displacement and progressively to lower grade at further away. Smce the
measure IS not instrumental, intensity can be assigned to historical earthquakes also. The popular
intensity scale is the Modified Mercalli (jJMl) scale with twelve gradation denoted by Roman
numerals from I to Xli. Another intensity scale deveJoped for central and eastern European
states is known as Medvedev.Sponheuer~Kamik (MSK) intensity scale. The twe]ve gradation
MSK scaJe differs with MMI in details only. Like many other countries, IS 1893 (Part 1), the
Indian Standard: 2002, also refers to the MSK scale [14J. An isoseismal map shows intensities
of a past earthquake in a contoured form of line of equal intensities. Note that the defined. scale
is subjective in nature and depend on social and prevailing c?nstructi~n pra~tJces. ReVISIon of
intensity scale from time to time is made so that gradatIOns of mtenslty as per current
construction practices are made,
5.2,2 Magnitu.de
The magnitude is a quantitative or absolute measure of the sue of an earthquake It can ~e
correJated to the amount of wave energy re1eased at the source of an earthquake The elastic
wave energy IS that portion of total strain energy stored m lithospheric rock that I~ not consumed
as mechanical work (e.g. through faulting) during an earthquake There are vanous magmtude
scales in use. These sca1es differ from each other because those are derived from measunng
different wave compooents of an earthquake. Richter [25] defined magnitude of local earthquake
in southern California for shallow earthquake having epicentrnl distance t. " 600 km. Local
(Richter) magnitude (M,) is logarithm to the base 10 of the maximum seismic wave (velocity)
amplitude in microns ()(i' mm) recorded on Wood-Anderson seismograph (haVIng penod 0.8
s, nearly critical damping and magnification 28(0) at a distance (t.) 100 km from the epIcenlre
of earthquake. Richter magnitude can be scaled for any seismograph of about I s penod usmg
instrumental amplification corrected amplitude of ground mOllon, Later other scales ~ere
defined for larger andlor distant earthquakes (t. > 600 km). Surface wave (Swave) magnItude
(Ms) is defined on the basis of the amplitude of surface (Rayleigh) wave of penod about 20 s
and 80 km wavelength. Ms is valid for an aperture t. > 15' (approximately 1,650 km dISt?"Ce).
The amplitude of compressional and dilatational wave (p-wave) through the earth I~ not
dependent on focal depth, The body wave magnitude (rob) is defined as: the maXImum arnplltude
of P~wavegroup on vertica1 component seismograph of period about I s and less than 10 km
wavelength. This scale is routinely used to describe. size of an ~quake. at present BO:h Ms
and m are determined using maximum trace amphtude and eplcentral distances. The S17.. of
small.';. earthquake (micro-earthquake) and near earthquake (distance t. " 200 km) is often
reported as duration magnitude (Mp). This scale is based on SIgnal durabon (length of
seismograph trace). However. the definitIon of signal duration is not unique and subjectIve m
nature. Maruyama [16] and Burridge and Knopoff [6] among others established lhe p~int force
equivalence of fault slip (dislocation) as a double couple. The total mome~t of thIS sbp IS
a function of time and 1S given by Mo = GAs. where G is the modulus of nglduy (taken as
 4
r------------;C".-up-,'-"--:c
'-----
5 --;E;-u"C.'""lu-.-:;,,"o-:n-of-;-;S"'e7ism=i-:c-Dr;-~s"ig-n""",p".""ro"Cm-c:-:e,,,.ccr-:'s)
--
MiM
3 x 10 MPa for crust and 7 x 1<t MPa for mantle in most of the seismic moment ealeulation) Further coneI usions are,
A is the surface area in m of ruptured fault and s is the average slip in m across fauk The valu~
2

of this moment as time [ ~ OCt IS known as the seismic moment. However. only geodetic data (i) L is equal to 75% of the subsurface rupture length,
can provjde MfJ as t ~ 00. Further. estimate of Mo is also made from Jow frequency cnd of the {Ii) the average surface displacement per event is about 50% of the maximum surface
seismic spectrum (period much larger than 20 s). This far-field seismic parameter is a direct displacement per even~ and
measu:e of the extent of faulting and lS used for comparison with ncar-field geodetic and {iii) the average subsurfaee displacement on the fault plane is bounded by the average
geo1ogical measurements. Jt may also be noted that surface wave. magnitude A1s is an energy surface displacement and (he maximum surface displacement.
measure and is determined by seismic wave amplitude at a period approximately in the range
of 18 s to 22 s. The moment magnitude Mw as defined by Hanks and Kanamori [11] is given
by. 5.4 EARTHQUAKE GROUND MOTION
Mw = 213 log Mo - 6.7
CHARACTERISTICS
(5.1 )
Mw is in~in~ically related to seismic moment Mo (Nm). For values at about 6.5 the mb and Ms The earthquake ground motion of sufficient strength that affect human and their environment
scales eOlnClde. The small earthquakes 6.5) are better represented by mb scaJe and 114S scale (strong ground motion) arc of interest for earthquake resistant dcsjgn. The strong motions are
underestimates the same. The magnimde scales (M L . mb and Ms) salur.ite at Home upper bound. measured by occelnographs and its reeord is time history of acceleration (accelerogram). The
ML and mb saturate at about 6.5 and 7 respectively, Upper bound of Ms is about 8.5, Since, MLl temporal evolution of an accelerogram is composed of three parts viz. rise. strong motion and
mb and Ms are determined from seismic wave of particular period and wavelength that is mueh decay. It is compos.ed of non-periodic sequences of aeceieration pulses of various dUT'dtions.
shorter than the earthquake source size of great earthquakes (magnitude eight or larger). The Thus not only peak of amplitude but also frequency content of record is necessary to characterize
A1w scale adequately measures the size of the ~ource since the scale is independent of particular accelerogram. The characteristic of strong motion in the vicinity of causative fault (near field)
wave type is strongly dependent on the nature of faulting. The motion depends on source parameters such
as fault shape. its: area, maximum fauh dislocation, and complexity of slipping process, stress
drop. and the distance of fault plane from ground surface. The elastic properties of the material
5.3 FAULT RUPTURE PARAMETERS through which the generated seismie waves travel also influence the strong motion. The effect
of ground shaking is mostly dependent on duration of strong motion part. The earthquake
Tocher 129J, Slemmons [281 and WclJs and Coppersmith 132] among others studied the corre- ground acceleration is generally broadband in frequency composition. It is rieh in high
lations of fault rupture parameters (e.g. length and displacement) to assess the future earthquake frequencies in the near fields. The high frequency components attenuate faster than the low
pote?tjal ~n a region. Based on 216 worldwide past earthquakc WeBs and Coppersmith gave frequency components, therefore the contribution of high frequency components is reduced in
relattonshIp between moment magnitude Mw and fault rupture parameters. For all styles of the accelemgrams recorded at large distances from the fault. Further, the amplitude of ground
faulting. some of the relations are acceleration decreases with increasing distance from the causative faults in general. Moreover.
Mw = 1.J6 log(L)+ 5.08 0.28; in general the vertical component of the ground acceleration is richer in high frequencies than
log(L) = 0.69 Mw - 3.22 0.22
the two horizontal components.
M", 2.25 log(W) + 4.06 0.41; log(W) = 0.32 Mw - 1.01 0.15 (5.2)
Mw (j.9g log(A) + 4.07 0.24; log(A) = 0.91 Mw - 3.49 0.24 5.4. I Amplitude Properties
where, L~ Wand A are surface mpture length (km), down-dip rupture width (km) and mpture
Horizontal component of acceleration i~ primarily used to report ground motion as structureS
area (km-) respectIvely. Simj~ar relationships between moment magnitude Mw and displacement
are also reported. The);e are, are designed for vertical loads and margin of safety in the vertical direction are usually adequate
for ear1hquake induced vertical load. TIle common amplitude measure of a ground motion is
Mw 0,74 !og(Dm) + 6.69 OA~); log(Dm) ~ 0.82 Mw 5.46 (l42 the largest horizontal acceleration and known as horizontal peak ground acceleration (PGA).
Mw O})2 log(D,,} + 6.93 0.39; The largest dynamic forces induced in very stiff structures are closely related PGA. Historic
lag(Da) ~ 0.69 Mw - 4.80 0.36 (5.3)
earthquakc~ can have only intensity information. Various authors have attempted to propose
r\~hcre, D;II i~ maximum ~urfaee" displac0mc.nt (m) and D(I is avcmge surface di!l."piaccment (m). reJation between l'tfMl and PGA.. Ambraseys f2] propo~ed such a relation using ~outhern
I he maXlT),,11ll ~urface: displacement provides the farge~';t slip at a point along a rupture and turopean earthquakes as log a : : : ; 0.36 I MM - 0.16. Later, using 187 records of 57 western USA
average surfa~ displacement gives the mean displacement along the length of rupture, 'They also eanhquake with MMI between III and X. Trifunac and Brady [30J gave a relation as log a ~
presented relations for different styles of faulting but concluded that difference is insignificant. 0.30 IMM + 0.014. Murphy and O'Brien [20], using worldwide data of 1465 records having more

'." :.
 ) Charlier 5 E'lJQluQtion af Seismic DeMgn Parumeters
than 900 records with pe.k horizontal ground .""eleration greater than 10 cmfs2 and MMJ in
=
the range I to X, also proposed correlation between MMI and PGA as log a O.25IMM + 0.25.
These relationships are shown in Figure 5.1. Horizontal ground velocity is derived from
accelerogram and have less contribution from high frequency component tban acceleration
record. Most buildings are in the range of the frequency content of ground velocity. Thus peak
ground velocity (PGII) v is a better indicator of damage potentiaL Trifunac and Brady [301 also
proposed a correlation between MMI a.~d PGV. The ratio of PGV and PGA is a representation
of the frequency content of the motion. This ratio ean be jnterpreted as the period of vibration
of an equivalent harmonic wave and thus provides an indication of the significant periods of
the ground motion [26]. The peak ground displacement PGD d is the most inaccurate ground
motion information because of long period noise in the record and errors in filtering and
integration of accelerograms. The displacement record is associated with lower frequency
component of ground motion. Statistical analysis (Mohraz [19], Newmark and Hall [23]) on
ground motion was carried to estimate ground motion properties. These studies suggest uSe
of both vIa and adlv 2 to estimate ground motion parameters, According to Newmark and
Rosenbleutll [241 for earthquake of engineering interest the ratio ad/V' ranges between 5 and 15.
This ratio can be considered as a measure for the sharpness of response spectrum in the velocity
region. Small ratjo indicates a sharp response spectrum while a Jarge value eorresponds to a flat
spectrum in the velocity region. Note that all the amplitude parameterS discussed are peak in
a single cycle of ground motion. The damage in structure is essentially cumulative damage and
it requires repeated cycle of high amplitudes. The use peak amplitudes for design purpose are
generally questioned on this ground. This leads to the concept of effective peak acceleration
(EPA) and effective velocity related acceleration A,. The pseudo velocity corresponding to A,
is termed as effective peak velocity (EPII). Let Sa be the mean pseudo acceleration value in the
period T E [0.1, 0.5] sand S, be the pseudovelocity value at about I s. for 5% critical damping
NEHRP, 1997 [21] speeifles the EPA is defined as Aa = Sa/2.5 and the EPV is similarly defined
as V,. = S,/2.5.
IOr---r----r----r----r----r---, indicate that influence on PGA of site to source distance and magnitude is non-separable, The
Ambrasey, (1974) - -
Trifunac and Brady (1975) ~~~~.
Mu!]>hy and O'Brien (1977) .
3 similar range of closest distance to surface rupture from site d:5 370 km. were given by Bolt
.g
I~ 0.1
Modified Mercalli Intensity (MMI)
FIGURE 5.1 PGA-MM! ..I.tions.
MS_
5.4.2 DuratiDn
Strong motion duration is related to the time required to release of the accumulated strain energy
in the causative fault. Thus, duration of strong motion increases with increasing earthquake
magnitude, As stated earlier It has a strong influence on damage. HOlisner 113 j uses the mean
square acceleration during the rise time of s.trong motion to define earthquake average power.
Let
J= f a'(/)dt (5.4)
be the total energy in a strong motion. The earthquake avemge power is defined as
Po ~
1 r111
t; JI:H6 a
'1$ 2:
(t}dt (5.5)
where, to.l1'i and 10.95 are the time t at which 1 has 5% and 95% value respectively. The former
is known as the rise time and tbe later is known as the decay time respectively, Trifunac and
Brady [31] defined t, as the duration of strong motion part of an accelerogram and is defined
as ts = to.95 - 10.05-
5.4.3 Effect of DistJuu:e
Attenuation law gives the effect of distant earthquake to the site and is expressed as peak ground
motion. The attenuatjon relationships in the literature can be broadJy classified into three
different types. The first one corresponds to those proposed by Bolt and Abrahamson [4]. These
relations are in the form of Pearson family of probability curves as functions of source to site
distanee jn various ranges of moment magnitude. They concluded thal the data does not indicate
increase of PGA systematically with the increase of magnitude in the near~source region. The
second group of attenuation relation i, of the form presented by Campbell [7]. These relations
last group of attenuarion relationships are popularly known as Joyner and Boore [15J type. Basic
feature of this relationship is separability of influence of magnitude and site to source distance
on PGA. Using we,tern USA earthquake data. relations for larger PGA, which are valid for
and Abrahamson [4]. These relations are specified for different r.anges of moment magnitude
Mw and are given by
L20 [R' + 1]0.033 exp (-O.066R) for M wE [5.0, 6.0). R d + 23 and 0' A = 0.06 g
A ~ 1.20 [R'+ IJo.o42 exp (-0.044R) for MwE[6.0, 7.0),R=d+25 andO',,=O.lOg (5.6)
{ O.24lR2 +1]10 exp (- Q.022R) for Mw E [7.0,7.7], R = d + 15 and 0' A = 0.05 g
Where, (Ttl. ifi the standard error of one observation (i,e. standard deviation of the prediction
error). These relations show similar trend in attenuation as predicted by the equation (5.6) in
Mw E [5.0. 7.()). bur exhibir an entirely different trend in the range of Mw E [7.0,7.7]. This
MM QarthqttCtke Resistant Design oj StMlCture.(l ( CMp~tr 5 Evaluation oj Seismic Design Parometers

deviation in trend is mainly due to the use of nonlinear regression in this study. This study also
attempts to define a significant (effective) peak acceleration. On the basis of worldwide
earthquake data Campbell [7] proposed attenuation relationships for peak value of both
horizontal and vertical components of ground acceleration. These relationships are defined for
moment magnitude Mw and the shortest distance R from site to the zone of seismogenic rupture
on the fault. For peak horizontal ground acceleration (PGA), defined as the geometric mean of
the PG,4 of two horizontal components, in units of g (= 981 Cml52), the relation is given by,
InA 3.512 + 0.904Mw- L3281nJR2 +[OJ4gexp(0.647 M w )]'
+ [1.125 - 0.112 In R - 0.0957Mwj f + [0.440 - 0.171 In Rjs, (5.7)
+ [0.405 0.222 In R]s" + E
where, the following are recommended:
ofor strike~slip faulting; f = 0.5 for normal faulting:! ;;; 1 for reverse, thrust. reverse-oblique
and thrusl-oblique fauiling: 5, = $-, = 0 for alluvium or flIm soil (Quaternary deposit with depth
The source to site distance R is defined as
R = Jh'+d' (5.12)
where, d is the closet distance from site to surface projection of the rupture rotle ltl km.
Campbell [7] recommends this attenuation relationship for Mw ~ 5 and source to site distance
R ,; 60 km. This study .1'0 reports fitted equations for peak vertical acceleration. peak ground
velocity and pseudo-absolute acceleration response spectra. An equation of Joyner and Boore
[15) type for PGA in units of g was proposed by Boore etal. [5] using moment magoitude MOl'
distance d in kID from site to the surface projection of fault rupture and average shear-wave
velocity V. in units of mfs. This relation is given by,
(5.13)
where, b;. hz, b3 b s, b v are empirical constants~ h denGte~ a fictitious depth parameter, VA is a
fictitious normalising shear-wave velocity determined by regression analysis, and R = ~ d + h
2 2

> 10 m); s~ 1, Sh Z: 0 for ~oft rock (Tertiary Sedimentary deposits and soft volcanic deposits);
represents the source to site distance. The geometric mean of two horizontal component of
SJ = O. Sh :::::: 1 for hard rock (Cretaceous and older Sedimentary deposits, metamorphic rock,
ground acceleration is used as peak acceleration in this study. The standard deviation of the
crystalline rock. and hard volcanic deposits like basalt); and E is error of the regression relation
regression is given by
having mean zero and standard deviation <1. In this study magnitude data was postulated as
M .. = Ms for Ms;;' 6.0 and Mw = ML for ML <: 6.0. The standard deviation O'is correlated with (5,14)
In A as,
i:2 :2 (5.15)
0.55 if A <: 0.068 g <1IDA == ...J<1 e + (JT
0' = 0.173 0.140 In ,4, if 0.068 g :s A ,; 0.21 g (5.8) where, <1 and (J, are the standard deviation of earthquake to earthquake variability. determined
10,39 otherwise in the s:cond stage of regresslon~ and aU other components of variability respectively. In
equation (5.14), <11 is the standard deviation of first stage of regression, and <1c is the needed
However. a correlation between <1 and Mw is also reported in this study as. correction in standard deviation for randomly oriented horizontal component of ground
acceleration. The shear-wave velocity, VI is used in the proposed relation to define site
r0.889 - 0.691 Mw if Mw <: 7.4 conditions. A time weighted average shear-wave velocity value js used in the analysis and is
<i=<; (5,9)
,0.38 otherwise recommended as 30 m divided by shear-wave, travel time from ,urface to 30 m helow. The
authors Tecommend b1 value according to the type of fault mechanism as
The equation (5.8) is found to be more robust th.n equation (5.9) by r-squared value.
Further, the shortest dis.tance from ~ite to rupture zone depends on the average depth h to the r- 0.313 for strike-.lip mechanism
lOp of [he sei~mogenic rupture wne of a presumed earthquake. In absence of any infonnation (5,16)
hI == 1:- OJ 17 fOT reverse-slip mechanism
it is recommended as
- 0.242 for unspecified mechanism
h {O.5[h,+h b -WSina+ ... ] ifn:!!h,
(5.10) Other recommended smooth parameters are b, = 0.527, h, ~ 0, b, = ~.778, bv ~ ~.371,
hf otherwise
VA = 1396 mis, h =5.57 km, 0', = 0.43'- 0', 0.226, 0', =0.486, <r, =0.184 and 0'" A = 0.520,
where, hI and hI> re~pectively are the depth to the top and bottom of the seismogenie crust in The authors recommend this attenuation relation for moment magnitude Mw E [5.5, 75) and
km, a is Lhe angie of dip of the fault plane, and W is the down-dip rupture wjdth in km, Down d 'S gO km, This study aho provides empirical relations for pseudo-acceleration response
dip rupture width HI can he estimated using fcilawing empirical relation obtained by Wells and spectra in unlls of g at 5% damping for randomly oriented horizontal component of ground
Coppersmitll 132] acceleration.
Jog W~~I.OI, 0.32 Mw 0.15 (5.11 )
.i. (rE;;:::ar:;,"i:k=qu=.:-i..
5.4.4 Ground Motion Level
::-RD"e::.:Ci,::,::an:::';-;D;:'::''-'g=n:--Co,'-;;S''-'ru--''''':-"Cre--,-,- - - - - - - - -....- - . - . - - - )
The important consjderation in evaluation of design forces is the consequences of damage of
a particular type of structure from shaking. from ground failure, etc, Well-designed and
constructed structure will be less susceptible to damage than old, poorly constructed structure.
Very important structures. such as dams and nuclear power plants. whose failure would lead to
disaster from secondary phenomena. should be provjded with least susceptibility to damage than
ordinary masonry buildings, which may be permitted to undergo repairable non~structura1
damage but prevented from structural failure and collapse. Thus the design criteria for very
Important structures will be different from that of ordinary andlor conventional buildings. The
enginee~ing project site with such structure, therefore, requires special consideration in defining
appropnate levels of severity of ground motion at a given site to permjt analysis of the behaviour
of the structure to remain functional' during and after the earthquake, One of these levels can
be considered to be the maximum ground motion that reasonably can be expected to occur at
the site Dnce during lifetime of the :<:tructure. The earthquake corresponding to this level of
ground motion is often called as Design Basis Earthquake (DBE). The other level may
correspond directly to ultimate safety requirements. This level of ground motion has a very low
probabiliry of being exceeded and represents the maximum level of ground motion on the basis
of estimates of upper threshold magnitude of seismic sources, The earthquake corresponding to
the ultimate safety requirements is often called as Maximum Credible Earthquake (MCE), The
DBE is derived on the basis of historical earthquakes that have affected the site, expressed as
ground motion having a definl!d probability of not being exceeded during the service life
ro the facility and may be derivcd using probabilistic approach or the approach may include
seismotectonic consideration (combined probabilistic and seismotectonic approach), An
alternative to rigorous probabilistic analysis for evaluation of DBE. when data on earthquake
is meagre or not available, DBE is taken as a fraction (e,g, OA for the bridge site) of MCE,
where MCE is determined by rigorous application of seismotectonic method. The MCE is
derived on the basis of maximum earthquake potential inside the seismotectonic provjnce of the
site or adjoining sejsmotectonic provinces associated with or not associated with specific tectonic
structures. and combined probabilistic and seismotectonic approach may also be used based on
available data on earthquake occurrence. However, design earthquake has to be prescribed so
that duration and frequency content of ground motion is included for orOllnd motion
specification. There can be more than one design earthquake for a particular ;ite.
5.4,5 GeGlngiml, Geophysical and Geotechnical Data
TIle tdcntifieation of Sc1SJllic wurces is of prime importance for evaluation of ground motion
~eveL Various geological and geophysical parameters are studied to identify seismic sources.
rhe~e studies include earthquake hi~tory, geological record of past seismic activity, tectonic
maps, t'cr:nt (,..cloniC movemenl, surflJce landforms jndicators., lineaments map from remote
sens~ng, elc. .It also inc1udes other parameters such as abrupt change in ground water level, :'jteep
gravJt:y gradJent, magnetic gradient, difference in seismtc wave velocities in the region, etc.
Moreover, locu! topogrl.lphy, properties of soil and its strength, area of subsidence andlor
settlement, N.c. shall be used. 11 is necessary to af)certain faults by ground verifkution of
remotc:iy sensed lineaments map. The tectonIc (structural geoJogy) map of an area gives
information about the type of rocks te be found and indicates faults in a geographic region. It
is necessary to detennine evidence of any motion in recent times. Locations of epicentres of all
available seismic data (instrumental and historical) in the region are to be plotted to determine
possible trend to indicate active faulting. A fault that does not extend to. earth ~urface and
normally terminates upward at the ax.ial regIon of convex upward fold (AntLClme) IS known as
blind fault. This fault cannot be examined and is thus associated with very high uncertainties.
But this type of fault has a very great effect on 1evel of ground motion estimation and is often
verv difficult to incorporate in the evaluation. Different faults have different degree of activity.
S~cific definition of fault activity is given for regulatory purpose. For quan.titative assess~e~t
of activity, some time a capable fault is defined as a faull that had surface dIsplacement wlt~)m
past 10,000 years (Holocene active). Generally faults originate as sman. fracture, successl~e
earthquakes propagate (lengthen) it. If a site does not belong to a ~ery ~ctrve complex tectonic
rone. chances of new fault breaking are almost none for the servIce life of a structure.
5.5 DETERMINISTIC APPROACH
When the causative fault cannot be jdentified. it is very difficult to avoid arbitrariness in
specifying MC. The standard practice is to determine tbe intensity of the site (from the
available hwseismaI map of the region) from the strongest earthquake that has ever occurred
around the site. Lacking strong motion accelerogram record, it is customary to increase the scale
factor by one for the specification of MCE. Many earthquake intensity-acceleration relationships
are available in the literature. These data suggest that the median value of the maximum ground
velocity is approximately 20 cmis for MMI intensity VIII and cbanges by a factor of 2 for each
unit of change of intensity. The peak acceleration of 0.167 g thus correspond to MMI mtenslty
VIII, since a velocity of 122 cmls corresponds to a peak acceleration of g. The correlation
between MMI and peak ground velocity is almost independent of the property of local soil. The
relationship between peak velocity and peak ground acceleration is dependent sHg?tly on local
soil condition. But the MMI is strongly correlated with damage and the damage IS dependent
on 10cal soil condition. Hence. local soil eondition is implicitly taken into account in arriving
at peak ground velocity. When faults exist around the site, the earthquake of maximum
considered magnitude associated with each fault is determined from past seismic data. However,
care should be taken to ascertain the type of magnitude (e.g. body wave magnitude. surface wave
magnitude, local or Richter magnitude, moment magnitude~ etc.) in the reported data. From the
known length of faults from tectonic map, it is ascertained that the identified faults. associated
with highest magnitude, are capable to release that amount of energy. It is customary to increase
these magnitudes by lI2 for Me. The epicentres of these earthquakes are assumed to be the
closest point on the faults from the site. The depth of focus of an earthquake gIves the depth
at which the strains build up in the earth's crust andlor Upper Mantle resulung in fracture
generating seismic waves. The rocks in the immediate vidnity of a site are often not strong
enough to store the energy for earthquake of magnitude of engineering sig.nificance (magnitude
greater or equaJ to five) in a few km of tbe upper depth due to weatherIng and other natura!
proce"cs. TIli, depth plus half of the idealized down-dip rupture width, W is taken for the depth
of focus of eacb earthquake in a causative fault jf no specific information of fault d1p IS

avaHable. The effect of these distant earthquakes on the faults to the site, expressed as peak
ground motion (e.g. acceleration, velocity and displacement). is obtained vla attenuation law.
Various attenuation Jaws are available in the literature (e,g. [2]. [9] etc.), One of them is due
to Esteva and Villaverde [lOl and is given by
a = 5600 exp(O.8Mt )/(R + 40)2 (5.1 7)
v = 32 exp(M,)/(R + 2S)' (S.l8)
d (l + 2()()~') v'la (5.19)
where, a is PGA in gal, v is PGV (emls), d is PGD (em) and R is focal (hypocenlral) distance
(km). ML is the Richter magnitude and 40 km and 25 km are empirical constants to account for
the volume of lithospheric rock that partjcipates in releasing the stored energy. The above laws
indicate more T'dpid reduclion in value of high frequency component of ground motion,
5.6 PROBABILISTIC APPROACH
Vanous worker< (Cornell [8J, Esccva 191, Aigermissen and Perkins [1]. McGuire [17] and Basu
l3L etc.) developed methodology and techniques tor the probabilistic estimations of ground
motion. The combined statistical and seismotectonic approach for the evaluation of ground
motion parameter (acceleration, velocity and displacement) at a site involves identification of
seismotectonjc province of the site and seismic sources in whjch future significant earthquake
can originate, determine the rate at whjch earthquake can occur in different sources, obtain the
frequency distribution of depth of focus and magnitude in varIous sources" and establish a
ground motion atrenuatlon to account for the effect of focal distance of earthquake on the site.
The analysis is carried out with the assumption that the available data is not exhaustive and
contain error in locations (say 0.1 degree). depth estimates, magnitude etc. The statistical tool
available for analysis is Bayesian analysis, and can be carrjed out on the Hnes of Basu [3J for
evaluation of ground acceleration in following steps:
(I) The data are s011ed out for different seismjc sources.
(ii) A modular source of arc length 150 km al the surface ofthe earthquake wilh the project
site as it~ center and of 150 km depth is taken and seismically active faults lying withill
modular 'i(\un::e are con.l>idered as area 50urces.
Lrn;3.liOlls of Hoating earthquakes (not associated with faults) jn the modular source are
considered t('mporarily stationary and spatial1y homogeneous: and occuncnce of earthquake is
eqaally hkely in the latitude and longitude direction. The foeal depth data with assigned value
of 33 km (ZJverage depth or Moho) arc assumed to be distributed unifonnly wjthin 16 to 51 km
rOf (;stimalioJ of fo;.'.a! dislribulicn. /\ mhed truncated lognormal distribution is fitted in
"h? mo-iui;-rr ~()llTC/' fmd !\rPfl ~C'llrCf~:-; The proh<lbil1ty density function of focal depth for h
to, hn1 i~,.,
,
!H(!;) ~ L ,~, " ~
--.----- cxp[-(ln h-v)'1(2o-t)]
"J .:-Jr(i1nc,bj(ln ho v)laJ
;rl
(520)
Chapu:r ti E",a.luoti01'l of Seismic Design Po.rometef'.s ) MU-
where,O <: PI <: 1, P, = 1 - P, and <P(.) is tile probabilily distribution function of N(O, I). The
estimation of parameters (PI' O'it Oi, v) arc formulated as mjnimum Chi-square problem. The
magnitUde, ML of earthquake is independent of rate of occurrences of earthquake. The
magnitude distribution is estimated in two ways in accordance wjth availabJe data. The
probability density function corresponding to the bilinear frequency magnitude relation with an
upper and lower threshold is given by
f.",(m) ~ K,p exp[(mo P+ (m, - m)AU(m - m,), mE (mo. m,l
m) (5.21)
where, 11K, ; [A + P- A exp I(mo- m) P} - [3 exp ((mo - m,) P+ (m,- m,) A}]/(A + fJ), and
mo < ml < mz, The U(-) is Heaviside function. It is assumed that mo;;;: 5 is the lower threshold
magnitude. The estimation of parameters (A, ~. mj. m:z.) are obtained using minimum Chi-square
estimation method, Phy~ica] interpretation of equation (5.2 t) is that there ex.ist two different
processes, one leading (0 release of energy below magnitude mj; and other above that. A linear
relation can also be used with upper threshold magnitude m2 that takes care of the ultimate
srrengrh against ruprure of underlain strata, The pl:lrameler. m2 is inferred from historicaJ and!
or geological data. Normahsatjon of linear frequency-magnitude relation with upper and lower
threshold leads 10 the probability density function as
fM,(m) = K, Pexp [(mo - m) Pl, mE lmo, m,J (5.22)
where, llK2 = 1 - exp l(mo - mo) Pl. The attenuation law correlating peak ground acceleration
wilh earthquake parameters for a source including the effect of scatter in the past data is assumed
lObe
y a exp[bm - cln (r + d) + 6] (5.23)
where, m is the magnitude. r is the focal distance (km), y is the peak ground acceleration (gal)
e
and is a nonna] random variable. Esteva and VilJaverde [1 O} have suggested values of a, b,
c and d as 5600, 0.8, 2.0 and 40 Ian. respeclively and nonnal random variable 6 is of mean 0.04
and variance OA096. The occurrence of an earthquake is assumed to be in accordance with
Poisson process with intensity, J.1i~ for magnitude greater than five. The posterior intensity of
earthquake arrival is estimated through Bayesian statistics and by using past regional (Newmark
and Rosenblueth [24]) seismic data, Under the assumption of mutUal statistical independence of
various sources at project site, it can be sho\vn that, the probability distribution function of
maximum acceleration. YmftP can formally be
(5.24)
in which !1-i is the intensity of earthquake arrival in lis SOUfCr:, n i~ the ntlITlher of faultll in the
madular SQuree at site, and pry, > y] is the probHbility of eXI.X".e,ding peak acceleration, y, at the
site due to the i lh source, Prom l".qllation (5.24) I~yr.tlr return period of PGA, )" i~ obtained as,
(5.25)
 Substituting t, numerically the I-year acceleration is obtained at the site solving equation (5.25)
~umencany for y. In general peak acceleration (velocitYI displacement) for 100 years service
lIfe of the structure for various exceedence probability are evaluated from equation (5.24). The
level of probab1l1t~ .1S ~hosen with the consideration of the consequence of faHure. A low
T where, r is the hypocentraI distance (km) and m is the magnitude. AU empirical coefficients.
reported by McGuire [18) for projections of hori7..ontal PCA, PGVand PCD also. are reproduced
in Table 5.2. The probabilistic approach for the same site gives PGA of 0.23 g with exceedence
probability of 0.25 for lOO-year service life of the structure. The PGA of 0.25 g corresponding
exceeden~e probabIlity IS taken for atomic power plant stnlctures (say 0.05). For dams Jess to MCE can be recommended for the site by combjning both detenninistic and probabilistic
conservattve. exceede~ce probability (say 0.25) may be taken. The choice of the ground motion approach for evaluation of acceleration response spectra.
para~et.er WIth prescnbed exceedence probability is made on an engineering judgment based on
pemusslble damage to the structures and prescribing the levels of design ground motion. TABLE 5,2 Parameters for attenuation laws
Observation CoejjicienlS
5.6.1 Example
b1 I- b, L b,
Him~iayan be~t. induding parts of Indo-Gangetic planes, can be divided into three seif'mic I !
~ro:mces. Major earthqUake...;; up to magnitude 6.5 have OCcurred in western Himalayas. The
Acceleration tg)
Veloci,y (m/,)
0.482
O.0564 ' 0.278
0.401 ~'
1.202
L?Wl

limned data on depth of focus of earthquakes, for which fault plane solutions are available do
not sho~' cl~ar-cut relationship with probable extension of the known thrusts and faults. Both
the longitudmal ~nd transverse features are capable of future seismic activity in the region, In
t~e absenc~ of I~strumental evidence and precise depth evaluation of the seismological
lmeaments m rehmon ~,o the project site for evaluation of design earthquake parameters can be
selected on the foHOWIng criteria:
I. As fault plane solution indicate~ probabilities of seismic slip both along Ille longitudinal
as weI.l as transverse tectOniC lIneaments in Himalayas, deep seated extensions of the
tecto.mc ~lanes :ejated ~ith the major thrusts and faults can act as capable faults.
2. The Idealil.ed WIdth of sbpped fault is about 30 km for magnitude 6.5. The focal depth
IS estunated to he 20 km based on the assumption that the rock in first 5 km depth in
the ImmedIate VIcinity of s-ite may not be strong enough to store the strain energy.
TIlough the depth of focus of damaging earthquakes in the region are noted to vary
from about 25 km to about 100 km. a conservative estimate of depth of focus of
20 km could be adopted for the MCE. Based on the seismotectonic setup of the region,
the follOWing set of earthquake parameters reported in Table 5.1 are considered for
evaluatl?n of PGlt due to the MCE along the major faults around site based on the
attenuatIOn law proposed by McGuire [18 J
(5.26)
Dj;;placemeni (mm)
---~---'
3.93
L __ __
.
0.434
. .
0.885
.-
5.7 RESPONSE SPECTRA
Earthquake engineers prefer to report inter-d.etion between ground aceeleration and structural
::;ystems through response spectrum as popularised by Housner (12]. It reflects frequency content,
amplitude of ground motion and effect of subsequent filtering by the structure, Acceleration
spectrum is a plot of natural period of vibration of a Single degree of freedom (SDOF) oscillator
with a specific value of damping versus- peak absolute acceleration of o$;cillawr mass- when
subjected to a base acceleration equal to the earthquake accelerogram (i,e .. ground acceleration).
The value of the speetral acceleration at zero periods, known as zero period acceleration (ZPA),
is the PGA because oscillator is composed of infinitely stiff bnear spring. The relative
displacement response spectrum asymptotically approaches maximum ground displacement for
highly flexible structure. This implies that the mass remains stationary for all practical purposes
and only the ground moves as the linear elastic SDOF system is composed of spring with negligjbJe
stiffness. In-between the two extremes period, the value of spectral acceleration at a particular
period is a constant multiplier. known as amplification factor. of peak ground acceleration. The
amplification facror at short-period increases with increase of period and reaches a maximum
at the sub-soil period and then jt decreases with increase of period in general The amplification
factor for rocky s-jte condition is higher than that of alluvium site condition at short periods and
v ice versa at Jong-periods. TIle amplification factor reduces with increase of hypocentral
di::;tance from the site and peak amplification oCCUrS- at longer reriod.

5.8 DESIGN SPECTRUM

The design response spectrum i)) a ~month respolisc speclrunl specifying !eyeJ of seismic
rl!sismnce required for design. Thus the design spednun i.'J :; specification of the requiJ'ed
strength of structurc. The strength is frequency dependt:nt and also dependent on maximum
velocity, maximum displacement and maximum acccferatlon in various ranges of frequende~.

I
Three straight lines bound the general shape of the smooth spectra on a logarithmic tripartite horizontal component of earthquake. Newmatk et a1. [22] proposed transition from amplified
graph as shown in Figure .5.2. At low frequency range the spectral displacement Sa = maximum ground acceleration to ground acceJeration begin at 6 Hz.. for an
damping values and end at 40.
ground displacement d; and in the high frequency range, the spectral acceleration Sa ':': maximum 30. 17.0 and 9.0 Hz, for critical damping ratio 0.5, 2.0. 5.0 and 10.0 per cent, respectively.
ground accelerat10n a. As we proceed from low to high frequency, there exist five different Corresponding to I g ZPA, the peak ground velocity is 122 cml. and displacement is 91 ,m f()t
regions, These are: alluvial soil, and 58 cmls and 30 em for the rock. The measure of width of the spectrum is
adlv'l = 6 for both type of spectra. Figure .5,2 shows the spectrum for alluvial soil recommended
(i) a transition from maximum ground displacement to amplified spectral displacement, by Newmark et aI., for 1 g ZPA. Figure 5.3 shows the 84,} percentile (i.e, mean + one standard
(ii) amplified displacemen~ deviation), 5% critical damping spectra for the horizontal component of earthquake motion by
(iii) amplified velocity, Seed et al, [27], Mohraz [19J studied three components of ground motion. The mean value of
(iv) amplified acceleration and the ratio of smaller and larger horizontal component (RS) is 0.83 and that of vertical and larger
(v) a transition from amplified spectra) acceleration to ground acceleration, horizontal component (RV) is 0.48. The 84.1 pen:entile values are RS; 0,98 and RV; 0.65
The design spectrum Can be obtained from maximum ground velocity, displacement and which indicates that borh horizontal components are almost equal and the venical component
acceleration jf the amplifications are known. Table 5.4 gives the ampJiiication factors for larger is approximately 213 of the larger honzonta) component. Figure 5.4 shows average spectra
normalized to I g ZPA for 2% critical damping, Tables 5.3-5.5 give the ground motion para-
meier. ampHfication factor for anuvium and proposed site design spectra coefficients, Given the
PGA is a, using Tables 5.3-5.5. 50 or 84.1 percentile horiwntal design response spectrum can
be obtained, The spectral values are Sd::; factor x d, Sv = factor x v and Sa :::; factor x a where
d, v and a are PGD, PGV and PGA respectively from Table 5.3. From Table 5.5, design spec-

.-------.--------r------~--------~------,- ------~ .
Total number of records analysed 104 Spcetra for 5% damping
4

Soft to mediuln clay and sand--15 records

StiiTsoil conditions 150 ft)-31 records

Rock-2B records

AEC Regulatory Guide

------
._ _ _L -_ _-'-~'"_ -.----'-.-----c!':----~

Frequency. cps to 15 20 25 3D

FIGliRE 5,2 r)esig,~ s{.I(>ttra l"l!'wmmended by 'Newmark ("l at. rZZJ for 1 g PGA at 84.1 I FIGURE 5.3
Period, sec
Design spedra recommended by Seed U7J for 5% damping at 84.1 pen:endJe.

l
perc:cnti!~.
Mlii. ( E(J.rt~.ke Re,mtant DeJrign of Strud~".r::.",,-_ _ _ _~_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
--) Chapter 5 Evaluation of Se';mic Design P~mmeters ) MlihW
5r-----~----r_----r_----._----~----~ TABLE 5.5 Site design coefficient (after Mohraz (1976))
-Alluvium CoejficiertfS
-, - Less than 30 fl alluviwn on rock Velocity Acceleration
Site category Displacement
- .. - 30-200 ft, alluvium on rock
- - Rock Rock 0.50 0.50 1.05
Alluvium underlain rock 0_75 0.75 L20
\'\
\\ trUm value can be obtained as site coefficients x design spectrum value for alluvium site.
\\\ \..
-
I'.
\. ''t \. -.
According to the geolOgical condition of sire, taking averaged spectral acceleration as. a guide,
the spectral acceleration of each faults are drawn, An envelope, of all these spectra) acceleration

~-~:::~~:::::2~:?:;::,:.~::::o--, =:.._____ _
of various causative faults for a particular site, lS called acceleration spectrum of MCE. The
acceJer3tion spectrum corresponding to DBE is obtained by multiplying a fmerion less than
, equal to ha)f to the spectral acceleration of MeE. Figure 5.5 corresponds to the s.pectral accel-
, ! . ' ! eration for MCE of rocky site with earthquake parameters given in Table 5.1. The spectral
O.l I.l 2 2.5 3 acceleration for DBE is used for working stress design and that of MCE is used for ultimate
Period, SeC. design.
FIGURE 5.4 Average d($i~n spei':tra recommended by Mohraz fur 2% damping.

Sile condition
TABLE 5.3 Ground motion parameters (after Mohr"" (1976

(m/~)/g:
Larger horizontal
i-il-VA-:-g-':-I'-adIV',
!
v
mfs
I
=d
rom
via
(mJs)/g:
Vertical
I~-dl'-v'-=-rl-v--r--d-
,mfs - rnm
- - Recommended spectra
- - From Srinagar thrust
b -"-' From MBF (NB)
c --~ FromMCT
d - - - From MBF (8B)

-Ro-c-'k-'~"-"---- .l..c:.:O.::'6:'::86-"+1-6-.9-rO.=6':86-+-3=3=0:'.0-+"::O:::.:':7:::87-"+-7-.-6--+::':0.=7::'8'~14 8 0 '.0

Alluvium underlain by rock
<9mdeep
0.940: S.2
1
'0.940
I
467.0 0.940 8.S 0.940
1
76 S 0
Alluvium underlain by rock 0.838 I 5.6 ,0.838 401.0 0.838 9.1 0.838. 650.0 o
between 9-61 m deep " - 1
Allu~vj~um ~;_1._2_9S.J._4_.3_ .. .LI_1._2.:..95:...:...'_7-,-3_4-,-.0-1-_1._2_95-"-1 5 '0-.lJ.:.:~~..L856~~
i ')
...,~I:c----o-L,'_~.L!_ - '_ _ .L_ _LI_-,J~ ---:::7--:;'-;--,,'
__ 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.5
Period, sec
TABLE 5.4 Amplification factors (5% damping) for larger horizontal component (after FJGURE 5.5 Acceleration spectrum for MCE for 10% damping.
Mokraz (1976

SUe (:ontiiJion
SUMMARY

l
84.1
The seismic design parameters and ground motion characteristics are discussed in thIs chapter.
Rock Both deterministic and probabilistic approaches to determjne ground motion level are presented.
Various factors influencing the design ground motion parameters are discussed. Finally. the
Alluvium underlain by COnstruction of design spectrum needed for earthquake resistant design calculations is elaborated
rock < 9 m deep 2.53 3.30 1 33 209 260 3.38
at the end.
Alluvium underlain by
rock between 9-61 m deep 1.85 273 1.47 219 229 2.94
~_lu_vi~",- ~ ___ .__ L.._._.c2c.07._ _ _27~ __ ~~ 20~.~ 2 02., ~ ..~2_5~
.,ItM lEarthquake
.. .
Resistant Design oj StructU'I"CS
REFERENCES
II] Algermisen, ST and Perkins D,M., "A Technique for Seismic Zoning-General
Consideration and Parameter". In Proceedings of the intemGJional Conference of
Microzonation for Safer-Construction, Research and Application, VoL II, Pl', 865-878,
Seattle. Washington, 1972.
[2] Arnbraseys, N,N .. "The Correlation of Intensity witl1 Ground ?I.1otions'. In Advances
in Engineering Seismology in Europe, Trieste. 1974.
13] Bmu. S., "Statistical Analysis of Seismic Data and Seismic Risk Analysis of Indian
Peninsula", Ph.D thesis, Department of Civil Engineering, lIT Kanpur, India, 1977.
[4] Bolt, B,A. and Abrahamson, N,A., "New Atlenuation Relations for Peak and Expected
AcceleratiDns of Ground Motion", Bulletin of fhe Seismological Society oj America,
72(6): 2307-2321, 1982,
[5] Boore, D,M" Joyner, W.B" and Fumal, TE., "Equations for Estimating Horizontal
Response Spectra and Peak Acceleration for Western North American Earthquakes: A
Summary of Recent Work", Seismological Research Letlers, 68(1): 128-140. 1997.
[61 Burridge, R, and Knopoff, L. "Body Force Equivalents for Seismic Dislocation",
BulleTin o.fthe Seismological Society of America, 54; 1875-1888,1964.
[7] Campbell, K.W" "Empirical Near-source Attenuation Relationships for Horizontal and
Vertical Components of Peak Ground Acceleration, Peak Ground Velocity, and Pseudo-
absolute Acceleration Response Spectra", Seismological Research LeUers, 68(1): 154-
i79. 1997,
[81 Cornell, C.A .. "'Engineering Seismic Risk Analysis", Bulletin of lhe Seismological
Societv ~rAmerica, 58(5): 1583-1606, 1968.
[9] Esteva, L. "<Bases Para 13 Formulacion de Decisiones de Diseno Sismico", Technical
Report, Institute de Ingenieria, UNAM, Mexico, 1968.
110] Esteva, L and Villaverde, R, "Seismk Risk Design Spectra and Structural
Re1iahiiity'. In Proceedmgs of Fifth World Conferenc(; on Earthquake Engineering.
Rome, pp. 2586-2596, 1974.
Ill] Hanks, Te. and Kanamori, H., "A Moment ?I.1agnitude Scale", Journal of Geophysical
Research, 84(B5): 2348-2350. 1979.
[12] Housner, G,W .. "Calculating the Response of an Oscill.tor 10 Arbitrary Ground
Motion''. Bulletin afthe Seisnwlngical Snciety 0/ America, 31:143-149, 1941.
113] Housner, G,W" "Measures of Severity of Earthquake Ground Shaking", In Proceedings
Of 1/1(" US Natirmai Conference on 1:.arthquake Engineering, Etlflhquake Engineering
Research Institute. Ann Arbor, Michigan, pp. 25-33, 1975,
'14) IS-1R93, Indi<ln Standard Criteria for Earthquake Resislant Design of Structures~
Parr J: General Provi,>;irms and Buildings, Bureau of Indian Standards, 2002.
nS] }oyner', W,B. and Boore. D.M" "Peak Horizontal Acceleration and Velociry from
Strong-motion Records lncluding Records from the 1979 lmperial VaHey. California
Earthquake", Bulletill n,f the Seismni.rJgica/ Societ), of America, 71: 2011-2038. 1981.
I i ~1 tv'laruyama, T. "On the Force EqulvaJents of Dynamic Elastic Dislocations with
Reference to the Earthquake Mechanism", Bullr?tir1 of Earfhquake Rl'search Institute,
Tokyo t:l1ivcrsity, 41: 467~4R6, 1963,
c Chapter 5 Evah.Lation of SeiMnic De81.gn Panl1netC'l"S ) _ ..4
[17] McGuire, R.K.~ "Seismic Structural Response Risk Analysis, Incorporating Peak
Response Regressions on Eanhquake Magnitude and Distance", Technical Report
75-5 I, Department of Civil Engineering, MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1975,
[18] McGuire. R.K., '''Seismic Design Spectra and Mapping Procedures Using Hazard
Analysis Based Directly on Oscillator Response", Earthquake Engineering and
Structural Dynamics, 5: 211-234, 1977,
[19) Mohraz, B., "A Study of Earthquake Response Spectra for Different Geologie
Condition", Bulletin of lhe Seismolagical Society of America, 66: 915-932, 1976,
[20) Murphy, J,R. and O'Brien, L.J" "The Correlation of Peak Ground Acceleration
Amplirude with Seismic Intensity and Other Physical Parameters", Bulletin oj the
Seismological Society of America, 67(3): 877-915, 1977.
[21] NEHRP, "Recommended Provisions for Seismic Regulation for New Buildings and
Olher Structures", Technical Report, Building Safety Council for Federal Emergency
Management, Washington D.e., 1997,
[22] Newmark, N,M., Blume, I.A .. and Kapur, K.K. "Seismic De. . ign Spectra for Nuclear
Power Plants", Journal of Power Division. ASCE, 99(02): 873-889, 1973,
[23] Newmark, N.M. and Hall, W,J" "Earthquake Spectra and Design", Technical Report,
Earthquake Engineering Research Institute, Berkeley, California, 1982,
[24J Newmark, !\I.M. and Rosenblueth, E., "Fundamentais of Earthquake Engineering",
Prentice Hall, Inc" New Jersey, 1971,
[25] Richter. C.E. Elementary Seismology, W.H. Freeman and Co., San Francisco,
California, 1958,
[26) Seed, H.B, and Idriss, I.M" "Ground Motions and Soil Liquefaction during
Earthquakes", Technical Report, Earthquake Engineering Research Institute, Berkeley,
Californill, 1982.
(21) Seed, H.B" Ugas, C .. and Lysmer, J.. "Site Dependent Spectra for Earthquake-resistant
Design", Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 66: 221-243, 1976.
[28] Slemmons, D.B., "Determination of Design Earthquake Magmtudes for MlCrozo~
nation", in Proceedings of lrd international Earthquake MicrozolUltion Conference.
pp. 119-130, 1982, ,
[29) Tocher. D" "Earthquake Energy and Ground Breakage", Bulletin oflhe SeismologIcal
Society of America, 48(2): 147-153, 1958.
130] Trifunac, M.D, and Brady, A.G" "On Ihe Correlation of Seismic Intensity with Peaks
of Recorded Strong Motion''', Bulletin of the Sei$moiogicai Society of America. 65:
139-162, J975.
[31] Trifunac, M.D. and Brady, A.G" "A Study on the Duration of Strong Earthquake
Ground ?I.1otion", Bullelin of the Seismological Society ofAmerico, 65: 581-626, J975,
[32] Wells, D.L. and Coppersmith, KJ" "New Empirical RelationShips among Magnitude,
Rupture Length, Rupture Width, Rupture Area and Surface Displacement", Bulletin of
lhe Seismological Society of America, 84(4), 974-1(){)2, 1994,
Structural Dynamics
 Chapter 6

Initiation into Structural

Dynamics

6.1 INTRODUCTION
Any study of vibrations and related topics requires an under~1anding of the basic question-what
is vibration? Basically, vibration is an oscillatory motion of a particle or a body about a reference
position. Such motion may be simple harmonic (sinusoidal) or complex (non~sinusoidal), The
most strtking feature of any vibrating body is the effect of inenia which comes into play by
virtue of Newton's second law of motion, which states that the rate of change of momentum
of any body in motion is equal to the external forces acting on it, that is,

d (6.1)
F(t) = -(mv)
dt
where, F(t) is the external (time varying) force applied on the body, m denotes the mass
(a measute of inenia) of the body, and v represents the instantaneous velocity of the body.
Equation (6.1) describes the instantaneous equilibrium that exists between various forces acting
on the system, if we assume the time rate of change of momentum-which has the units of
force-to be a fictitious inertia force. Energy considerations often play an important role in
vibration problems, From the consideration of the principle of
conservation of energy, any vibrating system will, in general, have
three constituents: (i) a mechanism to store the Kinetic energy; (ii) a
mechanism for energy dissipation/Joss; and (iii) a mechanism to store
,
f '
J:
,, ,,

,,1" 8" \
,

r
the potential energy, responsible for the elastic restoring force in the
vibrating system. An example of the most elementary form of a ! \Img'ine
dynamical system, which every student of science is familiar with, is
a simple pendulum, shown in Figure 6.1. This simple system is a ~ >1,mgoose
classic demonstration of the energy conversions that take place in any
mg
I mg
dynamical system. once it is set into motion. Let us recapitulate some
of the basic aspects of the dynamics of this simple system. Tbe FIGURE 6.1 A simple
pendulum is set into motion by taking the bob to the extreme po~ition pendulum.
111
 ,..--" -------~----7C;::r.llpter 6 Initiation into Structural Dynamic.:

and then releasing it. When the bob is at the extreme position the potential energy of the system For example, let us consider the develop~ Negligible axial
is at its maximum while the kinetic energy is minimum. As the bob approaches the mean position deformation in beam
men! of a mathematical model for the lateral "' Heavy mass concennted
during its downward swing. the potential energy is gradually converted into the kinetic energy load analysis of a simple portal
frame shown in ~ r;:==~=:;;:r-_~.!!at!.!s~la'b level
of the bob so much so that at the mean position the kinetic energy is at its maximum with Figure 6.2. Since the mass of columns is very
, .
~, . _"'..-['
. . . . ~jgid jomts ....
potential energy being zero. This energy conversion goes on in every half cycle as long as these small in comparison with that of the slab, It 1S (00 relative
oscillations persist. The oscillations eventually subside due to frictional losses caused by the reasonable to assume that the entire mass of the rouHlon) NegligibJe mass of
resistance offered by the air to the motion of bob. l
portal is concentrated at the slab level. Fur- :----- the columns
hl:-:-iT-""":::':":
Having observed the physical phenomenon, it is then natural to enquire-is it possible to
develop a mathematical model for describing it? The answer is a resounding yes, In fact,
mathematical modelling is an integraJ part of the study of structural dynamics. The solution of
ther, we note that the axial rigidity of the beam
and slab is very large in comparison wit the
stiffness of columns in the lateral deforma~
h jmal
i / Negligible,
stretch X
in columns

the differential equation governing the mathematical model correspond to the observed physical
phenomenon. The governing differential equation, also known as the..equation of motion, is a
second order differemial equation in time. The most important (and many a time quite difficult
one) aspect of structural dynamics is the formulation of equation of motion, In general, the
guveruing equatiun of a vibrating system can be developed by adopting any of thc foHowlng
fi ve approaches:
L Newton's second jaw of motion,
2 Application of d' Alemben's principle.
3. Principle of vil1ual work,
4. Hamilton's principle, and
5. Lagrange's equation
Of these, the fust two approaches are based on the principies of vector mechanics, whereas
the latter two approaches are based On variational principles, The approaches based on vector
mechanics are physically intuitive but invariably become intractable in ca.o;;e of complex
configurations. On the other hand, the variational approaches depend on scalar work~like
quantities and can accommodate very complex systems without any djffieulty, However, the
valiationai approaches are more abstract and lack the physical intuitive appeal afforded by the
vector mechanics approaches. The principle of virtual work is an extension of the equilibrium
methods in the sense that it is a statement of no work being done by a system of forces, in
equilibrium, in movIng through 3. set of vmual displacements consistent with the geometric
constraints. For the purpose of introductory exposition to structural dynamics the methods based
on vector mechanics will suf1ke for estabHshjng the equation(s) of motion,
602 MATHEMATICAL MODELliNG
The study of HructuraJ dynamics involves deveJoping an insight into the dynamic behaviour of
lhe structural systems by investigating the behaviour of thelr models under the influence of
dynarnlr loads, such as blast. winds, eanhquakes, heavy rotating machinery, etc. The models
used in these jnves.tigalion~ can be either small-scale laboratory models for experimental studies,
or tan be, mathematical models for analytical studies, The development of an appropriate
mathema.tical model for a specific study requires an understanding of the basic phenomenon and
a clear idea of the basic mechanics,
tions. Thus it is a good approximation to as- .>;<;7:7
sume that the beam/slab is infinitely rigid and FIGURE 6.2 A simpl~ portal frame.
entire lateral deformation is due to the flexural ,
deformation!' in columns. Since) the change in length of the columns due to lateral deformatIOns
(assumed to be small) is nor very significant, it is a good firs[ order approximation to assume
that the axial stretch in the columns is negligible, Moreover, as the beams are ~sua1]y c.ast
monolithically with the columns, the joint can be assumed to ,be rigid a~ the, re:atlVe, rotatl~n
between beam and column at the joint win be negligible, With these slmphfymg kmematlc
constraints. the lateral displacement of the rigid beamlslab is the only possible ~ode. of defor
mation in the system. Smce the entire mass is concentrated at the slab level: the mernal effects
in the model can be completely determined from the knowledge of the mollon of the slab. The
model resulting from aU the above mentioned simplifying assumptions is known as the shear
building model. The origin of this nomenclaUlre is that the shear force is constant .acr~ss the
height of the column. It cannot be overemphasized here that the ~ode of deformatlon 10 c~l
umns is purely flexural" This also brings us to the concept. of dynam~c degrees affreedom. wh~ch
is defined as the total number of displacements (and rotatlons) reqUlred to completely detenmne
the inertial effects in a dynamical system. Accordingly, the
lateral deformation of the portal frame of Figure 6.2 under
the influence of a lateral load F(t) can be represented as the
response of a single-degree-of~freedom system shown in
Figure 6,3, This is a typical discrete spring-mass-dashpot
mechanical analog for the response of portal frame to lateral
FIGURE 6.3 Equivalent single
loads. The parameters of discrete model are related to the
dtgrte of fret'!dom system.
physical system (portal frame) as:
mass m is: the total mass of the beam and slab of the frame and serves as the storage
for kinetic energy,
spring of stiffness k represents the combined stiffness of two columns ~or lateral
defonnattons and stores the internal strain energy due to co1umn dcformatlOns, and
lA-:'ually it is also po1>,;,ible to aCCount for the massJinertla propertie& af the columns by adding on:-lhi.'c of the
tot-: ' f the columns and in-fill panels to the mass of the beam/slab, Thi:. "one-third" rule whIch .~ wldely
ill mas!'; 0 . ' 1 k' , 'valence
adopted in aU codes of practice for earthquake resistant design ha!l: jli, bailis in the lota tneH~ energy t m

1
criterion.
_ " _ L~~.~~hquak Resistant Design oj StNdti/res
dashpot with damping coefficient c represents the energy dissipation due to various
sources.,
thc excitalion F(t) is the lateral force F(t) applied on the portal frame.
Since the essential properties of the dynamital system have been segreBated into
independent, discrete elements, such a model is also known as a lumped parameter model as
against a distributed parameter model or continuous system wherein all the properties are
distributed continuously throughout. Though all physical systems are essentially distributed
parameter system, it is nevertheless possible to get a fairly good estimate of the response of a
continuous system by investigating lhe behaviour of a suitable lumped parameter model. We
shall see, jn the next chapter, how the dynamic behaviour of such a system can be described by
means of a second oroer linear differential equation with constant coefficients.
SUMMARY
This chapter provides a general introduction to the study of vibration problems, The process
of rransfonning a physical phenomenon into a mathematical modeJ suited for numerical
experimentation is described. This should enable a reader to put in proper perspective, the
detailed mathematical formulation of vibration problems in the following chapters.
REFERENCES
[IJ Clough, R.W. and Penzien. J . DYlUlmics of SlruclareS, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hili,
New York, 1993.
[21 Craig, R.R, Jr., Siructural Dynamics, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1981.
[31 Humar. J.L, Dynamics of Siruc/ures, Prentice Hall, Inc., 1990.
[4J Hurty, w.c. and Rubinstein, M.P., Dynamics of StruCfUI'r'S, Prentice-Hall of India.
New Delhi, J967.
[5] Warburton, G,B .. The Dynamical Behaviour of Slructures, 2nd ed., Pergamon Press,
1976.
Chapter 7
Dynamics of Single Degree
of Freedom Systems
7.1 INTRODUCTION
In the preceding chapter we have noted that from the considerations of conser/ation of energy
any vibrating system will. in general. have three constituents: (1) a mechanism to store the
kinetic energy, which is also responsible for the generation of inenia force~ (ii) a mechanism
for energy dissipationlloss; and (iii) a mechanism to store the potentiaJ energy. responsible for
the elastic restoring force in the vibrating system. In the simplest possible idealisation of a
vibrating system, these three mechanisms may be considered to be lumped into discrete elements
as shown In Figure 6.3. The massJinertia element(m) stores lhe kinetic energy. the spring
element (k) stores the potential energy, the dashpot (e) represents the viscous damper for
dis,ipationlloss of energy, and F(I) is an external time varying force. The system shown in
Figure 7.1 is a Single Degree of Freedom (SDOF) system because it is only required to monitor
a single quantity. viz., the movement of the mass (m). to completely describe the vibration of
the system. In generaJ the number of independent displacements required to define the displaced
positions of all the masses relative to their originaJ positlon is called the number of degrees of
freedom for vibration analysis. A single degree of freedom (SDOF) system is the simplest
possible mathematical model in structural dynamics.
FIGURE 7.1 Single degr<e of freedom system (SDOF),
The motion of the mass m is governed by Newton's second law of motion. In order to
derive the governing equation of motion, let us consider the various forces acting on the mass
m as shown in lhe accompanying Free Body Diagram (FBD). The forccsf, andfv represent the
115
_ , , _ { Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures ) Chapt;;.r 7 Dynamics of Single Degree of Freedom Systems _'M
elastic restoring force and the force developed in the damper, respectively, These forces, along the mass is then termed as the free vibration and is given by the solution of differential
with the externa1 force F(t) act on the mass (m), which then cause the change in momentum of equation
the mass in accordance with Newton's second law as,
mx +Cx +kx=O
~(mX) ~ F(t) - Is - Ie (7,1)
or,
'i + 2~"' .i: + "'~X (l (7.5)
dr
where. x(t) denotes the displacement of mass m from its original position of rest For the specjal . . d fi ed bv ",' - kim and r is defined by t;; clecr with c,,; 2m",. = 2k1m ~ 2Jkffl.
where,l.t\,!s em ,- ., ct' dJ' risa
case of civil engineering structures, the mass of the system does not change with time, and there~ . alled the undamped circular natural frequency, measure In ra s, ~
The constant run IS C . 11 d th ,. I d ping
fore, the rate of change of momentum can be considered to have the same effect as that of dimensionless uantity caned the viscous damping factor; and CO IS ea e e cnUca am
applying afictitious inertia force fj directed opposite to the direction of motion for considering coeffi~ient. Th~ parameters I.t\, and (; play important roles in determining the response of SDOF
the instantaneous equilibrium of forces acting on the mass. This simplified interpretation of
systems l' . h f
Newton's second law of motion (valid only when the mass of the system is time invariant) is I~ 'order to detelmine the solution of Equation (7 .5), l~l liS assume a ,so unon m.t e ?r~
popularly known as the d' AI.mbert's principle. xU) = xi'. Substituting this assumed solution in the govemmg equation YIelds a charactcnsttc
(7.2) equation
(7.6)
Thus the inertia forcefj = mx
(mass x acceleration), spring force Is kx (spring constant
X spring deformation) and damping force ID :: eX (coefficient of viscous damping X relative
velocity between the two ends of the dashpot).' By substituting these relations in Equation (7.2), which has the roots at
we get. (7,7)
mx + eX + kx = F(t) (7.3)
The magnitude of the damping factor (0 can be used to distinguish ~hree cas~s: under-
Equation (7.3) is a linear second order differential equation with constant parameters, The da d (0 < r < 1) criticallv damped (~= 1), and overdamped (~> l). F,gure 7.2 Illustrates
general solution for this equation is given by,
the;;':onse f~r thc:e three c~ses. For the underdamped case the rnotio~ is ~sclllatory m ~tu!t"!
(7.4) with ~Pdeca ing amplitude. For the overdarnped ca:e there ,is n.o oscdlatJon, an? amph:ude
decays slowiy. For the critically damped system there 1S no oscllIatlOn, and the amphtude de...ays
where, Xh(t) is the solution of the corresponding homogeneous equation obtained by making the
right hand side zero; and xp(t) is the particular solution which depends on the specific form of more rapidly than in either the underdamped or overdarnped cases.
applied force F(t). The homogeneous solution of this second order differential equation contains 1.2 ~---~--~ ... Undcrdampe<l - -
two arbitrary constants which can be evaluated by using the initial conditions x(0) and (0), x }.O Critically damped -----
i.c.~ the displacement and velocity of the mass at the onset of vibration. _.2'{~d~f~d. - - ::_'-
~S .
J
7.2 FREE VIBRATION OF' VISCOUS-DAMPED
SDOF SYSTEMS
~~ ~~t-..
02
1
7i
For a particuJar case when there is no external force acting on the system. it is still possible Q
00
..()2
f
to make the mass vibrate by giving some arbitrary initial conditions. The ensuing motion of

IThb. is only a convenient maihcmatiul model for the energy dissipation mechani~m in II- vibrating system and i~
actually an e'Xpro:>~~.~i('ln of the viscous drag in a laminat Dow. In real strllctural systems, energy dissipation actually
-0.6L
-0.4,' .

..{l.S
0.0
-'
0.5 ].0 1.5
~~ )'I\~ce \!\ OlHerenl -ways and the mo~t important of them is the energy loss due to inter granular friction
Tunc (s)
between the p.3rticles of a vibrating system. However. incorporating a dry friction damping behaviour would
result in a nonlinear equation of motion. Since the magnilude of damping force iJ; generally very small in FIGURE 7.2 Response (lof single degree of freedom sysf"ms.
comparison to the other force$ acting on the system, a viscous damping model (leading to a linear equationD
serves well to get a iiluonal estimate of system response for engineering design.
 ( Chllpter "! Dynamicl'l ,of Single Degree of Preedom Systems) .'p_
7.2.1 Underdamped Case (' < 1) where, (j}'" = (t)nJS-2 -1 and the coefficients Al andA 2are determined from the initial conditions
For S< 1, it is convenient to write Equation (7,7) in the form Xo and xo'
The trend is similar to that for the critically damped systems except that the system
returns to the zero-position more slowly.
A1.2 -(OJ" i()).~12 - (
= -'14. i{f). (1.8) Practical ntility of free vibration analysis
where ffidis known as the damped circular naturaljrequency. Using E\ller's formula, the general Although the preceding discussion has been fairly mathematical in nature. the basic concepts
solution, x(J). can be written in the form, presented there in have immense practical utility. A point in the ease is the experimental
determination of dynamic characteristics (i.e" natural frequency and damping) of real
(7.9) structures. The dynamic parameters, so estimated~ can serve as a valuable check for validating
The coefficients AI and A., are determined from the initial conditions x(t = 0) = Xo and i (t = 0) the mathematical model of the structure and verify some of the modelling assumptions. Figure
r r: and the ~ojution is then glven by 7.3 shows a comparison between the free vibration response recorded during an actual test and
that for a mathematical model using viscous damping model for the same set of parameters, Note
the Similarity in the general trend of response even though the two curves differ in detail. The
xU) (
'-{{I1~;l'- - ,<; "(io + ~ m"x(l \.
, "'0 cO'(Ud l 'i ,-"'W ~)smmdtJ
-:
(7.10) response from the viscously damped model is a simplified representation of actual behaviour
d which is a combined effect of several different energy loss mechanisms simultaneously at work.
Although the value of , has an effect on the frequency rod. the most pronounced effect of 1.0r--~-~----~-"'" 1.0
damping h on If.Jc rate at which tht: motion dies out, that is. on the e-(wnt tenn. 0.8 j=2.58 Hz 0.8 j=2.S8 Hz
~ 0.6 '=2.85%
Q

"" 0.6 s= 2.81%

fl

~I
7.2.2 Critic.ally-damped Case (' = 1) "S. 0.4 15. 0.4
0,2 E 0.2

'*
Q
=
When' I, the Equation (7.7) gives only one solution as A = -()). The response for the case 0.0
."
Q 0.0
of repeated rOots is then given by " -0.2 ] -0.2
~ ~
E -0.4' E -0.4

~
xU) = e-w'(A, + A,I) (7.11) i. -0.6 :i -0.6
-0.8 -0.8
where, Al and A2 are determined from the initial conditions.to and io' The solution in terms -1.0 "'.--~-~~-~ .. -1.0 , 1
of the initial conditions can be derived as, 0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 to.O 0 2 4 6 8 to
Time (5) Time (s)
x(1) = e~' [x,,(1 + ()).tl + i,t] (7.12) (aJ (b)
FIGURE 7.3 Free vibration response (a) from field test data, and (b} theo~tical curve for
The free~vibration response of a criticaHy damped sys.tem does nO[ involve oscillations about
visoously damped system.
the zero~displacem~nt position, instead the system returns to zero-displacement position
as,ymplotlcally by vIrtue of the decayed exponential term of Equation (7.12). However, there The determination of (damped) natural frequency foHows from its definition and is
:,:iI, be prec~selY one crossing of the zero~dispJacement position jf the initial displacement and estimated by determining the number of cycles completed in the vibration record per Untt time.
mllJ(l:1 ve]ocllY were of opposite sign!:,
The determination of damping from free vibration records, unfortunately, is not so stra;ght-
forward. However, the procedure does simplify a lot, if we decide Lo ascribe energy loss to only
7.2.3 aucrdamped Case ((; > j) one damping mechanism. For example, assuming viscous damping behaviour the equivalent
f-:';,r ,,,> ; thr Equl:Ition C!.7} give:; twu distincl, negative real roolS, The solution j~ then given viscous damping parameler may be el'llmated by using the method of logarithmic- decrement Let
b).
us consider any two positive peaks An and x/H-! which occur at times n( 2") and (n + 1) 21t
(J) d (fJd

re;.;pectively. The ratio of these two amplitudes is given by using Equation (7.10)

(7.13)
(7.14)
 ( Chapkr '1 Dynamics of Single Degree of fuedom Systems) M@_
equation will be harmonic of the same frequency as that of the excitation albeit with a phase
By taking tbe natural logarithm of botb sides and substituting for (J)", we get,
lag. Thus the particular solution (or, steadystate response) is given by,

/! In..:':L;~ (7.15) xii) = X sin (l)/ - .;) (7.17)

X,+! JI-t;' where, X is the steady-state amplitude and q, is the phase angle of the steadystate response
where. 6 js knO\l/n as the logarithmic decrement. In practice it is more convenient to measure relative to [he excitation, The determination of these two parameters of the steady-state response
the peaktotrougb amplitudes instead of peaks or troughs due to the absence of zero baseline is facilitated by the use of rotating vectors as shown in Figure 7.4. It can be readily established
in the experimental records. It can be shown that the same result for logarithmic decrement from the Figure 7.4 that
1m
(as in Equation (7.15)) also holds fur peakto-trougb amplitudes. Further, in the case oflightly
damped systems. it might be more convenient to measure amplitudes which spaced a few
F1 = (kX - armX/ + (<OCX)', and (7.18)

cycles (say, m) apart. It can be shown that in this case the equation for logarithmic decrement (J)C (7.19)
changes to tan';= 1
k (J) m

This can be rewritten as,

(7,20)
which is c?Jllmonly used in practice,

Real
(7.21)
7.3 FORCED VIBRATIONS OF SDOF SYSTEMS FIGURE 7.4 Force polygon.

The dynamical systems may be set into motion by several types of excltations. These forcing
functions may either be harmonic or non-harmonic, periodic or aperiodic, etc. Further. the
response may also differ on account of the duration of exposure to the applied e.xcitation. The
nature of the response of a SDOP system to harmonic excitation is significantly different from
that for a finite duration excitation, We shall begin with the response of SnOF systems excited
by harmonic excitations, which has great practical significance since any periodic function can
be decomposed into a sum of harmonic functions by using Fourier series2 The results of this
section have an important bearing on the design of vibration recording instruments, industrial
vibration isolators. and shock absorbers.
where, X,,; Folk is the static deflection if the force Fo was applied statically, 1); roIm,. is known
as the tuning ratio and S is the damping ratio defined earlier. The steadystate magmficatlOn
factor D, and the phase angle'; are plotted in Figure 7.5. From Equations (7.17) to (7.21) and
Figure 7.5 the following significant features of steady-state response can be observed:
(i) the motion described by Equation (7.17) is harmonic and is of the same frequency as
the excitation.

7,3.1 Response of SOOF Systems to Harmonic ExcittItions .

The governing differential equation for a SDOF system as shown in Figure 2.1 with F(t) ;
Fa sin au is given by,
mj +ci +kx=Fosin (1)1 (7.16)

Let us assume the initiaJ conditions given as XfI and xo. Moreover. the particular solution of thjs
0.94 '--_L_.l~~..... -~~~,~
(I 0.2 0.4 0.6 0,8
lCnde,' a fairly gene;"J sel of condilinn~. :my periodic ftmction fU) can he expre",,~rl :1.'>: Frequency ratio (11) Frequency ratio (11)
,=0.00- l;= 0,50 ----
~, 0.00- s=0.60 0.65
/(1) =. (10 + LlUj c().~ ("=0.10 s= 0,75 - -"- 0.70 . S=1.00- .
j""l
FlGURE 7.5 Magnificatiun and phase of response of SDOF system to different adtation
where T is the period 'Jf tV), N)( more details consult any lexl on Applied Mathematic);, suen as, E, Kreyszig,
Advanced Entinl:'f'rinx Mothematir~, Wiley lnlerscience,
frequencies.
 (ij)
( Earthquake ~e$utant Design oj StM.lctures

The ampli~ud~ of the steady-state response is a function of the amplitude and frequency
of the eXcitatIOn as well as that of the natural frequency and damping factor of the
)
( Chapf.~r If Dynamics oj Single Degnre oj me-dom Syste"m8)

The above equation resembles the equation of motion for forced vibration for 0 :$ t T and
-u-
system. The sleady-state magnificatjon factor can be considerably greater than unity or describes the free vibrations of SDOF oscillator for I > T. Accordingly, tbe response of the
Jess than unity. SDOF system can be considered in two phases:
(,',,',') The steady,slate response xp(l) X sin (WI - ) and the excitation F(t) = F sin!JJt 0) response during 0 $ t $ T, the forced-vibration era, which comprises a homogeneous
'h
are not In p ase, th
at 'IS, they do not attain their maximum values at the Same0 instant. solution and a particular solution:
The response lags the excitation by a phase angle ' This corresponds to a time lag of
lw, X(I) ~ xh(l) + xp(t); 0 ,. I ,; T
(iv) At resonance, l) = 1. the amplitude is limited only by Ihe damping force, and CD,)".,
== 112<:'. Also, at resonance the response lags ex.citation by 901>. ::; e-{Wnf [Al cos CtJdt + A2 sin {Od1] + ~o

~e ~otal response .of the SD?F system can be given by superimposing the homogeneous -'w 1 [( Fo) Xo + sw.(xo
S~hutl~n (JJ] the partIcular soJutlOn (xU) :::: Xh(t) + xp(t)). The homogeneous solution is the free =e'" ft lXo -I;: COS{Odt+~ ....----- Wd
VIbratIon ~o]utjon ~s deri:ved earlier. The unknown parameters in the homogeneous solution can
be determmed by Imposmg the initial conditions on the total response solution of the SDOF where Xo and Xo are the initial displacement and initial velocity of the oscillator mass at t = 0,
system. S,jn~e Lhe homogeneous part of the solution gradually decays with time-in a damped and
l>ystem-Jt IS referred to as starting transient. (li) free vibration response subsequent to the removal of the applied external force:

7,3.2 Excitation by Base Motion x(1-1) c,,'w.,,n c4, cos aMI -1) + A, sin {J)d(1 -1)J; I > T
leI us now co~sld.er the ~ituation when the extemal force acting on the mass is F(f) = O. Instead
the support p~mt IS ~OVl~g as xii) ,= Xg sin (i){, Let xm{t) denote the absolute displacement of
the mas~ reJatlve to as ongmal posItion of rest and x(t) be the motion of the mass relative to
where, XT and XT denote the displacement and velocity at the end of forced vibration era, at
th~ mOVing base, t'.e. x,,lt) = x(t) ... x;.;(l). The equation of motion for this system can now be
wntten as, . I T
The eff""t of tbe duration of application of excitation pulse on the response of a SDOF
m i + c( X m X It) + k(xm - xA') 0 (7,22) oscillator lS shown in Figure 7.7. wherein the dynamic response has been normalized by the
Thil> equation ..:an be rewritten as,
static response Folk, Four pulses of duration T = [O.2ST" O,5T 2T., 4T.l (where T. = natural
period of the oscillator-assumed to be 0.1 5 for numerical study) have been considered. It is
worthwhile studying these plots in some detail, The following points emerge (with respect to
mx + eX + kx -mx, (7,23)
the finite duration rectangular pulse):
This equation is now completely analogous to the standard equation of the motion of a SDOF
system and can be solved for the relative displacement response l;ly the standard procedures. (i) The response of oscillator to a pulse of very shon duration (with respect to the natural
period) closely resembles the free vibration response of oscillator due to non-zero
initial velocity.
7.3.3 Response of SOOF Systems to a Finire Duration
(li) The time of occurrence of the maximum oscillator response-for the pulse width
Excitation
T'$ O.STtl' the maximum response occurs in the free~vibration phase after the excitation
Let us now cOTIsJder the rel>ponse of a SDOF has ceased to act on the oscillator, It is. therefore, prudent while studying the dynamic
!'lystem subjected to a rectangular pU]i>e of 1'(1)
response of a structunU system to finite duration excitations to compute the response
finite duration. T, as !>hown in Figure 7,6. The beyond the duration of excitation for a few cycles. This is particularly important for
governjng equation of motion for thlS sy<'tem lightly damped systems,
j<: given hy , (iii) When the pulse duration is relatively large (T> O.5TJ, the response during the forced
vibration era oscillates about the static response (unit normalized response), and the
1(5) free vibration response oscillates aboul the zero-level. This shift of mean position
(,).24 ) FlGURE 7.6 SDOF system excited by occurs instantaneously after the excitation ceases to ex.ist.
finite duration rel'tanguiar pulse.
These observations can be used to derive analytical procedure~ for computing dynamic response
of osclllators for arbitrary loadings as discus~ed in the foJJowing.
 .U. (Earthquake Resjstant Design 01 Stf'UctuJ"es

7.3.5 Response of SDOF Systems to General

- 2.0~ I ,
I I 2.0
5 I
TITn -Q25 - l1T.-0.50 _
Dynamic Excitation
J:
1.5- ,
I . '--c" 5 .~.-\----
E : , ,I

! ~:~'-.1-~~mI
"g tlO ~_, - - __ _
I ~
:a
o. 5
0, 0 1\ /\ f\ VOvA
, A general method for eValuating the response of SDOF systems to an arbitrary form of the
excitation can be derived on the basis of unit impulse response function developed earlier.
The method is based on the principle of superposition and hence is strictly valid for linear
~ -05 ,MM-'- I"

.
'll
.~ -0. 5
E-1. 01 ...
V
V
t-_
systems only. Let us consider a SDOF system subjected to some arbitrary forcing function F{t).
This arbitrary excitation can be considered to be a

-2~:O;-;;'.,--;::~-f:---;:':--:-
0.2 OA 0.6 O.S 1.0
~ -I-
:r
-2~.0
-- ----.

0.2 0.4 0.6

I
0.8 l.0
sequence of pulses of infinitesimal duration dr and
magnitude equal to the amplitude of the forcing
Time (s) TIme (s)
function F(t = r) as shown in Figure 7.8. The
response of the system to an impuise dJ """ F('f)dr js
oA 2.0 ;-:----,----;;;)0::--'7'::1:---
5 I \ /'
\vI
nT.~2.( ) -

)
{ 0.5
--~r-4Of
1fEQ-
--, ___ I
denoted by dx(t) and is given by.

(7.26)
Time
A /\
~ 0.0 I ~!-I\7""'"
r-tJ,\J IV- - j ... _ j -
. . .-1-. , . !---i
~i
~-<l.5C-I--
;;
I

I
E'LO I ---:----+--+-
..

-- -----. The totall'esponse at time I wiH be the sum of the

response due to all incrementa) impulses occurring
FIGI:RE 7.8 Arbitrary forcing function
as a series of impulses.

+-+--.
,I
.......ii ~ -1.5 -:- - ' - prior to time 1. Therefore.

0.2 -2.0.';;',----;;,;,----}-:----}-:-----+-::--:-
0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0.0 0.2 OA 0.6 O.g 1.0 xlt) = [' F(T)e-t;"nU,,') sin ill (t - T)dr (7.27)
Time (5) Time (s) mCO
d
Jo 'd
FIGURE 7.7 Effect of finite duration of excitation on respo~ of SDDF system (Til = 0.1 s, and This integral is known as Duhamel integraJ and can be used to compute the response of SDOF
~ ~ 0.05).
system to any arbitrary excitation. This equation can also be written as

7.3.4 Response of SDOF Systems to a Short Duration (7.28)

Impulse
~t us co~sider a SDOF system, initially at rest, that is excited by an impulse of magnitude L
Smce ~e Impulse acts on the system for a very small time, it can only effect an instantaneous
ehange m the, momentum of the mass without altering its position. Therefore the mass" jnitially
at rest, expenences a change in velocity but the instantaneous displacement remains zero. The
velocity imparted to the mass by the impulse 1 is given by io :;;: 11m from the conservation of
~~~entum principle, Thus the mass will start free-vibration after the removal of impulse with
lnltlal. velocity as *0 == 11m and initial displacement Xo = O. When the applied impulse is of unit
mag~1tu~e, the resulting free vibration solution is known as the unit impulse response function
and \s glven by,
h(J)
The J~~ponse due to an impulse is closely approximated by response to short duration pulse as
se.en In the first plot of Figure 7.7 for T = 0.25111 , Thjs useful approximation can be clubbed
wHh the principle of superpo!;itjon to develop a versatile analytical procedure.
and in this form it is commonly referred to as the convolution integral. It may be noted that the
effect of non~zero initial conditions has not been considered in the response. The free-vibration
response due to non-zero initial conditions should be superposed with the forced vibration
response computed by using Duhamel integral to get the complete response. Since the forCing
functions are usually available as tabulated values for different time instants, the Equation
(7.27) needs to be evaluated numerically by replacing. the continuous integral by a finlte
summation with a uniform pulse width (step size) At approximating the infinhe.simal dr: As the
above formulation is based on the superposition of impulse response functions, it is necessary
to ensure that the pulse dUf"dtion At used in actual evaluation of the response is indeed small
enough to closely resemble this assumed behaviour, l'vforeover, 111 shou~d also be small enough
to assume the forr.e amplitude to be constant within the intervaL The effect of magnitude of
8r on the computed response is shown in Figure 7.9. These plots represent the response of a
(7.25) SDOF osciilator excited by " rectangular pulse of width T ~ 4T, compuled analytically. and
numericaHy by using Duhamel integral (convolution integra)} for different values of AI. It can
be seen that for a large At the numerically computed response is a poor approximation for the
analytical solution. especiaUy in the free vibration era. Further. for any finite choice of 8t, the
numerically evaluBted response always Jags behind the trut! (~malytical) response and the amount
 Mag. r&r:C..~"hC"q.".'Ckc-'-R~w-c-$t;-a-n7t-;D~'-$"'ign"--o-;f-'S;;:t-ruc-:t-.,..-.--------------j c- Cha.pter 1 Dynamic8 oj Sing1e Degree oj Freedom Systems) -M
where the two terms respectively represent [he force developed in spring and dashpot. It can be
1.5 seen from Figure 7.4 that these two force. are out of phase by 90. Thus the amplitude of the
liE 1.0 total harmonic force transmitted to the support is,
0
0
-'l R_ = X (Ii' + ol,f)'12
"~
~

..~
""
.~
0.0
~.5
r-
. _..- j _.+'~I-~C+_
_ F,
-
[1 + (ZS'1l2]liZ
0 [0-1)2)' + (2(I)/J'12
(7.30)
i
-1.0 .----; where 11 and ,respectively denote the tuning ratio and the damping ratio of the mounting
Z
-1.5 system,
Let us define transmissibility ratio (TR) as the ratio of the amplitude of the force
2.0
00 0.2 04 0.6
transmitted to the support to rhe amplitude of the applied hannonic force,
0.& 1.0
TIme (s) R~
TR=-
FIGURE 7.1} Effed of step size on numerical evaluation of Dubamel i.ntegral. F"
of Jag is proportional to the choice of AI. It can, therefore, he concluded that 61 :> 0.1 T, for
reasonable accuracy in the computed response. (7.31)
The formulaljon for numerical evaluation of Duhamel integral is discussed in a later
chapter on the numerieal evaluation of dynamic response. whict, is shown in Figure 7.11 for a tllllge of damping and tuning parameters. It may he noted
from this figure that the TR curves for all damping ratios inte"""'t at I) = ..fi for TR = 1.0.
Further~ following inferences can be drawn from these plots:
7.4 VIBRATION ISOLATION
(i) For T] < ..fi. the amplitude of the transmitted foreds always greater than the amplitude
Several industrial units have machines with reciprocating of imposed harmonic force and adding more damping to the mounting system
parts installed at various places in the structure. These contributes to the reduction in amplitude of the transmitted force.
machine installations should be carefully pJanned and proper
(ii) Fon..fi. the amplitude of the transmitted force is always smaller than the amplitude
mountings should be designed lest these machine vibrations
of imposed harmonic foree. Further. adding more damping to the isolator system is not
shoutd transfer to other parts of the structure and interfere
beneficial for vibration isolation.
with the daily operations. Let us consider the schematic
representation of a SDOF system shown in Figure 7.10, R(t) ~ kt(I) - cx{l)
where the mass now represents the vibrating machine" the ,=0.02 - -
force F(t) := Po sln mt represents the harmonie force generated FIGURE 7.10 TraIL,mission of ,'0.05 ....
vibrations fTom reciprocating ,,0.tO ..........
during its operation. and spring and dashpol denote the
machines. (= 0.20-_-
properties of the mouming system to be designed such that
'=0.40 - - -
the force fransmitted to the base (reaction) is kept under some specified limit. {,~- 0,80 -
The concepts developed in the study of response of SooF system to harmonic excitations
are uyed for designing the vibration isolators. Since the machines typically operate for long
durations ar a certain frequency, the starting transients can be neglected. The disp~acement, xU),
ef machine c::m be given by Equ<ltions 7.}7 to 7_21. The total force transmitted to the support
i<; f;iven hy (assuming that the sUpporting system if; rigid enough not to deform significanrJy due
to these transmineJ forces):
- ....~~~~
2 3 4 '5
Tuning ratiQ (11)
R(t) = kx(t) + cx(t)
FIGURE 7.n Vibration transmissibility ratio.
~ kX 'in(J)[ - I/>l + cruX cos(llJI -1/ (7.29)
 It might appear that one should always aim for a flexible isolator/mounting pads (11 > J'i)
with very small damping so that the amplitude of the force transmitted to the support can have
minimum isolation problem~ However, such an isolator would Jead to excessive displacement
of the ~chine frame itself. Therefore it is often preferred to have stiff isolators/mounting pads
j
(11 ~ ~2) ,so that the machine frame itself does not vibrate so as to hinder it." operation. For
deslgnmg lsolator to operate in this range~ adding more damping to the system improves the
performance of vibration isolators.
SUMMARY
The behaviour of the most elementary form of a dynamical system is described. The basic
concepts of vibration analysis are presented with reference to this elementary system. Different
aspects of the vihration prohlem are introduced such as, free vibration, forced vibration
harmonic and transient excitation, vibration isolation, etc. This background paves the way r;
assimilation of concepts from dynamics of more complex systems. -
REFERENCES
[1] Clough, R.W, and Penzien, J" Dynamics of Structures, 2nd ed" McGraw-Hill.
New York, 1993,
[2] Craig, R.R., Jr" Structural Dynamics, John Wiley & Sons. New York, 1981.
[3J Humar, J.L, Dynamics of Structures, Prentice Hall, Ine" 1990,
[4] Thomson, WT" Theory of Vibration, 3"d ed" CBS Publishers, New Delhi, 1988,
Chapter 8
Theory of Seismic Pickups
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Often, 'Nmall insignificant vibrations can excite the resonant frequencies of some structural parts
and be amplified into major vibration/noise sources. Vibrations may also have adverse effects
on human beings. The primary effects are task~performance interference. motion sickness.
breathing and speech disturbanee, and a hand-tool disease known as white-finger. in which
nerves in the fingers are permanemJy damaged, reSUlting in the Joss of touch sensitiVIty. It is
always desirable to minimise the hannful effects of vibration through a suitable engineering
design of products and systems. A fundamental requirement in all such vibration related
problems is the aVailability of the charaeteristics of the expected vibrations. These vibration
characteristics are derived from the analysis of the records obtained from various vibration
measuring devices, known as seismic pickups or transducers.
8.2 THE PHYSICS OF OPERATION
A typical vibration measuring unit comprises of a mass supported by a spring and dashpot as
shown in Figure 8.1. The inenia of the seismic mass causes it to lag behind the motion of the
casing when the casing is subjected to some vibration, eausing a deformation of the spring, By
proper selection of mass, spring and dashpot, the relative motion measurement between mass
and housing can be made proportional to either displacement. velocity or, the acceleration of
the base with the help of an appropriate transducer. The equation of motion of such a system
li'IGlIRE 8.1 Schematic diagram of a seismic, pickup.
129
_ . , . (Earthip.t.W;,e Resistant Design of Structures

4.0
is given as.
3.5
mE + e(i - x) + k(z - x) = 0 (S.l) 3.0
where, z is the absolute displacement of mass m, x is the displacement of housing~ c is the 2S
damping coefficient of dashpot, k is the stiffness of tile spring and a (") represents differentiation ~
>; 2.0
with respect to time. Defining the displacement of seismic mass relative to the base as y(t) ;;; 1.5
z(t} - xU). and rearranging the terms in the above equation.
1.0
(8.2) 05
0.0
where, , and ill" represent the critical damping ratio and natural frequency of the osciHator. 0 2 3 4
Transforming the lime domain equation of motion as given by Equation (8.2) to the frequency Frequency ratio (11)
domain, 1;" 0.00- 1;,0.25 ---- S" 050
1;" 0.70 .. , .. ,"1.00---
FIGURE 8,2 Amplitude and pbase of the transfer function of transducer.
y (w) = X(w)-,-~.:::.a._- (8.3)

8.3 WHICH PARAMETER TO MEASURE?

where, Y (w) denotes 'he Fourier transform of the relative displacement yet) of the mass and
If the amplitudes of displacement, velocity and acceleration of 3. certain vibration r~cords are
X( w) represents 'he Fourier transform of the base displacement x(I). The amplitude and phase
measured for the base motion of various frequencies, the resultmg graphs of amplItudes vIs
transfer function of the oscilJator relating the relative displacement to the base displacement are
frequency are known as the vibration spectra and the shapes .of these curves are :eferred to as
given as.
spectral shapes (see Figure 8.3). It is possible to make a good Judgement about whIch parameter
to measure on the basis of these graphs, In particular, it is advantageous to select that p~m~ter
2
w (displacement. velocity or acceleration) for the measurement which has the flattest VIbratIOn
. -,
I,!:1~L ~....... m~
J'] (8.4)
i := 1/2 ;

: X(cu) , [( w' ')2 ( w

1-~ I +: 2'-~
w;' / < COf!

and (8,5)

Velocity (v)

Thc variation of the~e fUllctiom with respect to the ratio of the frequency of the base " '-,
Displacement (d)
mOfion io l11e narurR] f,eqnency of [he oscillator, also known as the tunjng ratio 1] r= ~ \
",
ill'
-
fl\r v;l;'iolJ~ "a:ucs of lhe osciHulOr damping as shown in Figure 8.2. The parameters of the Frequent:y
osc!lator a;'c :-:cjeC'!ed depending On the quantity to be recorded and the uRable range of
FIGURE 8..3 'fYpicaI vibration ~ctra.
frequencic!;.
 '---""""".'~_____ """___ ~"_"".. ---oC"h~,p-:t::"::-;8'T;;;h~e:;:.::ry;:-;o;;t-S;,;:e;;i;sm;;;
....~ic;p;Pi~kv.ps) - _
eM ( Earthquake Re.tii$tani Design nl Sif"tl.ctu1"f!$ ) \..--- ~-~~- .. --.-
. -motive force e.mJ, is proportional to the rate of intersection of the ~agnetic
spectrum. in the frequency-range of interest, in order to best utilise the dynamic range the mdured el<Ctro I . propcrtional to the velocity of Lbe vibrating body. FIgure 8.4
(the difference between the smallest and the largest values that can be measured) by the Ii ld the generated vo tage is . I' f a
e , . f typical velocity pickUp. The seismic mass conSIst'> mam) ~

'~~d c:~:~~~t1;~:~:~i;~:'S ~:::r:h:n!~~~. ~:~~i;i'~~o; ~~:":~: :~: ~~X~l:

instrumentation.
Depending on the operating range of frequencies, the seismic-mass transducers may be ::1
classified as (i) seismometers and (ii) accelerometers, The difference in operation of these two diaphragms together: w . d 'eal ~a net-the magnetic field acting radially across the Sl.OL
basic types of seismic pickups is described in detail. narrow, annular slot In a cyldtn n f gtaI so that eddY currents are generated in it to proVide
The coll former may be rna e up 0 me. .. ~
eddy current damping.
8.4 SEISMOMETERS
Seismometers are the instruments with very low natural frequency in comparison to the
frequency of the vibratjons to be measured so that the ratio fJiWn. becomes very large. It may
be noted from Figure 7.5, that as the frequency of the oscillator decreases, the relative
displacement Y (w) of the oscillator mass approaches the base displacement X(w) irrespective
Sensing axis
of the value of damping. Thus me oscillator mass remains stationary while the ca.t)Ing of the
instrument moves with the vibrating body. Due to the requirement of very low natura} r-~~--;-- Diaphfa~f)
frequency, the seismometers are often of a very large size. Moreover, the dimensions of a acts as $pnng
seismometer unit are also governed by the peak to peak maximum displacement of the vibrating
Coil
body which wiH be same as the maximum displacement of !:he vibrating base. Seismometers
with an arrangement to store the vibrations measured by the seismometer on some kind of a
storage device are known as seismographs. The seismometers can be designed to work as either
displacement pickups. or velocity pickups. 1-.......,.- Coil former
Magncl assembly
8.4.1 Displacement Pickups
These are used to pickup the vibration of a body when there is no fixed reference point available.
e.g. in determIning the movement of the chassis of a vehicle. It is, therefore, required that the
seismic mass should beht'!ve (as far as po~sible) as though it was fixed in space. This can be
Mass, consisting of rod,
achieved by having a very heavy seismic mass attached to an extremely flexible spring which nuts. wasbers. coil former,
results in a system with a very Jow natural frequency (I)". For frequencies of vibration weH above coil and central region
the natural frequency of the pickup the displacement of the seismic mass relative to the casing of diaphragm
is practically same as the the displacement of the casing but with the phase difference of 180" 1. . IGURE 8.4 Schematic diagram of a velocity pickUp.
as shown in Figure 7.5. This means that as the casjng moves in one direction, the seismic mass
moves in the opposite dircction, The relative motion of the seismic-mass may either be , h' o-hl sensitive Instruments and can pickup very small
amplified optically to record the displacement trace on a photographic filmlsmoke paper, or be . ?eneraUy~ seIsmometers ~e h 10ns~ti~itY of these instruments make them unsuitable for
VIbrations. IroTIlcalJy, however. 19. se arth k haking Most of these instruments
converted to a proportional voltage signal by using a potentiometer. recording the ground vibrations durmg a strong e qua e s. '. h t
cannot accommodate the large ground displacements occurrmg durmg sue even s.
8.4.2 Velocity Pickups
A velocity pickup is designed like a displacement pickup~ to have a low value of wn and to 8.S ACCELEROMETERS
()jleTale at angular frequencies well above w. so that the motion of lbe seismic mass is virtually
" , to have a very low value of ~l it can be used as either
the same al' that of the casing but opposite in phase. The transducer is generaHy a coil of wire We have seen that by de~lgmng the pickup I " 'we must 00 to the other extreme.
canied by the seismic mass which IS suspended in a radial magnetic field so that a voltage l' . k To measure acce era IOns. . e>
a displacement or a ve OCIty piC up. . 0) As shown in Houre 7.), for frequencies
proportional to velocity is generated in the cojJ when it is vibrated &Jong the sensor axis. Since i,e., make the natural frequency 41 (j} (t.e" 11 .'" "'"
 MD_ l.!..arthqv..ake Re8'istan! D.e;ign '!.! S!ructv.re.,::s~_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _~
wen below the natura) frequency of the pickup, the displacement of the seismic mass relative
to the casing tends to be zero. Therefore, at these low frequencies the seismic mass must be
experiencing the same acceleration as the casing. Considering Equation 8.4, the denominator
approaches unity as 17 -1 0, so that
(8.6)
Thus the relative displacement, Y( (iJ)~ becomes proportional to the acceleration to be
measured with a proportionality factor of 1/",;'. A practical range of tuning ratio (1) can be
determined for different damping ratios by studying the variation of the denominator of
Equation 8.4. As shown in Figure 8.5. the denominator of Equation 8.4 remains unity for ail
practical purposes up to 1) $ 0.3 for the damping of 70 per cent of (he critical damping. This
represent.s the maximwn usable frequency range of the accelerometer. It may be noted that aU
other values of damping ratio result in a smaHer usable frequency range for the accelerometer.
Ckaptf.'r 8 TIte4ry oj Seismic Pickups) -M
8.5.1 Sel1lfHlCcererometers
The modern digi",l accelerographs make use of anti-aliasing filters and Analog to Digital
Converter (ADC) to store data digitally through microprocessor. Moreover. mstead of a
mecbanical sensor, a servo-accelerometer or force Balance Accelerometer (FBA) i~ used to
pickup the ground vibration. A schematic diagram of an FBA is shown in Figure 8.6. The
acceleration to be measured is applied along the axial direction of the transducer. Relattve
displacement of the transducer mass M caused by the applied acceleration is sen~ by a variable
capacitance with sensitivity D (volts/m) and converted into a voltage output 'This voltage 1S s~nt
to an amplifier of gain k and a velocitysensing pick-up, or to a phase-advancmg network With
transfer function (1 + qdldt). The output current is fed into a force generator with the amplitude
modified by the generator constant G (N/Amp). The force produced eomplele~ the feed-back
loop balancing the inertia foree of the transducer mass caused by the acceleration, so that the
mass M remains stationary relative to the instrument body. The FBAs have several advantages
over mechanical accelerometers. such as:
(i) broadening the frequency range of the measurement, .
(ii) the possibility to alter the natural frequency and damping of the transducer by changmg
the electrical constants, and
(iii) significant reduction of cross-axis sensitivity due to practicaUy zero relative movement
of the mass.
The measurements of digital accelerometers are more accurate and reUable in comp~ison
with those of analog instruments. The availability of the pre-e~e~t data, ;,:, the data pno~ .lO
the triggering of the instrument. substantially reduces the uncertamlJes assocIated WIth th~ lDltlal
velocity and initial displacement of the ground motion for computing .the ground velOCIty and
dispiacement time histories by integrating the recorded acceleratlon Urne hlstory.

~I'
I;J x,~x.
I;~O.OO-

0.70 S'"'O,7S-_-
FIGURE 8.5 Amplitude spectrnm of the transfer function of an accelerometer.

Thus the natura} frequency of an accelerometer should be at least 3-4 times the hlghest
frequency of the vibration to be recorded and all the smaller frequencies will be accurately
K 53 M 1 '1-1 VanabJe capacltance
DvolWm
measured by the accelerometer. Further, there may be phase shift between the ground motion
and the relative displacements measured by the transducer. If the phase shift is same for waves
of all frequencies, then the reSulting signal would simply be sbifted a little in time, which would
x,
rEt';~,A'l
be of no consequence for structural response calculations, If the phase shift is different for
different frequencies, however. component waves will add up to give a distorted signa) which
wiH be quite different from the input signal However. if the phase shift can be made a linear
I IG i ~[d
L
\ l E"
11
k t ~-~
outpu, vottag'
--<>
function ofrhe frequency, then the resulting output signal will have the same shape as the input
signal. with;) small. constant shift of phiiSC. Fortunately, it so happens thal a transducer element
Force
generator
G(N/Amp)
L I

__
aT) ~
Ro
-1_--0
having a dumping of ahout 70% of critical possesses a phase-shift~frequency curve that is a good _~_

approximation to a straight line. Thus the same value of damping that gives an optimum FIGURE 8.6 FOl1:e Balante :"u.~('''elerometer block diagram. Xc is the absolute grou,nd
amplitude re.:;ponse curve is also the be:<>l value fmm the stand point of phase shift. displacement, XQ denotes absolute displacement of the mas;;: M and Xy represents the relative
displacement of the mass.
-m- (Eorthqua" Resistant Design of Structures

8.5.2 calibration of Accelerometers

The accelerometers capable of recording a constant acceleration (0 HzlDC) signal can be Chapter 9
calibrated using the earth's gravitational field. The aecelerometer is mounted on a tilting table
e
from which the angle between the sensing axis and the vertical can be measured. At = 0, e
the force of gravity on the seismic mass is same as the force of inertia due to an acceleration
e e
of 9.81 mis" At any other angle the corresponding acceleration is 9.81 cos mis'. A simple
Numerical Evaluation of
90 tum produces a traceable I g change in acceleration and a J80 rotation produces a 2 g
change. By recording the output of the accelerometer for these acceleration levels a simple scale
factor to convert the accelerometer output to acceleration units can be established. This is a
Dynamic Respons~
simple and easy technique for testing the accelerometer before sending it out in the field.

SUMMARY
The alms and ohjective~ of vibration recording and monitoring are discussed. This is followed
by a detailed description of the principle of operation of vibration pickups. The important . h d 'c response of SDOF systems-(iJ by
Two disti~Cl approache~ ~lst to e~aluatea t :x=~~n of the derivatives in the differential
criteria for choosing an appropriate type of vibration pickup depending on the application are
interpolation of the eXCitatiOn. or (n) ~Y b pp d D hamel integral and involves interpolation
discussed.
equations of motion. The nrsht apPl~~:h lSI aansed ~:re~ore is strictly applicable only for linear
f th . !egrand of the Du ame m~gra, ' .
~yste~~~ The second approach is appl1cable for both linear and nonlInear systems.
REFERENCES
[1] Crede, C.M. and Piersol, A.G., Harris' Shock and Vibration Handbook, 5th ed .. NUMERICAL SOLUTION BASED ON
McGraw,Hill Professional. 2001. 9.1
[2J De Silva, C.w., Vibration: Fundamenlals and Practice, CRC Press, 1999. INTERPOLATION OF EXCITATION
[3] Rao, S.S., Mechanical Vibrations, 4th ed., Prentice Hall, Inc., 2003. .' . . 'fied as a set of discrete valuesf, = f(t i ) for i = 0 to N spaced
[4] Thomson, W.T., Theory of Vibration with Applications, 3rd ed" CBS Publishers, If the eXCitatiOn funcuonJ{t) IS S~l. . ti f the excitation function within an
New Delhi, 1988. at uniform interval of A L AssumIng a ~lOear vana on 0.. .
interval. the variation of I('!) within an mterval may be gIVen as,

f('C) = f(t,)+.f; ~ ; 0 S; ~"Ill

'h [,.f = f(t. ) - f(t). The general solution for the dynamic response of ar, underdamped
were,; ~+l I d ' . en by
SDOF system within the time interval t, an tj+l IS glV ,

r f" Vi +t;WnVi ]
e-~Q),,t lV;COSWdt+ smaJdl
. rod

+ __1_
mm d
J'' ' f(~)e(W"'H) sin(Od(t - ~)d~
I,

dVi + 1
and Vi+l =: -dt
Substituting forf(r) and evaluating the integral, the recurrence relations for di!>placement and
137
 ) ~_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _-,C"h::.r<.:':::er:....:9-,,~~merieal Et>aluation 0/ Dynamic Response) _ . _
velocity may be obtained as.
of these deviations in amplitude and phase properties of the computed response from those of
the exact solution depends on the ratiodtIT. Generally, the choice of dt:5 O.lT. has been found
Vi+1 = At + Bf;"'l + Cv; + DVf
to gi ve satisfactory results for all practical pwposes.
and Vi+l =Ah+ B'li+l + C'Vj+ D'vj'
AJtematively, the recurrence relations may be arranged in a matrix form as,
9.2 NUMERICAL SOLUTION BASED ON
APPROXIMATION OF DERIVATIVES
If the variation of acce1eration response within a time step is assumed to be approximated by
a simple functional form. then it is possible to derive the corresponding variations in the velocity
and displacement response which .is consistent with the assumed variation of the acceleration
response. For example, if the acceleration within a time step can be assumed to be constant
given by the average value of acceleration at the beginning and end of the time step. Thus the
~cceJeration during the interval Ii to li+1 is given by,

v( 'C) = _V,-i+-,=--;;:=i .c
1
2
where, r = (t - ri)/AI is the dimensionless time and varies from 0 to 1 during the interval I; to
t",. The associated velocity and displacement during this interval are given by,
~

vIr) = Vi + Jo ii(6)d6

,
v('!) = Vi + J v(lJ)dl!
o
, 1"2 Vi + i;l+l
= Vi +"l)Ii+T 2
Considering the dynamic equilibrium at the end of the interval; i.e., at ti+lth instant,

Substituting from the approximated response derivatives we get,

\-\ihcrc. {j ;;:; ,(1) '-
and WI "" (JJ .
( ,,11
II:' '::!,
,1"2

For re.asonable a(;~'urac:y in the computed response, it is necessary that the :;ampJine:
!IIlcrvaJ 111 < 0 1T T b' h "I" '"
<" ;. l' ,.: fI
" ClOg r e. naturat penod of the SDOF os.elllator. Lsc of too large
. ",

"atIl~m.g lmerval1ead~ to the Joss 10 temporal resolution and then it is possible that the correct
maxmmm re,;pOD:e mIght not be captured. Further. due to the finitc size of pulse duration- or, dt dtl
J..:v.- ( -c+~k
f 2 4
J"'}
v
I
used for .sl1rnmatWl) approximation of the COJlVOlution integral-the numerically computed
rcsp~nse IS only an approximation to the exact (analyticaUy derived) response. 1n particular the
~?lphtude of the computed response may differ from that derived analytically. Also the fi'nite wherc, m= m + ~/ c + All k has been I'ubstituted for the sake of brevity, This equation can be
SIZe of the pulse has th~ effect of introducing a phase shift in the compuled response. The extent
 '------
so1ved fo~ the acce,lerafion at the end of the interval, and wbich, in tum can be used to compute
the velocIty and dIsplacement at the end of the time step as; scheme may be written as,

where A is known as the amplification matrix~ and L is known as the load operator matrix.
1), _ ill ",,"-J , 81 --J ..., I [~t 1
,+; - T m j 1+ ,m h+1 - 6tm- kVj + 1- _61- 1 (2c+ tJk)J v
~ - 2 I
9.3 STABILITY AND ACCURACY CONSIDERATIONS
In these relations the accelerat'o .. _ -if.r . . .
. . _. I n v - CVi - kVi) has been ellmtnated by making use
m Vi -
of t~e dynarruc eqUIlIbrium equation at the instant t" Thus the solution marches in time from As with any numerical procedure. the time marching schemes fQr numerical integration of
one mstant to the next Again these recurrence relations can be arranged in matrix fonn as, equation of motion provide an approximation to the actual soJutton of the equations. The quality
of the computed solution depends on the choice of time-marching algorithm and aiso on the I.ime

(:;:}[:' :,J(~.}[~ ~,JG;)

step for numerieal integration. Two issues are of primary concern in the case of time marching
algorithms, They are:
(i) Stability: For what range of parameters. does the computed response for bounded input
4. B.... " C' D' are th e coeffiIClents
where ., ' of the recurrence relation and are given In Table 92. remains within bounds?
TABLE 9.2 Coef~ (ii) Accuracy: What is the usable range of parameters to restrict the deviation of computed
l.clents of recurrence relation for constant average acceleration
response from the exaet solution within acceptable limits?
~ = ,j,(2
. 4
m-J To investigate the stability of the algorithm, we consider the case of free vibration, i.e,
f<t) :::;: O. Under these conditions. the quality of predieted response at nth time step due to non-
zero initial conditions depends only on the powers of amplification matrix A as given below,
B=~mJ
(~) = A' (~J\
4
(9,1)
c (I~ ~1 m-Jk) \v I! v 0

For a single degree of freedom system, the matrix A is of si:re 2 x 2 and hence will have 2
D = 1It[1~ ~t m-J(2c+iltk)] eigenvalues and corresponding eigenvectors. Let us assume that these eigenpairs are given as Alij,
{~(I)} and AA2, ('1'(2), Thus, invoking the linear independence property of eigenvectors, the
lnitial state vector can be written as,
A' ::; 6t ;;;.-J
2
jB';:,j,;;nJ (9,2)

~ C=-8tm- J k Combining this with the recurrence equation (9.1) we gel,

lD' = [1-~ml(2C+l11k)] Ji
~-~-"~----

whe.re.~ in (93)

Where, AA is. a diagonal matrix of eigenvalues AAj of matrix A. It is, therefore. clear that the
' 5ilHlila: recurrence relationR can be derived in the case of other forms of assumed variation
() t acee eratlOn 'th' . contributions of original coefficients c are reinforced by the powers of the eigenvalues, A'A" In
_ , WI In a tlme-step leading to various time-marching schemes for numerical
tntegra.tlOn of equatlOn of m t; S h ' such a situation, bounded response can only be expected if and only if the modulus of [he
o...on. ,c ematlcally. the recurrence relation for any time-marching maximum eigenvalue does not exceed 1, Mathematically, it translates into stating that for
 . , . (Earthquake Re~tant Design of StractUT'e8
stability the spectral radius (PA) of A should not exceed I:
PA = maxl),Ajl" 1
)
In general, A can have real or complex eigenvalues and mere fulfibnent of condition in
Equation (9.4) does not ensure a satisfactory perfonnance of the time marching scheme. It is,
then, worthwhHe to investigate the effects of eigenvalues of A on the performance of time
marching scheme. Let us consider an arbitrary complex eigenvalue AAj of A:
AAj .:::: aj + ibj
= ia2+b~l!iq.
V J J '
aJ
iej
pje
Rai.:~;ng nf thlii cigcnvaJue 10 nth powtr yields
"I n . _ p'} elnei
I\, A} ,-- ~
= P; {cos n~ + ; sin n8)
The following inferences may be drawn:
positive real eigenvalues do not lead to a change in sign.
negative real eigenvalues lead to a change in sign at each step+
complex eigenvalues may lead to changes in sign, this depending on each individual
step,
if the moduJus of the eigenvalue is smaller than ], the involution converges toward
zero.
An algOrithm for solving structural dynamics problem should be capable of reproducing
a free, undamped oscillation. The reversal of direction of this oscillatory motion should not be
dependent on the step-size of the integration and thus, .a few complex eigenValues must exist.
If the modulus of all eigenvalues is indeed smaller than J, stability is ensured, but the algorithm
would simulate a damped motion, a phenomenon often referred to as algorithmic damping,
Thus. to achieve a satisfactory performance, we must demand the presence of complex
t'igenvalues with a modulus of L
The abovc-mentjoned issues have to be considered in the design of an algorithm for
Ilumerical inicgf"d:tion of equation of motion. More often, an engineer is just interested in
~'omputjng dynamic response by using whkhever method is availabJe (in the form of a coded
programme), To ascertain the reliability and accuracy of the computer implementation of a
numerical illlegration aJgorithm, it is essential to test the performance of the code for a few
simple bench-mark problems. A simple test which can be quickly performed is to determine the
free-vibration response of an undamped single degree of freedom system (with natural
frcqllCfK'y (illi fad/s) for these initia1 conditions:
([) A unit injtial displacement with zero initial velocity, i.e., to'o = 1.0. Vo =- 0.0
(F) ,7.ero initial displacement with unit initial velocity, i.e., Vo =- 0.0, Vo =- to.
c ChGpter 9 Numerical Eualu4tion of DynofnU: Response) .i.
The exact response for the flrSt case is v(t) cos tOnt, whereas for the second case the
solution is vet) = sin lOnl. The numerically evaluated response is then compared with the known
(9.4) solutlon to evaluate the performance of the algorithm. In addition, it may also be worthwhile
to compare the numerically evaluated response to harmonic excitation with the closed-form
solution of the problem discussed in the earlier chapter, In general, an error in n\lmerical\~
evaluated response shows up in either or beth of the following forms:
Period elongation: It is the apparent change in the natural period of vibration caused due to
finite approximation of the integration operator. A direct consequence of this error is the
distortion in the computed response waveforms in comparison with the exact response due to
incremental change in phase at each time step.
(9.5)
Artificial damping: Also known as algorithmic damping-this is caused by the deviation from
unity of the modulus of the complex eigenvalues of the integration operator as discussed above,
11,is leads to either artificial decay, or build-up of response amplitudes depending on whether
the eigenvalue modulus is less than unity, or greater than unity, respecrively.
The constant average acceleration algorithm is free from the artificial damping error but
does lead to period elongalion in the computed response. Due to good slability characteristics,
(9.6) the constant average acceleration algorithm is widely used in the numerical evaluation of
response of linear/nonlinear systems.
SUMMARY
The analysis of vibration problems is too tedious and cumbersome for manual calculations. One
has to resort to numerical methods for solution of vibration problems on a digital computer. The
assumptions, formulation and limitations of the numerical algorithms used for the solution of
vibration problems are discussed and some safeguards for the correct use of these numerical
methods are described,
REFERENCES
[lJ Argyris, lH. and Mlejnek, H.l', Dynamics of Structures, North-Holland, 1991.
[2] Bathe, K,J" Finite Element Procedures, Prentice Hall, Inc" 1995.
[3] Nickell, KE" "On the Stability 'of Approximation Operators in Problems of Structural
Dynamics", International Journal of Solids and Structures, 7: 301-3J9, 1971.
[4] Pegon, P., "Alternative Characterization of Time Integration Schemes". Compuler
Methods in Applied Mechanics and Engineering, 190: 2702-2727,2001. .
 r Chapter 10 Re8ponse Spectra) Mli4

(10.1)

Assuming ground acceleration as non-zero in t E. (0, tal, the Equation (10.1) can be written as.
Chapter 10
X( w) = f: x(t) cos(wt)dr - i foux(r) sin (wt)dt (10.2)

Response Spectra Fourier amplitude and phase spectra of strong motion are defined using Equation (10.2) as

IX(w)1 = [J;' X(t)COS(wt)dtr +[J~" x(t) sin (WI) dl]' (10.3)

rr
x(t) cos(wr) dr'
IJI(OJ) = - tan-1,_O-'_.............................. J. (lOA)
10.1 INTRODUCTION If: f(r) sin (wr) dt

Earthqualce causes ground to vibrate and structures supported on ground are subjected to Ibis
Although phase spectrum (Equation (10.4) is considered to be reiatively of less
motion. Thus the dynamic loading on the structure during an earthquake is not extemalloading
importance than amplitude spectrum (Equation (10.3, both amplitude and phase spectra are
but due to motion of supports" In general, the ground motions have three translational and three
required for unique defInition of ground accelerauon. Foun~r ampht~de spectra of velo~lty and
rotational component~, Not much infonnation is available regarding the properties of rotational
dispiacement can be obtained by dividing acceleration Founer amphtude spectrum ordmate by
components of ground motion due to difficulties in recording those, On the other hand, the
frequency and square of frequency value respectively. . .
characteristics of translational components: are relatively better known as they are routinely Figures 10.1-10.3 show nonnalized Fourier amplitude spectra for acceleranon, velocity and
recorded and processed during strong earthquakes by an instrument known as accelerograph.
displacement of N15W component of accelerogram recorded at Uttarkashi during Uttarkashi
Moreover. it can be deduced from the analysis of vibration records obtained from different
earthquake ofOcwber 20, 199I.It is to be noted that the bandwidth of predominant frequency
elevations in a structure during an earthquake that the rotational components are quite small in
for displacement is narrowest and that of acceleration is the ,broadest. It also demoll~trates that
magnitude in comparison with translational components. Therefore. the effects of rotational
acceleration, velocity and displacement are controlled by different frequency band.
components of ground motion are usually neglected in seismic analysis of structures. Further,
the response of a slTucture is often obtained by subjecting structure to one component of ground E
~ 1.0
translation (acceleration). The total response of structural system is obtained by combining U Accn.
u 0.9
response due to individual component, as method of superposition is valid for linear elastic ~
0.8
systems. Since the natural frequencies of the structure are not known a priori. complications G
~

arise in the design of structure necessitating several iterations, In such a situation, a design . 0.7
<i 0.6
engineer requires a prescription of seismic loading that reflects frequency conlent, amplitude of ~
a 0.5
ground motion and effect of subsequent filtering by the structure. This infonnation is provided
c~ 0.4
by Response Spectra.
In this chapter frequency content of ground motion is discussed first by means of Fourier ...g 0.3
Spectrum and later the concept of response spectrum is introduced as a Lool for quick dynamic
analysis, ..
'0
.~

0

10.2 FOURIER SPECTRA

'" Frequency (Hz)
FIGURE UU Normalized Fonrier amplitude 1)c:uleraUon spectrum of N15"W component at
Frequency content of an accelerogram Can be conveniently depicted by Fourier Spectra. Fourier Uttarkashi during Uttack:ashi earthquake of October 20, 19)1~
transform of an accelerogram x(1) is given by

144
 -.,. Earthquake Re~istant Design of Struetures
(~~--~--- Chapter 10 Response Speetm) .,.4
I"c.
l.0
0.9 Vet--
10.3.1 FonnulLLtion
O.R The equation of motion of a SDOF system subjected to support (ground) motion. as shown in
"
~ (n Figure lOA. may be written as
C. 0.6
E ~

~
0.5
mz .j. c(z - i).j. k\z - x) = 0 00.5)
.""
.0
."

0.4
0.3
0.2
Reference
frame
~
[j 0.1
y
0 0.0 m
'" 6 8 10
Frequency (Hz)
12 14 [~~~~~~~~~-) I:
FIGURE 16.~ !'\onnaJized Fourier amplitude velocity tru f Nl S"W
tlttarlcashi. - spec mOM component at

I II
_ 09
l.0
. DiSP.--j ,,,
,
,I" ~:~ I, hW}/,// ,0J//./ ,%///

f 0.0 f-x-j
t; 0,5 ~
";:

~
i5
""

] 0; f
'L0.4

0.3.
0'1'
t'
FIGURE 10.4 Single degret'! of freedom system excited by support motion

where. z is the absulute displacement of mass m, x is the displacement of ground, c is the

damping coefficient of dash-pot and k is the stiffness of the spring. Dividing by m in equation
(10.5) and replacing absolute displacement z by relative displacement y = Z - x gives,
~ 0.0 ;,--"';;',;-""-';:-:----:~--C~--J
o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Frequency (Hz) (10.6)

FIGURE 10.3 Normalized Fourier amplitude dispIactment spectrum of NlS"W component at Where (f}n is undamped natural frequency of the system and "is the damping ratio. The
Uttarkashi.
Equations (10.5) and (10.6) are ordinary second order differential equations with constant
coefficients. Either of these can be used to find response of the SDOF system. The Equation
(10.5) needs ground displacement x(t) and velocity i (I) as input suppon motion. While the
10.3 RESPONSE SPECTRA x
required support excitation is ground acceleration (1) for the Equation (10.6)_ The solution
of these Equations (l0.5) and (l0.6) requires initial condition of the reRpon,e and ground
Earthquake engineers prefer to report interae[ion between ground acceleration and structural motion at the start of ground vibration. Thus the computation of response spectrum is an initial-
,;"emR through re'pon,e 'pectrum first proposed by Biot 11, 2,J and later popularised by value problem. The systems represented by Equations (10.5 and 10.6) are incrementally linear
~:lU~~e; I~I. Respllnse spet:trum is a :)et of ordinates that describes maximum response of a set systems. These systems violate zero~infzero-out property of linear SYSTem U5] if the systems are
'" Slug,c ucgree Freedom Sysiemg {SDOF) subjected tu a prescribed ground mot jon, Often a not initially at rest. The complexity of this solution was realised by Pecknold and Riddell I J6J,
res~onse, <;pcctrum j\ presenled as a plot of maximum re!>ponse of a set of SOOF systems Malhotra [7) and Mylonakis and Syngros [9J among others. This initial-value problem is not
sub,ecteo " , , , (g"ourrd)
, ) " io a liUPPOT! '" mOll. on as. ord'mate an d correspondmg
. natural trequencjes
.' (or, well posed because support metlon and/or initial condition are not properly defined. TIle ill
pi~.Ji)d:i) of the SDOI~ ;.,y~!em a~ abscissa.
POSed problem creates complications in the solution if:
(i) the system and ground motion are not initially at rest, and
.II#W (Earthquake Resistant De8ign of StructUf"l!:'~

(ii) the prescribed ground motions (acceleration, velocity and displacement) are not Thus for lightly damped system (i.e. O>d = 0>,)
compatible.
Sd(, "',) '" -1- S,...(I;''''n) = _I_S,. (,m,,) (10.10)
The accelerograph generally starts recording motion after a fixed threshold of acceleration level (J) d (1)"
set up in the instrument is exceeded by the base motion. Thus. at the s.tart of recording, ground
displacement and velOCity are not zero. Moreover. reported processed histories of ground The relative displacement response spectra asymptotically approaches maximum ground
acceleration, velocity and displacement are often incompatible (i.e. reported histories of velocity di.splacement for highly flexible structure. Formally, the limiting value of Sdls, ill,,) is,
and displacement ean not be obtained by Integrating reported aece1erauon) due to the use ~f (10.11 )
extra correction procedure employed for VelOelly and displacement correction than that of
acceleration history correction of standard ground motion processing. Note that solution for well
Thi~ implies that the mass remains stationary for all practical purposes and only the ground
posed Ploblem will give same solution using either of the Equation (10.5) or (10.6). These
moves as the linear elastic SDOF system is composed of spring with negligible stiffnes.'L
complications are ignored by engineers by assuming that the ground and structure are initially
Differentiation of Equation (10,7) with respect to time t gives,
at rest and using only ground acCeleration 8..<; input.

1O..~.2 Solution: Initially at Rest

The Equation 00.6) is the standard equation of motion for a linear elastic SDOF system
undergoing forced vibration due to support excitation. The solution of initially at rest system
is given by Duhamel's integral as

y(t); --'-I' i(r)e-{"""~<) sin

(jJd (]
0> (t
a
t) dr (10.7)
(10.12)

The relative velocity spectrum is similarly defined as,

where rod == ron ,/1."-- ,2 is the damped natural frequeney of SDOF sys.tem. The maximum
j
S,(I;, 0>,;)" S,(I;. T,} = ly(t)lm~ (l0.13)
relative response y(t) of linear elastic SDOF system, initially at rest with prescrihed damping
mtio t; subjected to a ground acceleration versus natural period or frequency of vibration is For lightly damped structure I; = O. the second term of Equation (10.12) can he neglected and
defined as relative displacement response spectrum and is denoted as thus the relative velocity spectrum reduces to,

S,(I;, 0>,;); Sd(l;, T,) = Iy(tllm~

S,(O, 0>.) = If: x(r) coSO>,,(t - !jdT I~~ (10.14)

; -l-I{l'
(i)d \
x(T)e-fm,(H) sino>,(t -
\I.
rldr}11
m&
(10.8)
From the Equation (lO.9) the undamped relative pseudo velocity response spectrum can be
obtained as,
~here> natuml period of vibration Tn = 2rrJro". For a prescribed aecelerogram the Equation
nO.7) is numerically integnited and the resulting maximum relative displacement value gives
?ne value of Sd for a specified set of ~" and t;. The numerical scheme for evaluating Duhamel's
S",,(O, )n) = If' o
X(!}Sinm"U-!)drl
Ill<>);
(10.15)

mtegral, originally proposed by Nigam and Jennings [13], has been discussed in the previous
chapter. Typically, this integration is carried out at uniform frequency interval in a prescribed It is easy to see from the Equation (10.14) that as ~ -+ 0 the relative velocity spectrum S" ->
range of frequencjes for different values of ,. It is worth noting that the quantity within the IxU)lm3J> and from the Equation (10.15) the relative psuedo response Spv --1 0 becau!'e the mass
curly brackets of Equation (10.8) has the unit of velocity. The absolute maximum of this does nol move. Hudson [4, 5] has shown that numerically S. (0, (LIn) and S,.,)O, ro,,) are almost
quantity is termed as pseudo relative velocity response spectrum (psv) Sp,(t;, 0>,) and is fonnally equa' except for very long period structure. However, variation is considerable in case of highly
glven a~, damped structure. Figure 10.5 shows relative velocity spectra ,.)11 and pseudo relative velocity
spectra Sfl~ for damping ratios , ; ; ;: 0.02 and 0.20 of N lS"W compo~ent of UHarkashi record.
"~,,.(I;, 0>,;) S".(I;, T,,) = if x(r}e-L:""U~"
)
sinO>d(t !ldrl
11'1:'(
(10.9)
By re<rrnmging the terms in Equation (10.6), the absolute acceleration response of the lmear
elastic SDOF system can be obtained as,
 Miii. \ Ear~ Reei$~!.1c.t..;D:...e'-".:'ign=-"".fc..::;S;;;.t""'=t:::.::;""::'~_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ =-:J Ch4p~er 10 Re6pQnse Speclm) MUM

s,i, 0.02) - '

s ,(~ 0.02) ----.
J acceleration response spectra S.,(0.05, run) and absolute pseudo acceleration response spectra
S,.(O.OS, ron) of N1S'W component of motion at Uttarkashi. The limiting value of absolute
$,(;= 020) ...... . acceleration spectrum is achieved for infinitely stiff structure as there is no relative motion
S,,({ = 0.20) _ ..- between ground and mass, hence

(10.19)

The maximum spring force developed in the oscillator is kSd (', w,,) ~ mS",,(" w,,), while mS.(',
ron) is the maximum of total elastic and damping forces. The maximum strain energy input is,

(10.20)
OJ 10
Period (s)
and the maximum strain energy per unit mass is,
FlGt:RE 10.5 Comparis.n of spectral and pseudo-spectral velocity of N1S"W component
"~corded at Uttarkashi fof' different damping ratios.
(10.21)
tV) x(t) + y(l)
The total energy of the system is,
-"'~ y(1) - 2'w"j(tj (1.16)
The absolute acceleration spectra is simIlarly defined as, Er(t) ;ly(t)]2 + ~1y(t)J2 (10.22)

SO<" w,,) '" Si', Tn} If(I)I_ (10.17) For an undamped linear elastic SDOF system, substitution of y(l) by the Equation (10.7) and
It may be seen that for damping ratio 'E (0.0, 0.20) YU) by the Equation (10.12), the Equation (10.22) reduces to,
S.<,. "'n) ~ "'nS",(', w")ES,,,(' w,,) (l0.18)
where. Spa(~, Wn) is calle.d absolute pseudo acceleration spectral response and the relation (10.23)
(10.18) reduces t? equalIty for ,~ O. Absolute pseudo acceleration spectra S",,(" w,,) $
Sat', "'n) This dIfference mIght be ImpOI1ant for rigid systems. Figure 10.6 shows absolute which a[ the end of accelerogram t ; ; ; td is iden-
tical to Fourier amplitude spectrum lX(w)1 of the 0.14 .-~---r--.---~'~

FS-- .

j ::: f--~I~ ~I
ground acceleration evaluated at frequency COrt. 0.12
The maximum of the Equation (10.23) is pseudo ';;' Sp,<' = 0.0)
----.
$ 0.10
relative velocity spectrum Sp,(O, w,,). If the rela- hl

~ t !~i tive response reaches maximum at the end of

accelerogram duration, then lX(w.ll = S,,(O, "'.l. I 0.08

~)
5
1 0.60,
~
In general, IX( w,,)1 $ Sp,(O, "'.). Figure 10.7 ~ 0.06

B {lAO
shows relative velocity response spectrum SpY for
an undamped system and Fourier spectrum lX(m~ 1 0.(;4

~ 0.20 ~
0.02
of N IS'W component recorded at Uttarkashi.
0.00 .....
n.oo ~-~::,:-~~-:-..."", ___ ~-..J
0 5 to 15 20 25
0.01 0.1 10
10.3.3 Solntion: General Frequency (Hz)
I()Q
P~od {s)
Conditions FIGURE 10.7 Comparison of pseudo-spec.
lral velocity spectrum for 0% damping and
FIGURE 10.6 Comparison of spectral and pseudo~speetral ac(~leratiQft of N15W component The concepts of stiff and flexjble system are
1 ecorded
a! lTttarkashi for 5% damping. the Fourier spa."trum of N1S C W oompooent
necessary to obtain response spectrum When the
recorded 01 t:ttarkashi.
ground motion are incompatible Or when the
 . . ( Earthquake Resista.nt Design of Stru.dures

systemlground is not initially at rest. A SDOF system excited by support excitation is considered - x(a)
to be stiff (flexible) if the natural frequency is larger (smaller) than the support excitation and yeO) = _....- . (10.28)

frequency, Response spectrum by defmition encompasses response of both stiff and flexible
SDOP systems as it prescribes maximum response for a set of SDOF systems, Moreover,
absolute dispJacement response for a very flexible structure is zero and relative displacement
response of a very stiff structure is zero. Thus, for a specified non-zero initial support motion
both absolute and relative displacement cannot be simultaneously zero. This requires a
reformulation of the problem. Let w, be a predominant (representative central) frequency of the
excitation and f(t:Un, lOt) be a function such that f( (J)fl' we) approaches unity as Orr ~ 0 and
vanishes as l.Orr -t """. One such generalised function is,
1.0
j(m", mJ (10.24)
1.0+(::)
The Equation (10.6) is solved with the derived frequency dependent initial condition given by
Equation (l0.28). However, specification of parameter Cf. and representative ground frequency
(J) need to be defined. Using simulation teChnique, the parameter a= 21S found to be satIsfactory
fotr response spectrum computation, There are several definition of predominant frequency !Or
of ground motion records in tbe literarure [6, S, 17]. The predominant ground frequency may be
defmed as the frequency at which relative velocity respo~se of 5% damped SDOF sy~tem IS
maximum in the entire range of frequencies of ground molion. Thls frequency IS msensitlve to
the initial condition of ground m~tion, Representative ground frequency can a180 be defined as,

where. a> 0 and the function satisfies the specified limit conditions for both flexible and stiff
SDOF systems. Define a dii;placement u by mixing absolute and reJative displacement as,
(10.25)
Addition of Equation (10.6) and Equation (10.5) multiplied by (fbc1m.)"lm results in,
(10.26)
The Equation (10.26) is solved with the generalised initial condition u(O) ';(0) = O. Note that
the solution requires acceleration, velocity and displacement of ground motion as excitation.
Replacing absolute displacement z by y + x from Equation (10.25) the relative displacement is
obtained as,
. (10.27)
_ IPGA
m, - VPGD
where, PGA is Peak Ground Acceleration and PGD is the Peak. Ground Displacement. Useof
Equation (10.29) is criticised on the ground that PGA and PGD occur at djfferent frequencIes
of ground motion and thus it does nOl represent a single frequency. Use of forme: defimtJ.?n
of predominant ground frequency needs. additional comp~tation of 5% damped relatIve velocu:y
spectrum of ground motion with initially at rest condltlOn,
The S-E component of 1940 EI Centro accelerogram [14] is used to compute 2% damped
response spectrum for initialJy at rest and at non zero condition. The accelerogram has ~ak
ground valUes as PGA ~ 0.3484 g, PGV = 0.334 mls and PGD 108.7 mm. The predomI~ant
ground period from 5% relative damped velOCIty spectrum IS 0.85 s. The EquatJon (l 0.29) gIves
period as L 1 s. These two values are considered to be comparable for all practIcal purposes.
The initial ground velocity and displacement are -0.04664 mls and 21.59 mm. Use of two
definition of predominant ground period gives almost ident~c~l, result. ~~gure 1?8 shows .1%
damped displacement spectrom. The solution using non-zero lTIlual condloons satIsfies phYSICal
60 .. 1 I I -,nAt rest ~itial1y n~M_1 ----,
: ~ Non-zero initially --- --

::~M/~I--~t\: . '--. i~I~. =+.~

The Equalion (10.27) satisfies initial physical condition for both stiff and flexible SDOF
systems. Using Equation (10.27) the relative displacement y is obtained from the values of the

lot~'I~F'r ".'r~l~~~r--LLI-_.
mixed displacement u. The required spectral displacement is the maximum of y at any time" In
most of the cases, a simpler approximate method of solution than that of the general method
presented above can be use-d satisfying limiting behaviour of SDOP system. In this method a

loro~~--t--c
frequency dependent initial condition is obtained from Equation (10.27) by using generalised
initial condition "(0) = u(O) = \) as, 10 ' / ,["'''''[-1''1'+ i=""
- x(O) o . i ' . .,---j~:::'-:;'~;":;;:-:;;'
y(O) = ' 0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00 W.oo 25.00 30.00 35.00 40.0045.0050.00
1.0 + (j), I Period (s)
mi' ) FIGURE 10.8 Displacement spectrum (damping 2%).
 (
Chapter 1 (j Response Spectra) -'p.
constraint for both stiff and f1exibJe systems. The initially at rest solution satisfies physical
condition of stiff systems.

10.3.4 Smooth Spectrum

The seismic design specification needs prescription of required strength of structure, In dynamic
condition maximum allowable displacement, velocity and acceleration are needed. The design
spectrum describes relative strength required at different periods for design purpose. Actual
strength spedfication requires allowable stress values and damping. The design spectrum is
derived from smooth spectrum of an ensemble of earthquake records, The smooth spectrum of
S-E component of 1940 EI Centro accelcrogram is derived from the 2% damped spectrum
using method proposed by NEHRP Ill] and Nau and Han [101. Figure 10.9 shows derived
smooth pseudo velocity spectrum. The corresponding displacement spectrum has been shown in
Figure 10.&.

J~ .,I
~.

_J

... ,I
.,"
..!:
.'S
u
0
!i
. -l
tI'

.~ .. ~~::~':i~'
1
;
'<
:.\,
1

",~
l
"
~
u 0.01 At rest ~~~Iy ..~-
~ 1.00
Q.
en

!
Non~wo 1ll1tlally -----
Smooth - -.-..
Peak ground value ........
i
~
11
'!' 0.50
O.OQI
0.0
~.~.

0.1 1.0
Period (s)
t

10.0
------........."

J
_ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~,
0.04 0.06 0.100.120.14.
Spectral displacement (m)
FIGURE 10.9 Pseudo ,eloclty spectrum (dalnping 2%).
FIGURE 10.11 Demand diagranl for vertical component (damping 5%).

10.3.5 SeiBmic Demnnd Diagrams

Ine recent thrust in the development of performance-based engineering concepts has necessitated
representation of the ground motion spectral characteristics in a new format. viz., Acceleration-
Displacement Response Spectrum (ADRS) formal. The spectral accelerations are plotted against
spectral displacements, With the periods (T,,) being represented by radial lines. An estimate of
inelastic dermmds imposed on a structure by an earthquake is. obtained from the linear elastic
response spectra computed for equivalent damping ratios related to a specified level of ductiHty.
The capacity diagram of a huilding is obtained from the relationship betwcen the base shear and
roof displacement (push-over curve), The roof dispiacement and the base shear are converted
to the spectral dispJacemcnt and spectral acceJeration by the use of mode participation factor and
effective modal mass for the fundamental mode. The performance of a huilding to any
carthqu ....kc CiOn be assessed by superill1po~ing the capacity diagram on the seismic demand
diagram. The intersection of the capacity curve and the seismjc demand curve provides an
estimaic of the ;'leld strength and the displacement demand. The elastic demand dtagrams for
SUMMARY
The concept of response spectrum (plural-sp~ct~) is in,troduced, The import~ce of this
elementary concept in seismic analysis and deSign 15 descnb~, Alternate,fonnu~atlOns for the
response spectrum calculation and representation are descnbed and theIr use m earthquake
resistant design is discussed.
REFERENCES
[I J Biot, M<A., "Theory of Elastic Systems Vihraling . under Transie,nt Impu}se with
Application to Earthquake-proof Buildings", Proceedmgs of the Natwnal Academy of
Scicmces. 19; 262-268. 1933.
 1,
-m-( Earthquake Resistant De.ngn oj Structures
[2] Bior, M.A" "A Mechanical Analyser for the Prediction of Eanhquake Stresses",
Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 31: 151-171, 1941.
[3) Housner, G.w., "Calculating the Response of an Oscillator to Arbitrary Ground Motion".
Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 31: 143-149, 1941.
[4] Hudson. D,E.~ "Response Spectrum Techniques in Engineering Seismology". ]n
Proceedings of the First World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, 4: 1-12.
Eanhquake Engineering Research Institute, Los Angeles, California, 1956,
[51 Hudson, D.E" "Some Problems in Ibe Application of Spectrum Technique to Strong
Motion Eanhquake Analysis", Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 52(2):
417-430, 1962.
[6) Kramar, S.L., Georechnical Earthquake Engineering, Prentice HaU, Inc., New Jersey,
1996.
[7] Malhotra, P.K., "Response Spectrum of Incompatible Acceleration, Velocity and
Displacement Histories", Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics, 30: 279-
286, 2001.
[8) Miranda, E. and Bertero, V. V., "Evaluation of Strength Reduction Factors for Earth-
quake-resistant Design", Earthquake Spectra, 10(2): 357-379, 1994.
r9J Mylonakis, G. and Syngros, C., "Discussion of Response Spectrum of Incompatible
Acceleration, Ve]ocity and Displacement Histories t " Eanhquake Engineering and
Structural Dynamics, 3 J: 1025-1031, 2002.
[10] Nau, l.M. and Hall, W,J., "Scaling Methods for Earthquake Response Spectra",
Joumal of Structural Engineering Division, ASCE, 110(7): 1533-1548, 1984,
[ll] NEHRP, "Recommended Provisions for Seismic Regulation for New Buildings and
Olber Structures", Technical Report, Building Safety Council for Federal Emergency
Management Agency, Washington D.C., 1997.
112] Newmarlc, N.M.. "A Method of Computation for Structural Dynamics", Journal of
Engineering Mechanics Division, ASCE, 85: 67-94, 1959.
(13] Nigam. N.C. and Jennings, P.C., "Calculation of Response Spectra From Strong
Motion Earthquake Records". Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 59(2):
909-922. 1969.
/14] NOAA, Earthquake Strong Motion: CDROM, National Geophysical Data Center,
Boulder Colorado, March 1996.
[15J Oppenheim, A.V., Willisky, A.S .. and Young, I.T., Signals and Systems, Prentice Hall,
Inc .. New Jersey, 1983.
[l6] Pecknold, D.A. and Riddell, R., "Effect of Initial Base Motion on Response Spectra".
Journal of Engineering Mechanics Division, ASCE, 104(2): 485-491, 1978.
[17] Rathje, E., Abraltamson, N., and Bray, J., "Simplified Frequency Content Estimates
of Earthquake Ground Motions", Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental
Engineering, ASCE, 124(2): 150,,159, 1998.
Chapter 11
Dynamics of Multi-Degree-
of-Freedom Systems
11.1 INTRODUCTION
A Multi-Degree-of-Freedom (MDOF) system, as the name suggests, is one that requires two or
more independent coordinates to describe its motion. The coordinates normally used to describe
the motion of a structural system, may be related to each other via some constraints, which could
either be simple kinematic relations between various coordinates. or they could arise from the
consideration of equilibrium of forces. The number of generalised (independent) coordinates is
given by the difference between the total coordinates describing the motion of a system and the
number of constraint relations. For example, consider
y
the case of a doubJe pendulum, which is constrained to
move in XY plane as shown in Figure 1 L L 1n Cartesian
coordinate system the positions of two masses ml and mt:
are described by twO pairs of Cartesian coordina.tes
(x" Y:) and (x" Y2) respectively. These four coordinates
viz. Xb y,. X2. Y2. however. are related to each other
through two constraint relations:
x~
x1 + Yl ; 11, (11.1)
F1Gt;RE II.I A double pendulum,
and (x, -x,)' + (y, y,)2; 1', (11.2)
Thus the number of degrees of freedom (or, generalised coordinates) of the structural system
is 4 ~ 2 -;;; 2. The angles 6 j and 8.t can be taken as the two independent generalised coordjnates
to describe the motion of the masses. In certain systems it is possible to eliminate dependent
variables by using constraint relations and derive a set of generalised coordinates. are said
to possess hoionomic constraints. On the other hand, there may exist some constraints, caHed
nonholonomic for which it is not possible 10 derive a set of independent coordinates.
Nonholonomic constraints are rarely encountered in prdlcrice, so it wiH be a$sumed in the
following that the equations of the dynamic equilibrium of the system are specified in the
unconstrained c00rdinarc system.
157
 C~(l.r~quake Residant D~st"gn::..:QC.<.I-,S,,t:.:",::,::t"""=.,,-_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
11.2 SYSTEM PROPERTY MATRICES
As mentioned earlier. every dynamical system comprises
(1) a mechanism for storing strain energy due to deformations,
(ii) some means of sloring kinetic energy of the system in motion, and
(iii) an energy dissipation mechanism.
In MDOF system, described by a set of N generalised coordinates (say, VN)' these v" v" ....
energy functionals depend on the motion of the system described by the generalised coordinates.

iJ'U
'2 L
. 1 N
Potential energy:::::; U(l'j, 1-'2, VN, t);;: av-avo l',V f
(J:o} I J The nature of damping forces is assumed to be of the viscous type primarily as an.appr~xim.ate
representation of the combined action of all energy dissipation mechanisms present m a. vlbrating
system, Since the extent of damping in structural syste~s is usually very sm~ll, preCIse nature
of the damping force is not very important for dynamlc response computatlons.

. ... . ..
RayleIgh dISSIpatIOn function =- R(vl v, . ."
.
V N, t) =- -
1 IN ~
iJ'R ..
v,v; ,Fosiu6lt
. 2 avav' j
11.3 DYNAMICS OF TWO DEGREE

~
t
1,)=1 ( )
'"2
OF FREEDOM SYSTEMS
where Rayleigh dissipation function represents the energy loss through velocity proportional
viscous damping force.
Let us consider the response of a hannonically excited 2-DOF " '" . .
FlGURE 11.3 Hannonic ud-
The element Cu of damping matrix (C) is given by the coefficient aiJ',R and represents (undamped) system as shown in Figure 11.3. The governing tali"" of 2-DOF system.
. ~~ equation of motion for thIs system can be given as;
the damping force at i lh DOF corresponding to the unit velocity at i h DOF with the velocities
(11.4)
at all other DOFs remaining zero. The coefficient a~!!
'c, is the element kij of stiffness matrix
avpvj
(K) and represents restoring force at the ,.Jll DOF corresponding to the unit displacement at /J This system is the characteristic of an industrial building with a reciprocating machine installed
DOF with displacements at all other DOFs being constrained to zero. Similarly, the coefficient at one of the floors. Since such machines typically operate at a fixed speed. the force exerted
by these machines on the building floor will be hannon~c and the steady-state response of the
"'I ~iJ-. is tbe element mtj of inertia matrix (M) and represents the inertia force at the ,1h DOF
system to this harmonic excitation wiH also be harmomc ~f the same frequ*ncy. ,
O"iOVj

corresponding to the unit acceleration at the lb DOF with accelerations at aU other DOFs being Thus assuming the hannonk response as v = [v" vz] = sin ro'IV,. V,l , Equation (11.4)
!;onstrained to zero. The governing differential equation of motion for an MDOF system can can be solved for the response amplitudes V, and Vz of the two masses as:
be derived from the same principles as used in the case of SDOF systems. As an illustration.
let us consider the 2-DOF system as shown in Fjgure 11.2. By invoking the d' Aiembert's
principle. the equations of motion for free vibration of this system can be written as,
-k 2 ](Vl)'
" V2,
sm(J)t =- (FoSin<illi
0
k2 -ar"m2 j

mv, + 2cl'j - cV 2 + 3kv l - kv2, ==- 0

mV2 - cV 1 + 2cV2 - kv j + 3kv2,:;:: 0 (11.5)
or.
which can be arranged in the matrix form as,

m 0l(i\ 1+:- 2c or Mv + Cv + Kv ~ 0 (l 1.3)

o m J ) i-c
 '1
i ,
\ Chapter 11 D~mic06 of Multi-Degree*of~Fre~ Systems) -'U-
Ji = m21m j. Thus the system response can be given by) (a) Without.auxiliarymass

v (t) = ~ Fo(k, -ahon,) 5,'n ,~.

I 2 4 2{." .. .. 2 VA
Jim, [aJ -aJ "', +",,(I+Il)}+(w,aJ,) J

=~ Fo , (! 1.6)
V2(t)
Jim,' [w' - w' (w,.. + w,(l
-' .. *
+ 11) + (w, w,l']
sin fiJt

l! may be noted from Equation, 11,6 that it is possible to force the amplitude of response of
the first mass (mJ) to vanish by a suitable choice of parameters (also refered to as tuning)
kz and mz (or, )1). This. concept can be exploited in designing vibratjon absorbers for industrial
structures and can be achieved by attaching an auxiliarylsecondary mass to the primary struCture
which is subjected to a hannonic excitation. This can be quite effective, when the operating
frequency of the reciprocating machine and a natural frequency of the supporting structure are
nearly equal, causing large amplitude vibrations of the supporting structure due to resonance,
Let us assume for simpHcity. that the second mass mz in Figure 11.3 is an auxiliary mass
attached to the primary structure, which is excited by a reciprocating machine installed on the
floor. The amplitude of displacement response (normalized with respect to the static defl~ction
Folk,l of the primary mass is shown in Figure 11.4(a~for a range of operating frequencies. The
unbounded amplitude for ldw7 = l.0, corresponds to the condition of resonance and it should
be avoided (w~ :=. JkJ/11lt represents the natural frequency of primary structure alone), Let liS
now consider the use of a tuned mass damper (or, vibration absorber) in altering the dynamic
response of primary structure~ Figures lJ.4(b'i) show the response characteristics of primary
structure y"ith an auxiliary/secondary structure for different parametric variations. The objective
is. to find a suitable set of parameters for secondary structure, so as to limit the normalized
respon~ of primary structure to be less than unity in the neighbourhood of alW;::;: L The effect
of addmg a secondary structure is to split one resonant peak into two resonant peaks.
corresponding to two natural frequencies of lbe combined 2-DOF system. A light (J.t < I)
secondary system attached to the primary structure by means of a relatively flexible attachment,
does take away a significant part of the vibration energy from the primary structure at }/w ~
= 1. as can be seen in Figure 11.4(b). Howev~.r, such an arrangement is only effective (in
reducing. the vibration amplitude of primary mass) for a very small range of operating
frequencIes, by means of increasing the deformations in the secondary structure. Attaching a 5,0
heavy secondary mass with a flexibJe spring is not at all effective~ as can be infered from Figure
11.4(c), Figure 11.4(d) shows that the use of a light mass and relatively stiff attachment does FIGURE 11.4 Performance of vibration absorber/tuned mass damper.
?ot Jead [0 any significant change in the resonant frequency of the original structure and hence
lS nut an effective solution for the vibration problem. Figures 11,4{e) and (f) show the perfo.rm~
ance for secondary structures comprising heavy mass with stiff attachments_ By comparing these Thus a secondary structure with heavy absorber mass can be very cffectlve in controlling
two fj~re&, it may be noted that the two resonant peuks are wen separated and are sufficiently machine induced vibrations in a building/structure. However, the large size associated with a
away 110m the original location of resonant peak (for the primary structure alone) at aim; = heavy mas.s can sometimes impose a practical limitation on the usable range of operating
1, Further, the amplitude of displacement of primary structure vanishes at catw ~ J and is le......, frequencies. The reqUired stiffness (k::) of the secondary attachement can be calculated from
than the static deformatjon (Folk,) for a wide range of operating frequencies. This effective the maximum allowable displacement of the secondary system (at co CO;) VZmax
f'dnge of operating frequencies increases with increase in the mass rdttO (Ji;; m2/mj)' Folk"
. , . ( EorthquoJre Resistant Design of Structures
L.
11.4 FREE VIBRATION ANALYSIS OF MDOF (I LI2), which is a set of N simultaneous linear homogeneous equations in unknowns ~. The
problem of determining constant (w) for which the Equation (1l.12) has a non,trivial solution
SYSTEMS is known as the characteristic value or eigenvalue problem. The eigenvalue problem may be
By considering the fact that the damping levels are usually very small in structural systems, let rewritten. in matrix notation as)
us consider the respense of an undamped MDOF system. The effect of damping will be dealt (l Ll3)
with at a later stage. The equation of free vibration then reduces to,
A non-trivial solution for Equation (1 Ll3) is feasible only when the determinant of the
Mv .. K,,=O (11.7) coefficient matrix vanishes~ i.e.,
We look for a solution in the form Vi = q(l)~" ; = 1,2, ... , N, where the dependence on time IK - w2Ml = 0 (I L14)
and that on space variables can be separated. This implies that the ratio of amplitudes of any
The expansion of the determinant in Equation (lLl4) yields an algebraic equation of 1'1' order
two coordinates is independent of time. PhysjcaHy~ it implies that aU degrees of freedom
in {f)2, which is known as the characteristic equation. The roots of characteristic equation are
perform synchronous motion and the system configuration does not change its shape during
known as the eigenvalues and the positive square root of these eigenvalues are known as the
mouon but only Its amplitude changes.
natural frequencies (Wi) of the MDOF system. It is only .t these N frequencies that the system
Substituting for v, the equation of motion may be written as.
admits synchronous motion at all coordinates. For stable structural systems with symmetric and
M{ifJ}ii(t) .. K{q,)q(l) = 0 (11.8) positive definite stiffness and mass matrices the eigenvalues will always be real and positive. For
each eigenvalue the resulting synchronous motion has a distinct shape and is known as naturaV
which is a set of N simultaneous equations of the type no17fU21 mode shape or eigenvector. The normal modes are as much a characteristic of the system
N N as the eigenvalues are, They depend on the inertia and stiffness. as reflected by the coefficients
I. m'il/Jii(t) .. I. kijtP jq(l) = 0; i = 1, 2, ... , N (11.9) mij and kij' These shapes correspond to those structural configurations. in which the inertia forces
imposed on the strUcture due to synchronous harmonjc vibrations are exactly balanced by the
j=l
elastic restoring forces within the structural system. These eigenvectors are determined as the
where the separation of variables leads to non-trivial solution of Equation (11.13). Since the determinant of the coefficient matrix
evaluated at one of the natural frequencies js singular, a unique solution for eigenvectors can
noOt be found. It is, however, possible to compute the amplitudes of the synchronous motion at
_ ij(t)
1.2, .. ,. N (11.10) N - J coordinates relative to the amplitude of motion at the remaining coordinate, which may
q(l) be selected arbitrarily, Thus an additional constraint-known as normalisation condition-must
be supplied in addition to Equation (l L13) to completely determine an eigenvector. Two of the
Since the tenns on either side of the equality sign are independent oOf each other, this equality most commonly used nonnalisation procedures are:
can hold only when each of these terms are equal to a positive constant (say. ar).l Thus we have. (i) assume the amplitude of synchronous motion at the first degree of freedom as unity.
ij(t) .. wq(1) =0 (1 J.lI) (ii) constrain a length measure of the eigenvector to be unity. Fot example, for any eigen-
vector (4)(')) it is pessible to determine elements of {tP(,)} such that {4>'}TM{;!>W} = I.
N Such a normalisation. using mass/inertia matrix (M) is known as mass renormalisation
I. (k" w'm,)tP j 0; i:;: 1, 2. , .. , N. (lJ.J2) and the resulting mode shape is known as mass orthonormal mode shape.
j=f
It can be shown that the N eigenvectors of an N-DOF system completely span the N-dimensional
The solution of Equation (I L11J is q(1) = sin(al' - <X), a harmonic offrequency w. Thus we vector space, and therefQre~ can be used as basis vectors foOr representing any Nh order vector.
may conclude that the motion of all coordinates is harmonic with same frequency (f) and same Since the condilion of orthogonality is a necessary condition for any set of base vectors, it will
phase djfference a. However, it !aiJ) needs to be established if sl1ch a synchronous, harmonjc now be shown that the eigenvectors also satisfy this condition.
1)luliuf) is possible for aU frequencies. To investigate this issue let us consider the Equation

11,4.1 OrthogolUllity Coru1itions

:The choice of the ;;jgn i~ dictated by pl!y~lcal -considerations. For a conservative system the clisplacemenls must
remain finlle at all ioslauees. If we had chosen a negative constant then the ~"olution would involve exponential An important property of the mode shapes or eigenvectors is that they are mutually orthogonal
(unclion" which would grow without bounds with lime f. The choice of positive cOnstant, On the other hand, with respect to the mass and stiffness matrices. More precisely. the product involving
proVJde.~ a harmonic :.olution which ha~ finite energy at all times.
 -'s- ( Eartkqv.ak.e Resistant De~gn of Structures Chapter 11 Dynamics Of M'U.Zti-Dgree~ofFreedorn .9ystem3 ) M'lia
multiplication of mode shapes corresponding to two different modes vanishes. 11.5 DETERMINATION OF FUNDAMENTAL
and (l US) FREQUENCY
where Mi and Ki are called the generalised mass and s!ijfness respective1y for the iib mode and The determination of the eigenspectrum of a system is an important part of the dynamiC analysis
aij isthe Kronecker delta, For the case when mode shapes have been orthonormalized with of the system. Since the response of MDOF system as usually contained in the lower modes of
(01.
respect to the mass, M j ;;;;;; 1 and K j = vibration~ determination of the characteristics of the fundamental mode is of primary interest.
In order to prove this proposition, let us assume that orand {Ij)UJ) denote the eigenvalue
and corresponding eigenvector for i m mode and 07 and {<pU)} cdrrespond to the j('# i)th mode. 11.5,1 Rayleigh Quotient
It follows that both of these eigenpairs satisfy Equation (11.13). Thus,
For any arbitrary vector, {u}. representing a displacement configuration of a N-DOF system,
K{4>(/)) = ro~M{<I>W} (1 L16) the Rayleigh quotient is defined as the ratio
K{</>,,'} = roJM{q,uJ) (11.17)
uTKu
p--- (I L23)
Pre.multiplying Equation (lLl6) by {qIJ)}T and Equation (lLl7) by {~"l}T, we get, - uTMu

{(j)}TK{~(i) = ro;{qIJ,}TM{#'l} (ILl8) For a particular case when the vector u represents the arnpJitudes of the harmonic oscilIations
of the NDOF system or the Rayleigh quotient, p, corresponds to square of the frequency of
(#'1jTK{qIJ) W] (~i))TM{(i)} (J L19)
harmonic oscillations. This result follows from the principle of conservation of energy by
Subtracting Equation (ILl9) from Equation (lLl8) and noting {.pWJ'K{~'l} = ({"lj'KT{qlJl))' equating the maximum potential energy stored in the system to the maximum kinetic energy,
and the fact that K and M are symmetric matrices we have, Further, the Rayleigh quotient has the property of being stationary in the neighbourhood of the
natura] modes of the system. It is a global minimum for the fundamental mode and global
(1 L20) maximum for the highest mode of vibration-also known as the minimax property of RayJeigh
For all modes i ;t j with distinct eigenvalues (w,;t "'i), Equation (11.20) can be specified only quotient.
if the matr]x inner product {qlJl)TM{ ~"} vanishes. This proves the first half of the proposition
stated in Equation (1 LIS). The other half follows by substituting this result in either of 11.5,2 Stodola Method
Equation (1 Ll8) or (I L19).
By o'ansfonning the generalised eigenvalue problem to the standard ejgenvalue problem.
Since the computed mode shapes of al'-DOF system form a set of orthogonal vectors, they
span the N-dimensional space completely. In other words, these mode shapes can be used a;; a (11.24)
set of basis vectors in the N-dimensional space and any vector in this space can be represented
as a linear combination of these mode-shapes. where D == K-1M is known as the dynamical matrix of the system and t. ~,Stodola method
W
The orthogonality property of mode shapes leads to a very powerful theorem, modal
expansion theorem, which states that any vector x in N-dimensional vector space can be start, with the choice of a trial vector, say, (i>(0)). Pre-multiplying (i>(O,) by the dynamical
represented as a linear combination of mode-shape vectors, matrix, D yields another vector {{l)}, which is an improved estimate of the eigenvector. An
.v estimate of the eigenvalue is obtained by taking the ralio of any element of new vector {~(l)}
:< = I. q( {(d) (ILlI) to the corresponding element of the trial vector, i.e.,
;""1
-(1)
We/Jere JA,U),
l V'. j represents e,. mode shape and
th"h .
q; denotes the correspondmg modal'
coordinate. ,(1) = !J._ (1 L25)
A "'(O)
For a given vector x, the modal coordinates qi may be computed by using the property of lJ
\ll\hogunality of mode-shapeR as,
if {~(l)} were lI: true eigenvector. this ratio would be constant for any choice of the elemen~ of
these vectors, In general, however, this ratio will be different for different choice of elements
(11.22) of these vectors, In the special case of symmetric coefficient matrices, the minimum and the
maximum values of this ratio provide the upper and lower bounds on the eigenvalue. The
iteration resumes with the new trial vector of {(1)} ';:; J-{~(1l}.
,1.(1)
Thus the equation for i lh where, use has been made of t.'1e modal expansion theorem (Equation (l1.27, The coefficient
q) so determined, gives the extent of representation of the mode~shape {tiP}} in t"'le trial vector
iteration is given as~
{~}, Let us define a new trial vector {or} ~ (~) ql(ID'n} by sweeping out the traces of known
(11.26) eigen vector (lilt,}, Using tillS purified trial vector in the iteration procedure we would converge
to the next lowest mode i.e. 211d mode, {<2)}. This process can be repeated to compute any
The Stodola method can be viewed as an iterative solution of a system of simultaneous equations desired eigenvector by sweeping out the traces of all the previous lower mode eigenvectors from
to arrive at that configuration of generalised displacements for which the inertia forces are the trial vector. A geometrical interpretation of the process of sweeping is to detertrtine a tria1
exactly balanced by the elastic forces in the structural members, vector which is orthogonal to aU the previously determined eigenvectors and this approach is
known as vector purification/deflation.
Why should iterative procedure converge to the first mode always? In theory, though it is possible to sweep out completely the traces of a known eigenvector
To answer this natural query, let u<:o take recourse to the modal expansion theorem and expand from an assu;ned trial vector, in practice, however. it is necessary to sweep oui the known
eigenvectors from trial function before !.he beginning of each iteration. This precaution is
an arbitrary trial vector (~) as, necessary because the round off errors due to finite precision arithmeric, on a computer always
(11.27) leave some small traces of swept out eigenveclor(s} in the trial vector at the end of the iteration,
It is possible to automate the process of sweeping in each iteralion by sweeping out the [races
where (<,l'''), (1/>(2)), "" [ID'N denote the eigenvectors of the dynamieal system, The first of known modes from the coefficient matrix. Let us consider that first n(< N) modes are known
iteration results in, and it i:: required to converge 10 the 11+ J I/: mode via iteration. Since the need for sweeping the
traces of known modes from tria} veClor at each iteration may be computationally expensive.
D{) ~ 4{I/>(I)}+ q~ {~(2+",+ q~ {~(N)} (11,28) it is worthwhile to look for the possibillty of a more elegant formulation for this procedure. Let
WI U)2 ruN us consider that rtf} be the trial vector from which the traces of first n( < N) modes are to be
Thus each iteration results in amplification of the lib teoo in the modal expansion by a factor removed. We have, by modaJ expansion theorem,
1101. So that after p successive iteratlons. N

IY'{~) ~ ..iLWlJ) + 5-'--{q>(2)} + '" + q,; (q>(N)} (11.29)

{iii} ~ I. (<pU))q)
/=1
~,,,7p ...~7p #._p
~I -2 ~N

For first n modes, which are known, the coefficients q) can bc computed by using the orthogo-
Assuming that the natural frequencies (Wi) are all distinct and are numbered in the ascend~
jng order i.e. oJ < ~ < ... < roN. it foHows that after sufficient number of cycles nality propeny, The purified trial vector (or) can then be given ""

~~ ~- ... ~J.._. Therefore the first teoo in the modal expansion becomes progres~ N
... ~'lp
..... 1
ro'lp
2
(j)'lP
N (VrJ = (iii) - I. (I/!(}'}q i
sively m.ore dominant with each iteration and eventually converges to the first mode {4'(0). i"'l

11,5.3 Converging tD Higher Modes __

,_1
I
1-
" ____1_,,__
{~(J) },~
r lUi T I "7'1
) !VI ('If, (11.31)
The iteration method described earlier wiIl always converge to the lowest mode, unless the \
k.
'I;"
j-J
')
W})
T
MW}}
")
)
,

chosen triai vector exactly resembles a higher natural mode. Therefore to determine the higher
modes using iteration procedure, it is necessary to sweep out all thp lower modes. For example.
let us as.sume that the fIrst mode shape has already been determined and has been mass
onilOnorm.lized (such tbat (Ol) "M (ID" ') = 1,0), Considering any arbitrary trial vector (~) and
pre-mUltiplying it by (qi")TM and invoking the orthogonality of mode shapes,
1(l)l'M[~) = 1'i))lM(Q)'I)}q, + (<fI!)7M(<f21)q, +" + {(J'M{I'"VI)qN
(11.30)
~ S(i,iI)
where S is known a~ the sweeping matrix and {he entire process of ~\I;"eeping out [he known
m()dc~ from a trial vector ht.lS been reduced to a simple matrix tnUlliplicalion. In practice, the
Coefficient matrix of the eigenvalue problem is post-multiplied by thc sweeping matrix and the
resuIting updated coelTkicnt matrix is u.\:Ied in the iteration procedure to converge fo rhe n + I In
mode. The sweeping matrix: is then updated to sweep OUl [he fir'll n + 1 modes by extendjng
I the l>ummation in Equation (J L 3 J) to include the n + JIh mouo;::,

1
 i
. , . ( Earthquake Resi6tant Design of Structures c Chapter J 1 Dynamics oj Multi~Degree-of-Fr~~--;;'-~ ~fJ$ie;;!) .100.
For the demonstration of the procedure, let us consider Table I 1.2 shows iteration for second mode and the coefficient matrix for the iteration for
a three~storey shear building shown in Figure 1 L5. The second mode IS given by,
=
system parameters are given as m 3500 kg, k, = k 1500
kNlm, k, = 15k. and k, = 2<Ok< The mass and stiffness D, = DS, = 7
On3 -0.189
-OJ 89 0.246
-0.1 37
0<067
1
matrices can be written as,
r
,-0.137 0.067 0.296 J
-I
TABLE 11.2 Iterations (or second mode
25
-tS -D,
m
NO! ) (,p(i)) { lji"} [,p(2)) {if 2l J (.;I") {ljI"i l (.pI'I) {1f14 I } (it"')
.. ------~---~- .. --~ --~.-----<

For inverse iteration, the system coefficient matrix for the 0.173 -D J89 -0.137 1.00 0302 LOO 0.49 J,OO 0.496 LO 0.498 1.00 0.499
standard form of eigenvalue problem is given as, FIGURE 11.5 A 3-slorey shear -O.~ 89 0.246 0.067..0.50 ,0.329 -1.09 ,0.51 -:.04 -D.506 -1.02 -0.505 ,LOt -0.503
building.
-.(U3? 0<067 0<2% -0.25 -{l.245 -OS} -0.45 -0.92 -{l.479 -0.%6 -0.49 ~O_986 -0.497
-<-.----~---~<---
2.167 Ll67
0.5'1' The approximation to eigenvector after SID iteration lS {Vpi}'t::= rl.000, -1.008, -0,9961-
7[ U67 1.167 05
Thus, as the iterations proceed, the iteration procedure converges to the second eigenvalue
05 0.5 0.5 i
t., = O.5mlk and the correspooding eigenvector is (q)[2)} = [1.00. -l.00, - Loo)'- Accordingly,

I1eration for the first mode

the natura1 frequency of the second mode of the structural system is given by w~ =- 2.0 i "From
TABLE II.I m
the elementary linear algebra, it is kno"Wll that the trace of a square matrix is equal to the sum
m
rVI")) (,p(l)) ['1"") [,p")) ( '1,0) (,p'))) ('I"')) (.p(AI) ('I"") of its eigenvalues, Thus, it follows that,
<-~-~".---~".---- ~".--~<
3
2.167
1.167
LJ67
Ll67
(L500
0<500
100
O<SO
2<875
1875
1.00
0-65
3mS
2.075
LOO
0.67
3<109
2.109
LOO
0<68
3<12
2<12
100
0.68
Tr(D) = L A;
1"'!
0.500
<--~-~.~-
O.SOO 0<500
.. ~-
.0<25
..
0,875 030 0.975 0.32 0.995 032 l.00 0.32
and .4.3 ; 0.214 7, or "''\ ~ 4.68! < The corresponding eigenvector can be computed as {~3)J
Thus, the iteration procedure converges to the first eigenvalue A1 = 3.121'nlk and the ~ [J.O. -3<68, 4.68f. Alternatively, the third eigenpair could have been computed by first
corresponding eigenvector is (ll\) = [l.00. 0.68, 0.32J'"- Table Il.l shows the iteration for the constructing a new sweeping matrix as
first mode and accordingly, the natural frequency of the first mode of the structural system is 2
S - I ~ ~_~l_ _ {mtj)}("UI)r (11.33)
given by ",2, = 0. 32 .k:..
m
2- f::
(I/JUIj'M{I/JU)j 'i' 0/

and then deriving the coefficient matrix for iteration for the third mode (D z) by pre-multiplying
Sweeping
the new :;weeping matrix by D, I.e.,
The sweeping matrix for removing the fir:;;t mode is given by, D;, = DS,
The remaining eigenpair may then be computed via iterations,

U,6 FORCED VIBRATION ANALYSIS

~
'l -0.435
0.361
-0.435
0.705
-0.204]
-0.139 (l1.32) The forced vibrations of an ~lDOF system are described as a sei of N coupJed, non-homogeneous
-0.204 -oJ39 0.935 differential equations in vas,
(1 :34))

The~e equations. in coupled form, are extremely cumbersome; and we $;haH look for some
suitable transformation of the unknowns v to reduce the sy:;tem of N coupled differential
equations to a set of N uncoupled differential equations. This method of solution is known as
m()de~!;uperpositjon method.
L .
Equation (7.5)). The Equations (l 1.38) can now be solved for unknowns qn independent of each
other. by using the solution methods developed for single degree of freedom systems. Once the
solution for modal coordinates qr is available, the respons.e in system coordinates can be obtained
by using the lineur transformation of Equation (11.35).

11.6.1 Mode-superposition Method 11.6.2 Excitatinn by Support Motion

We know by modal expansion theorem thal any arbitrary vector v in an N-dimensional space The forced vibration of MDOP system excited by support motions is des<:riood by !.he coupled
(an be represented as a linear combination of mode~sbapes. Thus, system of differentia) equations as
N

v= I q,U)((") =q>q (11.35)

',.i
where. q, i;; the modal matrix with each of its columns representing a mode-shape of the MDOF
')y~iCm and q is a vector of modal coordinates related to the SYSlem coordinate vector,' through
a Imear lra:lsformation given by Equation (I] .35). Substituting this transfonnation in Equation
(J1.34) and prc~multipJying it by I> T, we have.
(J 1.36)
Since the mode shapes 4l are orthogonal wlth respect to M and K matrices, the matrix triple
producl, involving M and K in Equatinn (11.36) both yield diagonal matrices. The damping
matrix C is not in general amenable to .such djagonalization procedure. However, for a specific
daR!; of damping matrices--called classical damping-such a diagonalization using (undamped)
m~e shapes j~ indeed possibJe, A sufficient condition for a damping matrix C to be diagonalized
usmg undamped mode shape~ i~ to have the following ~eries expansion:
(l1.37)
" determined directly from the response spectra without solving the differential equation of motion.
A special case of Equation (l1.37) obtained by retainIng only two terms of the series for
n =:: () and n:=: 1 and is known as Rayleigh dampjng and is very widely used in structural dynamics
appl~cation~. It is also known as proportional damping as the damping matrix is proportionaJ
to stIffness and ma~s matrices in this case, Since the matrices M and K are known for a given
,... tr~lcturaJ system, a classical damping matrix C can be completely specified if the coefficients
an In the series Df Equation (l 1.37) are Rpecified, These coefficients can also determined so as
10 have desired damping value;, in different modes of vibrations. if we assume that the C in
equatioH (1136) is a c1a~siQll damping matrix, then the system of coupJed equatIons reduces
'() a 'set of N uncoupled differential equations in qr, r ; ;:; L 2, .""' N, as:
Mv + Cv + Kv =-Mrv, (] 1.39)
wherc i;R denotes ground acceleration. v is the vector of structural displacements: relative
to the ground displacements, and r is a vector of influence coefficients. The il.h element of vector
r represents the displacement of i m degree of freedom due to a unit displacement (if the base.
The nature of this equation is s.imilar to that of standard forced vibration problem as given by
Equation (11.34) and hence the method of solution (using mode-superposition) is also similar,
Thus the equation can be decoupled as
(11.40)
{\i'",}TMr
where. rr == ~:" \ T <' is known as the mode-participation factor for the rth mode.
{".} M{"}
Note, however, that the Equation (11.40) differs from the equation of motion of a SOOP
~ystem excited by support acceleration ifg by a scallng factor for the excitation. Since the
maximum response of SDOP system to ground acceleration is generally available in the form
of response spectra, it follows that the maximum value of the rill modal coordinate qr can be
Therefore, assuming that the spectral displacement ordinate for frequency (J), and damping (r
is gjven as SnCWn (;r), the maximum response for rth modal coordinate q~,max is glven as,
q" _ = r,S,A(j)n <:;.); \;f r = l, 2, ... , N
This information about the maximum response in modal eoordinates is, however, not very useful
for structural design, which is concerned with the maximum response in physical coordinates
v. It is possible to estjmate probable maximum response values in physical coordinateR from the
knowledge of maximum response in modal coordinates by using modal combination rules. Two
of the most commonly used modal combination mles are:

VI r 1,1, ... ,N (I US) Absolute suru method

.;;}lCl"{:\ (1':,) IvY"} c::: m'r rcprc!>Cl1t$ the modaJ mass for mode r, {4t{r)}Tc{q'lV!} c" is the Assuming that the maximum of each modal coordinate occur at the ~ame instant of time, the
:>:Jc.tJicknr ()J l,'j"t:o~$ damfJing in r't mcKlc, {~~j}TK{qF)} '" k; denores the modal stjff~e$s for m:.tximum response in phys.ical coordinates at ith DOF is given by .
..... )1" . , l f",l!n'!:'
. ..,,1:.,i (,,", :U.( l'!) J =-". I' Ihc mc,,-,a!
." j.OJ"CC m
.
mode r. It lTItly he noted that if the mode shapes
m: "'"
!,

tl;JVC bctH m..,a",,~orthonormaIiZed. then these modal parameters reduce to

:,od k! -= (1); (nolt: the ."Iimilari!y 01 form with the equation of motion fOf SDOF system in
1.0, c.:' = 2',.(J)p
Vi, m~~ "" f ql.rr.:J;t~r; (11041)
!""!
 "'f
C/i(J.pier 11 Dynam.ies of Multi~Dcgroo-ofFrce4am Systemll W'"
. , . ( Earthqtw.ke Resista.n De~gn of.~s:.:""'=<c:tu::... =,______________~
which, for the current problem are given by
The absolute sum method of modal combination provides a very conservative estimate of the
maximum response in physicaJ coordinates since the lime of occurrence of maxima in each mode [(1,J03X(2,94/3.88 2 )}'+{""U42X(!.57/9J5, W+(O.037x(3.9
' 31 15.31'.)'1'\
)- .~ i
in general. is different. 39 3 1I.
Vmu~ [(O,714x(2,94/3.88'))'+{0.520x(L57/9.15 , )} , +{-Q.232x(. 53J')'J.5 J.'
Square root of sum of squares (SRSS) method ( [(0.258 X (2,94/3.88'))' + (0.298 x (157 19.1 52))' + {-OMS X (3.93/15.31' ))']05

If we relax the assumption regarding simultaneous occurrence of peak response in all modes,
and assumjng that the natural frequencies are not very closely spaced then the maximum
response in physical coordinate system can be estimated as, = r~:~:~lm
,0.159

(1142) The maximum inter-storey drifts are given by,

It must be empbasized bere that these modal combination rules are approximate procedures for
combining the maximum modal responses to get a probable estimate of the maximum response
of physical system. These modal combination rules may be used to estimate the probable which, in case of current problem leads to,
maximum value for any response quantity of interest such as, shear force, bending moment,
drifts, etc. However, care should be taken to ensure that the maximum of each desired response r r }' + 1(1
r + 15221 x ", 0.342 x -'-::T
1 57 l'
parameter is first calculated for each mode and then these modal maxima are combjned 1{(1 - 0.548) x !.303 x 2.940 \
according to a modal combination rule. An example which illustrates this procedure is given
L 3.88' 9.10 J
') ~O.5
below. 393 }'
+ {(l+6.260)xO,037X-'-,
15.31
J I

Example I Consider a 3-storey shear building shown in Figure 11.5 with the following 2

[t
properties: '
(0548- 0.198) x L303 x ~:~:~}"{ 1"71
+ (-1,522 + 0.872) x 0.342 x 9.;'SQ
30.0 0.0 LOOO }2 : . -05

M= 0.0 30.0 OOJ [1.000 1.000 ] 3.88l

9.15
,
+~(-6.260-12.100)xO.037X-'-2
393
f0.0 0.0 tonne" <I> = 0,548
30,0
-1.522 -6.260 ,ill"
0.198 -0,872 12,10
[
radls
l 15.31
!

J
! 0.0 15.31}
'{(O.l98) x 1.303 x 2.9 40 1' + {(-O.872) x", 0.342 x 1057, }'
Compute the floor displacement.:;, inter-storey dnftR. slorey shears and overturning moment'i of
this building when excit~ by an earthquake. The pseudo-spectral acceleration ordinates of the l 3,88' J .
21.5
9.15'

earthquake ground ace,<-le"'tion for the three modes are given as 5" = 2.94, 1.57, and 3.93 m/sZ. 3.93 } ..
+ {(12.100)xO.037X~--
Assume the storey heights to be 3.0 m and use SRSS rule for combining modal responses. 15.31' !
\
Solu~n The modal mass in the r: mode of vibration can be computed as m ~
h
'0.116\
{qt'j)'M{'''). For this problem, the modal masses are = 40.185, m;
= 122.306, and m; m;
\ = [ O.089 1m
;:: 5597.92K The mode participation fach"" l( rr I , "'jT M .
-.,
m,
IlP' r i can be computed as I!
)
\0.051,

1.303,12 -D.342, and rj = 0,037. The maximum storey shears are given by,
The maximum floor displacements arc given by,

', J05
v'"""
l.mM':
I~ r {I)
l I
, .2 1
r,.(SuJw,}}
 Chapter 11 Dynamics of Multi-Degree-of~Freedom SYBte.m8 ) . ,
or. in vector form
trans1ationa1 components of ground motions simultaneously at a support point. Computations
([(30,0 x LO x 1.303 X 2,94)' .;. (30,Q x 1.0 x - 0.342 x 1.57)' for any response quantity of interest for simultaneous excitation by mUltiple components would,
in general, yield different estimates than for any single ground motion component acting alone .
.;. (30,0 x 1.0 x 0.037 " 3.93)' J0.5
It is not adequate, for design purpose, to consider the maximum response out of the three
{{30.0 x (I.;. 0.548)" 1.303 x 2.94)' estimates obtained for different ground motion components independently, To find the response
Vm. ~ + {3D,Q x (I - 1.522) x - 0342 x 1.57} , parameters for use in design, the response estimates for excitation by individual components
.;. {30.0 x (I 6.260) x 0.037 x 3.93)'JO.5 may be combined together by SRSS rule. For any generic response quantity of interest, say~ R,
({30D x (l .;. 0.548.;. 0.198) x 1.303 x 2.94f the value to be adopted for design calculations Rdes can be obtained as,
.;. {30,Q x-1.522 - 0,872) x -0.342 x 1.57)'
(J
= IR' + R'y + R'z
RdestJx
T {30.0 x (1- 6.260.;. 12.100) x 0,037 x 3.93)'f5
where, R,_, Ry. and Rz represent the estimate of response R due to excitation by ground motion
1116.13' in x, )', and z directions, respectively.
~ !
17 0"'_,'<-/11,"1>,'
'.n.J"

l204.10} 11.6.3 Mode 1hmcation

Generally. the mathematical models for real civil engineering structural systems may involve
Tht rnaxi!Tlum overturning momcnts Jrc given by,
millions of degrees of freedoms, implying that the total number of equations to be solved for
modal coordinates (Equations (11.38 could be of the same order-a fonnidable task even for
the powerful desktop computers available today. Fortunately. it is not necessary to include
response in an the modes to get a rational estimate of the total response. Since most of the energy
of the dynamic loads of civil engineering structures (such as earthquake ground motions, wind
Of, in vector form, forces, ocean waves l etc.) is concentrated in low frequencies (typically < 35 Hz. for earthquakes)
the higher modes (with larger natural frequencies) are not excited by these lowfrequency
forces. 2 Thus it is possible to truncate the modal summation in Equation (11.35) to the sum of
r(30.0 x 0.0 x 1.0 x 1.303 X 2.94)' + (30,0 x 0.0 x 1.0 x -0.342 x 1.57)' only a few of the lower modes. The total number of tenns in such truncated modal summation
+ (30.0 x 0.0 X 1.0 x 0.037 X 3.93)' J05 seldom exceeds a few hundreds, even in very complex structural systems. Thus the response
[{30.0 x (I x (9.0 - 6,0) + 0.548 x 0,0) x 1.303 x 2.94j' vector v can be approximately detennined as.

Ai""., ~ + {30.0 x (l x (9.0 - 6.0) -1.522 x 0.0) x - 0.342 X 1.57)' fJ

+ {30.0 x (I x (9.0 - 6.0) - 6.260 X 0.0) x 0.037 x 3.93)' ]0.5 v= L q,(t){#') (11.43)

I {30.0 x (I x (9.0 - 3.0) + 0.548 x (6.0 - 3.0).;. 0.19& x 0,0) X 1.303 X 2,94)'
+ 130() x (l x (9.0 - 3.0) - 1522 x (6.0" 3.0) - 0.872 x 0,0) x- 0342 x 1.57)' where. it <:: <:: N, The decision about the number of modes to be included in the response
computations may be based on the foHowing two criteria:
pO.!, x (i x (9.0 3.0) - 6.260 X (6.0 - 3.0) .;. [2.1 00 x 0.0) x 0.037 x 3.93)' ]05 J
([) All modes having natural frequencies less than or equal to the highest frequency in the
"q '1
',','-' ~
excitation should be included in the modal summation,
~ 348391 tN."., (il) At least 90% of the total mass of the structural system should be included in the dynamic
~~~\r.5S ) response computation, This criterion in assessed by considering the cumulative effective
modal rnass (= m ~ r;') for all modes included in the summation. which should be
'f"](' ~:,:!::.:~!; .aioil;. Jor nlJxirnum overturning momeni <Ii [be base Gl!1 also be more than 90% of the toml mass of the system.

In ,he 1.I1)()VC~lllentioncd .. ~. I .
. , ." c .... amp1e, on y one component of nround...acceJeralion was: consjd- inference can be drawn by consi.dering tbe mll.ure of response of SPOF systems to harmonic e:xdtations. The
. It;) 'Ui ':~'('H'llj()fl Tn oen"ral thO' .[ 1d be . 0
- "'. ~ .. e - !; 'i ructure wou subjected to three mutually orthogonal dynamic amplification factor for the oscillator response approacbes unity as the ratio of frequency of excitation to
natural frequency (wff4,) decreases and thl: response approaches that (or a static cate {see rig-tift' 7.5).
 The truncation ~f the modal summation after a few modes undoubtedly introduces some
T! c
It should be noted that although the response of higher modes can be approximated by
errors due t~ neglectmg the contribution of higher modes to total response. However. if the
conSidering the static response only. the formulation presented above requires that all mode
above-mcnt~on~ t,:o criteria are adhered to~ rhe error resulting from neglecting the higher shapes for the system have to be computed in order to compute the contribution of higher modes
!~ode. co~tnbutlon lS n?t Hkel.y to be sjgnificant to affect the design, except for very rare to the structural flexibility, It is worthwhile to investigate jf it js possibJe to estimate the
sIt~il.tJOns e~countered In specIal structures such as pipings, etc. ]n such speciaJ cases, it is cOJltribution to structural flex.ibility from higher modes in tenus of lower modes which are being
possIble ro unp:ove on the accuracy of the solution by including the contribution of higher
considered for dynamic response. It turns out that it is indeed pos:-;ible to refonnulate the
modes as a statiC cOJTection to the computed dynamic response.
expression of structuraJ flexibility as,

11.6.4 Static Correction for Higher Mode Response

Let m; consider the modal contribution to total response as the sum of two parts:

.iif _N
v= L {.p"'jq,(t)+ L {ql")q,(I) (11.44) (11.46)
F""j .,,,.N+l
whcx, the second term of the modal summation represents the error term due [0 truncation of
where, higher mode contribution to structural flexibility has been computed by subtracting the
modal summation, (assumIng that only N lower modes are being considered for dynamic contribution of lower modes to structural flexibility from the total structural flexibility (K-!),
respon.se computatlOJl. Let us now consider the equation for the response of sth modal coordinate Thus the total response v can be computed as
m,ij,(I) + c,q,(t) + k,q,(t) = f,
which Can be rearranged as, (11.47)

q,(t) = {,_ q,(lL 21;,<,,(1)

where, the second term on the right hand side represents the static correction term to account
~ w; IDs
for higher mode response. This correction for higher mode response is also known as the missing
where, the first term represents rhe ret;ponse in s mode if the load were applied statically; the mass correction.
other rw.o terms represent the dynamic correction to the static response in sth mode, The inertia
ten~ 1S :nversely proponjonal to lhe square of the natural frequency, while the damping term
(whlch IS generall\,- very' II' '1 . . ~, .. . U.7 MODEL ORDER REDUCTION IN STRUCTURAL
J "rna in magmtu( e m companson to eltlstlc and mertia terms) 1S
mversely pr~portionaJ to the natural frequency, Therefore for higher modes, the contribution DYNAMICS
from dynamIC response te ~ b "-ft .. .
, ' . . J.uS ecomes mSlgm leant 10 companson wIth the stane response
term and the response m hIgher modes can be reasonably approximated by considering only the Since only a few lower modes contribute to the dynamic response of any structural system,," it
static re(: '111 1 - "
, "ponse. e tota response can now be given (after substituting for the modaJ force is not necessary to compute 311 eigenvalues and eigenvectors for a given system. Further, a major
ts: (rfJ!fljT f) a~, '
portion of the total time for the solution of a structural dynamics problem goes into [he solution
it N of eigenvalue problem. Hence. it is beneficial to explore the ways to minimise the time spent
Y = L {q,")jqAtJ+ 4: ki.{"')}{tp"'JTf in the eigensoJution phase which directly result.. in reduced solution times. A convenient way of
achieving this end is by reducing the problem si?.e itself by the use of the concept of generalised
r-J ,,""NT! 1:
coordinates. Let us consjder a (N-dimensional) vector v. which can be represented as

~ r {qi"
it

I=J
iq,(t) + I
!,;

I=,V+-I
F,r (i 1,45)

where J iA,(,<),{.{,(SI}T_ ' ,

F '; represents the contributIon = 'l'z (J 1.48)
, k,~ 1'1-' j 'I' ) - of sth mode toward the flexibility matrix
of' the stTuetIJral "y'>te-m. where. {tid) represents a set of orthogonal vectors, cal1ed as the Ritz base vecfors, z" denote
the rift generalised coordinate associated with the rill Ritz. vector. and p N. SUhMitu1jng
 ---~)
em
(a)
for v from Equation (11.48) in tl,e Equation (11.7) for free vibration, we get,

M'i + K':I'z =0 (11.49)

Pre-muJijplying by qtT on both sides of the equation, we get

(J
where, M = ,TMlJI and K ;;; -,1K"P are the reduced (p x p} generalised mass and stiffness
rmHflCC;S respeL:1i Ydy. Equ<ltion (ll50) represents;1O eigenvaJue problem which is much smaller
in :..izt' in comparison WIth the original eigenvalue probl.em given by EquiitlOfl (J L 7). The
t'.ig~nvecior~ of this redu:::cd cigenvaJue may be substhuted back in Equation (i 1.48) 10 get the
;:;g('qv:~J.'!n:'; i)l)ock \h'l[lCS) for lhe 'h.'ll;;,J :'4ructure for further liNe in the mode superpo;.;ition
:,:JaJy:'ls. l'of ~::r.arl)pk. ic:1. us assume that 4>: denotes the modal matrix containing aU J1
. ..!gcnv,...:lor<; ,,-; lile retilK'e-G eigcnvaJue prublem of Equation (I j .50). The required mode sbapes
~. ~',x k,v;e, :r21'dt;!,:) uf Ihc actual strm.:torc can [hen be ohtained as,
4> ':1'<1>,
'-;-;1(: In::\.l'.. l.;-.;w:ic:~ oblaincri hy solving the reduced eigenvalue ptobJem are approximations to the
~'fcquelJcics of the actllal sUTH.:turaJ sys:tem. The agreement between the two ~ct of frequencies
l.~.gcncr.:tl:y c~ceHent for the lower modes: but is relatively poor for higher rnode~. The qualiry
of approxt!11f1uon and number of Ritz base vectors required for accurate estimation of desired
number of mode s}lapcs of actll~\l :-.trtlcLurc depends on the choice of Rjtz base veclo~. GeneraHy,
jt is ~ece:;~ary that p ~ 2 N in order Lo estjmate accurately the frequencies: and mode shapes
f(.lr N lower modes. Further, a good choice for the first Ritz vectOr ({'Pm)} is the stalic
dJ~placcmcnl respons.e VcclOr (in accordance with Rayleigh's me-thod), Other additionaj Ritz
vectors can be estimated by making un arbitrary vector orthogonal to the previously determined
Ritz vectors by u~ing u pro(;('!durc similar 10 the sweeping of lower modes as discussed earHer.
The Rayleigh-Ritz metbod, ~ this procedure of model reduction is called, can be a very
powerful tool 10 quickly estimate the frequencies and mode shapes of lower modes and is
invariahly used in alJ commercial :-/.ructural analysis softwares.
1.50)
FIGURE 11.6 Effeet of spatial variation of ground motions: (a) inconsequential in the case of
structures with small plan dimensions, (b) a major consideration in the case of structures with
large plan dimensions.
case of elevated re:-efV{)ir, the spatia] varii.ltlon of earthquake ground motion is ineonsequentiaJ
and the motion can be assumed to be uniform at all pointl.' on the foundalion base for aU practJcai
purposes, However, for the long~span stl1.lcture. the variation of ground motion from one point
10 the other is ;.;ignificant, causmg differential support motions, The structure should be designed
to witl:stand this additional dit>tress, which is caused entirely due 10 non-uniform nature of cartb~
quake ground motiOns. In addition to the gen~
enttJon of quasi-static stresses. the spatial varia-
tion of earthquake ground motions can also lead
to failure of bridge spans due 10 inadequacy of
the bearing sealing lengths to accommodate the
ont -of- phase motions between different support
points. FaHure to consider this aspect while
designing the seating lengths/widths of the
bearing pads has led to numerous collapses of
hridge spans in past earthquake. Figure 11.7 FIGURE 11.7 Faiture of bridge spllns due '"
shows one such example of failure during the inadequate seating length (after [2]).
1999 Kocaeli, TUrkey earthquake.
As discussed above, the dynamic behaviour of large structurd1 systems to multiple-support
excitation by differential ground motions, has important implications for design of such systems
and these effects should be investigated analytically during the design process. The equatIOn of
motion for the case of multiple excitation can be given as.

11.8 ANALYSIS FOR MULTI-SUPPORT ."]

(V v i
Ir.,\ [ v ,\:
EXCITATION IMM,J i.
\ Vg
+[C C,J'lv )'+f K K,J
g
v)'
11
=0 (l1.51)

TJ\c is~ue (j! spatia! variation of ground motion5 was discussed earlier jll Ihe first part on where, the system property rns.lrice$ have been partitioned such that lhe vector Vi contains total
j"arlhqu(1ke U;~};J?d jI4011ons. AJthough the implications of {his important pby::k:d phenomenon di:.placement of all free degrees of freedom, and vJ: represents the displacement of ~l1Ppor(
"it' !lOt (JuHe onvlou;~ when the phm dimcw;ion5 of [j)e structure under consideration ;Jl"e verY degree~ of freedom, TlIt Equation (115 J) can ~e rewritten, afier some aJgebraic mar.ipubtiotl,
'i:;::H i:: willA nle w{1V('-;I.~llgl1Is {If the seismic wave" propagatin.g throllgh thc soil.
. 'O'0:f.;'!l!l, I; n:(. pl~n (iin!t;;nl>){lnY or trw ~t:tUttHraJ system are very large, or ;jl'e ,'omp:uuh!!: to
(11.52;
,,"l>.m;, '''''h"'. Ii hf'!h,,_ lllC :-patiaJ Varl,<lj()n oj grnlJlld motions c ..n be;t very impor\,mj m0tidling
,;.idv.nl!(", I L() show,: {WO t.hilf'rem structural ;.;:ystems: (i) un dcv~tcd reservoir, and Eqtwtion (11.52) can he solved by using method of mnde nUperposition (oJ', by lJsjng slcp-by.
; i: I ;: ;'U:ltj,J;H;~;:' hi iJt:(~ Gil U-f'lufC, (;1 a pipeline suhjectcD to c:lrlhqu:'lkc ocitarion, !n the
 'i
.,i. C~Il1'thqu(l.ke Resuta.nt Design. of StTttctU'f'e;'l
step integration) jf the tenns on the right hand side are considered to constitute an effective force
acting on the structural system. However~ the ground displacement and velocity time histories
also have to be specified in addition to the ground acceleration time histories at all suppon
points. The ground velocity and displacement time histories are generally not available.
Sometimes when those time histories are available, the reliability of those time histories is
questionable due 10 several assumptions necessitated by the strong motion data processing
algorithms for deriving velocity and displacement time histories from the recorded acceleration
data. It is, therefore, beneficial to explore the possibility of reformulating the equation of
motion so that the excitation can be specified in terms of ground acceleration only.
For this purpose, let us consider the total displacement response be given by the sum of!;\Vo
components: (i) a quasi-static component (VS ) which would resuJt if the support displaeements
v.:ere applied statical1y, and (ii) a dynamic component (v) oscillating about the quasi-static
displacement profile.
v'(t) = V'(I) + V(I) (11.53)
The quasi-static part of the so'ution is obtained by ignoring the time derivative tenns
(vel~citiesand accelerations) of Equalion (11.52) and noting that the total displacements (v,)
are, m this case. same as the quasi-static displacements (VS). Thus,
.'(1) = -K-1Kgvg(t)
= Rv,(t) (11.54)
where, R represents the influence coefficient matrix containing the response in a11 degrees of
freedom due to a unit displacement of a suppon point and is given by.
R =-K-1K,
Substituting from Equations (11.53) and (11.52), in Equalion (I1.52), we get afier some
rearrangement of terms,
Mil + CIl + Kv = -[Mr + Mglv g - [CR ~ Cglv g (11.55)
A<;. we had discussed earlier. the magnitude of damping forces in structural systems is gener.uly
qUlte smaU in comp~r(son with the inertia and elastic forCe terms. In such cases. there will be
no ap?reciable changt: in the computed dynamic response if the damping term is neglected from
the," n~hl hand side of Equation (l L55}. Thus the equation of motion for multi-support
excttatlon can be reduced to,
Mv + Cv + K. = -lMr + M,lv g ( 11.56)
\vhich contains only g1'llund acceleration term in the excjtation, Equation (I] .56) call be solved
for dynamk component of the response by any standard procedure of dynamic analysis. such
as the mode supnposition method. \I must be mentioned here that the effect of spatial variability
of ground mution on sei!)mlt: re'\ponse of multiple supported structure 1;'; 5trongly dependent on
the type of model used to describe the ground motton variation. It j5 desirable to analyse the
effects of spatial variation of ground motion by USIng several suites of ground motions at
supports which have been generated artificially to conform to different alternate models
postulated to be applicable for the project site [7].
11.9 SOIL-STRUCTURE INTERACTION
EFFECTS
All discussion till this point has been based on a tacit assumption !.hat tbe found:n!on:; of
structures transfer the loads by direct bearing on firm rocky strata and hence lhe suppor!
conditions could be assumed to correspond to the fixed-ba~ condition. Thi:: if:. no douht, "
simplifying assumption and is generally valid if the super~Slfucture is much more flexihlc:!
compliant than the underlying soil strata upon which the foundations rest. However, when the
reverse is true i.e .. the super-structure is much more stiff in compan;;on wHh the "oi: sfmta. lht>
structural response can be significantly influenced by the flexibHity of soiL
There are two primary issues involved in the phenomenon of :>otl-;,U"ucture interaction,
First. as the seismic waves propagate through soil during an earthquake, a discontinuity III the
medium of wave propagation is encountered at the interface of soil and structural foundations
The change in the material properties Jeads to scattering, diffraction. reflection, and refraction
of the seismic waves at this soil~foundation interface thereby changing the nature of ground
motion at that point from what would have otherwise been observed jn the absence of structure
and foundation. Further, the seismic wave propagatjon takes pJace by deformations in the
medium. Since the foundation can be considered to be very rigJd in comparison to the soli
deposits. the deformations of the soil at the soil-foundation interface are constrained as
the foundation cannot deform by the same amount as the soil. This funher leads to slippage
across the soi1~foundation interface-a nonlinear phenomenon-which is very difficult to
account for in the mathematical models for practical vibration analysis. Moreover, the rigid
foundation acts like a low-pass filter by averaging out the high frequency component~ in seismic
motions due to the kinematic constraint imposed by the rigid foundation. It should be noted that
the above-mentioned effects are only due to the wave propagation in elastic medium, The
dynamic behaviour of the structure has no role to play in this aspect Therefore, these effects
arising out of the wave propagation considerations are known as kinemafic inferaction effec~F,
The actual seIsmic input motion to the structural foundation is Lbe result of kinematic interaction
analysis considering only the geometry and stiffness properties of the stlUctllrai foundi.Hion
and soiL The second aspect of the soil-structure inleraction analysis involves: thc deformations
and stresses in supporting soil, induced due to the base shears and moments generated in the
Vibrating structure. The soH defonnations further lead to a mooificatjon of the dynamic r6ponse
of structural system and thereby creating a dynamically interacting system. TIllS ~econd aspect
of soil-structure interaction problem which results from the dynamic response of structural
system is known as the inertial interaction. Figure 11.8 shows a schematic repre!len(ation of
these two issues involved jn any soilstructure interaction (SSl) analysi:. 151.
. . CSa'rt.hq1lake RestslO:flt Deaign 0/ Structure.ll
mm:::::J
I Cha.pter 11 Dynamics of Aftr.lt.i-Degree~o/~FreeiJom Systems ..

."- Massless structure

o ( Seismic
2exeitatloo
+
-.....~-U2
F=MU,

o
==
==
==
==
=

Complete
solution
'" KInematic
'\:

interaction
"- ~~~~" ,,~
Dynamic
inlcractj()n
Transmitting boundary
(aUows seismic waves
Fixed boundary
(seismiC energy
T
10 passrhrougb) is trapped within :
FIGURE 11.8 Soil-structure interaction analysis. [after (5))
the pr~~I~rr: - (
doma~~
11.9.1 Dynamic Analysis including SSI Effects I 1
1\1.'0 different appmachcs have been adopted in the past to investigate the problem of soiJ
structure interaction and incorporate the effect of soH compliance in the dynamic anaJysis:
l,i) the direct approach, and (Ii) the substructure approach.
w

+
Seismic input is applied at the bedrock level and the
complete system of soil and s!ru:cture is analysed. The
Interaction effects are naturally taken care of
Tbe direct approach FIGURE 11.9 Mod~Uing for analysis of soil-strutture interaction effect by dired method.
It is hased on locIuding the soil medium in the mathematical model developed for dynamJc
analysis. This is typkaHy done by using finite element discretisatjon of the domain with . to coma'd er the so,'l med'lum to be massless.
IS
This forces
. the . modes for soil deformation to
appropriate absorbinglrransmilling boundaries. These special boundary elements are necessary move to the higher end of the eigen spectrum. thereby providmg structural mooes at the lower
!o simulare the effect of unbounded soil medium which requires that the seismic energy should end of the eigen spectrum.
radiate away from the vibration SOurce. The use of absorbing/transmHling boundaries prevent
the seismIc energy being reflected back into the problem domain. The essentiaJ features of this The substructure approach
approach can be understood from Figure 11.9. Although the method is quite simple in concept, In the substructure approach the 58l problem is divided into three distinct parts "" shown in
its implementation for analysis of practical problems presents a fOmlldable computational task.
The requirement of including the soil Strata in the mathematical mode) for dynamic analysis Fi19ure 11 .10 whIC h also demonstrates the basic concept of substructure method
. f
of soJl-strncture
interaction analysis [5J. The three-step solution for 55l problems COnsISts 0 :
leads to a very large system of equations to be solved. Further, the development of absorbing/
transmitting ooundaries is based on the assllmption of the presence of soil layer that is bounded 0) determination of foundation input motion by solving the kinematic interaction
by a rocky strata at the base. The computed results could be erroneous if the site has deep soil problem, . .b' h .ff
depusits and the bottom boundary of the finIte dement model is pJaced at a sh~How depth instead (iil determination of the frequency dependent impedance functlOOS descrt tn~ t e stt ness
:;f ,he bedrock kvd. Further, the lower modes of the complete soil~structural system wiH be and damping characteristiCS of the soil~foundation interacting system. T~lS step ~hould
dominated by wH deformation modes with the superstructure riding on top of soil mass as a account for the geometric and material properties of founda~ion and ~oll depo~lts and
:'igid body owmg to the more flexible nature of soil in comparison with the structural system. is generally computed using equivalent linear elastic properties for 8,011 a~propnate for
5::-:-Ic;: {he dcformatioll!< and stresses in structura1 system are of primary interest for the purpose the in-situ dynamic shear strains. This step yields the so-called soli sprmgs, ,
!jf design, huge computanonru effort and storage is required to compute and store the eigen-pairs (iii) computation of response of the real structure supported on frequen~y d~pendent ::011
!'~~juired for inclusion (If alJ modes, ens.uring more that the cumulative effective modal mass is
springs and subjected at the ba'ie of these springs to the foundatlOn Input motIOn
.nOl't'" In<ln 90';;, nf :he (ulal vibr2iting mass. A common numerical trkk to force the lower modes computed in (i) .
'll ;IK cD~nh;jlE.d ~oll",slfucl\lre syslcm to con-espond to the deformations in structural system.
 MM_ @hquake Resirlaru Design of Stnlduree . .--------C"h:-.-,C""-r-:':-;'-;D""yn-c-",-r:-c-.-o-;,:-M=u""""i-""'D"",-"...-.---ol";"-""Fr:-,-"-;""om-s".-,-',.-",-s)
L~.- _"'9
Kinematic interaction Subgrade impedances contained in the imaginary component of the impedance functions. The simple system shown

K= {::i:) in Figure 11.11 can be assumed to represent the response of a multi-storeied building which is
dominated by the first mode response and the height parameter h is interpreted as the distance
from base of the centroid of the inertial force distribution for tbe first mode [8]. The dynamic
stiffness coefficients for a rigid circular disk resting on halfspace can be given as,
,}w.."'1
+ + \,,,"."C,ci,';:,-;-,.""'~,,,,7:,. K d ~ K'(k ... iaoei

-
'T,'
y,

Total solution + @ +
.F!GURE 11.10' Soil-structure interaction analysi.1O by substructure method. [after (5)1

II should be noted that if the structural foundations were perfectly rigid, the solution by .FIGURE 11.11 A Simplified model for the analysis of inertial interaction (after (8)).
substructure approach would be identical to the solution by the direct method. Further. the
superposition principle is vaHd for linear systems only. Since the shear modulus and damping where, Kd represents the dynamic stiffness (impedance), K$ denotes the appropriate static
properties of soH are strain dependent t the use of the principle of superposition can be stiffness, ao is a dimensionless measure of frequency defined as ao :: wRlVp ill is the angular
questioned. However, it has been observed that most of the nonHnearity in soU behaviour occurs frequency in rad/s. R is the radius of foundation. v:~ is the shear wave velocity, and v is Poisson's
as a result of the earthquake motion, and not as a result of soH-structure interaction jtself. ratio for soil, k and c are functions of ani v and EIR the embedment ratio. The static stiffness
Therefore, the soil properties estimated for the same strain levels as expected during a postulated of a rigid circular foundation on a homogeneous half~space are given in Table 11.3. 'The
design earthquake may be used in the steps (i) and (ii) without any further modification. dynamic stiffnesses for rigid circular cylindrical foundations for different modes of deformation
ReasonabJe approximations can be obtained on the basis of one-dimensional Wave propagation are given in Tables 11.4 and ll.S.
theory for the solution of step (i). and by using some correction factors for modifying tbe springs
for a surface footing on a layered soil deposits to account for the embedment of foundation as TABLE 11.3 Static stiffness eo.rodents (01' rigid, circular eylindrical foundation
a solution to step (ii) of the problem. Severa1 investigators have provided expressions/curves! With embedment
Mode Without embedment
charts for the impedance functions for different parameters of the soil-foundation systems. A
concise summary of available impedance functions and approximate analytical expressions has Vertical K~ ~ K~ (1 + O.54E!R)
been presented by Pais and Kausel [6],
Generally, the foundation input motion is assumed to be the same as free-field motion. i.e. Horizontal
the effects of kinematic intcraction are neglected in SSI analysjs for most of the common
conslructions. Kinematic jnteraction should invariably be considered if the structure and K' _ 8GIi'
Rocking K'" ~ K~ (1 + 2.3E!R + O.58(EIR)')
foundations to be constructed are very massjve, rigid, and very large. Figure 11.11 shows a R- 3(1-v)
simplified model normaBy used in the analysis of intertial interact jon effects. The model
consists of a single degree of freedom structure of height h, mass nt, stiffness k, and viscous
damping coefficient c. The base of the structure is free to translate relative to the ground Uland
I Torsion KO _ !..GR'
,- 3 K', = K? (1 + 2.67EIR)

also to rotate by amount B. The impedance functions are represented by the linear and rotational i ~ (OAEIR

soil springs with complex stiffnesses k, and "8' respectively. The damping of soil deposits is I R _ radius or foundation, G := shear modulus. and v
embedment ratio (E being the depth of fotmdation).
:= PQjs~01l'S rat.io of homogeneous halfspace. EIR

J
I
j.
~
TABLE 11.4 Dynamic stiffness for rigid, circular cylindrical foundation: ..rtical and
where T is the period of the (fixedAmse) structure in its first mode, and k] represents the modal
torsion
stlffness for the first mode of (fixed-base) structure, The equivalent viscous damping ratio can
Valjeat Torsion be defined in terms of the viscous damping of the structure and the radiation and hysteretic
- . -...-.-----~~-.....::..:.-
Kti "" K; (k .,.. iDoL') damping of the soil-foundation system, The f1eKible base damping can be given as \\Ill,

k ~ 1.0 k"", 1.0 _ OJ5a~

J.O+ "u
r ~?0
"
+-'-n'
(fJ
(11.58)

1t(l+4 OEIR}-~:;;-,- where {o represents the damping contributions (radiation and hysteretic) from the soi1-
= ".!a~2,OEiR.)
K~f(GR)
f.' _
-
.~ ___ ~~_.~l+rri;
K;'!(GR')
foundation !,;ystem. A dosed fOlm expreS!:iion for ;Q can be found in the artic1e by VeJesto..~ and
~air 110]. lt can be inferred from Equations (11.57) and (l1.58) that the primary effect of
b _ _~ __J_ __ mertial jntcntction is the lengthening of natllrni period and increase in the dampjng ratio of the
-- 0.37+0,87(EIRl1", dynamical system.
---
F" '" VeJ(J("lIY 01 pnnary (lonriIH(iinal) \\.'<I"'e~ in the soil, \I, - "docity of :;hea::
"'J\'C~, .0 t:J~ ~()iI
SUMMARY
TABLE 11.S Dynamic stiffness for rigid, circular cylindrical foundation: horizontal and
Different issues in the study of dynamiCS of a complex system are described in this chapter.
rocking Starting from the bask formulatIon and terminology of the problem, through the djscussion of
Hr-rizonwl Rocking free vibration, forced vibrdtion, the concept of tuned-mass dampers, response spectrum method
.----.---.-~--~-.--.--.--.--.-~.---.--.--.------~.~~-~.~~.--.--
of seismic analysis, mulli-supporr excitation, to the discussion and analytical modeling of
K'1 K~ (Ie + iauc)
the dynamic soil~structure interaction effects, a wide range of topics are covered. This will
035a5 help demystify tbe seismic design codes and promote a better understanding and correct
k = 1.0 k 1.0
LO~aJ implementation of their commendations of seismic design codes of practice.

, REFERENCES
K,;I(GR)
(I] Clough, R.W. and Ponzien 1., Dynamics of Structures, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill,
j New York, 1993.
12] Learning from Eanhquakes Series Volume IV, "The 1999 Turkey Earthquakes: Bridge
VI' = Ve!o:.:ily or PfJl1l:!ry (longitudinal) waveh in the soil. V, velocity of shear wave,: in "oiL and K%fJ "" K'f, (OAEI
j Performance and Remedial Actions". Earthquake Engineering Research Institute) USA
R fl.{);iL j 2003.
I
j [3/ Meirovitch. L.. Analytical Metlwds in Vibrations, The Macmillan Company,
It wa~ demonstrated by Vclestos and !vleek r91 that the :-eismic response of the system New York, 1967.
<;ho'WfI ion Figur~' 1 J .11 cun be accuraiely predicted by an equivalent single degree of freedom

i
[4] Meirovhch. L.. Compulation Methods in Structural Dynamics. SIjthoff and Noordhoff,
o"ciHator wIth period f and damping;; which represent modifications lO the tlrst modI! period Alphen aan den Rijn, The Netherlands, 1980.
and damp'mj:! of s!ruCI [In,] ~ystem 10 account for {he effecr of compliant )<oij, Thcf,e parameter::: \ IS] K,"sel, E .. Whitman, R.Y., Morray, J.P., and Elsahce f" "The Spring Method for
I1 Embedded l'oundations", Nuclear Engineering and Design, 48: 377-392, 1978.
(iTt' }~ll(lWn a~ thC" fkxiblt? have parameters as they reprc~nt the properties of an osciHator whIch

. re:- tu 11ad:,iak and rnt:.ne al it~ b;1se. The t1e~ib1c base period can be given as,
I fbI Pajs, A. and KauseI, E., "'Approximate Furmulas for Dynamk Stiffnesst.".s of Rigjd
F(Jundation~"" ,,'oil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, 7: 213-226, 1998.
17J Shrikhande, M. and Gupta, V.K.. "Synthesizing Ensembles of Spatially Correlated
f (11.57)
j AceeJerograrns", Journal of Engineering Mechanics, ASCE, 124: 1185~1192. 1998.

1.
eM ( Ea;r~ Resist.an.t Design of Structures
[8] Stewart, J.P., ';'eed, R.B. and Fenves, G.L., "Empirical Evaluation of Inertial Soil
Structure, Interaction and Effects", Technical Report No. PEER 1998107, Pacific
Earthquake Engineering Researcb Centre, University of California. Berkeley.
[9] Velestos,A.s. and Meek, J.W., "Dynamic Behaviour of BUilding Foundation Systems",
Eanhquake Engineering and Strucrural Dynamics, 3: 121-138, 1974.
[10] Velestos, A.S. and Nair, V.V., "Seismic Interaction of Structures on Hysteretic
Foundations", lourfUll of Structural Engineering, ASCE, 101: 109-129, 1975.

Concepts of Earthquake
Resistant Design of
Reinforced Concete Building
 Chapter 12

Earthquake and Vibration

Effect on Structures: Basic
Elements of Earthquake
Resistant Design

12.1 INTRODUCTION
Structures on the earth are generally subjected to two types of load: Slatic and Dynamic. Static
loads are constant with time while dynamic loads are time-varying. These loads can further be
subdivided as shown in Figure J2, I, In general, the majority of Civil Engineering structures are
designed with the assumption that all applied loads are static, The eff""t of dynamic load is not

Static
__ _ _ _J
--..L-' i
I Prescnbedl Rlmdom~
Lid~t:r::n::~s~~ J~robabjlistic) I
~~_ [_ ~~o~c~,J~=-= ~;~~
L. H~~~ i Non-hannonic r l_Transienr Impulsive "!
Machine Human motion, Earthqu::tke. wind, lmpact blast
i operation wind, machine water waves, lrnffic. explosion
operation construction works construction
I FIGlJRE 12.]
works
Variolls types of static-dynamic loads (Synnakwzis and Sophoc1eous, ZOO]).
19J
J
......
.S
 -p. (Earthquke ResiBtnt DeBign of Structure.'!

considered because the structUre is rare1y subjected to dynamic loads; more so, its consideration
in analysis makes the solution more complicated and time consuming. This feature of neglecting
Inertia .,.-.!l'-o. . _
the dynamic forces may sometimes become the cause of disaster, particularJy. in case of earth- fOfCOS_. .I)l..."",-
quake. The recent example of this category is Bhuj eanhquake of January 26, 2001. Nowadays,
there is a growing interest in the process of designing Civil Engineering structures capable to
withstand dynamic loads, particularly, earthquake-induced load. The present chapter describes
the effect of eanhquake lOad, which is one of the most important dynamic load, aJongwith its
consideration during the analysis, and design of the structure.

12.2 STATIC AND DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM

The basic equation of static equilibrium under displacement method of analysis is given by, G't(tund motion

F (ext) = ky (12.1) . .,;.

~- .
.... ----
where. F (ext) is the external applied static force, k is the stiffness resistance. and y is the ., .,...... .
resulting displacement. The restoring force (ky) resists the applied force, F (ext). .. ..r.
. r.
.r
Now, if the applied 5tatic force changes to dynamic force or time varying force the I
.(
r
,.
equation of static equilibrium becomes one of the dynamic equilibrium and has the form J
.1. . -:: . J .:
F(l) = my + cy + ky (12.2) I

FIGURE 12.2 Structure subjected 10 earthquake excitation (Syrmakwzis and Sopbocleous,

If we do a dilect comparison of Equations 12.1 and 12-2, we shall find the two additional forces
that resist the applied forces with the restoring forces. These additional forces are called inertia
force (my) and damping force (cy) resulting from the induced acceleration and velocities in the
structure. The appearance of inertja and damping forces in the structure during a dynamiC
lnading is the most characteristic distinction between static loading and dynamic loading
effects.
The dynamic force may be an earthquake force resulting front rapid movement along the
plane of faults within the earth Crust. Tms sudden movement of faults releases great energy in
the form of seismic waves, which are transmitted to the structure through their foundations, and
Causes motion in the structure. These motions are complex. in nature and induce abrupt
horizontal and vertical oscillations in structures. which resuJt accelerations. velocities and
displact:mcnt in the structure. The induced accelerations generate inertial forces in the structure,
which are proportional to acceleration of the mails and acting opposite to the ground motion
(Figure 12.2).
The energy produced in the structure hy the ground motion is dissipated through Internal
fJ'i~llon within the structural and non-structural members. This dissipation of energy is called
damping. The structures always possess some intrinsic damping, which diminishes with time
once the seismic excitation stops. These diss.ipative or damping forces are represented by viscous
damping rt..>rct~, which are proportional 10 the velocity induced in the structure. The constant
of proportionality is called as lInear viscous damping.
The restoring force in the structures 15 proportional 10 the deformation induced in the
structure during the seismic excitation. The constant of proportionabty is referred as sfiffnesS
of structure. Stiffness greatly affect:. the structure's uptake of earthquake-generated forces. On
Ihe basi~ of stiffness, the structure may be classified as brittle Or ductile. Brittle structure having
2001).
grealer stiffness proves to be less durable during earthquake while ductile structure perf~rn:-s
well in earthquakes. This behaviour of structure evokes an additional desirable characten:uc
caned dUc1iIity. Ductility is the abiJity of the structure to undergo distortion or deformation
without damage or failure,
Therefore, the equation of dynamic equilibrium for earthquake force has the form In
which, inertia, damping and restoring forces balance the appJied force,
F(t) my(t) + c:V(I) + k(t) y(t) (12.3)
Where, mY(t) is the inertia forces acting in a direction opposite to that of the seismi~ moti?n
applied to the base of structure, who~e magnitude is the ma!s of tr:c structure times Its
acceleration, m is the mass (kg) and y(!) the acceleration (mfsec-). inertIa force:;; are the most
significant which depend upon the characteristics of the ground motion and the ~mu~tu~aJ
characteristics of structure, The basic characteristic of the structure and ground is lts
fundamental or natural period. The fundamental periods of structures may range from 0,05
second for a weU-anctJOred piece of equipment;;, 0.1 second for a one-storey frame, 0.5 second
for a low structure up to about 4 stories, and between 1-2 seconds for a taU huildin~ of 1~20
stories, Natura] periods of ground are usually in the range of O.5~2 second!-l, so thal it 15 pos81b~e
for thc building and the ground to have the same fundamental period and. therefore. there J:"i
a high probabilJty for the structure to approach a state of parti.al resonan:e (quasi-resonance),
Hence in developing a design strategy for a building, it is desirable to estImate the funda:nentaJ
periods. hoth of the structure and of the site so that a comparison can be made to see the eXistence

1
of the probability of quasi-resonance.
 - - - - - - - ._-- .._--'
-----, Chapter Ii Earihquake and Vibration Effect on Structures ... ) _gM
cy(t) is the damplng force .acting in a direction opposite to that of the seismic motion, c is the design pmctkes. Figure 12.3(a) shows three-dimensional fmme model whkh is especially useful
damping coefficient (N-seclm) and y(l) the velocity (m/sec). The value of damping in a structure to simulate the responses of three-dimensional effects such as
depends on its components, component connections, materials etc. The amount of dampIng in 0) buildings wilh irregular geometric contiguration,
structural system cannot be analytically ascertained. it must be determined experimentally. In (ii) torsional respom:e in the structures with eccentric distributions of stiffness or mass, and
practice this damping effect is expressed as a percentage of the critical damping which is the
(iii) earthquake motion in two directions or in skewed direction etc.
greatest damping value that allows vibratory movement to develOp, Experience has made it
possjbJe to estimate the- degree of damping in various types of structures, and some of common ( .....
types of structures are reinforced concrete 5-10%, metal frame 1-5%, masonry 8--15%, Wood
structures j 5~ 20%. I r r ~
I
, : t=
k (f )y(t) is the restoring force k (t) is the stiffness (Nfm) or resistance is a functioD of the yield
;;ol/dition in the structure, which in turn is a function of time, The stiffness parameter k is a I r
potential i-OUn..:c of discrepancy, and is affecled by quality of malerial. agc, cracking, support -
:2onditJon etc .1'(1) i~ L1C displacement (m).
,L+--h
F(t} j ..; tile exlenlaHy applied force 0'1). The forcing function is often difficuH to estimate
accurately. particularly in thc case of earthquake. (a) 1'1lrec-dimensiona11hune model (b) Two-dimensional frame model
The Equation 02.3) lS a second order differential equation that needs to be solved for the FIGURE 12.3 Three~dimensional and two-dimensional structural models.
displacement yO ,1. The number of displacement components required for specifying the position
of mass poims is called the number of dcgreeswo.f-jreedom required to obtain an adequate A lwo-dimensional plane jrame model shown in Fig 12.3(b)has been used for buildings
solutIon. This depends upon the complex.ity of the structural system. For some structures a having symmetric plan and torsional responses are expected to be small. The model connects
single degru-l~f-freedom may be sufficient, whereas, for others severa] hundred degrees of aU the plane frames in one principal direction by assuming the identical horizontal displacement
freedom may he required (Anderson, 2001). Depending upon the degree of freedom, a number in a flOOT< In two-dimensional plane frame modelling the number of degree of freedom can be
of structural models can be proposed for analyzing the structure. A structure can be analyzed reduced about one-fourth compared to the three-dimensional modeL
by different models depending upon the objective of the particular analysis. A lumped mass model is simple as shown in Fig. 12.4(a) and most frequently used in early
times for practical design of multi-storey buildings. It reduced the substantial amount of
calculation and storage in eomparison to two-dimensional frame model.
12.3 STRUCTURAL MODELLING The soil-structure inferaction model as shown in Fig. 12.4(b) takes into account the
possibiHty of having different horizontal and vertical motions of supports, modificatJon of the
Earthquake response analysis is an art 10 simulate the behaviour of a structure subjected to an natural period of :-;truclure due to interaction with the soil, changing of the base motion in
earthquake ground motion based on dynamics and a mathematical model of the structure. The
correct analysis will depend upon the proper modelling of the behaviour of materiais, element~,
connection and structure. Mode!s may be classified mainly by essential difference in the degree-
Q:-freedom, The model, or lhe number of degree of freedom, should be selected careful1y
considering t.he obJcctjvc of the analysis, Sometimes sophistication or complicated models are
nOl only u~elcs." hllt ,also create misllnd..::rslanding to interpret the rc.'>uits in practical problems.
Thert!fore, it 1$ imponanl to seiect an appropriate and simple model to match the purpose of
the analysis. Analytical models should also be based on physk:af observations and its behaviour
under dynamic load. Djfferent types of structural model are described as below to simulate the
behaviour 01 a fr81ne buiiding (Kadeyasawa. 2001; Gioncu and MazzoianL 2002).

~2.3.1 .Strllatrral ]Viooels fOI Frame Building

A lhre<.'~dim('ns;oru.lI model has independent displacements a1 each node and can simulate
(a) Lumpecl mass model (b) Son~strtl(';ture interaction mooch,
any rype l)f ~iehuviour. 8ecau:-;c of tbe difficulties in modeHing~ verifi(.;,nlon and numerical I
calcuhllinn, lIlt' I!lrec~dimensional model has not yet been used even in the most sophisticated {<'lCtJRE 12.4 Lumped mass mode' wiih soil~stnl(:tur(> inu'T3dioD effect.

1
_p'. ( Earthquake Resistant Design oj Strucb.n"es
comparison to the motions in free fieId~ increasing the effective damping due to difference
between the tendency of regular structure motions. and the chaotic motion of 50iL
12.4 SEISMIC METHODS OF ANALYSIS
O~ce ~e st~ctural model has been selected. it is possible to perform analysis to determine the
seJ5f~1Jcal~y .mduced forces in the structures. There are different methods of analysis which
provide dlfterent degrees of aCCUf"dcy, The analysis process can be categorized on the basis of
three factors: the type of the externalJy applied loads, the behaviour of structure/or structural
materials, and the type of structural model selected (Figure 12.5). Based on the type of external
~ct1on and be~avlOur of structure, the analysis can be further classified as Bnear static anaiysis.
hnear dynamIc anaJysis. nonlinear static analysls, or non-linear dynamic analvsis (Beskos~ and
Anagnostoulos, 1997). ' 12.4.1
I Analysis process
I 1893 (Part
I I
IL.-,External
_____---"
aetion I I Behaviourofstructurel
structural materials
I Type of model
'-r----~--
I force assumed to be equivalent to the actual (dynamic) loading. The base shear which is the total
H Static analysis :
3D,2D, lD I conservative for Jow to medium height buildings with a regular conformation.
i Dynamic analysis: Elastic pla.s:tie
analysis
I Response spectrum analysis
FIGURE U.S Method of an.lysis proc.... (Syrmakez<" 1996).
. I:tn,car slatic an.alysis or equivalent static analysis can only be used for regular structure
with hrm~~ height. Linear dynamic, analysis can be performed in two ways either by mode
s~rposltwn method or response spectrum method and elastic lime history method. This anaJysis
~IlJ produ~e the effect of the higher modes of vibration and the actual distribution of forces
m the, eI~stIc ran~ in a better way. They represent an improvement over linear static analysis.
Th~ ~l~r~ca~t difference between linear static and dynamic analysis is the level of force and
theJf dls1r~butlOn al?ng the height of the structure. Non-linear stalic analysis is an improvement
over the hnear statIc or dynamic anaJysis in the sense that it aliows the inelastic behaviour of
!he structure. The methods still assume a set of static incrementa) lateral load over the hei(Jhl
of structure. Th~ meth.od is relatively simple to be implemented, and provides information on
ttle strengm, del ormatIon and ductility of the structure and the distribution of demands. This
pem11"ts to identify critical members likely to reach limit stales during the earthquake, for which
attentIOn should be given during the design and delailing process, But this method t:ont.ains many
limited assumptions, which neglect the variation of loading patterns, the influence of higher
modes. and the effect of resonance, This method. under the name of push over analysis has
acquired a great deal of popularity nowadays and in spite of these deficiencies this method
provides reasonable estimation of the global deformation capacity, especially for structures
which primarily respond according to the first mode. A non~linear dynamic analysis or inelastic
time history analysis is the only method to describe the actual behaviour of the structure during
an earthquake. The method is based on the direct numerical integration of the motion differential
equations by considering the elasto-plastic deformation of the structure element This method
captures the effect of amplification due to resonance, the variation of displacements at diverse
levels of a frame, an increase of motion duration and a tendency of regularization of movements
result as far as the level increases from bottom to top.
Code-based Procedure for Seismic Anal}'Sis
Main features of sei!;mic method of analysis {Riddell and Llera, 1996) based on Indian Standard
n:
2002 are described as follows:
Equivalent lateral force
Seismic ana]ysis of most of the structures are 8til1 carrjed out on the basis of lateral (horizontal)
horizontal force on the structure is calculated on the basis of structure mass and fundamental
period of vibration and corresponding mode shape. The base shear is distributed along the height
of structures in tenns of lateral forces according to Code formula. This method is us.ually
This method is applicable for those structures where modes other than the fundamental one
affect significantly the response of the structure. In this method the response of Multi-Degree-
of-Freedom (MDOF) system is expressed as the superposition of modal response, each modal
response being determined from the spectral analysis of singJe-degree-of-freedom (SDOF)
system, which are then combined to compute the total response, Moaal analysis leads to the
response history of the structure to a specified ground motion; however, the method if' usually
used in conjunction with a response spectrum.
Elastic time history analysis
A linear time history analysis overcomes all the disadvantages of modal response spectrum
ana~ysis) providc:d non-linear behaviour is not involved. This method requires greater
computational efforts for calculating the response at discrete times, One interesting advantage
of such procedure is that the relative signs of response quantities are preserved in the response
hi~tories. This is imporrant when interaction effects are com.;idered in design among stress
resultant~.

12.5 SEISMIC DESIGN METHODS
Conventional Civil engineering structures are designed on the basis of tv.\) main cnteria that are
strength and rigidiry, The strength is related to damageability or ultimate limit state, assuring
that the force level developed in structures remains in the elastic range, or some limited plastic
deformation. The rigidity is related to serviceability limit stale, for which the structurat
displacements must remain in some limits, This assures that no damage occurs in non~structura1
elements. In case of earthquake resistant design. a new demand must be added to the above-
mentioned ones, that is the ductility demand. Ductility is an essential attribute of a structure that
must respond to strong ground motions. Ductility serves as the shock absorber in a building.
for it reduces the transmitted force to one that is sustainable, The rcsultant sustainable force
has traditlOnally been used to design a hypotbetically elastic representation of the building.
Therefore, the survivability of a i>tructure under strong seismic actions reiies on the capacity to
defonn beyond the elastic range. and 10 dissipate seismic energy through piastk deformationh.
So, the ductilhy check is related to the control of whether the structure is abJe to dissipate tbe
given quantity of seismlc energy considered in SlfUt.'tUra1 analysis or not. Based on lhree criteria
ngidity (serviceability), strength (dlUlll1gebililY) and ductility (survivability), 'he methods of
seismic design are described in Figure 12.6 as follows.
Structural demand
Survivability
Rigidity
...~
[~ElaStiC analysis
FIGURE 12.6 Design criteria for three performance levels (Gioncu and Mazzolani, 2002).
12,5.1 Code-based Methods for Seismic Design
Lateral strength-based de$ign
Tbis i" the mo!"t common seismic design approach used today and the IS: 13920; 1993 code is
based on this approach. It is based on providing the structure with [he minimum lateral strength
to r(;sisl seismic loadS, assuming [hat the structure will behave adequately in the non-linear
range. For this reason only some simple construGtlonai detail rules are to be satisfied-as
material ductilJiY, member slenderness, cross-sectionai clauses, etc,
Displacement or dudility-based design
if i" very wen rccognized nuw lhal because of economic reasons [he :Hructllre is not designed
10 have ~uffjdent strength lO remain elastic in severe earthquakes, The ;;;tructurc i~ designed to
rHl<;SCSS adequate- ductililY so that il can dissipate cnergy by yielding and survive the shock, This
L
Cho.pttl 12 EarthquClke Clnd Vibf"Cltion Effeet on Structures. n } WPU-
method operates directly witb deformation quantities and therefore gives better inSight on
expected perfonnance of structures, rather than simply providing strength in the above~
mentioned lateral strength design approach. The ductility-based design has been adopted by the
seismic codes of many countries.
Capacity-based design
It is a design approach in which the structures are designed in such a way that hinges can only
form in predetennined positions and sequences. It is a procedure of the design process in which
strengths and ductilities are allocated and the analysis are interdependent. The capaclty design
procedure stipulates the margin of strength that is necessary for elements to ensure that their
hchaviourremains elastic. The reason to name the capacity design is that. in t..~e yielding condjtion~
the strength developed in weaker member is related to the capacity of the stronger member.
Energy-based design
One of the promising approaches for earthquake resistant design in future is energy approach.
In this approach, it is recognized that the total energy input. E[ can be resisted by the sum of the
kinetic energy EK , the elastic strain energy ED, energy dissipated through plastic deformations
(hysteretic damping) EH , and the equivalent viscous damping E,.
The energy equation for a single mass vibrating system is the energy balance between total
input energy and the energies dissipated by viscous damping and inelastic defonnations and can
be written as.
12.6 RESPONSE CONTROL CONCEPTS
Structural response control for seismic loads is a rapidly expanding field of control systems, also
known as earthquake protection system. The aim of this system is the modification of the
dynamic interaction between structure and eartbquake ground motion. in order to minimize the
structure damage and to control the stIUctuIal response. The family of earthquake protective
systems has grown to include passive, active and hybrid (semi-active) systems as shown in
Figure l2.7, The control is based on two different approaches. either the modification of the
dynamic cbaracteristics or the modification of the energy absorption capacity of the structurc.
In the first ease,. the structural period is shifted away from the predominant periods of the
seismic input. thus avoiding the risk of resonance occurrence. It is dear bere that the isolation
is effective only for a limited r,mge of frequencies of structures (Figure 12.8). The acceleration
responses in lIte structure for some earthqUakes can be reduced at the same time; for the other
type of earthquake the responscs have proved to be much worse. Thus the effectiveness of
isolation dependS upon the effectiveness of knowing in advance the kind of frequency content
that the earthquake will have. In tbe second case, the capaciTy of the structure to absorb energy
(!) enhanced through appropriate devices. which reduces dmnage to the structure. Both the
approache::: are used in the earthquake protection system. Brief discussjons of earthquake
protection system are as foHows:

Earthquake protective system
Passive protective Hybrid protectIve
system system
CMpf.t:r 12 Earthquake and Vibration Effec:.t on $trtL(!ture$ .. o ) MJlM
I horizontal stiffness bearing between the structure and foundation. The isolation bearing
I
1 decreases the frequency of overall building-isolation system to about 0.5 Hz. This low frequency
system does not pennit transmission of high frequency of earthquake motion to the structure
Active protective
system
(Figure 12.9).

Tuned"",,, Active mass

damping damping

En"'llY Active
disslpation bracing

Seismic Active
isolation control
FIGURE 1%.7 Family of earthquake protective system (Buckle, 2000).

Range of hoiIdinp suitable

1.0 for isolation

(b) (e) (d)

:3 (al

I
FlGCRE 12.9 Base isolation concepts (a) Fixed base building, (b) Bas. isolated building,
(c) Response of rtxed base building under enrtbquitke e:xcitation, (d) Response of base isolated
0.5
building under earthquake excitation .

Active protective systems

J El Ceotro 1940
o}o-L--;;O"'.5--'!~.O---,JL75--2"'.O;;--"""2.5
Period (5)
}!lGURE 12.8 Earthquake response spectra and isolation (Key, 1988).
12.6.1 Earthquake Protective Systems
Passive control systems
Passive control system includes tuned mass dampers, seismic (base) isolation systems,
mechanical dissipaters, and ille like. These systems have s1gomcao! application to buildings,
bridges, and industrial plants, Seismic base isolation is the most developed system at (he present
time. The basic concept of seismic isolation (Williams, 2003) .is to reduce the response to
earihquake motion by (il reducing the stiffness, (Ji) increasing the naturaJ period of system, and
(iii) provision of increased damping to increase the energy dissipation in the system, The
principle of seismic base isolation js based on decoupHng of structure by introducing low
In these ,ystem, mechanical devices are incorporated into the buildmg, which actively purticipate
in the dynamic behaviour of the building in response to the measurements of its behaviour
during the earthquake ground motion, Thus, in these systems, the stnlcture's characteristics are
modified according to seismic input to the building. The goals of active systems are to keep
forces, displacements and accelerations of structure below specific bounds, in order to reduce
the damage in case of a strong earthquake.
Hybrid (semi-active) protective systems
Hybrid systems are systems impJying the combined use of passive and active control systems.
For example, a base isolated structure is equipped with actuators, which aetively control the
enhancement of it' performance (Gioncn and Mazzolani. 2002),
12.7 SEISMIC EVALUATION AND RETROFITTING
Many of the exjsting buildings are lacking in adequate earthquake resistance because these are
not designed according to modern codes and prevalent earthquake resistant design practice. Also
many buildings that arc damaged in earthquakes may nced not only be repaired but also
 Cl~L~.: IE ---EarthqtUlke and Vi&ration Effect 0;;' Stf"'"UctUN$... ) . , .
' - _ _ _ _ _ _ _-'-Cll."""

EmIl (Earthquake Resistant .Design af Structures
upgrad~d of th~ir. str~ngth in order to' make them seismically resistant. The seismic evaluation
and the", retroflltmg I', one of the most challenging tasks for the structural engineers, The aim
of, sel:<;mlc el!alu~tlon IS to assess the possible seismic response of buildings, which may be
selsmlcaHy deficlent or earthquake damaged, for its possible future use. The evaluation 15 also
helpful for adopting the retrofining of structure, The means of retrojilling is to upgrade !he
Stre~gth and structural ~apac1ty of an eXIstmg structure to enable it to safely withstand the effect
of slfOng earthquakes In future. Retrofitting of existing buildings and related issues of their
structural safety ~ave nO,t recei:,ed adequate attention in India. There are at present no guidelines
or c~e~ of pr~ct.lce avallabte In the country for retrofitting, The methods of seismic evaluation
of eXlst,lOg bulldmgs are not adequately developed. In developed countries research on seismic
evaluation and retrofitting have been undertaken during the last two decades.
.. Th~ methods avai1.able .for seismic evaluation of existing buildings can be broadly
~::Idedl mto two caleg.on~s: (I) qualitative methods, and (ii) analytical methods, as: shown in
~ le>ure .2.10. The quahtatlve methods are based on the available background information of the
structureli, past performanc~ of similar structures under severe earthquakes, visual inspection
repo:t, ~ome non~destruclJ:ve test results etc, However, analytical methods are based on
consld~flng th~ c~pacity and ductility of the buildings. which are based on detailed dynamic
analySiS ~f bUildings, The methods in this category are eapacityfdemand method, pushover
analysts. melastlc tIme hIstory analysis etc. Brief discussions on the method of evaluation are
as follows,
Methods f()r seismic evaluati()n
r Qual itatjv, methods Analy1ical meilJods
em l)1eilJod
I co.lmoo
: assessment
Visual-
inspection Push over analysis
Inelastic time
history meilJod
C/D procedures have been subjected to more detailed examination in the light of recent advances
in earthquake response studies" The main difficulty encountered in using this method is that
there is no relationship between member and structure ductility factor because of non-linear
behaviour.
Push Over analysis
The push over analysis of a structure is a static non~linear analysiS under permanent vertical
loads and gradually increasing later-.tl loads. The equivalent static lateral loads approximately
represent earthquake~induced forces. A plot of total base shear verses top displacement in a
structure is obtained by this analysis that would indicate any premature failure or weakness. The
analysis is carried out upto failure. thus it enables determination of collapse load and ductility
capacity. On a building frame, load/displacement is applied incrementally, the fonnation of
plastic hinges, stiffness degradation, and plastic rotation is monitored, and lateral inelastic force
versus displacement response for the complete structure is analytically computed. This type of
analysis enables weakness in the structure to be identified, The decision to retrofit can be taken
on the basis of such studies.
Inelastic time-history analysis
A seismicaUy deficient building will be subjected to inelastic action during design earthquake
motion. The inelastic time history analysis of the building under strong ground motion brings
out the regions of weakness and ductility demand in the structure. This is the most rational
method available for assessing building performance. There are computer program;.; available
to perform this type of analysis, However there are complexities with regard to biaxial inelastic
response of columns, modelling of joints behaviour. interaction of flexural and shear strength
and modeling of degrading characteristics of member. The methodology is used to ascertain
deficiency and post-elastic response under strong ground shaking.
12.7.2 Methods for Seismic Retrofitting
Retrofit technique employed for a structure can be categorized as (I) structural/global. and
(ii) memberllocaL The techniques employed for seismic retrofitting are iHustrated in
Figure 12, ll.

FIGURE 12.10 Methods fot" seismic evaluation. Structural or global retrofitting

Generally structurallcvel retrofitting are appljed when the entire structural lateral load resisting
12.7.1 Methods for Seismic Evaluation system is deemed to be deficient. Common approaches in this regard are employed to increase
stiffness and strength with limited ductility.
Capacity/demand (e/D) method
Tho
". melhad
. ,. ,(has
. , been init',all
' y ~sented b y ~...,.
A'TC ( 1983
_ ). The forces and displacements resulting Member or local retrofitting
)Jom ~n el~s.~(; analYSIS for deSign earthqUake are called demand, These are compared with the Member or local retrofitting deals with an increase of the ductility of the components with
capa~Jt~ of dIfferent members to resist these forces ,md displacements. A (CfD) ratio less than adequate capacities to satisfy thell :.pecific limit states.
one .lndiCates member failure and thus needs retrofitting. When the ductility is considered in the
sectlOn the demand capaciry ratio can he equated to section ductility de~and of 2 or 3. The
 . . . (Earthquake Resistant Design 0/ Structure!!

Retrofit procedure a ground motion recorded during an earthquake is simulated. A recent trend in shaking table
systems is total six~degree of freedom motion ability, The capital equipment cost of shake table
IS a power function of specific weIght and dimension. so only models of the real structures may
be tested (Clark, J990).
! Retrofit
I techniques
Pseudo-dynamic lest
1n the pseudo~dynamic test dynamiC conditions are simulated. This testing is done with on-line
r---L
I GIOh~ computer simulation techniques. The load or defonnation is applied quasi-statically at various
positions of the test structnre. depending on the restoring force directly measured during the te.<;t.
: SeJectioc of retrofit : , Adding shear waH The test structure is idealised into a discrete parameter system for which the equations of motion
, Jacketing of beams
. scheme ~ --l Adding infiJl walt i are written and integrated and the restoring forces for the system are applied at varjous floor
levels.
C I Adding bracing Jacketing of
i De!;ign of retrofit rolumns
i scheme and detailing,
1<

,L-!-- WaJJ thickening Quasi-static test

~<~====c The quasi-static test is not a dynamic test, in which the rate of application of the load is very
i Mass reduction in i
Re-evaluatior. of storeys low so that the material strain-rate effects do not influence the structural behaviour and inertia
I retrofit SlrUctUre forces are not developed, The loading pattern and history must be carefully chosen to be general
Supplemental I : Strengthening ! enough to provide the full range of deformations that the structure wiH experience under the
, damJ?ing and base 1
I lsolation
J individual footings i earthquake excitation. This method adequate1y captures the important dynamic characteristics
of the structure: hysteresis behaviour, energy dissipation capacity, shfftless degradation,
FIGURE lUI Methods for seismic retrofitting. ductility, hysteretic damping, the most distressed zones, and lateral strength and deformation
capacity. This data is also utilized to make the hysteretic model of component fOr the dynamic
12.8 SEISMIC TEST METHODS analysis of structure .

Earthquake-resistant desicrTI techniques for s SUMMARY

seismic analytical studies~ ]n view of the c truct~s, are often .bas~ on rational method of
heterogeneous natures of COnst ct lJompleXlty of the seIsmiC response of Structures.
< ru Ion as we as the strai d d I . The chapter deals with an introduction to the main attributes of earthquake resistant design
allow fuU justification of the appl t f . n epen ent e ashe propertIes do not
. lea Ion 0 analyocal method A d .. . of structures with a special emphasis on related additional features in comparison to civiJ
expenmentaI studies may" 'so be al. s. SOun quanutatJve basIs on
'" an ternallve method f hq a k ' . engineering design. It introduces briefly the available methods of seismic analysis, seismic
tures. The last three decades have bestowed on . 0 eart u e res,lStanl desIgn of struc~
regardjng experimental testing facHitv V'
developed Over the ye"-. whl d
liS;
great kno~ledge of earthquake engineering
,anous 0 shoots of thIS technology have emerged and
oJ'
design,' seismic response control~ alongwlth current techniques of seismic evaluation and
retrofitting. The relevant experimental studies to earthquake engineering practice have also been
.... " I C avances In servo-hydra I' h I underlined.
are making actual shaking more feasible in earth U l~ tec ,no ogy and computer simulatjon
tests are commonly conducted to evaluate ' . q~ake engmeenng, Three types of experimental
table test, Pseudo-dynamic te t _sels~lc periormance of structures namely shaking
methods are described as roll S , and quasI-static Test. Brief deSCriptions of all seismic test REFERENCES
1; OWS.
[n Anderson. Ie., "Dynamic Response of Structures", The Seismic Design Handbook.
U.8.l Methods for Seismic resting 2nd ed., Parzad Naeim (Ed.), Kluwer Academic Publisher, The Netherlands, 2001.
i2l Buckle, 1.0., "Passive Control of Structures for Seismic Loads', TwelJlh World
Shaking table test Conference On Earthquake Engineering, New Zealand, 2000.
The shaking table test is the most realistic e . [3] Beskos. D.E. and Anagnostoulos, S.A., Advances in Earthquake Engineering--
response of lhe structur I th h " xpenmental method for determining dynamic Computer Analysis and Design of Earthquake Resistant Structures: A Handbook,
. e. n 1& t e test structure is: . b - t i l . is usually
, su ~ec C{ to a oad hIstory WhlCh CompuUltional Mechanics Publications. Southampton, UK, 1997.
 [4] Clark, A. "Eanhquake Testing Methods for Structures-Examples of Current Practice
and Future Directions~" Earthquake Resistant Construction and Design, Savidis (Ed.),
BalkelIll!, Rotterdam, 1990.
[5] Gioncu, V. and Mazzolan;, EM., Ductility of Seismic R,,;stant Steel Structures, Spon
Press, New York, 2002.
[6) IS 1893, "Criteria for Earthquake Resistant Design of Buildings-Pan I", Bureau of
Indian Standards, New DeIhi, (2002),
[71 Kabeyasawa ToshirnL "Earthquake Response Analysis''. Series on Innovation in
Structures and Construction: Vol. 3, Design of Modern High~Iise Reinforced Concrete
Structures, Hiroyuki Aoyama (Ed.), Imperial College Press, London, ZOO J.
[8J Key David., Earthquake Design Practice for Building,', Thorn.. Telford, London,
[9J
]988,
Riddell, R. and Llera, J,C.D,L., "Seismic Analysis and Design: Current Practice and
Future Trends", Eleventh World Conference On Eanhquake Engineerr"ng, Mexico,
1996.
[101 Syrmakezis, CA. and Sophocleous, A.A., "Earthquake and Vibration Effect", Camp.
Iational Modeling of Masonry, Brickwork and Brickwork Structures, John W, Bull
(Ed.), SaxeCoburg Publication, Stirling, l'K, pp, 1-21, 2001.
111] Syrmakezis, CA. ''Tentative Guidelines for Protection and Rehabilitations", C1SM
Course On Protection of the Architectural Heritage against Earthquakes, V. Petrini and
M Save (Eds.), Springer Wien, New York, 1996.
[12J Williams, A . Seismh: Design of Buildings and Bridges, Oxford University Press
Oxford, New York, 2003.
Chapter 13
Identification of Seismic
Damages in RC Buildings
during Bhuj Earthquake
13.1 INTRODUCTION
A massive earthquake of magnitude (ML = 6.9 on Richter scale, M. = 7.0, Ms = 7,6 and
Mw = 7.7) occurred on the morning of 51" Republic Day of India (January 26,2001, Friday)
at 08:46:42,9 hourS (Indian standard time) as reported by Indian Meteorological Depanment
(lMD), New Delhi. The epicentre of this earthquake was located near Bhachau (latitude
23.40"N and longitude 70.28E), focal depth 25 kIn (Srivastav, 2001) with radius of fault area
as 23 km. As per USGS NEIC the source parameters are latitude 23.410N and longitude
70.23E, Mw = 7.7 and focal depth 16 km.
The eanhquake is subsequently referred to as Bhuj earthquake or Kutch earthquake. The
earthquake ranks as one of the most destructive events recorded 50 far in India in terms of death
toll, damage to infrastructure and devastation in the last fifty years, The major cities affected
by the earthquake are Bhuj, Anjar, Bhachau, Gandhidham, Kandla Port, Morbi, Ahmedabad,
Rajkot, Sundemagar etc" where majority of the casualties and damages occurred (Figure 13.1),
Every earthquake leaves a trail of miseries by the of loss of life and destruction, but it also
provides JessonI'; to the human society particularly engineers; architects, builders and
administrators for improving design and construction practices, Various types of structures
reveal weakness in the form of design and planning practices, inadequate analysiS, design
deficiency and even poor quality of construction.
Reinforced concrete multi~storeyed buildings in India, for the first time, have been
subjecled to a strong ground motion shaking in Bhoj earthquake (January 26, 2001). It has been
observed that the principal reasonS of fajlure may be accounted to soft stories. floating columns,
mass irregularities, poor quality of construction material and faulty construction practices.
inconsistent earthquake response, soil and foundation effect and pounding of adjacent structures.
This chapter presents description oftypcs of construction, types of damage and causes of damage
in selected mu}ti~storeyed reinforced concrete buildings. The majority of the RC buildings
207
 are omiued. resulting in soft or weak stories. Most of the buildings have overhanging covered
balconies of about 1.5 m span on higher floors. The architect.;; often erect a heavy beam from
the exterior columns of the building to the end of the balcony on the first floor onwards. A
peripheral beam is provided at the end of the erected girder to create more parking spaces at
the ground floor and allowing more space on the upper floors. The upper floor balconies or
KHAWRA (,
RAPAR
v,
other constructions are constructed on the peripheral beams, The infiH walls, which arc present
in upper floors and absent in the ground floor. create a floating box type situation (Figure 13.2).

.BHACH,t,O
MEHSAl\A
GANDHINAGARi
'--..--..( The dynamie analysis of a G+4 storey RC building on floating column shows that these
NiJAR AI1MEDABAD ''''4, buildings vibrate in torsional mode, which is undesirable,
13 MANDV\
BHl.:)

'I '-J
,--- - -

~-

c
KANDt-A
! MORBI
S:It~DEItl>JA(lAR
r ,i

JAMNAGI',R t'-?
VADODAR1\
\.
c
,

~ [W.'.".ft.!'".A R.AJKOT J" ,....-/'

I V;

~
(
l'~IlBA~UAR ) ~.f)HAlnJr:H ~:~;;r~'"
I !
JI.:N~GADH ~
~
/ (. I,

21 '''~~ l.,\'URAT '~\ ;I"'"i

, /
(n) (b) (c)
') ') '1.,,;
I , HGURE 13.2 (a) Floating box construction in Ahmedabad, (Gocll 2001); {b) 3~D mathematical
I '
ARABIAN SE.4
I/~<,J model of a floating type RC bnilding; (c) First mode shape of the building in plan-a torsional
I mode.
20
-L. ~ -~-----"-~!-:-----:!:;---'
69 70 . - - - ' 71 72 73 74 The plan dimensions of huDding vary considerably ranging from 10 m x 25 m or more
FIGURE 13.1 Map showing tbe major cities of Gujarat affected by Bbuj earthquake. in Ahmedabad. Storey heights remain typically between 2.7 m and 3 m. except the lowesl
storey, which may be as high as 3.5 m to 45 m. The lift coreS in the mu1ti-$toreyed buildings
surveyed by the team are in Ahmedabad. Bhuj. Gandhidham, Anjar and Bhachau. In Ahmedabad are generally provided in central portion of the building.
there are approximately 750 high~rise buildings Qut of which three G+] 0 bmldmgs conapse~ Beam spans generarIy vary from 2 to 5 m, owing to irregular column spacing, ]n many
and 88 buildings of varying heights upto G+4 have significantly been found damaged. ]n BhuJ buildings, beam reinforcement consists of three to four longitudinal bars of 12 to 16 mm in
itself innumerable Slru~tures collapsed and many have led to cave in and tilting, diameter. Transverse stirrups are usually 6 10 8 mm in diameter placed at a spacing of 20 to 25
ern and ends of the stirrups are usually terminated with 90 hooks,
Columns in most of the buildings are of uniform SIze along the height of the buildings,
13.2 REINFORCED CONCRETE BUILDING with marginal change in the grade of concrete and reinforcement at ground floor, It is apparent
CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES that the columns are designed only for axial load, without considering the effect of framing
action .md lateral loads. The ground floor columns are not cast upto we bottom of the beam
Reinforced com~nlte con~truction i;; the most common type of con$truclion in the major .dties and a gap of 200 mm to 250 mOl is left called as topi''' to accommodate the beam reinforcement,
of Gl~jarai and mo:;t of the damages have occurred to these buildings. The bl1ildings are In the which makes the construction more vulnerable (Figure 133<1). Due to the congestion of
range of G+4 to G+ 10 storey height. The building framing system i~; generally moment reinfofC'cmenl in this 'region. the compaction of concrete is not properly done which results in
resisting, consisting of reinforced concrete slabs ca:.'1 monolithically with beall1R and column~ poor quality of cnncrete and honeycombing (Figure J 3,3b).
vo shallow iwl&tcd fO(Jtin~. The upper floors are generally constructed with infill walls made Columns often have rectangular cross sections, with typical dimensions i.e. 25 em wide
of unrelnforce-.d bricks, cuto slones or cement concrete blocks. In major tommerCla 'I ('I'flex, the and 60 em lo 80 em long. Longitudinal reinforcements consist of two row:.: of fnur to six bar...
ground floor/basement is oftei111Sed for commercial and parking pOTpo~es, wlwre the Infill 'Walls of 12 to lR ml)l dia!11{,it'.f, The longi!Udinai reinforcement ratio is gtnc:r;;lIy hf'IW(;"e-11 1 :':!1d 2'/0
 ( Cha.p/ro 1~ ldentific<Jtion of Seismic Damages in Be Buildings ... ) . , .
....... ( Earthquake R~qist~'!:t, Dne='::ign:::-:..'.:;"S;;""='::'::"r::e::,':------- - - - - - - - - ,
--------- ,,)
a single cause of damage to buildings is not pOi\sibJe. There are combined reasons, which are
responsible for multiple damages, 1t is difficult to classify the damage. and even more difficult
to relate it In quantitative manner. This is because of the dynamic character of the seismic action
and the inelastic response of the structures. The principal causes of damage to buildings are soft
stories, floating columns~ mass irregularities, poor quality of material, faulty construction
Beam and topi Reinforcement in columns practices, inconsistent seismic performance, soil and foundation effect, pounding of adjacent
Cfl~l together and beam creale!. il difJicu[ty structures and inadequate ductile detailing in structural components. which have been described
in u)llCrcling-rc.~u!!
in detail subsequently.
honeycombing

(D)
(b)
13.3.1 Soft Storey Failure
~1GVRE lU i:l:) 1Yr1t(,:11 {'OIl:;(rUt:'ti{m ,.1' f.opi~ (h) Conrirudion drtaiJ of "opi'. fn general, multi-storeyed buildings in metropolitan cities require open taller first storey for parking
of vehicles and/or for retail shopping. large space for meeting room or a bunking hallowing to
III ~ros;-: Cl:o!>'H;eclionaJ arC'I. Tran::.verse rcinforccmcnt.'l consist of a single 1100p of {) mm lack of horizontal space and high cost. Due to this functional requirement. the first storey has
III X .rHln. Uli.tn!('leJ having 9(1''' hooks spaced at 20 to 25 cm and terminated at the ioints. Tb..: lesser strength and stiffness as compared to upper stories, which ar. -"dffened by masonry infi11
:~~ng,:t~~~nal".rc.inf()rcemenl is often lap-spJi(:ed jus1 above lhe floor slab. The ~pucing of walls. This characteristic of building construction creates "'weak" or "soft"' storey problems in
d.mW"lse rcmJorccfnenr over the lap :iplice lS same as elsewhere in the column rather being multi~storey buildings. Increased nexibility of first slorey results in extreme deflections, which
dos(-:ly t'p<1C(~d. There is no ~ign of spedai confinement reinforcement and ductiJe detailin(t In in turn. leads to concentration of forces at the second storey connections accompanied by large
J1e -.:oltlID?s. This is a faulty design practice from st~ismjc point of view, b plastic defonnarions_ In addition, most of lhe energy developed during the earthquake is
. Roots usuaHy conl\is( of horizontal reinforced concrete slab of 10 to 12 em thickness dissipated by the columns of the soft stories. In this process the plastic hinges are formed at the
fCstmg on b,ea~. which are 50 to 60 cm deep (including the slab) and 20 to 25 em wide . 1n some ends of columns, which transform the soft storey into a mechanism" 1n such cases the collapse
cases, .slab 1~ directly cast on columns, The main reinforcement in slab js of 8 mm diameter at is unavoidable, Therefore, the soft stories deserve a special consideration in analysis and design.
a spacmg of !n em clc and distribution steel i~ of 6 mm diameter @ 15 cm to 20 em c/c, It has been observed from the survey that tbe damage is due to collapse and buckling of
Elevator cores arc made of RC structural waUs of thickness varying from 125-250 mill . columns especially where parking places are not covered appropriately. On the contrary, the
The advantage of strength and .stiffness of these RC walls was not been properly exploited during damage is reduced considerably where the parking places are covered adequately. It ill.
earthquake because of improper connection between RC walls and slab, and the presence of stair recognised that this type of failure resu1r~ from the combination of several other unfavourable
casc around the elevator core. reasons, such as torsion. excessive mass on upper floors, P-,A effects and lack of ductility in the
Th,c fountia1ions in private buildings generally consist of an isoJateti footing with a bottom storey. Figure 13.4 shows some of the examples of soft/flexible slories andl or weak
d~Pth ~1 about 1.5 m for G+4 buildings and 2.7 to 3.5 In for G+ to building~, The plan sizes
~t fOOling arc usually J.2 m x 1.2 rn, 1.8 m x ] ,8 m or 2.4 m x 2.4 m, There are no tie beams
lfltcrconnecting the fooring, and pHnth heams connecting the column at the ground storey level
l
(EERL 2?02 The isolated founda~i()ns have been designed assuming bearing capacity of soil
as. 2'\0
. kNlm- (Gov';]
,~~
et aJ ".200 I) th oug h th' "
e lfivestJgatJOns a f ler the coJlapse ~how lower value
::Ii the fou~daljon iC'vel (200 kN/m2), The majority ;)f the damaged buildings was founded cm
decn .r ,
aHuVHlm whcJ'c 'aHlp]'1" t' r . , . .
J lea lOll" motlOn tn soil seems to have cau.,>ed large lorces JJ1 Lhe
,
btlildrngs. In some I:'!'covcrnmCll t h11I'Idl11gs, fall. ,inundatIOn
. has bcen provided.
. .It has been observed that most hundings arc designcd onJy for graVity loads and a few
hudd'ons~. ~ , ,)gne, d conSl'd'
are des' enD,!,; carlhquake rorces With , ductile detailing pl'a('tices. Tbe
~a~ell;J1s: L!:;ed m the construction arc ~115 grade concrete for 0+4 storeyed buildings and
Nl ZO grade com.:n:h: for G+!O s!On~Y';\d hlljJdjn~s with n14f5 reinforcement"

(b)
13.3 IDENTlnCATlON OlF' DAMAGE IN RC BUILDINGS ,FIGURE 13.4 Soft stuny failures in reinforced concrete buildings (a) ApollQ Apartment ai
Ahmedabad, ground ROOT was cUJllpletely CUilal)Scd: (b) C-l-6 RC framed building at Bhuj.
intermediate weak. .storey failure.
 .r t' .
of Seism.ic Darrw.gcs . Be B 'I.""d"ltl B' ... ) .,~
_uM ( Earthquake Rcet.stant Design oj Stnu:.tU1'(;S ~-~--.:----l-dM---

-~---
Chapter 1.,
...--"-" ent.., .C~. $011 ...
$n
..

storey failure in Bhuj earthquake. The Apollo Apartment (Figure 13.4a) in Ahmedabad nearly 13.3.3 Plan and Mass Irregularity
15-20 years old where ground floor is used for parking purposes got significandy damaged. The F 13 6 h s the failure of two most famous multi-storeyed buildings, Le. ~ansi ~omple.x
two blocks of this apartment at the entrance have completely collapsed and the upper floors are
resting on ground in significantJy lilted condition. Figure 13.4b shows the example of
Igure
e
13 ~ao:nd Shikhar Apartment (Figure J3.6b) during Bhuj earthquake wIth tbe."
(F,gur . . ) , . s (F' 13 <A and J3.6d). Mansi Complex is a residenllal bUlJdmg In
intermediate weak storey failure in a G+6 reinforced concrete framed building in Bhuj. exposed Isolated Jootmg Igure .\11. k Sh'kh'
. _. f two blocks A and B with 40 umts m each bloc. 1 ar
Vasuapura VIllage conslstmg 0 - I Id .
A artmcnt is also a newly constructed residential complex appro;umat.e ~ one year 0 m
13.3.2 Floating Columns V~z.al ur under Ahmedabad Urban Development Authority (AUDA) conSlSung of four blocks
" h P40 fl . . h Both the buildings are G+!O and are located lfl the salelhte town of
Most of the buildings in Ahmedabad and Gandhidham, are covering the maximum possible area WIt ats In eac . M .C t has C shaped
Ahmedabad. The plans of both the buildings are irregular. The ans.l omp ex , .. .'
on a plot within the available bylaws. Since balconies are not counted in Floor Space Index w lie the Shikhar Apartment has U shaped plan with no eXpanSl?n or separ~tlOn Jomt as
(FSI), buildings have balconies overhangjng in the upper sLOries beyond the column footprint plan hd (S" h i t al ?OOI) In A-Bloek of Mansi Complex the stalTcase was lfl lhe central
area at the ground storey, overhangs upto 1.2 m to 1.5 m in plan are usually provided on each reporte mv a e. .- .
side of the building. In lhe upper slories, the perimeter columns of the ground storey are
discontinUed, and floating columns are provided along the overhanging perimeter of the building.
These fJoating columnN rest at the tip of the taper overhanging beams without considering the
increased vulnerability of lateral load resisting system due to vertical discontinuity. This; type
of conslrUction does not create ~ny problem under vertical loading conditions. But during an
earthquake a dear load path is no! available for transferring the lateral forces to the foundation.
Lateral forces accumulated in upper floors during the earthquake have to be transmitted by the
projected cantilever beams. Overturning forces thus developed overwhelm the columns of the
ground floor. Under this situation the columns begin to deform and buckle, resulting in total
collapse. This is because of primary deficiency in the strength of ground floor columns,
projected cantilever beam and ductile detailing ofbeam-colurnn jojnts. Ductile connection at the
exterior beam-column joint is indispensable for transferring these forces.
Figure 13.5 shows damage in reinforced concrete resjdential buildings (G+4) due to floating
columns. This is the second most notable and spectacular cause of failure of buildings. The IS,h
August Apartment and Nilima Park Apartment buildings at Ahmedabad are the typical example, (0)
of failure in which, infiH walls present in upper floors are discontinued in the lower floors.

(d)
(e)
. b lid" due to structural irregularity: (3) Total
Failure in remforced concrete _ uC mgs
Ie . (b' Collapse of 0 ~BI or:k 0 f Sh'kbar
(a) (b) ',('"!'OT?136
1',,,,,,-,''''1.:< 1
FIGURE 13.5 Faitm-tt of reinforccri concrete buildings with floating c:oiumns (3) ISlh AUgOii{ collapse of half portion. ofI At 'dBII~~:gf :::n~lolO:'~: A~IOC~ of Mansi Complex; (d) EXpOSed
Apartment; (c) Oblong
Apartment, Abmedaba:d~ collapse of building on floating columns; (b) Nilirna. Park Apartment~
Ahmedabad" large !.:tale d~m2g(' in flU" tipper floors. isolated footing of a columna ofc: Shikhar
ISO '......
Apartment.
-

L.
 ~-------;C~"-::"p::t-::"::-;-J3'''ldentificatian oj Sei$~.!c Dam.agc6 in RC Buildings... ) . , .

portion of the building while in the D-Block of Shikhar Apartment the ::;taircase was iocated at
t~e ~xtreme en~. Irregularities jn plan (C and U shape), mass, stiffness and strength resull jn
slgTIl~c~nt torsIOnal response. These associated torsional effects may be attributed to col1apse
of butldmgs. Presence of a massive swimming pool at 10m floor; a fancy penthouse and some
rooms that were not mentioned in original pJan are also believed to be the cause of failure of
Ma~sj Complex: ~xcess mass leads to increase in lateral inertia forees, reduced ductility of
vertIcal I,oad reslstmg elements and increased propensity towards collapse due to P-A effect.
~rregulanty of mass distribution results in irregular response and complex dynamics. It may be
mferred from the characteristic-sway mode of a building that the excessive mass on higher floors
produce more unfavourable effects than those at10wer floors. The other reasons that contribute
to ~ailure are: ef~ect ~f soft stories, position of service core between the two wings, wall and
statrcase separatloo. mactequ3tE connection wlth slabs at each floor and improper framlf){'I'
~ystem'!he ~o]um~ dlmenslOD in one direction is relatively high as compared to otherdirectio;
The typical SIze 01 the column of Mansi Complex in A-block is 80 cm x 27.5 em and 80 cm
)( 25 ern in ,B-Blnde The exposed foundation of onc column of collapsed portion of the buildin o
5.hows the tsolated footing of approXimate size of 2 m x 2 m 3n plan and 60 cm deep with n~
hE ~eams. The failure of Shikhar apartment occurred because of column shear failure, poor 00 00
qualIty of :::oostruction material. and un...ymmetrical location of lift, leading to the tnrsjonal FIGURE 13.8 Damage doe to corrosion of steel in reinforced concrete buildings (a) Damage
effect.
due to corrosion of steel at beam column joint; (b) Damage due to corrosion of steel at colnmn
face.
13.3.4 Poor Qrwlity of ConstrUtion Material and. Corrosion of
Reinforcement There arc numerous instances in which faulty construction practices and lack of quality
control contributed to the damage. In the eement~sand ratio, the ratio of sand wa.'\ dangerously
Figure 13,7 sho~s Some typical examples of building failure due to poor quality of construction high, It also appeared that recycled steel was used as reinforcement. Himgiri Apartment is now
matenal. ~e nulure of Mehta Chambers~ G+3 housing morning daily newspaper Karhvoti
j
a pile of rubble as a result of poor quality of construction materials, Many buildings are damaged
Express (FIgure 13,7a) and an RC building (Figure 13.71 at Ahmedabad was due to pOOl' quality due to spalling of concrete by the corrosion of embedded reinforcing baIS. The corrosion is
o~ matenaI and corro~lOn o~ r~jnforcement. Figures 13.M and 13.Sb show typicaJ examples: of related to insufficient concrete cover~ poor concrete placement and porous concrete. Several
damage due 10 corrOSIOn ot remforcement at beam column joint. slab of staircase and column buildings constructed about 5 to 10 years ago were damaged due to lack of quality control. II
face. is reported that the water supply in the outer part of the city is through ground water, which
i1i salty in taste and the same water is used in preparing the concrete mix for construction, The
presence of salts may also have affected the quality of concrete (Goel, 2001),

l3.3,5 Pounding of BuiMirtgs

Although the number of buildings damaged by pounding is small, yet there are few examples
in which the primary cause of damage in buildings is due to hammering of adjacent buiidings.
Anand building, G+5, (Figure 13.9) at Bhuj is an example of pounding failure.
Poundjng lS the result of irregular response of adjacent buildings of different heights and
of different dynamic characteristics, When the flOOTS of adjacent buildings are at different
elevations, the floor of each building acts like rams, bartering the columns of the other building.
When one of the buildings is higher than the other, the building of lower height acts as a base
(u)
(b) for the upper part of the adjacent taller bul1ding. The low height building receiyes an unexpected
YU;ORE 13~7 Damage of RC buildings due to poor quality of construction (a) Old {~nstruction., load while the taller building suffers from a major stiffness discontinuity at the level of the top
r{n'~ed retnfor~emenl prior to e3rthquak~ Mehta Chambers, Ahmedabad; (b) Poor quality of of the lower building. Pounding may 3JSO occur because of non-compliance of codal provisions
materml. r.orrosum of teinron'v.meut. particularly for Jateral and torsional stiffness and cumulative tilting due to foundation movement.
 (a) (b)

F1GURE 13.10 Failure of reinforced concrete buildings due to different earthquake response
(a) Swaminarayan school building collapsed while tile adjacent building suffered minor damages;
(b) Collapse of A~Block of Mansi Compltx while B~block suffeted minor damage.

13.4 DAMAGE TO STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS

Figure] 3,11 shows failure in reinforced concrete columns in reinforced concrete buildings.
Oblong cross section, a space left at the top of column called 'Iapi' during ca<;;ting and relatively
ru:aJRE 13.9 Anand building~ Bhuj, damage resulting from pounding. slender column sections compared with beam sections are the main structural defects in columns,
These columns are neither designed nor detailed for ductility. Lack of confinement due to large
Damage due to pounding can be minimized by drift control. building separation, and aligning tie spacing, insufficient development length, inadequate splicing of all column bars at the same
floor in adjacent buildings, section, hook configurations of reinforcement do not comply with ductile detailing practices.
Figures 13.11. and 13.11b show the failure at the top and bottom of the column due to poor quality
13.3.6 IncQnsisteret Seismic Performance of Buildings of concrete, the inadequate spacing of ties in the critical areas and the presence of strong beams.
Crushing of the compression zone is manifested first by spaUing of the concrete cover to
It is evident that thc carthqu(lkt Jjd not affect all the !'lructures unifonnly. The dynamic the reinforcement; subsequently the concrete core expands and crushes. This phenomenon is
characteristics of buildjng~ are one of the- predominant factor!'. The severity of damage varied
dramalically, with total coJiapse of buildings in some cases 10 minor damage in nearby buildings.
Swaminarayan Higher Secondary School in ~'I1anj Nagar at Ahmedabad, a four-storey RC
building. collapsed (Figure l,3,lOa), white nearby buildings suffered minor damage, Similarly
BABIock of Mansi Complex in satellite town sustained only minor damage while the adjacent
half portion of the A~Block completely ,:oUap'>f.d (Figure 13.10b).
A uinHi-Sloreyed He buddm.g, under com:trudion, tlCroSIi the road from Shikhar Apartment
e~caped ci;:u:n:Jgc; whilt: D Bluck of Shi}~har A11arlll1ent collapsed. ln some cases the buHdings
appearf'..-Li lo be ideIll:cal but the degre<;: or dama~e varied sjgnificantly, Possible explanations for
"uch behaviour cOLltd be workmanship_. dclai!i!lg practices. quality of material, design, cle.
Mort than !W{) fljird!-: d!" 1"\,:1 11 10n:.('.(1 concr'.'h' buildings, whidl got (..',ollapsed, were recently
c?nstru('"tect. Shl'adhtl Apar[rnen!, "i housing SO,_'\dy in Ahnledabad's po:-:11 Fatehpura area barely
SIX monal~~ oJd., ca:nc GllWiJ. O~her (JI\;\(lil'lgS H1 ~h(~ sarfle area, 01' !t';l:IlO than two years vjntage~
haVt:< al.;n '-'.llhq 1,:<;,11 k) La" a; 'It, I,~;e'j 1fl';:l:;,,/cd li.at most ur Ihe. [)lIiJding~ that co}]ap:;ed lie a);;.ng (a) (b)
the old P<I![' ,.i :<;:La' I.:!di rivc~' iiJl'G\lgJJ HK c;ly. The S~H;ilJ pUll of dty, esplXiaHy the l:'.fGURE 13.11 Typical failure of columns in reinforced concrete buildings (a) eracking and
Mani Nagar arC<.:, wht~l(; rnajoJ;!V ur daB}ages wert', observed fulls hetween twu Jakes, indicating spalling of concrete in first sl.orey column; (b) Base of first storey column with widely $paced ties
the prcs:::ncc (ii c;!lha pO.)l };r:it hil;ll,: nr pnssihic l:r.mstrucI'jrm OJ) rcchtlmeJ land. and spaUefl concrete.
 Chapter I.? Identification 01 Sei.!Jmic Damages in Re Bu.iidings ... ) . .
usually

accompan'ed
J
bY. b UCkl'mg 0 !' be' rs m
' compressJOn
, and by hoop fracture, The opening of
the. ues and the. dis'mtegratlon. 0 f concrete lead to shortenmg ' of the column under the actIOn, of either because of bending action or temperature/shrinkage. These cracks are further widened and
aXIal force. ThIS typ f d . . . . visible due to strong ground shaking. Damage in slab is generally not considered to be dangerous
I . .. e 0 amage 18 SerIOUS as the column not only loses Its stIffness but also
oses Its ablllty to carry vertical loads (Penelis and KappcIS, 1997). for the stability of the structure. However, it creates serious functional and aesthetic problems.
. BUlldmgs, which were inspected during the team's visit, have been found with little
eVIdence of faliure f k__ Th . .
, 0 I,K':,(lms. ere are numerous cases m wmch the beam- column J' oints of
mult"storeyed bU'ld' h' d ed' ,
., . 'mgs ave amag . F,gure 1o.12(a) shows an example of damage at beam, U.S DAMAGE TO NON-STRUCTURAL PANEL
co1umnJomt In a . r d ' . .
.
RC bulldmg IS sho
remiorce concrete bUIlding. One tv-PICal feature of jOints constructed in an ELEMENTS
. F' J312
wn 10 tgure . (b), where beams of ' . different cross sections meet at the
co Iumn faces at th fI I "
e same oor eveL Inadequacy of relnforcement In beam-column joints 13.5.1 Damage to InfiU Walls
absence of confining hoop reInJorcement,
' C ' .
mappropnate locatlOn of bar spbces 10 columns are
'

common causes Qf failure of hearn-column joints. Masonry infill walls are used as interior partitions and as exterior walls to form a part of the
building envelope in multi, storeyed buildings. In general design practices in India. the strength
and stiffness of infill walls are ignored with the assumption of conservative design. 1n actual,
infill walls add considerablY to the strength and rigidity of the structures and their negligence
will cause failure of many of multi, storeyed buildings. The failure is basically due to stiffening
effect of infdl panel. which is cause of 0) unequal distribution of lateral forces in the different
frame., and overstressing of some of the building frames; (ii) soft storey or weak storey; (iii) short
column or captive column effect; (iv) torsional forces; (v) cracking of the infill walls.
During the excitation of the structure. the reinforced concrete frame begins to deform, and
initially the first cracks appear on the plaster along the line of cont""t of the masonry infill with
the frame. As the deformation of the frame becomes huger, the cracks penetrate into the masoruy,
and are manifested by the detachment of the masonry infill from the frame. Subsequently,
diagonal cracks (X shaped) appear because of the strut action of the infill. Figure 13.14(a) shows
(a)
(b) an example of cracking of infill wall in a residential building of Oil and Natural Gas Corporation
FIGURE 13.12 8com 1 .. Is' . f (ONGC) at Ahmedabad. To avoid this type of failure, either interaction of infill wall with the
bea J ~CO umn JOIR In rem orced concrete buildings (a) Minor damage at
Dl co umn JoiJ'tt; (b) Detail or beam column joint. frame should be considered in design or a movable joint between inftll and frame should be
provided.
.. F;gurbe., 13.13(.) and 13.13(b) show cracking of reinforced COnCrete slab and beam slab Sometimes perimeter infill walls are pierced with many closely spaced windows. The
Jomt, m uddm.. ~"
It ',s. m am
. Iy d ue to WI' d '
enmg 0f eXlstmg
. . In1cro
. cracks; which are formed columns in between these piers may be coiled captive columns like a short column. A captive

(3)
(0)
."igure 13.13 Da~ . . (a) (b)
.' . ~.~ageto RC Slab In remforced concrete buildings {a} Cracks at ceiling-
eXlStmg mic,rQ cracks; (b) Craeks at sJab-beam junction. FIGURE 13+14 }<'ailure of infill wall and panel in reintorced concrete buildings (a) Shear (X)
cracking 01 masonry infill; (b) Shear failure in "captive column".
 J
column is full storey slender column whose clear height is reduced by its partheigh! contact
with a'relatIvely stiff non-structural element, such as a masonry infil1 wall, which constrains: its
lateral defonnation over the height of contact (eEB, J 996). The shear required to develop
flexural yield in the effectively shortened column is substantially higher than shear required
developing flexural yield of full-length column. If the designer has not considered this effect
of the infH1. shear failure may occur hefore flexural yield and often fail in brittle manner
(Figure 13J4b). The cracking in 'captive' column generaHy initiates from window headers and
sill levels (Moehle and Mahin, (991),

13.5.2 Damage to ExteriDr Walls

Figures 13.15(a) and 1:l15(b) lllustrate characteristic e.xarnpJes uf damage to exterior walls thaI
are poorly connected with the RC frame. These waIls are subjected to out-of-plane vibrations, (.)
This form of construction of large exterior walls creates a weak plane around the perimeter. .' ccclf:l'ation in RC frame buildings (a) Failure of water
FIGlTRE 13:16 Amplification effects of a. '.1he bare framed RC building under construction
When subjected to intense Shaking, these large un-reinforced masonry panel~ confined hy stiff tank in a RC frame building;...(b) Top portIOn (h
frame member.. have a tendency to resist large out-of-plane vibrations with little sign of distress. collapsed.
When the flexure strength of these panels becomes insufficient to resist these forces, the entire
lofil] panels faiL The magnitude of damage is found to be dependent on tile quality of materials
and method of construction. 13.7
DAMAGE TO VERTICAL CIRCULATION SYSTEMS
, f ertical movement in building and the staircases
Staircases and hfts are the on~y means 0 v k F 13 J7 and 13.18 show the failure of
also serve as escape routes dunng an earthqua e. .1g~lres. .
staircases and a tift core in reinforced concrete buddmg:;.

13.7.1 Damage to Staircase

i t leal exam les of failure of stalfl.:ases in Vishram Flat, G+5,
Figures 13.17(a) and 13J7\bj are Y.P RC bP'ld'ng at Bhuj due to out~of~phage vJbration of
in Nuvarangpura, Ahmedabad and m an Ul 1

(.) (b)
FIGURE 13.15 Failure of exterior walls in non-4uctiIe concrete frnme (a) Collapse of exterior
walJ due to restricted ductility of concrete frame; (b) Damage to walls of ground and fint floon.

13.6 DAMAGE TO WATER TANK AND PARAPETS

Figure J3.16(a) shows a reinforced concrete building, Prabhu Kripa at Bhuj, in which failure
ofwalertank at the roof of the building was ob~crved. Figure 13.l6(b} shows the failure of the
top portion of a bare framed reinforced concrete building under constlllction, Water 'tanks
constmcted ill lh", roof level of buildings expeflent:e large inertia forces due to amplification of
tho gnl~Hld fh\ denn.iofl ,d'_'nF', dit: h~igh{ of the; building. Un-reinforced concrete' ptlrapclS with
large l1dgilt '0~lbicknc~:;, nllio <tlJd /lOi improper anchoring to the roof diaphragm fila), also
constitute u h7.arcL The: hazard ;:;o:~cd hy a p;lrapet increal'cs in direct proportion lo if~ hCighl
abOve !,nil./-:I1(! ;,;,,,, v.,j,ich h;!~ h,"~r n!":,pr\',;{j :\t .';0vcrar ph;ce:.;.
 WPM Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures
tw~ blocks. In quite ~ few multi~storey complexes, failure of staircase is a major cause of damage.
StaIrcases and corndors are found to have been blocked by the failure of the unreinforced
ma~onry enclosure walls. Many exit doors are found to be jammed due to racking of doorframes.
Stairs can start acting as diagonal-bracing elements during earthquake induced motion, and
therefore, should be used with sliding joints in the seismic design of buildings. Isolation of stairs
from the pnmary structural system may also minimise the damage to the stair system.
13.7.2 Damage to Elevator
Figure 13.18 sh?ws the undamaged lift core of a building during the earthquake at Gandhidham.
~levators constitute an Integral part of the building. and are vulnerable to earthquake. It is
Imp,ortant to prevent ~amage to the elevators for the following reasons: (i) danger to the
passengers trapped dunng the occurrence and difficulties in rescue opemtions; (ii) undetected
d~mage, can cause substantial danger in elevators used after the earthquake; (iii) vertical
clrc~latlon systems (elevators and $lairs) are essential in hospitals which deliver crucial health
servICes after an earthquake,
FIGURE 13.18 Undamaged lift core of a reinforced coucrete building.
13.8 EFFECT OF EARTHQUAKE ON CODE DESIGNED
STRUCTURES
The Bureau of Indian Standards (EIS) has published two codes IS 1893 (Part 1): 2002 and IS
)3910: .199,1 for earthquake resistant de&ign of reinforced concrete buildings. The former code
deals With [he dctermina.tion of forces and general considerations for desi"'n of buildinos while
the latter code ,de.als With th[' detailing of reinforced concrete stTllctur~s for ductility. The
governmenl huddmgs follow (he de~;ign codes as a mandatory requiremenl. Therefore, the
I
1.
Chapter' 13 Identification of Seismic Damages in Re Buildings ... ) WJBM
performance of governmental buildings in this earthquake'has been relatively better on account
of code compliance (Thakkar et aI., 2(01). Figures 13.19(a) and 13.19(b) show a multi-storeyed
(G+9) reinforced concrete building, residential quarters for regional passpon office and Ayakar
Bhawan (G+3) RC building with pan basement at Ahmedabad. These buildings were constructed
by Central Public Works Department (CPWD) in the years 2000 and 1954 respectivel). These
two buildings sustained minor damage in the form of cracking of infill brick wall and non-
functioning of lift. Both the buildings were in working condition after the earthquake and were
not required to be vacated.
Ca) Cb)
FIGURE 13.19 Damage in Government constructed Reinforced Concrete buildings (a)
Residential quarters for Regional Pass Port Office (G+9), Ahmedabad, minor cracking in filler
walls. (b) Ayakar Bhawan (G+3), a RC building, Ahmedabad, diagonal and junction cracks in
filler brick wall.
13.9 LESSONS LEARNT FROM DAMAGES OF RC
BUILDINGS
The occurrence of Bhuj earthquake has caused significant damage to multi-storeyed reinforced
concrete buildings. The lessons learnt from damages are presented below:
(i) The design of buildings should be based on seismic codes IS 1893 (Pan 1): 2002 and
IS: 13920: 1993.
(ii) The multi-storeyed reinforced concrete buildings with vertical irregularities like soft
storey constfltction and buildings with mass irregularities sucb as massive swimming
pool on the roof of the building and the buildings with floating columns should be
designed on the basis of dynamic analysis and inelastic design. The ductility provisions
are most important in such situations.

( ii,) M ore, c:y~ IS: necessary at the tjme of planning. The torsional effects in a buiJding can
be mmumsed by proper locution of venical resisting elements and mass distribution.
Building design with strong-column weak beam can be achieved at the p1anning stage.
The ~oft storey stiffness can also be controlled by appropriate design procedure,
(Iv) The mfill construction in RC buildings shou1d be duly accounted for structural
analysis. The staircase connection with buiidings shouJd be made using sliding joints.
(v) ~hear wans should be employed for increasing stiffness and are uniformly distributed
In both principal directions.
(vi) There should be a greater emphasis on the quality of construction.
[8] Sinvhal, A., Bose, P.R., Bose, A., and Prakash. V. "DestrUction of Multi-storeyed
Buildings in Kutch Earthquake of January 26, 2001", Workshop on Recent Earthquakes
of Chamoli and Bhuj: Volume II, Roorkee, India. May 24-26, 200L
[9] Srivaslav, SK, "Bhuj Earthquake of January 26. 20Ot-Some Pertinent Questions".
International Conference on Seismic Hazard with Particular Reference to Bhuj
Earthquake of January 26, 2001, New Delhi. October 3-5. 200L
[10J Thakkar. SK. Dubey, R.N" and Agarwal. P.. "Behaviour of Buildings, Bridges and
Dams in Bhuj Earthquake of January 26,2001", Proceedings of 17th US-Japan Bridge
Engineering \l!>rkshop. Tsulmba Cil)l, Japan, Nov. 12-14.2001.

SUMMARY
Reinforced concrete multi-storeyed buHdings jn India. for the first time. have been subjected
to a ~trong ground motion shaking during Bhuj earthquake of January 26. 2001 resulting in a
consJderable damage. It has been observed that the principal reasons of faIlure are due to soft
storeys, ~oating c~lumn~. mass. irregularities, poor quality of construction material and faulty
constructIOn practices. inconsIstent earthquake response, soil and foundation effect and
pounding of adjacent structures. This chapter presents description of types of construction, types
of damage and causes of damage in selected multi~storeyed reinforced concrete buildings and
lessons learnt from the failure. Modifications needed in the design practices to minimize
earthquake damages have also been proposed.

REFERENCES
[1] CEB .. RC Frame under earthquake Loading-State o't"e Art Report Thomas Telford
1996. " , '
[2] EERI, "Bhuj, India Earthquake of January 26, 2001: Reconnaissance Report"
Earthquake spectra, supplement to Vol. 18. July 2002.
[31 Goo!. R.K., "Performance of Buildings during the January 26, 2001 Bhuj Eanhquake".
anhquake Engineering Research hJSlirure. California.
141 Goyal. A.. Sinha. R., Chuudhari. M. and Jaiswal, K.. "Performance of Reinforced
Concrete Buildings jn Ahm('.d~lbild during Bhuj Earthquake January 26, 2001".
Wnrks!wp 011 Rer:<:f/t Ennhq"akcs (ir Chamoli alld BlIl~j: Volume t Roorkee, Indi("!,
M"y 24-,26. 200 L
1.5! IS 13920. "Ductile Detailing or Reinforced Concrete SiTuclures Subjected to Seismic
Forces--- Code of Practice", Bureall of Indian Standards.. ] 993.
If] 10 " I.s~:J), "Criteria hr Eal"ihqLldKt: kei-j~tant Destgn of Structures (Part j) General
'
PI"OV1,,1\111:-' rind Building;, (FV';h Rc.'l;;IOO)" Bureau of Indian Si<l:IIGards. Z002.
III Moehle. J.P. and Mahin. S.A., "Oh,,rvation of the Behaviour of Reinforced Concrete
Buildings Juring Earthquake", sr 127, Earth.quake ResisIanT C;oncrete Structurt?s---
illt:in';;tic Rc:,poHse tlnd Desif,{lt, l,mencan Concrete Institute Publication, S,K. Ghosh,
(Ed.), 1991.
13] Pendh, G.f;. and Kappo,,> A.i.. "Erlrthqul.lke-Resistant ConerCle Stn!cturcs", E <:i't FN
,\-}'(:!V ;II' irtfprini (.i (-h;\H~";'i! ):, ''1 ti! 1997
 c'-.-..----:,"'J,,-,p-,c-,-,
"'j-;J---;E"1f=-.-c'"I-o-;f-;S""-;M.<C-:'-uro::-;'-I;:""''''''9-u-;'l~ritie8'' em the PEl"!ormance... ) e ....

asymmetrical plan shapes (e.g. L~, T-, U-, F-) or discontinuities in the horizontal resisting
elements (diaphragms) such as cut-outs, large openings. re..entrant corners and other abrupt
changes resulting in torsion, diaphragm deformations and stress concentration.
Chapter 14 There are numerous examples enlisted in the damage report of past earthqUakes in
which the cause of failure of multi-storeyed reinforced concre1e buildings is irregularities \1\
Effect of Structural configurations. This chapter describes the irregularities. performance of irregular buHdings in
the past earthquakes and possible causes of damage with some recommendations.

Irregularities on the 14.2 VERTICAL IRREGULARITIES

Perionllance of RC Buildings 14.2.1 Vertical Discontinu.ities in Load Path

during Earthquakes One of the major contributors to structura! damage in structures during strong earthquake is the
discontlnuitieslirreguJarities in the load path or load transfer. The structure should contain a
continuous load path for transfer of the seismic force, which develops due to accelemtions of
individual e1ements,. to the ground. Failure to provide adequate strength and toughness of
individual elements in the system, or failure to tie individual elements together can result 1n
distress or complete collapse of the system. Therefore, all the structural and non~structural
elements must be adequately tied to the struetural system. The load path must be complete and
sufficiently strong,
The general load path is as follows: earthquake forces, which originate in all the elements
14.1 INTRODUCTION of the building are delivered through structural connections to horizontal diaphragms, The
diaphragms distribute these forces to vertical resisting components such as columns, shear walls,
~arlhq~~ resistant des~u ~f reinforced concrete buildings is a continuing area of research frames and other vertical elements in the structural system which transfer the forees into the
:;~~e ;h:
~~~uake ~~~JDeenng has started not only in India but in other deveioped countries
of ail h I m~s SlJ. amage due to s.omc one or the other reason during earthquakes. In spite
foundation (Figure 14.1). The diaphrdgms must have adequate Oliffness to transmitting these
forces.
h t e weaknes~es In the structure, eIther code imperfections or error in anaJysis and design The examples of load path irreguJarities are, discontinuous columns, shear walls, braCing,
~~ structural confIguradon system has played a vital role in catastrophe. The IS: 1893 (Pa~ I): frames, that arise a floating box type SItuation (Figures 14.2(a) and 14.2(b). In rhe case of
- 2 has re""ommended bu!ldmg confIguratIOn svstem in Section 7 for [h bek. rf columns or shear walls that do not continue upto the ground but end at an upper level, shear
of RC b "ld- i f ' d - .1' e ~u;..r pe ormance
_ Ul ~nbS unng earthquakes. The buifding configuration has been described as regular is induced to overturning forces to another resisting element of a lower leveL This imposition
~)r ~eguiar. ~n tcrm~ of size and s~ape of the building, arrangement of lltructuml e)e~ents and of overturning forces overwhelms the columns of lower level through eonnecting elements .
.n~..,s. Rej!ular !m.ll.dmg configuratIOns are almost l>ymmetrica] (in plan and elevation) 'b t ,C Therefore, the most critiea1 region of damage is the connecting element (link between
.'}..l" and have J d'b f a ou we
~ ... un) Grm i,)tn Ulton 0 the lateral force-resil>ting ~trucrure such that it rovides discontinuous column to lower level column) and ]ower level columns, Therefore. tbe primary
;;t coutmuous load path for both gravirv and lateral loads A b .)d. hI.' P concern in load path irregularities is regarding the strength of Jower level cOlumns and strength
ha~ djsconlinur - W '" lit mg t at acks symmetry and
"." J'. - 1 .y 10 geo:nelry, mass, or load resisting elements is called irregular The-e of the connecting beams that support the load of discontinuous frame,
.!I.legU 3:nlles may cause lnterruption of force flow and stress concentnnions Asvm~ctrIc'al The failure due to discontinuity of vertica1 dements of the lateral load resisting system
,Uf.i.!.ngemepl.s of 1n<i<'::-' an J f"""fip' j I . ,
, f .. ". (S.!l ess 0 e ements may cause a large torsional force (where the has been among the most notable and spectacular, One common example of this type of
(.entr~ 0 m<ls~ does ~ot coincide with the cenlre of rigidity). . discontinuity OCCU1"'S in Bhuj earthquake in which. infill waH;; that arc present in upper floors
rhe sectIOn 7 oj IS 189< (Pari J)' 2()O" I' . " aTC discontinued in the lower floor (floating columns concept). Another example of
" .. ',.', ,...- ', .. en Isl<; the Jrregularny m buHding confj uration
YR!e111. 11,ese un.-: gulanlles aJ'e calelwflscJ in two tvpe~ (i) vert,'cal . I -, IT g , di~ontinuous shear waH is the Olive View Hospital, which nearly col1ap~ed due to excessive
,- ld '1- 0 .J '. uregu antl~" J'ClerJ'mo- to
:,U\ e~ ~ ~ancc 0.[ "~t}CHgih, stltHl!,;,:S;';, geometry and mass results ln irregular distribution of fo;ces
-,', --

deformation in the first two stories during the i 972 San F~rnando earthquake and wa};
amj OJ e.ormatlon over the height of building and (it) horizontal irregularities which refeI' to subsequently demolished (Figure 14.3),

-----_ _--- ..
 &a: ( Eo,.thqua.ke &~._~rttt,-J-,D~e~'~ign~~~O;Zf~S~"~",~~ct~u~",!.~================================'I
Roof diaphragm
Roof seismic force

Second floor shear walls

r-'
I I
Upper
level :--.;
r--I
First floor diaphragm
" ' - - - First floor seismic force
L-.~ I column I ~

r----,1
First floor shear wa1l6
FOWldation
r---~'o,nnecting
dement
I ,Lower Critical
__ ~ level ~ ,'" region
column

Roof seismic force

.r I1f1i-TTI
~[::j~;::>1 J
.t:,t:::i _-. _ +-1__ Shear
t:,~ t:::it:, ".. 11
- -- - -
::J Second storey ,~~ :_~ Building section
shear walls Out of plane ' Shear walls
discontInuity

(b)

FIGURE 14.2 (3) Floating box construction in residential building in Ahmedabad, India:
(b) Discontinuous: shear wall.
First floor seismic force

&
--~.
I ----~ ::J First storey
snearwaUs

FOUndation /"
/
FIGURE 14.1 SeismiC forces on tb eI
e ements or shear wall building system (Vukazich, 1998)~ FIGt:RE 143 Collapse of building due to exces!dve deformation in San Fernando earthquake,
1972.

1
 Chap/e)' 14 EJJecf. oJ Str-uctunU Jrregularities on the PerJormance ... ) fiM
14.2.2 Irregularity in Strength and Stiffness
A "weak" storey is defined as one in which the storey's lateral strength is less than 80 percent s~~------------~~
of that in the storey above. The storey's lateral strength is the total strength of all seismic
resisting elements sharing the storey shear for the direction under consideration i.e. the shear
capacity of the column or the shear walls or the horizontal component of the axial capacity of
the diagonal braces, The deficiency that usualJy makes a storey weak is inadequate strength of
frame columns. A "soft storey is one in which the lateral stiffness is less than 70% of that in
the storey immediately above, or less than 80% of the combined stiffness of the three stories (b)
above" (Pigure 14.4) The essential characteristic of a "weak" or "soft" storey consists of a
FIGURE 14.5 (a) Design earthquake spectra acceleration (S,) ..rsus period (T.); (b) Design
discontinuity of strength or stiffness. which occurs at the second storey eonnections, This earthquake spectraJ displacement (Sd) \''etsUS time period (Tn) (Hart and Wong. 2000).
discontinuity is caused by lesser strength, or increased flexibility. the structure results in extreme
dcilections in lhe {jrst storey of lhe structure. which in turn results in concentration of forces
2t the second storey cOlmectionx. The resuh is a concentration of inelastic action, Roo_f__

Ie" I
3rd Floor
!

", J! Soft storey when

I:,
k j <O.7ki _ 1
"- 0'

/;;'2
I I k,<O,8 P/3(k(+I+k;+2+kl+"')} 2nd F'loor
i I

k I I First Floo_,__
i
L " -,c, '/'/
"" -,/

FJGlIRE 14.4 Stiffness irregularities--soft storey.

The soft storey concept has technical and funetional advantages over the conventional
construction. Flrst, j,e; the reduction in spectral acceleration and base shear doe to increase of
natural'period of vibration of :-:tructure as in a base isolated structure. However, the price of this
force reduction is. paid in the form of an increase in structural displacement and inter-storey
uri[L jhu~ emailing a significant P-A effect. which is a threat to the stabihty of the structure-
(PlgLfc 14.5).
Secondly. a lallcr llrst s(orey is sometimes necessitated for parking of vehicles and! or
retail !'hopping, large space for meeting room or a banking haH, Figure 14.6. Due to thjs
functional requirement, the first storey bas Jesser stiffne;:;s of columns as compared to stiff upper
floor frames, which arc- gcncraHy constructed with masonry iofiJj walk
l'he f!.lilurCb of reinforced COI1(;rete buildings due to soft stories have remained the main
rcas:on in past carthqld,cs< In thc Mexico Ci1y earthquake of 1985. researchers determined that
~()n fir~i "tor;,,;:t, were 3 m.,jof contribu lion 10 8% of serious failure. A number of cases of soft
storey i<ilitm: havto ,,!sn been reported in AIge:ri& earthqHake, 1980" San Salvador earthquake,
FIGURE 14.6 Soft stories type construction (Vukazich. 1998).
1986, North ridge earthquake, 1994. Bhuj earthquake, 2001 India. a),o reveals that the soft first
stor.;y is the main victim of damage to reinforced concrete building. Figure 14.7 shows two
examples of failure of reinforced conerete buildings due to soft stories. It is recognised that thIS
type of failure results from the combination of several other unfavourable reasons, such as
torsion. excessive mass on upper floors, p-~ effects and lack of ductility in the bottom st?rey.
These factors lead to local stress concentrations accompanied by large plastic defonnations.
Therefore, the soft stories deserve a special consideration in analysiS and design. It is not always
necessary that an the fir~t tall stories of the huildings are soft stories, jf the columns of first
storey have been designed on the basis of capacity or ductJiity.

,,,,"
 at high level are therefore to be discouraged where possible. Where mass irregularities exist,
check the lateral-force resisting elements using a dynamic analysis for a more realistic lateral
load distribution of the base shear.
Numerous examples of buildings that coHapse due to the presence of excessive vertical
load have been identified in Mexico earthquake, 1985, It is believed that the Mansi complex.
a multi-storeyed building has failed in Bhuj earthquake due to a massive swimming pool at the
upper floor,

14.2.4 Vertical Geumetrit: Irregularity

A vertical setback is a geometric irregularity in a vertical plane. It is considered. when the
horizontal dimension of [he lateral force resisting system in any storey is more than 150% of
that in an adjacent storey (Figure 14.9). The setback can also be visuahsed as a vertical re-
entrant corner, The generaJ solution of a setback probJem is the tota1 seismic separation in plan
through separation section, so that portions of the building are free to vibrate independently.
When the building is not separated, check the lateral-foree-resisting elements using a dynamic
analysts.

(.)
(b)
~GURE 14.7 (aJ Collapse of lower storey of. rour.storey building in Lorn. Prieta eartbquake,
b~ .<EERI, 1990); (b) A weak-storey mechanism developed in the bottom storey of five~storey
UJJdulg under construction during Kocaeli, Thrkty earthquake" 1m (EERl, 1999).
14.2.3 Mass Irregularities
Mass irregola .ti .d .
ilia n es are _con~a ered to eXIst where the effective mass ot' any storey is more
, n 200% of the, effective mass of an adjacent storey (Figure 14.8), The effective mass is the
reaJ mass CO~slstmg of the dead weight of the floor plus wall
the actual weIght of partition and equipment Exce,qs mass
can ?~ad to increase in Jaterdl inertial forces~ reduced w,
ductIlIty of vertical load resisting elements, and increased
tendency towards collapse due to P'd effect. Irregularity wo ,! Mass irregUlarities
of mass dlstnbutlOn 1U venical and horizontal planes II----oli when,
Wi> 2.0 WI~ 1 :':;f(;-/f/);:15X.(W'0/)%m:;;
can result jn i.:rn:gu1ar responses and compJex dynamics.
;ne characl.ensr~c-swayjng mode of a building during an
arthquake lffipltes that mass,,", placed in the upper stories
or
Wi> 2,0 Wi"! r
I--L,-I
}~IGURE 14.9 Vertical geometric irregularity.
of building produce considerably more unfavourable
eff~ts than mas~e:s placed lower down, The centre of
graVIty of lateral forceg is shifted above the base in the
14.2.5 Proximity of Adjacent Buildings
case ,of heavy masses in upper floors rei>ulting in Jarue' Pounding damage is caused by hitting of two buIldings constructed in dose proximity with each
}"lGIJRE 14.~ Mass irregularity
bendmg mOment..;, Masi>lve roofs ;md heavy- plallt roolno" in building. other. Pounding may result in irregular response of adjacent buildings of different heights
 Chap/el' 14 Effect of Structural In-egularities on the Per/cf"J'n.ance ... ) MN
due to different dynamic characteristics. Several examples of budding failure, as shown in end of the structure transverse to an axis is more than 1.2 limes of the average of the storey drifts
Figure 14.10, have been observed due to pounding in Mexico earthquaJre. 1985. Kobe earthquake. at the two ends of the structures (Figure 14.11).
1995 and Turkey earthquake. 1992. This problem arises when buildings are built withom
separation right upto property lines in order to make maximum use of the space, When floor
of (hese buildings are consrructed of the same height, damage due to pounding usually is no!
r~------~~------------------
serious. If this is nol [he case, there are two problems. VvfJJen the floors of adjacent buildings
are at different elevations, the floor of each structure can act like rams, battering the columns \ Floor _ _- - . ~
of the other budding. When ODe of the buildings is higher than the other, the Jower building
lJ.L.---- i ~,
can act as a bafoe for the upper part of [he higher building; the lower building receives an tl.] T'----------------------------~ T
unexpected large lateral load while the higher buiiding suffers from u major stiffness
discontinuity at the level of the top of the lower building. Pounding may also be the result of FIGURE 14.11 Torsion irregularities with stiff diaphragm.
a rombinatjon of many other factors J;;uch as in!';ufficient separation between adjacent buHdings.
different dynamic cl1aracteristIcS of adjacent structures~ the unexpected severity of the ground The lateral-force-resisting elements should be a well-balanced system that is not su~jected
motion, non-compliance with code provisions, particularly for ialeral and torsional stiffness due to signiilcant torsion. Significant torsion will he taken as the co~ditjon where the dIstance
~o inadequare huilding configuration and stroctural framing system, and cumulative tilting due between the storey'~ centre of rigidity and storey's centre of mas~ IS ~eater than 20% ~f u:e
in foundmion movemenL Damage due to pounding can be minimized by drift control, building width of the structure in either major plan dimension. Torsion or excessIve later.d deflectJ.on IS
,',epardtion..and aligning floors in adjacent bUildings:. generated in asymmetrical buildings, or eccentric and asymmetricai layout of the bracing system
that may result in permanent set or even partial collapse, Figures 14.12a and 1~.12b show the
example of building failure due to torsion in Alaska earthquake) 1964 and MexIco earthquake,
1985 respectively. Torsion is most effectively resisted at point farthest away from the centre of
twist. such as at the corners and perimeter of the buildings.

(a) (b)
n{;t.iRI:: 14.10 In) Minor pounding damage between buildings of different beights in Turkey
t'arfhquak(" 19Q2 (ERR}. 1993}; (b) Ponnding between II six stort'y building and a two-storey
\,tlild~n1! in Kocacli, Thrkcy earthqua.kE', 1999 (EERI~ 1999).

143 PLAN CONFIGURATION PROBLEMS

(oj (b)

'~lf;in;i Ej"!"cgularily \lwJJ IX': cun~id~r('d when [joar diaphragms are rig!d in tbeir own pJan in FIGURE 14.12 (a) Unbalanced Jocation of perimeter wall leading to severe to torsional ~orces
relation In iIll;; \'cr!icaJ :-;tructura] elemenb that resist the lateral forces. Tor::;ion irregularity is and near collapse in Alask.a earthquake, 1964 (Naiem, 2001); (b) Torsional collapse of a building
l\)lIsidert'.d to ois! v.. hen (ile maximum storey drift computed wilh de~lgil eccenlricity, at one in Mexico city, 1985 (Ptntlis and Kappas, 1997)~
 ( EarthquoJ; Resistant Design. of StMl:c.tures
14.3.2 Re-entrant Corners
The re~entran~ lack of continuity or "inside" comer is the common characteristic of overall
building configurations that, in plan, assume the shape of an L, T, H, +, Or combination of these
shapes occurs due to lack of tensile capacity and force concentratjon (Vukazich. 1998).
According to IS 1893 (Part 1): 2002, plan configurations of a structure and its lateral force
resisting system contain re-entram comers, where both projections of the structure beyond the
re-entrant comer are greater than 15% of its plan dimension in the given direction. The
re-entrant corners of the buildings are subjected to two types of problems. The first is that
they tend to produce variations of rigidity, and hence differential motions between djfferent
parts of the building. resulting in a local stress concentration at the notch of the re-entrant cOmer
(Figure 14.13a). The second problem is torsion. In Figure 14.13b, an L-shaped building is
subjected to a ground motion of Alaska earthquake, 1964 in north-south direction; attempt to
move differently at their notch, pulling and pushing each other, So the-stress concentrations are
high at the notch. The magnitude of the induced forces will depend on mass of building,
structural system, length of the wings and their aspect ratios and height of the wings and their
height/depth ratios. Examples of damage to re-entrant corner buildings are common and can be
identified in Kanto earthquake 1923, Santa Barbara earthquake 1925. To avoid this type of
damage, either provide a separation joint between two wings of buildings or tie the building
together strongly in the system of stress concentration and locate resistance elements to increase
the tensile capacity at reentrant corner.
Reo-entrant
T
L
c.omers A
AIL > 0.15-0.20 11
(aJ (b)
FIGURE 14.13 {a) Example of buildings with plan irregularities; (b) Damage concentrated at
the intenect10n of two wings of an L-shaped school, Alaska earthquake, 1964,
14.3_3 Non-parallel Systems
The vertical load resisting eJements arc not parallel or
symmetrical about the major orthogonal axis of the lateral-
forcc resisting system (Figure 14.14). These situations are
often faced by archltects. This conditlon results in a high
Probability of torsional forces under a ground motion,
because the. centre of mass and resistance does not col ncide.
This problem is uften exaggerated in the triangular or wedge FIGURE 14.14 Non-parallel
1
shaped buHdlnp;~; resulting from street inter-sections at an system.
Chur:ft.!" },f Effect <if Stf'Uc.tural Irregtt.lG.rities on the Pr:1"formance.n ) . .
acute angle. The narrower portion of the building will tend to be more flexible than the wider
ones~ which will increase the tendency of torsion. To design these types of buildings, special
care must be exercised to reduce the effect of torsion or to increase torsional resi!'lance of the
narrow parts of the building.
14.3.4 Diaphragm Discontinuity
The diaphragm is a horizontal resistance element that transfer forces between vertical resistance
elements. The djaphragm discontinuity may occur with abrupt variations in stiffness, including
those having cut-out or open areas greater than 50% of the gross enclosed diaphragm area, or
change in effective diaphragm stiffness of more than 50% from one storey to the next
(Figure 14.15a). The diaphragm act.. as a horizontal beam, and its edge acts as flanges. It is
obvious that openlng cut in tension flange of a beam wiH seriously weaken its toad carrying
capacity. In a number of buildings there has been evidence of roof diaphragms, which is caused
by tearing of the diaphragm (Figure 14.1Sb).
:-; Floor
L",",Opening
(a) (b)
FIGURE 14.15 (a) Diaphragm discontinuity; (b) Failure resulting from diaphragm flexibility
in Loma Prieta earthquake. 1989 (EFAI, 1990).
14.4 R.ECOMMENDATIONS
The multl-:i.toreyed reinforced concrete buildings with vertical irregularities like sofl storey.
mass irregularities, floating box construction should be designed on the basis of dynamk
analysis. and inelastic design, The proper effect of these irregularities can be accounted by 3-
D mathematkal modding of the building and dynamic analysjs. The ductility provisions are
most important in such situations. More care is necessary at the time of planning for reducing
irregUlarities. The torsional effects in a building can be minimised by proper location of venicai
 ....... --~.-,

-----'
~~istjng elements and mass .distribution. Shear walls should be employed for increasing stiffness
\\> ere necessary and be umformly distributed in both principal directions. " ,

SUMMARY Chapter 15
!;;:~:rre nUfm~rofus eedxampies cited ~ ~e damage reports of past earthquake~ in which the cause
.
e 0 rem ore concrete buddmg has be
IS 1893 (part 1) 2002 h d fi
_ - .
en 'SCn
'bed' ...
to llTegulafJues In configurations.
as 1 ent.l Jed some of the Jrregula.rities in elements of load resistin
Seismoresistant
~yste~, ':~lch are ~amly categonzed as horizontal irregularity and vertIcal irregularity Vertica~
~rre!u a~tI~s> .Tef~mng to sudden change of strength, stiffness. geometry and mass; 'resull in Building Architecture
.rre~uhll_ ~lstnbutlOn of forces andJoT defonnation over the height of buildifl whiJe .
lrregulanhes refer to asymmetrical plan shapes (e g L l' U F) d' g _ . ~oT1zontal
horizontal resistin I ' " . . .. -. -, -, - or INcontmU!lJes in the
" d g, e emenls (?m~hragms) such as cut~outs~ large openings, re-entrant corners
~ap~~e: a~rup~ Chhi.m~efls resultmg ,10 torsio~, diaphragm deformations, stres~ concentration. The
t resents 1 e lfl uence of rrregulamy on performance oj b ld d h
"') r' d . Ul mg unng eart quakes
,.~ me .ecommen atlOns are presented to account for the effects Of ~Le l ..
and design. UJ se nTegu antics m analySiS
15.1 INTRODUCTION
REFERENCES Rational studies along with a knowledge regarding the performance of buildings in eartbquakes
show that tbe building architectural design would create maladjustments in building space~
[lJ "KocaeIi, Thrkey, Earthquake Reeonn.issanc," Report", Earthquake Spectra, VoL fonning elements that would not only decrease the seismoresistant capacity of the building
~arthquake Engmeenng Research Institute, California, Deeember 1999. 16, but also become the cause of collapse of the building. It is believed that a structural analysis
r2] ;;zmcan, Turkey, Earthquake Reconnaissance Report", Earthquake Spectra. Supple- in itself is not sufficient to ensure the seismoresistant stability of the buildings. An integral
" nt to Vol, 9, Earthquake Engineering Research Institute, California July 1993
seismoresistant system must be necessary, in which 3011 components of the buildings can
[3J
~oma Pneta Earthquake Reconnaissance Report'\ Earthquake Spectra. 'Supplement 'to positively interact during the seismic action. A real compatibility between the architectural and
Vol, 6, Earthquake Engineering Research lnstitute California July 1990 the structural design avoids a stepping of the seismoresistant capacity of the building and also
l4jHartGCadW K ." , . provides a positive. efficient and integral seismic resistant system. Several studies and
' . . n ong~ -, Structural Dynamlcs for Structural Engineers John Wiley
& Sons, New York, 2001 ' recommendations have been carried out to avoid situations affecting negatively the buiJding's
[5] Moehle J.P, and Mahin S A "Ob . f ' earthquake resistant behaviour. These studies enable architects to develop a systematic study and
B 'ld' " ' ., servatlon 0 the BehavlOur of Reinforced Concrete
R u~ mgs durmg ~arthquake", Earthquake Resistant Concrele Structures-Inelastic a methodology to be applied to the architectural design of buildings to optimize earthquake
resistant capacity_ This study is called seismoresistant building architecture. The main objective
S;'~;:'~;;: Design, S.K. Ghosh, (Ed.), American Concrete lnstitute Publication
of seismoresistant building architecture is to prevent stepping of seismoresistant capacity of
j6]
'p~"';aelf~, E~ ~eismic Design Handbook) 2nd ed,. Kluwer Academic Publishers 2001 building and to optimize seismoresisrance. The major aspects involved in seismoresistant
rn enehs. G.O. and Kappos A J E' h ak R .
SPON . . " ' . , an qu e~ eSlstant Concrete Structures, E' & FN,
building construction are: 0) selection of 10ad resisting system; (ii) its configuration system;
.' '. an lmprlnt oj Chapman & Hall, 1997, . (m) its basic dynamic characteristics and (iv) its construction quality. The present chapter will
18] The
\ Mexico
. S. Ear/hquak"s-~J985 ' Michael A Cassaro and M rt
. R
a mez omern (Eds)
discuss all these aspects in detail.
mencan OCH:"ty of Cjvil Engjneers New York: 198'
l .. " ,
19J V k . h S . , ~.
, 1 ,U, azIC. . ~", 711t" Apartment Owner's Guide to Earlhquakc> Sarerv ::::an 10C'e o .'te
,-'l11VerSJfy, 199}t V' - , " . "' ':>4>, 15.2 LATERAL LOAD RESISTING SYSTEMS
The fIrst step in architectural planning of a building is to select the latcralload resisting system.
The load resisting system must be of closed lOOps, so that it is able to transfer all the forces
;)cting either vertically or horizontally to the ground. Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) has
approved three major types of lateral force resisting system in the code IS 1893 (Part I): 2002,
239

These consist of moment resisting building frame system. bearing wall system and dual system.
These systems are further subdivided into types of construction material used. Table 7 of IS
1893 (Part 1): 2002 lists the different framing system and response reduction factors. Response
reduction factor (R) is basically an indicator of the performance of the structure in earthquakes.
A low value of R (=1.5) indicates an extremely earthquake prone building i.e, unreinforced
masonry wall buildings and a nigh value of R (= 5) indicates an earthqualce-resisrant type
building like special moment resistant reinforced concrete frame or shear wall buildings.
15.2.1 Mument Resisting Frame
In bUilding frame system. the members shown in Figure IS.lI(a) (columns and beams) and
joints of frame are resisting the earthquake forces, primarily by flexure. Thh system is generaI1y
preferred by archItects because they are relatively unobtrusjve compared to the shear walls or
braced frames. but there may be poor economic risk unless special damage cootrol measures are
taken. Slab column frames arc not recommended as a lateral load resisting })ystem.
Chapter 15 Seismore.eis-tatlt Building Architecture) "fl.
15.3 BUILDING CONFIGURATION
The second step in seismoresistant construction is the configuration of load resisting system of
buildings. IS 1893 (Part 1): 2002 has recommended building configuration system in Section
7 f.Qr the better performance of buildings during earthquakes. An impertant feature in building
configuration is its regularity and symmetry jn horizontal and vertical plane. Seismic behaviour
of irregular shaped plans (Figure 15.2) differs from regular shapes because the first can be
subjected to their asymmetry and/or can present loca) deformations due to the presence of reentrdnt
comers or excessive openings. Both effects give origin to undesired stress concentrations in
some resisting members of the building. On the contrary~ the jdeal rectangular or square plan,
$\tructurally symmetric, with enough in~plane stiffness in its diaphragm, presents an ideal
behaviour, because it has the same displacement at every point in the slab (Ravan and Lopez,
1996). Therefore, building shaped like a box, such as rectangular. both in plan and elevation.
is inherently stronger than one that is L-shaped or U-&haped, that is a building with wings.

15.2.2 Bullding with Shear WaU or Bearing Wall System

This system supports all or most of the gravity loads as well as lateral loads. In general, a bearing
wall system has a comparably lower value for R since the system lacks redundancy and has a
poor inelastic response capacity see Figure 15.1(b). In SeVere seismic zones, these bearing wall
systems are required to be specially detailed as per IS 4326: 1993. This system is not much
D Example of plan irregularity

preferred by the architects.

15.2.3 Bllilding with Dual System

This system consists of shear walJ (or braced frame) and moment resisting frame such that
(i) the two systems are designed to resist the total deSign force in proportion to their lateral EAAmpie of vertical irregularity
stiffness considering the interaction of the dual system at all floor levels; and Oi) the moment
resisting frames are designed to independently resist at least 25% of design seismic base
shear. In general a duw system comparably has a higher value of R since a secondary lateral
support system is available to assist the primary nonbearing lateral support system as shown
in Figure l{c). This system is somewhat less restrictive architecturally.
I
D Exampie of highly torsional configuration

~
I I I " I 1111', :

Example of short columns

FIGURE 15.2 General building configuration problems: (BfA 1(96).
{a) Moment ref;i..~ting fr::ut}!$ (b) 13:earing wall system (c) Building with dual $y:.1.em

FIGIJRE 15.1 IJiIl'renl types of building systems. 15.3.1 Problems anD. Solutions
Table- 15.] iHUf>trales the problems associated with the configuration of building and its possible
remedial mcnsures (Arnold and Elsesser. 1980).
 .pM Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures
TABLE 15.1 Building Configurations: Problems and Solutions (Arnold and Elsesser,
1980)
Architectural problems Structural problems
Extreme height/depth High overturning forces, large drift
ratio
causing non-structural damage,
foundation stability
Exrreme plan area Built-up large diaphragm forces
Extreme length depth Built-up of large lateral forces
ralio
in perimeter, large differences
in resistance of two axes
Experience greater variations
in ground movement and soil
conditions
Variation in perimeter Torsion caused by extreme varia-
strength-sr iffness
lion in strength and stiffness
False symmetry Torsion caused by stiff asymmetric
eore
Re-entrant corners Torsion, stress concentrations at the
nOlches
Mass eccentricities Torsion, stress concentrations
Vertical setbacks and Stress concentration at notch, diffe-
reverse setbacks
rent periods for different parts of
building, high diaphragm forces to
Lransfer at setback
Soft storey frame
Causes abrupt changes of stiffness
at point. of discontinuity
Variation in column
Causes abrupt changes of stiffness,
stiffness
much higher forces in stiffer columns balance stiffness
Discontinuous shear
Results in discontinuities in load
wall
path and stress concentration for
most heavily loaded elements
Weak cclumn~'SLr()ng
Column failme occurs before beam Add full walls to redl1ce column
h(,,"1101
.IIhort column must try and accom- ' forces, or detach spandrels from
modaLe storey height displaeement
Morlific;:;llon d
Most seriolls when masoll1'Y in-fill
primary structure
modit-ies structural concept, creation weight materials
Remedial measures
Revise proponion or special
structural system
Subdivide building by seismic
joints
Subdivide building by seismic
joints
Add frames and disconnecl
walls, or use frames and
lightweight walls
Disconnect core, or use frame
with non-structural core walls
Separate walls, uniform box:,
eentre box:. architectural relief,
diagonal reinforcement
Reprogram, or add resistance
around mass to balance resist-
anee and mass
Special structural systems,
careful dynamie analysis
Add braeing, add columns,
braeed
Redesign structural system to
Primary concern over lhe strength
of lower level columns and
connecting beams that support
the load of discontinuous frame
columns, or use light weight
curtain wall with frame
Detach ill-fill, or use light-
Con/d.
Chapter 15 Seismoresistant Building Architecture) Ell
TABLE 15.1 Contd.
Architectural problems Structural problems Remedial measures
of short, stiff columns result in
stress concentration
Building separation Possibility of pounding dependent Ensure adequate separation,
(Pounding) on building period, height, drift, assuming opposite building
distance vibrations
Coupled Incompatible deformation between Design adequate link
walls and links
Random Openings Seriously degrade capacity at Careful designing, adequate
point of maximum force transfer space for reinforcing design
15.4 BUILDING CHARACTERISTICS
The seismic forces exerted on a building are not externally developed forces like wind instea
they are the response of cyclic motions at the base of a building causing accelerations and hene
inertia force. The response is therefore essentialJy dynamic in nature. The dynamic properti(
of the structure such as natural period, damping and mode shape playa crucial role j
determining the response of bUilding. Besides, other characteristics of the building system als
affect the seismic response such as ductility, building foundation, response of non-structur:
elements etc. The effects of building's characteristics on its seismic perfonnance are describe
as follows.
15.4.1 Mode SlILlpes and Fundamental Period
The elastic properties and mass of building causes to develop a vibratory motion when they 3J
subjected to dynamic action. This vibration is similar to vibration of a violin string, whit
consists of a fundamental tone and the additional contribution of various hannonics. 11
vibration of a building likewise consists of a fundamental mode of vibration and the addition
contribution of various modes. which vibrates at higher frequencies. In low-rise building (s~
less than five-storey high) the seismic response depends primarily on the fundamental mode 4
vibration; accordingly, the period of vibration of this mode, expressed in seconds, is one of tl
most representative characteristics of the dynamic response of a building. On the basis of tin
period, building may be classified as rigid (T < 0.3 sec), semi-rigid (0.3 sec < T < J.O sec) al
flexible structure (T > 1.0 sec). Buildings with higher natural frequencies. and a short natur
period, tend to suffer higher accelerations but smaller displacement. In the case of buildin]
with lower natural frequencies, and a long natural period, this is reversed: the buildings w
experience lower accelerations but larger displacements. Fundamental period of vibration co
be determined by the code based empirical formulas and fundamental modes of the buildiI
may be determined by anyone of the several methods developed for the dynamic analysis
structures.
 , . ( Ett~thqu(lke Residant Design of Strueiu1"es
15.4.2 Building Frequency a.nd Growul Period
Inertial forces generated in the building depend upon the frequencies of the ground on which
the building is standing and the building's natural frequency. When these are neat or equal to
one another~ the building's response reaches a peak level. 1n some circumstances. this dynamic
amplification effect can increase the building acceleration to a value. which may be doub1e or
more than that of the ground acceieration at the base of the building. Past studies show that the
predominant period at a firm ground site is typicaHy in the range 0.2-0,4 sec while the period
can reach 2 liec or more on soft ground. Since building structures bave fundamental periods of
approximately OJ N (where N is the number of storeys)} it can be concluded that if the
foundation soH is firm, rigid structure will have more unfavourable seismic response than
flexible -:;tructures, whereas the seismic response of flexible structures on soft foundation t'ites
will be le.';'s favourable than tbat of rigid structure, A spectacular example was in Mexico city
during 1985 earthquake, which saw enonnous damage in medium height buildings of 10-20
S!Dreys, which have periods matching the 2 sec period of the earthquake motions in the dty
centre, while adjacent IDW re~rise buildings, with much shorter periods, were proportionately
far less damaged, Similar site effects are observed in most damaging earthquakes (Booth, 1994).
15.4.3 Damping
The degree of structural amplification of the ground motion at the base of the building is limited
by structural damping. Therefore, damping is the .bility of the structural system to dissipate the
energy of the earthquake ground shaking. Since the building response is inversely proportional
to damping. The more damping a building possesses, the sooner it will stop vibrating-which
of course is highly desirable from the standpoint of earthquake performance. There is no
numerical method available for determining the damping, It is only obtained by experiments.
10 a structure. damping is due to internal friction and the absorption of energy by the building's
structural and non-structural elements. Today, some of the more advanced techniques of
earthquake resistant design and construction employ added damping devices like shock absorbers
to increase artifidal1y the intrinsic damping of a building and so improve its earthquake
performance.
15.4.4 Ductility
DuctiJity is defined as the capacity of the buiJding material" systems, or structures to absorb
ene:g,y by deforming in the inelastic range. The safety of the building from collapse js on the
ba,\ls of energy, which must be imparted to the structure in order to make it faU. In such instance
consideral1on must be given to structure's capacity to absorb energy rather than to its resistance:
Therefore ductHity of a structure in fact is one of the most important fadors affecting il,...
f'..arthquake performance. The primary task of an engineer designing a buildino- to be earthquake
. . e c ~
re~l$tan\ !C, 10 ensure that the building will possess enough ductility, Although there are as yei
no -.:learly defined methods for determining the ductHity of a structure, it is useful to clarify the
concepi, ~o thai al least a relative appreciation of its importance can be attained. Tbe greater
energy I:: required t:ausing a structure to fail, the grenter is its ductility. The ductility of a
5tructnr(:. depend." on IJle type of material u:;.:ed and also the ~tructuruj characteristics of the
assembly. It is possible to build ductile structures with reinforced concrete jf care is taken during
designing to provide the joints with sufficient abutments th~t can" adeqll~te)y confine t~e
oncrete thus permitting it to deform plastically without breakmg. It IS also Important for thIS
~urpose ~ ensure that the tension edges of the structure are adequately reinforced and ~hat there
are sufficient stirrups to ensure that concrete is properly confined along the compressIOn edge.
For example, in columns, due to combined effect of flexure and axial produces a fl:xurai
compression failure mode in Which failure takes place n~r. the column end.s and buckh~g of
longitudinal reinforcement, This can be eliminated by provldmg the lateral remforcement m the
region of plastic defonnation as per IS 13920: 1993.
15,4.5 Seismic Weight
Seismic forces are proportional to the building weight and incn:ases along the ~eight of the
buiJding. Weight reduction can be obtained by using lighter.matenals or by relocauon?f heavy
wdght such as file racks, Hbraries, swimming pools etc., at lo:ver levels. For example. If a load
P placed at fifth level, the ovenuming moment becomes 25 urnes 8rea~er than P placed al the
first leveL Besides, the seismic sbear affects from leve11 to 5, whereas. m the second case. on1y
the first level is affected but to a Jesser extent (5 times less).
15.4.6 Hyperstaticity/Redun.dancy
In general) hyperstatic (statically indeterminate) strUctures have advantage because if primary
system yields or fails. the lateral force can be redistributed to secon~~y elements or system to
prevent progressive failure (alternate 10ad path). Moreo~er, hyperstatlctty o~ the structu:re, causes
the formation of plastic binges that can absorb conSIderable energy Wlt~OUt. depn v1 n.8 the
structure of its stability. Therefore. the redundancy of hyperstatic structure IS hIghly desU'able
characteristic for earthquake resistant design.
15.4.7 NOll-stru.ctural Elemellts
The non~structura1 damage problem is particularly difficult to deal with because the n?n-
structural components that are subjected to seismic forces are not nonnaI1~ w~thin the destgn
scope of the structural engineer. whose responsibility is to provide the seIsmIC safety of the
building. In addition, non-structural components..-such as parti~ion walls~are oHen ad.ded after
the initial building design. and the original architect, or an archItect at aU, l~ often nOt involved.
Finally, non-structural components remain uninvolv~d in the .building deslgn and become the
source of damage. In general. non-structural damage IS caused In two way:;.:. The c0r.np~ment may
be directly affected by ground motion tnmsmitted by tbe mUln. structure of the ?u~ldmg and be
subjected to accelerations and consequent inerUal forces in simIlar way to the bUlldm~ $tru~tur.e.
Alt~rnatively. the non-structural components may be affected by the movement or dlstortlO~ m
the structural elements that support or abet the element. These two cau~es can be !-.ummanzcD
as accelerdtion or drift related damage. .
Methods of miligating the damage to nonstrueturai eomponents mlls~ fec~gmze ~he
prohahle mode of failure, whether tbrough inertial force~ or movement of fallure m backmg
 i. LEarthquake...!!!u;i8~"n.:;':..::D.:.".,,,gn-,-o,,I-=.S:.:,ru=e:.;'..:.:....
= ______________~_
or abetting structures. For the former. non~structura1 components must be designed and detailed
in a similar way to the building structure, using an analysis of forces to determine bracing
support requjrements. For !:he latter. separation from backup or abetting structures is necessary.
Mechanical. eJectriCal. and plumbing distribution system must be secured to the building
structure. with allowances for differential movement wbere applicable.
15.4.8 Foundation Soil/Liquefaction
KnowJedg~ of the. foundation soil is essentiru to correct earthquake-resi~tant design. In some
cases a sm! behav1J'ig wen under static loads will pose serious problems under seismic loads.
Probl<:ms related to foundation soil can be classified mainly in two groups: (,) influence of
SUbSOIl on the characteristics of seismic movement. landslides and loss of soil resistance
(liquefaction), these problems are not significantly affected by the Structures and their
foun.datjons and (in problems caused by the loads transmitted to the soil by foundations and the
:.ett]mg of the foundations under static and seismic loads. This problem generally arises in loose
unsaturated granular soHs. which may be compacted as a result of earthquake,
The liquefaction of the soH is most common feature in an earthquake. This phenomenon
of ios~ of ~sistance is generaHy occurred in saturated granular soil. At Niigata, Japan. in 1964
~ubsoli at the loose saturated sand underwent a considerable loss of resistance during an
earthquake. as a result, many buildings were damaged. severely undermined and in extreme
cases, co"'pletely toppled.
15.4.9 Fou.nd.ations
Fo~ndation of the bUilding IS subjected to earthquake stresses; the following major recommen~
datJon on structural design must be borne in mind
(1) Foundation should preferably be designed as continuous (mat or raft) in order to avoid
relative hOrizontal displacement
Iii) In case of isolated footing, they should be joined to each other by mean, of foundation
beams or lies. These ties should be designed such that it will bear tension and
compression forces.
(ijj) It is recommended that parts of buildIng foundations, which rest on soils of different
types or are sunk to different depths, should be deSigned as separate uniL~. In such case.<;
there should also be structural independence in the superstructure.
{IV) ~t is recommended that if different parts of the building are to he ;,;tructurally
llldependent because of the shape of their ground plan; their foundations should also
be independen t.
J lUi QUALITY OF CONSTRUCTION AND MATERIALS
One, of ~e rnai~ factors responsible for stepping of sejsmoresistanr capacity of building is its
qualIty of matcnals and workmanship of construction. The industriaHy produced materials used
Chapter 15 Seismof'eautant Building Architecture) . "
in construction such as cement. reinforcemen~ brick etc. should satisfy minimum standards of
quality and resistance, which can only be guaranteed by the manufacturers. Besides that. quality
of concrete. faulty execution of construction join~ and detailing reinforcement are also affecting
the performance of structure, The factors affecting the seismoresistant capacity of building are
described as follOWS, By proper inspection programme their effect cOllld \Je millimiwl.
15.5.1 Qalllity of Concrete
Grade of concrete specified in design documents may not be developed during construction
mainly due to
incorrect proportioning
insufficient mixing which causes segregation
aggregares with excessive impurities or improper grading
excessive high water/cement ratio
15.5.2 Constrnction Joints
A defective concrete joint. whkh contributed significantly to causing of failure of many
buildings in past eanhquakes is due to
poor execution of the construction joint/discontinuity
not located at the points specified by the designer
accumulation of sawdust, dust and loose materials at the surface of joint
15.5,3 General Detailing Requirements
Stepping of seismoresistant capacity of fhe building is due to
amount of reinforcement is not placed as specified in design
jnsufficient concrete cover to reinforcement results restjng in reinforcing bar and
cracks in suJface concrete
proper placing of reinforcement during casting
improper confinement and large tie spacing especially in plastic hinge region
insufficient confinement and anchorage length at joints
insufficient splicing length of longitudinal reinforcement in columns or splicing of an
bars at the same cross section
accumulation of splices just above a concrete joint or in plastic hinge zone
splicing of tension reinforcement in beams and columns in region of tension 01
reversing stress
the end of lateral reinforcement should be bent at J 35 degree
use of high resistance steel in relatively low~resjstance concrete
curves In reinforcement cause thrust in concrete when [he bar is subjected to tension
and compression
WIf:4 (Earthquake Resistant Design of Stntcture9

SUMMARY
Seismic safety of a building is an interdisciplinary endeavour involving a close cooperation and
co-efforts of architects and structural engineers adopting mutually suitable architectural and
structural schemes. The seismic analysis and design alone do not ensure good performance of
the structure during earthquakes. The building framing system should also conform to the
principles of earthquake resistant configuration. The chapter presents structural requirements for
building system regarding its selection ofload resisting system, configuration system. dynamic
characteristics and finally construction quality that are essential for enhancing the seismoresistant
capacity of the structure. This will help in eliminating most of the vulnerabilities in the
structural system at the conceptual design stage itself.

REFERENCES
[1] Arnold. Christopher and Elsesser, Eric. "Building Configuration: Problems and
Solutions", Seventh World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, 1980.
[2] Arnold, Christopher. "Building Configuration: Characteristics for Seismic Design",
Seventh World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, 1980.
[3] Arnold, Christopher, "Architectural Aspects of Seismic Resistant Design", Eleventh
World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, 1996.
[4] Arnold, Christopher, "The Seismic Response of Nonstructural Elements in Building".
Bulletin of the New Zeland National Society for Eanhquake Engineering, Vol. 24,
No.4, December, 1991. Seismic Analysis and Modelling
[5] Booth, E., "Concrete Structures in Earthquake Regions", Longman Scientific and
Technical, Longman Group UK Limited, 1994.
[6] Giuiliani, H., Rodriguez, V.I., Yacante, M.I., Campora, A.M. and Giuliani, H.L.,
of Reinforced Concrete Building
"Seismic Resisting Architecture on Building Scale", Eleventh World Conference on
Earthquake Engineering, 1996.
[7] GiuiHani, H., "Seismic Resisting Architecture: A Theory for the Architectural Design
of Buildings in Seismic Zones", Twelfth World Conference on Earthquake Engineering,
2000.
[8] Raven, E. and Lopez, OA., "Regular and Irregular Plan Shape Buildings in Seismic
Regions: Approaching to an Integral Evaluation", Eleventh World Conference on
Earthquake EngiTleering, 1996.
 Chapter 16

Code Based Procedure for

Determination of Design
Lateral Loads

16.1 INTRODUCTION
Earthquake and its occurrence and measurements, its vibration effect and structural response
have been continuously studied for many years in earthquake history and thoroughly
documented in literature. Since then the structural engineers have tried hard to examine the
procedure, with an aim to counter the complex dynamic effect of seismically induced forces in
structures, for designing of earthquake resistant structures in a refined and easy manner. This
re-examination and continuous effort has resulted in several revisions of Indian Standard: 1893:
(1962, 1966, 1970, 1975, 1984, 2002) code of practice on the "Criteria for Earthquake
Resislanl Design of Struc",,,,s" by the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS), New Delhi. In order
to properly interpret the codes and their revisions, it has become necessary; that the structural
engineers must understand the basic design criteria and procedures for determining the lateral
forces. Various approaches to seismic analysis h~ve been developed to determine .the lateral
forces, ranging from purely linear eJastic to non-linear inelastic analysis. Many of the analysis
techniques are being used in design and incorporated in codes of practices of many countries.
However, this chapter is restricted to the method of analysis described or employed in IS 1893
(Part I): 2002 of "Crileria for Earthquak Resislanl Design of SlrUClures" essentially to
buildings although in SOme cases that may be applied to other types of structures as well.

16.2 SEISMIC DESIGN PHILOSOPHY

The philosophy of seismic design can be summarized as:
(a) The design philosophy adopted in the code is to ensure that structures possess at least
a minimum strength to
(il resist minor earthquake DBE), which may occur frequently. without datmge;
251
_ _ ( Earthquake :~e8islo.nt Design of Structures
(ii) resist moderate earthquake (DBE) witllout significant structu",,) damage through
some non-structural damage;
(iii) resist major earthquake (MCE) witllout collapse.
"Design Basis Earthquake (DBE) is defined as the maximum earthquake lhtJ1 reasonably
can be expected to experience at the site once during lifetime 0/ the structure. The
earthquakl! corresponding to the uitimaJe safety requirements is often called as Maximum
Considitred Earthquakl! (MCE). G.nerally, the DBE is half of MCE",
(b) Actual forces tIlat appear on structures during earthquakes are much higher than the
design forces specified in the code. It is recognized that the complete protection against
earthquakes of all sizes is not economically feasible and design based alone on strength
criteria is not justified. The basic criteria of earthquake resistant design should be based
on lateral strength as well as deforrnability and ductility capacity of structure with
limited damage, but no coHapse. Ductility in the structures will arise from inelastic
material, behaviour and detailing of reinforcement in such a manner that brittle failure
is avoided and dU(,,'tile behaviour is induced by allowing steel to yield in controUed
manner. Therefore. the gap between the actual and design lateral forces is narrowed
down by providing ductility in the structure and additional reserve strength in
structures over and above the design strength.
(c) The design lateral forces specified in tile code shall be considered in each of the two
orthogonal directions of the structure. For structures. which have lateral force resisting
elements in the two orthogonal directions only. tile design lateral force shaD be
considered along one direction at a time, and not in both directions simultaneously,
Structures. baving lateral force resisting elements in direction other than the two
orthogonal directions. shall be analysed considering the load combination as specified
in clause 6.3 of IS 1893 (Pan 1): 2002,
(d) Earthquake generated vertical inertia forces are to be considered in design unless it is
not significant Vertical acceleration should be considered in structures with large
spans, those in which stability is a criterion for design~ or for overall stability analysis
of structures. Reduction in gravity force due to vertical component of ground motions
can be particularly detrimental in case of pre-stressed horizontal members and of
cantilevered members, Hence. special attention should be paid to the effect of vertical
component of the ground motion on pre-stressed or cantilevered beams, girders and
slab. Where both horizontal and vertical seismic forces are taken into accoun~ load
combination specified in the cude shall be considered,
(e) The response of a structure to ground vibrations is a function of the nature of
foundation soil; materials., form, size and mode of construction of structures; and the
duration and characteristics of ground motion. This code specifies design forces for
structures standing on rock or fIrm soiis~ which do not liquefy or s.lide due to loss of
strength during ground vibrations.
16.3 DETERMINATION OF DESIGN LATERAL FORCES
The procedures recommended for the determination of lateral force in the code are based on
the approximation effects, yielding can bc accounted for linear analYSis of the building using
C Cho:pf.fT 16 Code Based Procedure lor Determination 0/ Design --Lateral Loa.4.1J j -Ph-
the design spectrum. This analysis is carried out by either modal analysis procedure or dYlUlmic
analysis procedure (Clause 1.8 of IS 1893 (Part 1): 2002). A simplified method may also be
adopted that will be referred as lateral force procedure (Clause 1,5 of IS 1893 (Pan 1): 2(02)
also recognised as equivalent lateral force procedure or equivalent static procedure in the
literature. The main difference between the eqUivalent lateral force procedure and dynamic
analysis procedure Hes in the magnitude and distribution of lateral forces over the height of the
buildings, In ille dynamic analysis procedure the lateral forces are based on the properties of
the natural vibration modes of the building, which are determined by the distribution of mass.
and stiffness over height. In the equivalent lateral force procedures the magnitude of forces is.
based on an estjmation of the fundamental period and on the distribution of forces, as given by
simple formulas appropriate for reguJar builmngs. Otherwise the two procedures have similar
capabilities and are subject to the same limitation.
16.3. I Equillll/ent Lateral Force Procedure
As discussed in the previous section that the equivalent latera] force procedure js the simples1
method of analysis and requires less computational effort because, the forces depend on the code
based fundamental period of structures witll some empirical modifier, The design base shear
shall first be compUted as a whole. than be distributed along the height of the buildings hased
on simple formulas appropriate for buildings witll regular distribution of mass and sliffness, The
design lateml force obtained at each floor level shaJJ then be distributed to individual lateral
load resisting elements depending upon floor diaphragm action, In case of rigid diaphragm
(reinforced concrete monolithic slab-beam floors or those consisting of prefabricated/precast
elements with topping reinforced screed can be taken as rigid diaphragm) action, the total shear
in any horizontal plane shall be distributed to the various elements of Jateral force resisting
system on the basis 9f relative rigidity (Clause 7,7,2 of IS 1893(Part 1): 2(02), The following
are the major steps for detennining the forces by equivalent static procedures,
Determination of base shear
The total design lateral force or design base shear along any principal direction shall be
determined by tile following expression. Clause 7,5 of IS 1893 (Part 1): 2002,
VB =AhW
where,
All =Design horizontal seismic coefficient for a structure
W =: Seismic weight of building
A, shall be detennined by the following expression:
A, = (ZJ2)(fIR)(Salg)
Note: The value of Ah will not be tal(Cn less than ZI2 whatever the value of (IIR),
In factor (ZI2), Z is the Zone factor given in Table 2 of IS 1893 (Part 1): 2002, for the
Maximum Considered Earthquake (MCE) and service life of struclure in a Zone, The factor 2
in the denominator of Z is used so as to reduce the Maximum Considered Earthquake (MCE)
zone factor to the factor for Design Basis Earthquake (DBE), Z can also be determined from
the seismic 7.one map of India. shown in Figure I oIlS l893 (Part n: 2002, \vhich segregate~.

(he country in various areas of similar probable maximum intensity ground motion. The
maximum jntensity is fixed in such a way that the Hfeline/critical structures wii1 remain
functional and there is low probabiliry of coJ1apse for structures designed with the provisions
provided in the code even for an event of occurrence of earthquake with higher intensity.
The values of Z ranges from 0..10. I<J 0..36 corresponding to Zone lIto Zone V. This map has
divided the whole country into four zones slarting from ZOne II to V. The Intensity as per
Comprehensive Intensity Scale (MSK 64) broadly associated with tile various zones is VI (or
less), VII. VIII and IX (and above) for Zones II. III. IV and V respectively. In Zone II, low
seismic intensify zone where mjnor damage could occur has a Z value of 0.10. Zone III (Z
0.16), moderate intensity zone where moderate damage could occur. Zone IV 0.24), severe
intensity zone where major property damage could occur and Zone V (Z:;; 0.36), very severe
Jnl.ensity zone thal Jjes in close proximity to certain prescribed major fault systems.
In factor (JlR), J is the importance faclOr, depending upon the functional use of the
structures, characterised by hazardous consequences of its failure, post eanhquake fUDeliona'
needs, historic value, Or economic importance. The minimum values of importance factor are
given in Table 6 of IS 1893 (Part I): 2002. According to Table 6, buildings are classified in
two categories: (i) important service and community buildings and (Ii) an other buildings.
Important service buildings have an I factor 1.5, and aU other buildings are assigned a value of
1.0. The value of 1 may be more than the assigned value as proposed in Table 6, depending upon
economy, strategy considerations like multi-storey buildings, hazardous consequences etc.
lmporrant service buildings refer to those structures that must be safe and usabJe for emergency
purpose after a major earthquake has occurred in order to preserve the peace, health, and safety
of general public.
R is the response reduction factor. depending on the perceived seismic damage
performance of the structure, characterised by ductile or brittle deformations. This characteristic
represents the structure's ductility. damping as wel1 as the past seismic performance of structure
with various structural framing systems. In actual. the need for incorporation of factor R in base
shear formula is an attempt to consider tbe structure's inelastic characterIstics in linear analysis
method since it is undesirable as well as uneconomical that a slrUcture will be designed on the
basis that it wjJJ remain in elastic range for all major earthquakes. A Hmited inelastic yieJdirrg
must be allowed to the structure by considering that its vertical load carrying capacity and
endangering ~jfe safety should not be impairing. The inelastic characteristics include 0) inelastic
defonnation and its changing pattern as yielding progresses. (H) the damping characteristics of
the yielding elements, and (iii) the variation in stiffness and period of the structure as yielding
progresses. In this way. the base shear equation produces force levels that are probably more
nearly representative of those occurring in an actual structure. It is achieved by applying those
base shears for ljnear design that are reduced by a factor I1R from those that would be obtained
l"wm fully elastic response. Experiments and performance of structure during earthquake have
..hown that the ~tntcmre desigoed for those reduced force 1evel perform adequately, if properly
detailerd. The Value of R increases with the increase of struc1ural ductility and its energy
dissJpalio;J capaCity and degree of redundancy_ The factor R is assigned to different types of
building structures generally on {he b<:lsis of empiricaJ or semi-empirical judgement. experience
wlth building performance in past earthquakes, on analyt1cal and experimental studies and on
calibration with force levels in codes. The values of R are prescribed in Table 7 of IS 1893 (Part
Chapter J6 Code Based .PnJcedure /tn" Detennination oj Design Lateral Leeds ED
1): 2002 for differenl types of building systems. Table 7 shows a low value of R approachin;
1.5 assigned to an extremely brittle building j.e. unreinforced masonry wall buildings and a higl
value of R (- 5) is assigned to a more ductUe structure like speciaJ moment resistant fram
reinforced concrete or shear wall buildings. The response reduction factor R is also be knowl
by Ihe name response modification faclor (ATC -3, UBC, NEHRP) or behaviour facto
(q-factors) in EC8.
SJg js the Average response acceleration coefficient for rock and soil sjtes as given b'
Figure 2 of IS 1893 (Part J): 2002 and by the equations describe in clause 6.0 for different soi
condition based on appropriate natural periods of the structure. These,values are given for 59;.
of damping of the structure: for other value of damping it is modified according to Table 3 o.
IS 1893 (Part I); 2002. These curves represent free field ground motion.
The fundamental natural period for buildings are given in Clause 7.6 of IS 1893 (Part I).
2002 and it is summarized as:
To = 0.075h o.71 moment resisting RC frame building without brick infill walls
To = 0.085ho.71 moment resisting steel frame building without brick infill. walls
To = 0.09h1../d all other buildings including moment resisting RC frame building
witll brick infill walls
h is the height of building in m and d is the base dimension of building at plintll level in m.
along the considered direction of lateral force.
W is dle Seismic weight of building which is the sum of the seismic weight of floors. The
seismic weight at any floor level would be equal to dead weight of the floor system plus weight
of column and walls in inverse proportion to its distance from the floors p1us appropriate amount
of imposed load as specified in Clause 7.3 of IS 1893 (Part l): 2002, Imposed load on roof
level need nOl be considered. The basic reasons for considering tbe percentage of live load as
specified in Table 8 of IS 1893 (Part I): 2002 are (i) only a part of the maximum live load
will probably be existing at the time of earthquake, (ii) non-rigid mounting o{ the live load
absorbs part of the earthquake energy and (iii) specified live load include as part ofit, impact
effect of the loads which need not be considered since eanh9uake'loads act on the mass only.
Lateral distribution of base shear
The computed base sheaf is now distributed along the height of the building. The shear force,
at any level, depends on the mass at that level and defonns sbape of the structure. Earthquake
forces deflect a structure into number of shapes, known as the natural mode slwpes. Number
of natural mode shapes depends upon the degree-of-freedom of the system. Generally, a
structure has a continuous system with infinite degree-of-freedom. From structural idealisation
we convert an infinite degree-of-freedom (0 finite degree of freedom system. For example, a
mUltistoreyed building has been idealised into lumped mass model by assuming the mass of the
building lumped at each floor level (called node); witll one degree of freedom in tbe direction
of lateral displacement in which the structure is being analysed per floor. resulting in as many
degree of freedom as tile number of floors. Therefore, a multi-storeyed building has a multiple-
degree of freedom system with many possible patterns of deformations. The magnitude of the
lateral force al a particular floor (node) depends on Ihe mass of that node, the distribution of
aW (EM'thq\u~ke Resistant Design of Structure;!! (_ _<:J:f1pter 16 Code /Ja$ed Procedure for Determination of Besign ~teral L~ ,4
stiffness over the height of structure, and the nodal displacement' in a given mode. The actual Total base shear (Va) = 0.074 x ll500 = 851 leN
distribution of base shear over the height of the building is obtained as the superposition of all
the modes of vibration of the multiple-degree-of-freedom system. Determination of Base Shear as per earlier IS: 1893
In equivalent lateral force procedure, the magnitude of lateral forces is based on the
fundamental period of vibration, the other periods and ,hapes of natural modes are not required. Total design base shear for the same building is worked out from the earher version of IS: 1893
IS 1893 (Part I): 2002 USes a parabolic distribution (Paz, 1994) of lateral force along the height as shown below:
of building as per the following expression
IS: 1893-1962 VB = an W
a, = Horizontal seismic coefficient = an = 0.04 x 0.535 0.02
K factor to allow for the increased flexibility K = 0.35 SI(N + 0.9
(S-8) = 0.535
S total number of slOries (213 = 13, N = number of stories = 4
where,
Qi """ Design lateral force at floor i (Roarkee is in zone III as per IS: 1893-1962 and soil is hard)
Wr ::; Seismic weight of floor i, W = Seismic weight of building = 11500 IL'>
hi = Height of floor i measured from base, and v. = 0.02 x 11500 = 230 leN
n = Number of stories in the building is the number of levels at which masses are located_
Total base sbear as per IS: 1893-1962 = 23G kN
Example 1 A four-storey reinforced concrete frame building as shown~ is situated at IS: 1893-1966 V.=Ca,W
Roorkee. The height between the floors is 3 m and total height of building is 12 m. The dead
load and normal live load is lumped at respective floor. The soil bolow the foundation is assumea C coefficient defining the flexibility of structure
to bo hard rock. Assume building is intended to be used as a hospital. Determine the total base C = 9/(n+5) not greater than I, n =number of stories =4
sbear as per IS 1893 (Pan I): 2002 and compare with the earlier IS: 1893 codes. Distribute the C = 91(4+5) = I
base sbear along the height of the building.
an = Horizontal seismic coefficient = 0.05
Determination of Base Shear as per IS 1893 Roorkee is in :rone IV as per IS 1893: 1966 and soil type I i.e hard
(Part 1): 2002 M, = 2500 soil

The Total Seismic Base Shear is given by i

T W = Weight of building = 11500 kN
3.0m VB = I x 0.05 " 11500 = 575 leN
V" =A, W
AI! ~ Design horizontal acceleration spectrum values
and it is determined by the following expression
I
!
M, = 3000

+
3.Om IS: 1893-197G V.
Total base shear as per IS: 1893-1966 = 575 kN

= C a'fJW
4, = t~~ = 0;41; 206 = 0074

Z (Zone factor) ~ 0.24 (Roorkee is in Zone IV as per IS

M, ~3000

+
3.0m
C = a coefficient defining the fleXibility of structure = O.5IT l !'
T (0.1 n)
C = 0.676
0.4 sec, n = number of storics = 4

1893 (Part I ): 2002)

I (Importance Factor) = 1.5, building is used a; a hospital
R (Response Reduction Factor) = 5.0 (Assume Special
RC Moment Resisting Fmme)
M] =3000

+
3.0m
P= a coefficient depending upon soil foundation system = 1.0
for rock and hard soil and for all types of foundation
fIJt """ Horizontal seismIC coefficient = 0.05
S)g (Spectral Acceleration) = 2.06 (T 0.075 h,,75 = 'd~,//
"/ "f
, f.' ._ Y),.' ) /
'/""//"////://:////"//
I
' ) . " \' ' .. " (Roork"" is in zone IV as per IS: 1893: 1970)
0.075 12,,75 = 0.484, SQ/g = liT for hard soil) W = Weight of building (total dead load + appropriate amount of live
The IOtal sei,mic weight of building (W) = 3 x 3000 + Building for example. load) = 11500 kN'
2500 = ll,500 kN VB = 0.676" 0.05 x 11500 = 388.7 kN
Total base shear as per IS: 1893-197G = 388.7 kN

1
 ( ---------Chapter 16 CQlk Bcu;ed P~ed'(lre lor Dett!rminat.ion oJ Design Latel"al Loads) _ _

IS: 1893--1975 VB = C a, W Vertical Distribution of Base Shear to Different Floor Levels

C = a coefficient defining the flexibiHty of structure
The design base shear (V8) computed shall be distributed along the height of the bUilding as per
C = 0.9 for fundamental period (7) = 0.1 " n = OA sec the following expression
~ = Horizontal seismic coefficient::::: 0,075

a, = f3 I
"'" (In Seismic Coefficient Method) = 1 x 1.5 x 0.05 0.Q75
ao =0.05 since Roorkee is in zone IV as per IS: 1893: 1975
I = 1.5 (building is used as a hospital)
a h = f3 I I'D S,Ig (In Response Spectrum Method) = J x L5 X 0.25 X
o. I 875 = 0.0703 Using the above equation. base shear is distributed as foHows,
Fo = Seismic zone factor for average acceleration spectra = 0.25 for zone
IV
f3 = 1.0 for rock and hard soil and for all type of foundation
Salg = 0.1875 COl1"spond to T = 0.4 sec and damping 5%
W = Weight of building (total dead load + appropriate amount of live =851 [ _ .___2 .___ 3~X3.0'
3000 x 3 f
0-0-]
3000 x 6" + 3000 x 9- + 2500 x 12-
= 3U3lc\i
load) = 11500 kN
VB = 0.9 x 0.075 x 11500 = 776.25
kN 2 '
Total base shear as per IS: 1893 - 1975 = 776.25 kN
= 851 3000 x 6.0 i = 12453 Iu'l
Q2 [ 3OOO><3'+3OOO><6'+3OOOx92 +25OOxI2' J
IS: 1893-1984 VB =KC a, W
K ===- perfonnance factor depending on the structural framing system and Q, = 851 r~--..--.,---c-'-'~~c--:,-~:---.:.:., = 280.18 kN
brittleness or ductility of eonstruction == 1.0 L3000x

C a coeffjcient defining the flexibility of structure with increase in 2

::::0

number of stories depending upon fundamental time period := 0.9 a. = 85JL3000 x 3' + 3000 3000 x 12.0
6' + 3000 X X
.. ]
9' + 2500 x 12<
=415.08 Iu'l
for T = OA sec
K (perfonn.nce factor) = 1.0
Uh ;;;; Horizontal seismic coefficient = 0.075 16.3.2 Dyruunic Analysis Procedure
a, = {3 J "" (In Seismic Coefficient Method) IS 1893 (Part 1): 2002 has recommended the method of dynamie analysis of buildings in section
= Ix 1.5 x 0.05 =0.075 7.8 in the case of (i) regular building-those higher than 40 m in height in Zones IV and V.
a. ~ f3 I Fo S,Ig (In Response Spectrum Method) and those higher than 90 m in height in Zones Il and Ill. (b) Irregular buildings-all framed
= I x L5 x 0.25 x O.I~ = 0.07 buildings higher than 12 m in Zones IV and V, and those higher than 40 m in height in Zones
H and Ill. The purpose of dynamic analysis is to obtain the design seismic forces. with its
fJ = 1.0 for rock and hard soil and for all types of foundation
distribution to different levels along the height of the building and to the various lateral load-
I ;;;; a coefficient depending upon the Importance of structures =: 15 resisting elements similar LO equivalent lateral force method. The procedure of dynamic analysis
(building is used as a hospital) described in the Code is valid only for regular type of huilding.<, which are almost symmetrical
'10 = 0.05 since Roorkee is in zone IV as per IS: 1893: J984 in plan and elevation about the axis having uniform distribution of the lateral load resisting
W ~ Weight of building = 11500 kN elements. It is further assumed that all the masses are lumped at lhe storey level and only sway
VB 0.9 x 0.075 x 11500 = 776.25 kN displacement is permitted at each storey. The procedure of dynamic analysis of irregular type
M buildings should be based on 3D modelling of building that will adequately represent its
10 = 0.25 for zone IV
stiffness and mass distribution along the height of the building so that its response to earthquake
S,/R = 0.18 correspond to T = OA sec and damping 5% could be predicted with sufficient accuracy. The dynamic analysis procedure for regular type
Total base shear as per IS: 1893 - 1984 = 776.25 kN of building is divided into several distinctive steps, which are as follows:
_g'M (Earthquake Resistant Design. ~f $tM.t.C.ture-s

Determination of eigen-values and eigen-veclors, clause: 7.8.4.1 Expressing these equations in matrix form

Let the shear stiffness of i ID storey is k; and the mass is Itt; subjected to an external dynamic force m, 0 Ol i\ ~
Jilr)and the corresponding displacement x,(t) as shown in Figure 16.1. Assuming damping in
the system is small, so it may be ignored and the system is analyzed as undamped system. Using
0 m, 0 Xz
D'Alernbert's princip1e. the dynamic equilibrium equation of mass at each floor js, 0 m, 0 x3
+
0 m. 0 x4
m, x, + k, (x, -.to) k, (X1- x,) ~ f,(l)
0 0
m,x, + k, (x, - XI) - k, (x, - xi! ~ h(t)
0 0 m, _xn'J
m,x, + k, (x, -xi! - k, (x, -x,) ~ hIt)
m,x. + k., (x4 ks (xs - -"') ~!.Ct)
(k, +k,) -kz 0 0 x, ' .fI ~
, - xs) -
-k z (kz+k,l -k, 0 x, t,
0 -k, (k,+k.) -k4 0 x, J,
~

0 -k4 ( .. ) -kn_1
0 X4 .f.
m~, ;t,_, +~, (x"., x._,) - k,C", - X_I) ~ f._,(t) 0 -kn _ 1 (k._, + k,) -k.
ml'lxl1 + kn (x" - .tn_I):;;;;: J,,(r) 0 0 -k. k. LXn lin
m in which.
1h, m, 0 0 Xl ~
0 m, 0 X2
0 m, 0 x:;
m. [MJ=
0 m4 0
, [Xl =
X4
h.
0 0
m,
1h,
0

(k,+kz) -kz
0 m._
0
x.

0 XI!; oft
""
1 [K) =
-k,
0
(k, + 1<,)
-k;.
-k,
(k,+k,)
0
-k4
..
0
-kn_, 0
[Xl =
x,
XJ
x,
, IF] =
f,
f,
f.
"', 'i" 0 -k,
0
( )

-k'l-l (k,_l + k,) -k.

L 0 0 -k, k,
-x '-. J
j' The equilibrium equations can be expressed in matrix form as,

A.nstorey building Lumped mllSS !lIDde1 Horizontal displacements MX +KX=F

frame of n-storey shear at the floor levels. of
building .-.y shear building where, M and K are caned mass and stiffness matrices: respectively. which arc symmetrical.
FIGURE 16.1 Dynamic analysis of multi-degree~freedom-system (n-storey shear building
X, X and F are called acceleration, displacement and force vectors respectively. and all are
frame).
functions of time (f).

1
 C Chapter 16 Code BtUleti Procedure for Determination of Design Lo.krol Loads) 8M

If tbe structure is allowed to freely vibrate with no external force (vector F is equal to
zero) and no damping in simple harmonic motion~ then the system represents undamped free
vibration (C/ouse 7.8.4.1 ofIS 1893 (Parr. 1): 2002). In that case, displacement x can he defined
<=3
at time tis,
-I) = x sm(ro/ + 4J)
where.
x "'" amplitude of vibration.
w ;:: natural circular frequency of vibration
q; ;:: phase difference, which depends on the displacement and velocity at time t O.
Differentiating x{t) twice with respect to time enables the relationship between acceleration
and di splacement

.i' (I) =- arx sin (aJt + qJ) = - ar X(I)

Sllhstituting, Equation for free undamped vibration of the MDOF system becomes
KX;",'MX
where a:l- is known as the cigen-value or natural frequcncie." of the system. defined a".
Stiffness and Mass matrix for the plane frame
,
['" -.
J
"'"I
, ,.
[~ II
0 0

[~, ,o -. " -.J

[arl = "'l -S 14 -6 0 8 0
[M)
0 4
0 -6 6 0 0
This is known as an eigen~value or characteristic value problem.

From the relation that, natural time period, T =- 2n Eigen-values of (K - m' MI, clause: 7.8.4.1
NalUra! lime periods, T are (clause 7.8.4.1) '" -OS-",2 S) -8 0

T~ 0
T,
o
f.0
0
T,
0
0
[K-
oJ'
M)=

l -8

o
0 .
(14 - ",'S)
-6
0
-6
(12_",'4)
-6

~6
04 - ",'S) -6
X t'; known :.ts :m dgcn vector/modal vector or mode shape (Clause 7.8.4.1), represented [K - arM) =(-1)0+1)(18-",'8) -6 (12-",'4)
J
;.is f 0-6 (6-",'4)

c -8 -6
Example 2 Let us c~msider a one bay four-storey shear building. Taking lhe masses and +<-l)fI+2)(-SJl ~ (12 - ",' 4) o
-6 J
columm; stiffne::;; of eaeh storey as shown. The summed ~hear stiffness (2 x k i ) of columns. The
-6 (6-ro'4)
:-;liffnes~ and ma~;; matrix of the entire system are

[K - ar ,Ill = uf 8.5 J + 22.0625 ",4 - ISar + 2.8125

 1
CiIUPr.!:.T' 16 Code Bo.sed Procedure for Determination of De$ign LateNl Loadfl

The determinant is a quadratic equation in tiP. There are four values of CtJl for which the ur = 0.2028, 1.1280, 2.8385 and 4.3306
determinant [K - ail M] is zero, they are:
Eigen-vector for .,' = 0.2028
ltJf =0.2028, UJj : 1.1280, ltJS: = 2.8385, ltJl = 4.3306
-8

,i1
Therefore, the strocture has four eigen-values~ which are the natura) frequencies of the 16.3776
system. -8 12.3776 -6
[K - ltJ2M] = o -6 I Ll88S
5; [
4~ o o -6

3
Assume. Xl = 1.0. then
2
Row I gives: 16.3776 - 8 x, = 0, x, = 2.0472
C Row 2 gives: -8 x, + 12.3776 x, - 6 x, =0, x, ';' 2.8899

" 0
x, + 11.1888 x, - 6 x. '" 0, X. =3.3418
i ~I
Row 3 gives: -6

1
0
~2

..3 1.0
2.0472
-4
X", 2.8899
,
...
Variation of the determinant of a four~storey shear frame
[
3.3418
-Q
o 0
Eigen-vectors oi [K - {J)l Mj, clause: 7.8.4.1 8 0
2.0472
1
= 119.5983
After obtaining the eigen~values of the system. the next step is to calculate the eigen-vectors o 4 0][1.0
o 2.8899
(mode shape) corresponding to each eigen-value. The characteristics equation governs the
undamped free vibration of the MDOF system. There are no external forces acting on the 0 4 3.3418

system. The displacement of the structure results from giving initial conditions i.e. initial
displacement and velocity at a particular storey leveL The initial displacement is perfectly
arbitrary. Therefore, one can determine the relative rather than absolute displacements (Bhatt, 1.0 1 [0.0914]
1 2.0472 0.1&72
2002). In this example eigen~vectors corresponding to eigen-values are obtained from the
cofactors of any row of the characteristics equation. X = "1195983 2.8&99j = 0.2643
[
The shape of each mode of free vibration is unique but the amplitude of the mode shape 3.341& 0.3056
is undefined. The mode shape is usualJy nonnalized such that the largest term in the vector is
1.0 or the sum of the squares of the lenns in the vector is 1.0 or the vectors are normalized so Eigen-veclor for (,r = 1.1280
the generali7.ed mass M" is 1.0 (Carr. 1994), i.e.
0
M' {VI; I'U.11{ qr,) = 1.0
8.9760 -8

r
(18 ltJ28)
-8
-8
(14- .,,'8)
0
-6
0
[K - {J)'MJ =
-8
0
4.9760
-6
-6
7.4880
-6
0

1.4&80
-. ]
~6
0 0
[K - i M)
0 -6 (12-.,,'4)
J
L 0 0 -6 (6-ltJ'4)
Mft. ( E~aJce Resistant Design. 0/ Strudures
Cha-ptftr- 16 Code B08ed Procedure 'f!'" Determination oj Design Lotera-l Load.4
Assume; Xl :::::; ) ,0,

Row 1 gives: 8.9760 -8

Row 2 gives: -8
then
x, = 0, X2

x, + 4.9760 x, - 6 x, = 0,
= 1.1220
X3 = -OA028
" w<. ". -''''' -",m '" m, [:
o8
o
00 0][10
0 -0:5885 1
4 0 -0,4792 = 12.8429

Row 3 g,ves: -6 x, +7,488 X3 - 6 x, = 0, X4 -1.6242 L

O o0 4 05370

[027901
::~220ji
to,
J
-0.5885 ' -OJ 642
x= r X= -J12.8429 -0,47921 = -0,1337
-0.4028 [
c-1.6242 0.5370 J 0.1498 "

o 0 0',; J.O ]
Eigen,vector for ar = 4.3306
x' MX = ILO , ."" Mro. ,."'" r: o 8 0 o 1.1220
4 0ll-OA028 = 29.2722
r~'"-'
-8
-8
-20,6448 -6
0 l

cO o a 4 -1.6242 IK - arM] =" ~ -6 -5.3224 o

-6 J
0 -6 -11.3234

Assume, Xl :: 1.0, then

Row 1 gives: J6,6448 - 8 X2 = 0, x, = -2.0806
Row 2 gives: - 8 x, -
20,6448 x, - 6 x, = 0, x, = 5,8256
Row 3 gives: 6 x, - 5.3224 x, - 6 x, = 0, = -3.0871
X4

,
[K - rAn =
.
["" -8
0
0
-8
-8-7080
-6
0
-6
0

0,6460
-6
]
0
-6
-53540
La ]
-2,0806
X = 5.8256
[
-3.087J

o
Assume, ..( 1 = j .0, then 8 0
0
0' [1.0
o -2,0806
1
= 216.501
Row J gives: -4,7080 -8
Row 2 gives: ~8 Xl -8.7080 Xz
x, 0, x, = -0,5885
6.x3;;:: O. x;\ :::::; -0.4792
o
o
4
0 4
o 5.8256
-3.0871 j
R0\\. 1- ,6 x= ~O,()460 6
',1 --~, 0 ' x, = 05370
,
I LO ]
-2,0806 [0'0680]
-0.1414
La:

x;
Il
-0.5885~'
-0,4792
0.5370
X = J216.si:n
[
58256
-3.0871
03959
-0.2098

1
ED (Earthqu. Rtl$utant Design of SWtt.ctU1'eS Lt?ha.pte,.. 16 Cede Based Procedure for Determ~~ation of Design Lateral Loa4e ) _ _

~
.......... ..:\. 4
I
I The modal participation factor (P;) of mode k is,

\~~ .,~

~-~

\.
r
Pi::= -"," - - -
\ I
W;(4)~)2
...... ' i=!
.~~
,'.
i \

_ ~_~>:O,~.li'+:.!l.".0.1872 -+:.~.x..(}}643 + 4".0.3056 .. = 4.5084

~ 8x (.0914)' + 8 x (.1872l + 4 x (.2643)' + 4x (.3056),

Similarly, p, = -0.9831, p, 0.1569

Determination of modal mass. clause: 7.8.4.5 (a)

The modal mass (M.) of mode k is given by,

o
Mode shapes

Determination of modal participation factors. clause: 1.8.4.5 (b)

Using the eigen~vectors determined for the four-storey shear frame, modal participation factors
and effective masses for aU the four modes can be calculated as, Where,
8 0 0 g = Acceleration due to gravity,
= Mode shape coefficient at floor i in mode k, and
l/Jrk.
[MJ~080 WI :;:; Seismic weight of floors i,
004
[ , 4 -:2
000

r OJll48l _ l~ Wi4>ilJ _ .....J'J:8.1.(8(O.0914)+(8(O.l8?~.+:_~(026431.:':.4(O"30.s_6J2

._.
[(lO91:' e 0.2790] I 00680l M, ~ [.4 ,1 - 9.81 [9.81 (8 (0.0914)'+8(OJ872)'+4 (0.2643l+4 (0.30S6hl
0.187"
I/!, = l' 0.2643 ,~= ~().0744!'';''
0.3056"
'l 0.207 4

~ 0.3002 j
~0.1642
,~0.1337 ~4 =
: OJ 498
l
: ~0.1414
0.3959J
~O.2098
! g

= 20.3249
~ W,(<Pil ) J

1
. , . l!f!''f''thq'Ua.ke Resistant Design of Stt"Ucture.;
Chapter 16 Code Based Pnx;edU'N!. 1M' Detenninat.ion 0/ Design Lateral Loads Mi
Design Lateral Force in Each Mode

(A, Pi 41, W,)

(A, P,~, W2 )
1
i kN
(AI W._,
P, 11>.) lJ'
(A, P, <p", W._I )

Modal Contributions of Various Modes, Clause: 7.8.4.2

Storey shear forces in each mode. clause 7.8.4.5 (d}
M, 20.3249
For mode I, = = 0,8468 = 84,68%
M 24 The peak shear force (V,,) acting in storey i in mode k is given by.

M2 2,684)
FVJ Ilmdc 2. = = 0.1120 = 1120%
M 24

Fo, mode 3. ~'!!.~ =

0.9664
= 0,0402 = 4,02%
M 24 The storey shear force for the first mode is,

For mode 4, ~ O,~!4() = 0,0010 0.10%

The effective mass for all modes considered will be 84.68 + 11,20 + 4.02 + 0.1 100%,
It is clear from the values of the participation factors and effective mass, their value
decreases as the mode number increases. The practical significance of this fact is that, in general
it is not necessary to jnclude aU the modes in a calculation. Only a few significant modes need
to be inc1uded in order to obtain reasonable results for practical problems. Therefore, the Clause
7.8.4.2 of IS 1893 (Pari 1); ZOO] states that "The number of modes 10 be used in the analysis
should be such that the sum total of modal masses of all modes considered is at least 90% of Similarly,
the total seismic mass and missing mass correction beyond 33 Hz are to be considered, modal
combination shall he carried out only for modes upto 33 Hz",

Design lateral 10n:!e at each floor in each mode, clause: 7.8.4.5 (c)
The design lateral force (Qik) at noor i In mode k is given by.
where Ai( i~ design horizont.al acceleration spectrum value as per 6.4.2 using the natural period
".ibratjon Ok) of mode k.
I.J(
The de<;ign horizontal >cismie coefficient Ak for various modes are worked out using
LI S,
Storey shear force due to all modes considered, clause 7.8.4.5 (e)
The peak storey shear force (Vi) in storey i due to all modes considered is obtained by combining
those due to each mode in accordance with modal combmatlon as per clause 7.8.4.4. The
combinations are usually achieved by using statistical methods. . . .
The design values for the lOlal base shear are obtained ~ combmmg t!le correSp011~mg
modal responses, In general these modal maximum valu.es wlll not occur SImultaneously, To
overcome this difficulty, it is necessary to use an approxlm~te method.
An upper limit for the maximum response may be oblamed by Sum of the A~solute values
(ABS) of the maximum modal contributIOns. This IS very conserva"ve and lS very seldom used
except in some codes for say two or three modes for very short .penod struetures. I.f th.e sy.stem
does nol have closely spaced modes. another estimate of the maxImum response, whICh IS WIdely
accepted and which usually provides a reasonable estimate is the Square Root of the Sum of
 1

. . ( EIl11.hqucke Resistant Design of Stf"U<:tures Ch(J.1IifT' 16 Code. Ba$ed Pr~edure j~r Determination of Design Lateral ~ -u
Squares (SRSS). Application of the SRSS method for combining modal responses generally Complete Quadratic Combination (CQC), Clause 7,8.4.4
provides an acceptable estimation of the total maximum response. However, when some of the For three-dimensional structural systems exhibiting closely spaced modes, the peak response
modes are c10seJy spaced i.c. the difference between; two natural frequencies is within 10% of quantities shall be combined as per Complete Qu.adratic Combination (CQC) method
the smallest of the two frequendes, the use of\ the SRSS method may either grossly
underestimate or overestimate the maximum response. A fannulation known as the Complete , ,
Quadratic Combination (CQC), based On the theory of random vibration and is also consIdered ).; IIA,p,jA,
as an extension of the SRSS method. For an undamped structure CQC estimate is identical to
the SRSS estimate. where)
r ;;; Number of modes being considered,
Maximum Absolute Response (ABS), Clause 7.8.4.4 (b) A, := Response quantity in mode i (jnc)uding sign),
Aj = Response quantity in mode j (including sign),
The Maximum Absolute Response (ABS) for any system response quantity 1S obtained by
Pij ;;;;: Cross modal coefficient.
3Rsuming that the maximum response in each mode occurs at the same instant of time. Thus the
maximum value of the re~ponse quantity is the sum of the maximum absolute value of the S(' (l + fJu)fJl.'
response associated with each mode. Therefore using ABS. maximum srorey shear for all modes Pu; (1 AJ)2 + 4(2 fJij (I + A,)2
shall he obtained as
where,
(:: Modal damping ratio (in fraction),
{Jij = Frequency ratio {J)/{J)i'
(J)i Circular frequency in r4.h mode, and
where the summation is for the closely-spaced modes only, The peak response quantity due to fiJ; = Circ.ular frequenc), in /"h mode.
the closely spaced modes (A') is then combined with those of the remaining well-separated Theref~re all the frequency ratios and cross modal components can be represented in matrix
modes by the method of SRSS.
form as shown below~
"1
Square Root of Sum of Squares (SRSS). Clause 7.8.4.4 (a) {J)jim j OJ 2iOJ1 mIT_If (til {J),,/ (,01
fJ12 Pll (J),J (J)2

r'
A more reasonable method of combining modal maxima for two-dimensional structural system Wtl {j}2 {j}?J {j}2 (ti,,_1 1{j}2

fl,;"= ::: p" P3J P"]

eXhibiting well-separ,lted vibnttion frequencies is the square-root-of-thesquares (SRSS). The p" fJ'3 P'4 _
peak response quantity (Al due to all modes considered shall be obtained as, /314 - OJ iiJ II _ (t)1I~!IOJn_l iJ IW _
(tillml\l_1 2 1 II n 1
_/3'1 /342 fJ" /3", OJ1/OJ IT (J)i (J)" W]/(J)" mll lltJn

P12 PI3
where Ak is the absolute value of quantity in mode 'k'. and r is the numhers of modes being
. [P' P21
P"]
p"
P'l2 P23

considered. Pu = P31
p" P?A
P32
Using the above method, the stOrey shears are as foHows, P41 p" p" p",
V, ~ [(V,,)" + (V12l' + ...(V,,,,_,,l' + (V,")']'" kl'
V, L(V,d + (V,,)' + ... (V,(,,d' + (V'nl'J'12 kN The above quadratic combina,ion i.e. }.;
as,

~ ~;~il )'1- can also be wrinen in matrix form
1",1 1":1
V" ~ I(v,,)' + (Vn)' + ... (V""-,,l + (V3.)'J 1I2 kN

fA A" " "1

, - hJ""4
[~:: ~~ ~:: ~:1[~:]
P31 p" P" p" ~,
P4! P42 P41 P44.,.44
I
i
Here the terms Ai and Aj represent the response of different modes of a certain storey level. Modal Participation Factors
Usmg the matrix notation the storey shears are worked out
PI = 4.5084. Pi = -1.6383,p, = -0.9831. P. = 0.1569
VI, V:;, V3 -. Vn respectively.

Lateral forces at each storey due to aU modes, clause 7.8.4.5 (I) Modal. Mass
The design lateral forces Froor and Fj> at roof and at ith floor. are calculated as, MI = 20.3249, M, = 2.6841. M, = 0.9664, M4 = 0.0246

Froof :;;;: Vroof' and Fj :::: Vi - Vi ... l

Design Lateral Force at Each Floor in Each Mode
F,=V4kN.
The design lateral force (Qu.) at floor i in mode k is given by,
F, = (V, - V,) kN
Fo = (V, - V,) kN
F, =(VI - V,)kN S.
For TI = 1.3951 => -"'- = 0.7169, From Figure 2 of IS 1893 (ParI 1): 20()]
g
Example 3 Consider a mass and stiffness matrix .for the undamped free vibration of the
system as below. Determine the latera) force at each storey. For T, =0.5916 => ~ =1.6903, From Figure Z of IS 1893 (Part 1): ZOO]

l
c~::
[~ ~ o
-800 0
0]0
IK] =
. 0
o
1400 -600
-600 1200
o -600
-L]
600
kNlm, [M] =
0 0
oo
4 0 t.
4
For T, = 0.3729 => S., = 2.5. From Figure 2 of IS 1893 (Pan 1): ZOO]

For T4 = 0.3019
S
g

=> ~.4 = 2.5, From Figure] of IS 1893 (Pan 1): 20()2

g

Natural frequencies The design horizontal seismic coefficient A" for various modes are worked out using An =

"" =4.5036, co, = 10.6209. co, =16.8479 and <0, =20.8101 s.

Z 1
2R'g'
Eigen-veclors
A, =H.:I:~ = O;it 0.7169=0.0172

ro09141 r-0.1848] r -0.2790] [ 0.06801

. L ~1
_ : 0.1872
i
L 0.3056.1
_ -0.2073
, - 0.2642 " </Ie - Om44' ,
L 0.3002
-l
_ 0.1642 . _ -0.1414
0.1337 4', - 0.3959
-0.1498 -0.2098 J Similarly.
A, =
2 R g
= Q:24! 1.6903= 0.0405
2 5

A, = 0.060,
Time Periods A. = 0.060.

rU <i51
j,J
0 0 Design Lateral Force
J () 05916 0
]";:::1
I 0 0 0.3729
l 0 0 0

.
i
i@ririi(r~:-r~~~--.~~&~,~~,-=~t~D~'~8i~--.-'f-'S~t~~"-U~-8~--------------------..--_~ ( ('}t(qlit'," 1(; Code Based Pr(Jcedur~ lor D~terminati<m 0/ De~ign Lo.teral Load.'l) Ma_
Storey Shear FOrces due to All Modes Considered
(AI P, <1>" Wi)] [0'0172)(4.5084)(0.0914)(8" 9.81))] [(0,5567)] Max.imum Absolute Response (ABS)
_ (AI 1\ <1>'1 W,) 0.0172)(4.5084)(0.1872)(8" 9.81) = (1.1396) kN
[Q,t1- (A, R <1>" W,) 0.0172)(4.5084)(0.2646)(4,,9.81)) (0.8043) VI =[1V1l1 + IVd + IV"I + 1V,,11 : [13.43071 + 12.63031 + 10.5686[ + I-O.72441J =7.3539 kN
~
[
(AI <1>" W,) cO.0172)(45084)(0.3056)(4x9.81 (0.9301) V, =[IV" I + IV"I + IV"I + 1V,.11 =112.87401 + 11.66801 + 1-0.72291 + i-O.77461J = 6.0394 kN

(A, P,. 4>" Wi)]

f0.0405)(- 1.6383)(-0.1848)(8" 9.81 (0.9623)
_ (A, P, <1>n W,) _ 0.0405)(-1.6383)(-0.2073)(8 X 9.8I))j' = (1.0794) b"l
l [ 1 VJ =!IV," + IV"! + 1V331 + 1V,,11 = [11.73441 + 10.5886' + 10.03721 + 10.06871] = 2.4289 kN
V,= [IV'II + IV'" + IV'JI + lV.d] = UO.93011 + 10.78161 + 103467! + j-0.07751l = 2.1359 kN
(Q.,J - (A, P, <1>" W,) -; 0.0405)(-1.6383)(0.0744)(4 ,(981)) (-0.1930),
[
(A, P,4>., W,) L0.0405)(-1.6383)(0.3002)(4,,9.81 (0.78J6) j Square Root of Sum of Squares (SRSS)

(A3 P, <1>" If, )]10'060)(-0'9831)(-0'2790)(8" 9'81)) (1.2915)

(A, P,4>" W,) _ 0.060)(-0.9831)(0.1642)(8" 9.81)) _ (-0.7601) kN
l' 1 V, = [(VIl)' + (vEl' + (V,,)' + (V"l'l'"
= [(3,4306)' + (2.6303)' + (05686)' + (.. 0.7244)'J'"' = 4.4199 kN
[Q.,] (A, Po <1>" W,l - 0.060)(-0.9831)(0.1337)(4 x 9.81)) - HJ.3095) 1 V, = [(V,,)' + (V,,)' + (V,,)' + (V,.)'J'"

I
[
(A, P, <1>., W,) L0.060)(-O.9831)(-OJ498)(4x 9.81J (0.3467)
[(2.8739)' + (1.668)' + (-0.7229)' + (-Q.7746)'t = 3.4877 kN

(A,
_ (A,
p. 4>JI Wifj'
[(0.060)(0.1569)(0.0680)(8 9.81)
p. <1>., W,) _ 0.060)(0.1569)(-0.1414)(8 X9.81
X
~ (0.0502)
-l(-O8433) kN
1 V, = [(VJ1 )' + (V,,)' + (V,,)' + (V,.)']'h
= [(1.7344)' + (0.5886j2 + (0.0372)' + (O,0687)']~ = 1.8332 kN
[Q,,]., (A. P, 4>" W,) - 0.060)(0.1569)(0.3959)(4 x 9.81 - (0.1462) V. = [(V,,)' + (V,,)' + (V.,)' + (V44)')'"
[
(A, P, <1>" W,) 0.060)(0.1569)(-0.2098)(4,,9.81 (-0.0775)
=[(0.9301)' + (0.7816)' + (0.3467)' + (-0.0775)']'" =1.2657 kN
Storey Shear FOrces in Each Mode Complete Quadratic Combination (CQC)

The peak shear force will be obtained by V" = i

,,,,i+1
Q~
The storey shear forces for the first mode is.
where
r, Number of modes bejng considered
, 3.4306]
2.8739 kN
Pii' Cross modal coefficient
[V,,] = LQl lJ344
}". Response quantity in mode i (including sign)
J.. t+J }'r Response quantity in mode j (including sign)
0.9301
8(' (1 + J:lij)J:lI/
Similarly.

r'. vV" 1 ~263031 !I),l I'-0.7229

0.5
686
1. [v.41I-O7244l where
[
IV,,] =;

lv"J
11 c
V" ,=
1.6680
0.5886J' iV,,]
0.7816
; Vn
=;

l
v"J =
V"
I

0.0372 ,[V
0.3467
g
]
\-2,

\",
-0.7746
= ;" = 0.0687 i
L-0,0775 j
~, Modal damping ratio (in fraction)
flij, Frequency ratlo, oJ/W;
W;, Circular frequency in ith mode, and
wj> Circular frequency in fth mode
 ~rthquake ~si.staTl.t D3ign (1f Strudu1"es

Therefore aU the frequency ratios and cross modal components ean be represented in Using the matrix notation the storey shears are worked out as follows:
matrix form as shown below,

:::]- [::~:: ::::~ ::::; ::~:;l

{J" - (fJ/(fJ, (fJ,! (fJ, (fJ/(fJ, (fJ" (J),
VI =
D'
I( [3.4307 2,6303 0.5686 -Q,71441
[' 0,0115
0,004
. ,,'
I
0,0430
0,004
'""~
0,0430 0,0191 [;.,," ]\
--.~~-.-

2Ji303
Jl-0,7244
0.5686 I
/3 44 (jJtfW 4 Wzl(jJ4 (jJ3/m4 m,/m4 i\ 0,0027 0.0197 0.1816
0.1816
1 I
[4.4328]
I 2,358
3,7409 4,62071
0.4240 I 1.5863 1.9593
rr
.ooT~~l
0,0115 0,004
- 0,2673 0,6303
[
1 1.2351
(J,2164 0.5103 0,8096 1_ V, = i( [2,8740 1.6680 -0,7229 -,.m.{,:'" 0,004 0,0430
0,0430 0,0197 1.6680 \
0.1816 -0,7229 )
_ Rx(0,05),x(I+I)x]'3 =] ~'\
) 0,0027 0,0197 '0.1816 I _ -0,7746 /
PI! - (1 _1')2 + 4 X (0,05)' x 1 x (l + I)'
=[3.5064J

. '" '""I"r
__ 8 X (0,05)' x (1 + 2.358) x 2,358~ _ _ = 0 0115
p" - (1- 2.358 z)' + 4 x (0,05)' X 2.358 x (1 + 2.358)z
Therefore PI} calculated for all i j and represented as given below
'
I!
I( [1.7344 0,0115 ['1
0,004
0,0430 0,0197 0,5886 \

r
V, = 0,5886 0,0312 0,06871 0,004 0,0430
0.1816 0,0372 ;
0,004 021 . \
PI! p" p" P14111 0,0027 0,0197 0.1816 00687 /
' 1
0,0115 I I
p" p" P'L' p" 0,0115 1 0,04:10 0,0191
Pi.;:;::
. [ p" p" p" p"
= 0,004 0,04;10 I 0,1816 = [1.84I1J
p" p" p" p,,_ _0,0027 0,0191 0,1816 1

~''''1r,,: " l["~'l

0,0115 0,004

The <Ibove quadratic combination i,e, A =

4 ,
l
rr
ilL
1=1
f

L AiPUAj cun also be written as

i.,j
V. )I
=, \[0,9301 0.7816 0,3467

0,004
1
0,0430
0,0021 0,0197 0.1816
0,0430 0,0197
0.1816
1
0,7816
0.3467
-0,0775 ,I
\
I
LLA,P;i/'J = A,p"A, + A,p"A, + A,p"A, + A,P"),, + A,p,,!!, + A,PllA, + = [1.2776)
I-I 1'1 ;'.,p;;A, + A,p"A, + F"p"A, + A'P32Az + A,p"A, + A,p"),, +
Lateral Forces at Each Storey due to All Modes Considered
A,P,,?, + A,p"A, + A,p"A, + A,p",A,
Maximum Absolule Response (ABS)
111 1iIflirix fornL il can be represented as
Froof = F, = V, = 2,1359 k..'<
iPn
p" p" P141l- A, j- F, = V, V, 2.4289 - 2,1359 = 0,2930 k!'I
lA, 4, .13 A,'ll~:: Pn
p"
P23 P24 .1.2
p" p" A,
F, = V, - V, = 6,0394 - 2.4289 = 3,6105 kN

P4I P42 P4;' P44 ... }.'"

F, = V, - V, = 7,3539 - 6,0394 = 1.3145 kN

Herr lh~' terms A., or ')~I reprcsenl the response of different modes of a certain storey level.
.iI CEarthqulll:e Resistant Design of $tMLCtures

Square Rool of Sum of Squares (SRSS)

[4J IS 1893, Indian Standard Recommendations for Earthquake Resistance of Structure.
F roof F, ~ V, = 1.2657 Indian Standard Institute, ./-iew Delhi, 1962.
[5) IS 1893, Indian Standard Recommendations for Earthquake Resistance of Structure
FJ = V3 - V, = 1.8332 1.2657 = 0.5674 kN
(First Revision), Indian Standard Institute, New DeIhl, 1966.
F, ~ Vo VJ = 3.4877 - 1.8332 1.6544 kN [6J IS 1893, Indian Standard Criteria for Earthquake Resistance of Structure (second
FI = VI - V2 = 4.4199 - 3.4877 = 0.9322 kN revision), Indian Standard Institute, New Delhi, 1970.
(7) IS 1893, Indian Standard Criteria for Earthquake Resistance of Structure (third
Complete Quadratic Combination (CQC)
revision),' Indian Standard Institute, New Delhi, 1975.
F,oof F, = V4 = 1.2776 kN (8J IS 1893, Indian Standard Criteria for Earthquake Resistance of Structure (fourth
reVision), Indian Standard Institute, New Delhi, 1984.
F':J ~ v, - V, J.8411 1.2776 = 0.5635 kN
[9] Newmark, N.M. and Hall, W.l., "Earthquake Spectra and Design". Engineering
F2 = V, - VJ = 3.5064 - 1.841] 1.6653 kN Monographs on Earthquake Criteria, Slructural Design, and Strong Motion Record:~>
F, = VI V, = 4.4432 - 3.5064 = 0.9368 b'l Earthquake Engineering Research Institute, J 982.
[lO] Paz, M., International Handbook of Eanhquake Engineering-Codes, Programmes
Comparison of .-\BS, SRSS and CQC Rerults and Examples, Chapman & Hall, 1994.

Method or Modal Combination Base Shear in kN

ABS 7.3539
SRSS 4.4199
CQC 4.4432

SUMMARY
Determination of design lateral forces is the primary requirement of seismic analysis and design
of a structure, The design iater-dl forces are often carried out by equivalent static lateral force
procedure and dynamic analysis of structures. Dynamic analysis is carried out either by response
spectrum method or by time history method. The aim of this Chapter is to present a clause wise
approach for delerminalion of Ialeral forces as pcr IS 1893 (Part I): 2002 with the help of
worked out example!.. EquivaJent static and response spectrum method has been used in this
chapter for detennining the design lateral forces. Determination of lateral forces from earlIer
version of IS 1893 has also been worked oul to know the impacI of change of code. Seismic
desjgn philosophy for earthquake resistant design of structures has also been explained in brief.

REFERENCES
rl] BIS 1893, Criteria for Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures-ParI I: General
Provisions and Buildings (fifth revi,ll;on), Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi,
2()()2.
[2] Bhatt, P, Programming the Dynamic Analysis of Structures, Spon Press, 2002.
[31 Carr, A.l, "Dynamic Analysis of Structures''. Bulletin of the New Zealand National
SOCiety jor Earthquake Engineering, Vol. 21, No.2, June, 1994.

Chapter 17
Consideration of Infill
Wall in Seismic Analysis of
RC; Buildings
17.1 INTRODUCTION
A large number of reinforced concrete and steel buildings are constrUcted with masonry infiUs.
Masonry infills are often used to fin the void between the vertkal and horizontal resisting
elements of the building frames with the assumption that these infills will not take part in
resisting any kind of Joad either axial or lateral; hence its significance in the analysis of frame
is generally neglected. Moreover, non-availability of realistic and simple analytical models of
infil1 becomes another hurdle for its consideration in analysis. In fact) an infill wall enhances
considerably the strength and rigidity of the structure. It has been recognised that frames with
infil1s have more strength and rigidity in comparison to the bared frames and their ignorance
has become the cause of failure of many of the multi-storeyed buildings. The recent example
in thi' category is the Bh,U earthquake on 26 January. ZOO)' The main reason of failure is the
stiffening effeel of infilled frame that change, the basic behaviour of buildings during
earthquake and creates new failure mechanil'm. This chapter win discuss the structural action
of InfiH panel and f aiJure modes and modelling of infill waJls with and without openings.
17.2 STRUCTURAL AND CONSTRUCTIONAL
ASPECTS OF INFILLS
The prcsen(:e of masonry infills is the cause of (i) unequal distribution of lateral forces in the
d!he~cnl frames of a !;uiJdmg--0vcr;;;tressing of some frames; (ii) vertical ilTcgularities in
,;~reIlgth and sliffnci>s~~wf15torey or weak storey as a result higher interstorey drifts and higher
dnciiWy de.mand'{ of RC dcmenls of the ~oft storey in comparisun to remaining stories;
fiji) horizomal irregularities--significant amount of unexpected torsional forces Kince the centre
oj rigidity is muvcd towards the 'Stiffer lnfiHed frame!'> of increa."ed stiffness and a'i a result
282
Chapter 17 Conhiderotion of Infill Woll in Seismic Af'U.llysia of RC Buildings)
occurrence of very Jarge rotation and large displacements in the extreme bare frames;
-i-
(iv) inducing the effect of short column or captive column in infilled frame-a eaptive column
is full storey slender column whose clear height is reduced by its part-height contact with a
relatively stiff masonry infill waH. which constraints its lateral deformation over the height of
contact (CEB, 1996) resulting in premature brittle failure of columns ilIId (,) failure of masomy
infills-<Jut-of-plane and inplane failure results which become the cause of casualties.
A significant amount of research work bas been carried out on the consideration of
stiffening effect of infIll panels and its constructional details. A clear decision has to be taken
by the structural engineers, whether the infIll walls will be made to participate in resisting the
load or not. Depending upon its load resisting mechanism of infills the construction details will
be followed as:
(I) only axial load-infill walls tight to the under side of the floor system - arching action
is the dominant mechanism,
(ii) axial and lateral load-friction or mechanical anchorage along the top to Ironsfer lateral
load to the wall-connection must be able to transfer reaction,
(iii) Only latera! load-wan built tight to the columns and a movement joint at the top of
wall, and no axial and lateral movement joints along aU the sides of walls and must
be sufficiently thick to isolate the effecls of interstorey drift. floor deflection and
differential movement-this type of wall is called partiIion wall (DrYdale. Hamid and
Baker, 1994).
17.3 FAILURE MECHANISM OF INFILLED FRAME
The failure mechanism of an infiHed frame is quite complex and depends upon a number of
factors such as relative strength and stiffness properties of infiIl and frame. frame wall interface
gaps, openings, shear connectors, and such other characteristics. Figure 17.1 shows the five most
....
Mode I Mode 2 Mode 3
Plastic Binge
%'- .-".
<..; ',.'.. '" Shear FailUre in Fra."lle
- Crack in lntHl
rJ Crushing in Tnfill
Mode 4 Mode 5
FIGURE 17.1 lnfilled frame failure modes (Buonopane et aJ.~ 19(9).
+3_ ( EarthqUake Resistant Design of Strut:tures
common modes of failure of masonry infilled frame under increasing intensity of lateral loads
(Buonopane et at, 1999). In principle, failure mechanism of an infilled frame depends to a great
e.tent on the relative strength of the frame and the infiU (EI-Dakhakhni et at, 2003, Mehrabi
et al., 1996).
Model: Sliding shear failure through bed joint of a ma&onry infill- associated with infill with
weak joints and strong members, This formation of the shear crack separates the panel into twO
parts, which reduces the effective column height approximately to half. At this cracked
condition, the system wiU behave as a knee-braced system.
Mode 2: Shear failure at the loaded side columns or beam-column joints - associated with strong
infill and a weak frame. The diagonal/sliding cracks in the infills have been fir<:;t noticed
followed by shear failure of the loaded sided columns.
Mode 3: Comer Crushing in the infill at least one of its loaded comerS - associated with strong
infill surrounded by a strong frame.
Mode 4: Diagonal shear cracking In the form of a crack connecting the two loadeq comers. and
columns yielding in flexure~associated with strong infill surrounded by a weak frame or a frame
with weak joints and strong members. Cracking of the walls occur from one corner to the
diagonalJy opposite comer and the masonry waH fails in shear or diagonal tension.
Mode 5: Frame Failure in the form of plastic hinges in the columns or the beam column
connection - also associated with strong infiU surrounded by a weak frame or frame with weak
joints and strong members.
Most of the studies are focused on the comer crushing mode of faBurt Le. mode 3 in
which, the diagonal compression strut mechanjsm is fully developed that converts the frame
system into the truss (Figure 17.2), increasing the lateral stiffness of the frame manifold. In fact,
one may expect an irutia) lateral stiffness of the infilled frame 5 to 40 times of the respective
bare frame. Kowadays, the diagonal strut model is widely accepted as a simple and rational way
to describe the influence of the frame~panel interaction,
- Idealized
Compression only
diagonal strut
FIGURE 17.2 Diagonal compression strut mechanism.
17.4 ANALYSIS OF INFILLED FRAMES
h has already heen disC)Jssed in the previous sections that the presence of infiH affects the
diHtribulion of hller,aJ load in the frames of building because of the jncrease of stiffness of some
1.
Chr:.pter 17 Con.sideration of IrtfiH Wall in Seiemic Anal1!.~i6 of RC Buildings) WSW
of the frames. The distribution oflateral forces in the frames of building basically depends upon
the center of rigidity of the building and the resultant of the applied latefalloads. If both nearly
coincide, distribution of lateral load remains straightforward i.e. in the ratio of their relative
stiffness. If it is not the case. large torsional forces are introduced in the building. These type
of structures can be better analysed on the basis of 3D analysis ofbuHding after considering the
increased stiffness of the infiUed frames.
The study of interaction of infill with frames has been attempted by using sophisticated
analysis like firute element analysis or theory of elasticity. But due to uncertainty in defining the
interface conditions between the infiHed with the frames, an approximate analysis method may
be better acceptable. One of the most common approximation of infiHed walls is on the basis
of equivalent diagonal strut Le. the system is modeled a5, a braced frame and infill walls as web
element The main problem in this approach is to find the effective width for the equivalent
diagonal strut Various investigators have suggested different values of width of equivaJent
diagonal stl"Ut.
17.4.1 Equivalent DiagolUll Strut
Infill wall without openings
The geometric and material properties of the equivalent diagonal strut are required for
conventional braced frame analysis to detennine the increased stiffness of the infil1ed frame.
The geometric properties are of effective width and thickness of the strut. The thickness and
material properties of strut are similar to the infill wall. Many investigators have proposed
various approximations for the width of equivalent diagonaJ strut. Originally proposed by
Polyakov (J 956) and subsequently developed by many investigaton;, the width of strut depends
on the length of contact between the wall and the columns, ah, and between the wall and
beams, aL shown in Figure 17.3. The proposed range of contact length is between one-fourth
and one-tenth of the length of panel. Stafford Smith (1966) developed the formulations for
all and aL on the basis of beam on an elastic foundation. The following equations are proposed
Contact
r:::=7----7''----<
~-'-+- Stress di~tribuiioJ1 for
effective strut
SlreS5
i~
r---~-I
1
EtTecrlve diago::.al
stmi width,
Thickness, f
W
L
F'JGURE 17.3 EquivaleJlt diagonal strut (Drydale, Hamid and Baker. 1994).
M C!3Grthquake Rc8utant Design 01 Stntctures

\0 determine (Xl; and (it.. which depend on the relative stiffness of the frame and infill. and on
Ch.cpter 17 ComideratiQn olInfiU Wan in ~ei8mic Analpsis of Be Building;) . .

(a) Calculating the width of equivalent diagonnl strut

the geometry of the panel. Infills in second and third stories are modelled as equivalent diagonal strutS and its equivalent
width of a strut is given as.

where,

(X=:.! Elh
fe ]"4 and
where. i! 2 [ 2Emtsin 28
Em and Ef =: Elastic modulus of the masonry wall and frame material. respectively
I.h. L = Thickness. height, and lenglh of the infin wall, respectively II ~ tan-' (hIL)
1(, h "" Moment of inertia of the column and the beam of the frame, respectively e ~ tan" (2.55/4.55) = 29.267"

e"
lan" (hIL) Ld Ad =length and area of equivalent strut
Hendry (1998) has proposed the following equation to determine the equivalent or a, = 0.618 m
effective strut width K', where lhe strut is assumed to be subjected to uniform compressive stress
aL=l.7m
1 ia"2 +a:2 W O.904m
w
"2'" L
Ld = J(h' + L') = 5.2158 m
Holmes (1963) recommended a width of the diagonal strut equal to onethird of the diagonal Ad = ,W = 0.2079 m'
Jength of the panel, whereas New Zealand Code (NZS 4230) specifies a width equal to one
quarter of its length. (b) Analysis of Frame with strut
Example 1 Determine the increase in stiffness of the frame as shown in the given figure, when The frame has been analysed with diagonal pin-jointed strut using a plane frame computer
the brick infill walls are included in the analysis offrame, The infills are provided in the top two programme. Stiffness is calculated by assuming Ihal the supports are fixed and load is applied
stories and the properties of frame and infiU Gre given as at the floor leveL Horizontal deflection is measured at the floor level and lateral stiffness is
calculaled by dividing horizontal deflection to unit load. The stiffness of all three stories are
Frame properties: presented in Table J7.1.

E;= 5000,j/., TABLE 17.1 Calculation of storey stiffness in building frame

fa ~ 20MPa T Storey J Storey 2 ,, _ _~_.~_. Sro~ey ~ _____
3m
Width of beam and column (b) ~ 0.30 m
Dcplh of beam and column (d) = 0.45 m I
1--
lOOOkN

J( Moment of inertia of the co1urnn

t
h :0::; Mument of inertia of beam
I, ~ I" ~ 0.002278125 m
4
3m

i
"=r--'->d'" .
~
!rtfiU properties
-;;:; Eiaslic modulus 01 masonry wall
,~ 13800 MPa
thickness of the infiJJ waiJ "" 0.23 m
It ;: : - height of the infill waH
length 01' the infiH waH
~ 2.55 m
= 4.55 m
41

0.30mxOA5m

.
~
o~0.071 rn
14.084 MNlm
o~O.OQ3m
I ~~
o=O.003m
}33}33 !>1~fm

1
[ "" 333.333 MN/m
 Charier 17 Consideration of In/ill Wall in Sei$m.ic Analysis of Be Buildings t-
...

11,e ratio of stiffness of first storey without infill to second storey with infill is Frame
Kwilhout inmtKwUh infill = 0.042 L
Inlill wall with openings
Infill walls in the frame are frequently contained in door and window openings at the different
locations, which reduces stiffness and load carrying capacity of the diagonal strut depending
upon the size of opening and its locations" If openings are small. and outside the one of the
diagonal strut, its effect may be negHgibJe in stiffness calculation i.e. full effect of equivalent
diagonaJ strut will be taken into consideration (as discussed above) because the other diagonals
of the panel become strut when the load is reverSed. If the openings are large and centrally
located, it may interfere the diagonal bracing action; thereby causing premature shear failure
of the sections on the either side of the opening. Experimental and analytical studies show that
centrally located openings may reduce the stiffness and strength of diagonal strut about 75% and
40% respectively.
Simple analytical metbod for calculating the stiffness of infill panels with opening is not
easily available so far. However, Kadir (1974) has suggested an approximation method for
analysing infilled panels with openings in which the panel is replaced by a diagonal member
of the equivalent stiffness, and the stiffness of this diagonal can be calculated by considering ~Rigidarm
the infin as a frame action from the relationship FIGURE 17.5 Analysis of infiJled frame witb opening eLi.us and' Lee, 1977).

introduced to account for the finite width of walls and finite depth of the beam. The effective
length of the beam and height of the walls are given respectively by,
where. h and lit are the moments of inertia of the vertical and horizontal sections of the infill L, =B+CI
frame as shown in Figure 17 A. L2 =H + C2 ,,1:,
where III is the distance from the bottom of the waIl to the centroid axis of the beam. It is
recommended that the value of C, should be half the deptb of beam.
--'I :1
--t--1--~~~--~-----------~
-::7 The total strain energy of an i"fill subjected to diagonal load P = I is minimised to o;ve
the deflection in the direction of load ,e
I I:
"
OW :
I. ,i I1~ II

I I
where,
l'~lGU:lQ: 17.4 Dimensions of equivalent brickwork frame (Hendry, 1998).

Llaus and Lee (l977) have also pm forward a method of the calculation of the stiffness
m, ~ cot /I
and strength of infiHed frames with openings using jj stain energy method to estabHsh the area h
of the equjvalent diagonal strut. Rigid arms (Figure 17.5), which store no strain energy, are m, = 2' tan 0

1
MIiM (-E"'a-rCC'hq:-.-ak;-e---;;R:-"""'i-s':-a-n7t -;;D",-:-"C:gn:-Co"I"S"',=,..:Cc:::tu=re=s- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ;
Chapter 1"1 Con,,'~ideratidn'ollnfill Wall in Se~mie Analysi$ 01 Be Buildings) Ell,
The diagonal stiffness k of the infill is equal to the reciprocal of the deflection when P ::::: 1. flO] Polyakov, S,v., "Masonry in Framed Buildings, Gosudalst-Vennoe' stvo Literature pc
If an equivalent diagonal strut of length Ld replaces the infill, the stiffness of the strut is Straite!' stuv i Arkitecture, Moskva, Trans. G.L Cairns", Building Research Station,
given by, Watford, HeTts, 1956.
k = FA,fL, (ll] Parducci, A. and Mezzi, M., "Repeated Horizontal Displacements of Infilled Fnune~
having Different Stiffness and Connection Systems-Experimental Analysis",
Hence the cross-sectional area of the equivalent diagonal strut is,
Proceedings af7th World Conference on Earthquak Engineering, 7: 193-196, Istanbul,
A, =LdfEll 1980,
[ll] Stafford-Smith, B., "Behaviour of Square lnfilled Frames", Journal of the Structural
The infiUed frame can then be converted into the frame with the equivalent diagonal struts. and
Division, Proceedings of ASCE, VoL 91, No. ST!, pp. 381--403, 1966.
analysed by usua] method of frame analysis.

SUMMARY
Multi~gtorcyed buildings are often analysed without cOMidering the effect of inflll waH panels
on the assumption that these infill panel will not resist any kind of load. However. these infill
panels increase the strength and stiffness of frame considerably and are responsible for unequal
distribution of forces in buildings. The aim of the chapter is to focus on structural and
constructional aspect of infill along with its failure mechanism. It also presents how to consider
an inflH waH in seismic analysis of frame. A solved example has also been presented for
modeling the infill a~ an equivalent diagonal strut. An approximate solution of infill waH wjth
opening has also been discussed.

REFERENCES
(I] IS 1893, Criteria for Earthquake Resistant Design of STructures-Part I, General
Provisions and Buildings (fifth revision). Bureau of Indian Standards. New Delhi,
2002.
[2] CEB, RC Frames under Earthquake Loading-State of the Art Report, Thomas
Telford, 1996.
[3] Drydale, KG., Hamid,. A.A., and Baker, L.R., Masonry Structures-Behaviour and
Design, Pren';ce Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1994.
[4J Hendry, A.W. Structural Masonry, 2nd ed., Macmillan Press, 1998.
[5] Holmes, M., '"Combined Loading on lnfllied Frames", Proceedings of the lnstitute of
Civil Engineers, 25: 31-38, 1963.
161 Kadir. ~'tR.A., "The Structural Behaviour of Masonry rnfill Panels in Framed
Slructures", Ph.D. Thesis, Umversity of Edinburgh, 1974,
(7) Liauw, T.e. and l.ee. S.W., "On the Behaviour and the Analysis of Multi-storey Infilled
Frames Subject to Lateral Loading". Proceedings of Institute a/Civil Engineers, 1977.
is) Liallw. TC., "An Approximate Method of Analysis for lnfilled Frame with or without
Openings". Buiiding Scienrr, 7: 223-23&, Pergamon Press; 1972.
t~ j ;,iZS 4230, "Code of Prru:ticc forthe Design of Masonry Structures (Part I)", Standard
Association of New Zealand. Willington, 199(1.

1
 r

.'- -. '
lli
---~'Transverse frame
2.5m i, ' ,

\ ~ Longitudmal frame
Chapter 18 25m ',
_._.._'" _ .....____ll.__
I-- 5.0 m---1- 5.0 m---1
Step-by-Step Procedure for FIGURE 18.1(b) Plan showing the column and beams at floor levels of the plane frame.

Seismic Analysis of a Four- buikbng data required for analysis are assumed in Table 18.1.

TABLE 18,1 Assumed preliminary data required for analysis of frame

storeyed RC Building as per -l.~pe of 'struc[ur~'~'--'~Multi-~torey-;igid j~;'ted Plane (speci~J RC-;ome~
i;;me.
IS 1893 (Part 1): 2002 2. Seismic zone
resisting frame)
IV (Table 2, IS 1893 (Pan I): 20(2)
Four, (0+3)
3. Number of stories
4. Floor height 3.5 m
5. InfiU wall 250 mm thick including plaster in longitudinal and 150
mm in transverse direction
6. Imposed load 3.5 kNlm'
7. Materia.ls Concrete (M 20) and Reinforcement (Fe415)

lS.1 INTRODUCTION 8. Size of columns 250 mm x 450 mm

9. Size of beams 250 mm x 400 mm in longitudinal and 250 mm x 350 mm
A fourstoreyed RC building has been analyzed by the equivalent static method, response in transverse direction
spectrum method and time-hi'tory method as per IS 1893 (Part 1): 2002. The example 10. Depth of slab 100 mm thick
illustrates the stepnystep procedure for determination of forces. One of tne plane frames in 11. Specific weight of RCC 25 k!'lIm'
transverse direction has been considered for the purpose of ilJustration by assuming that the 12. Specific weight of infiU 20 kNlm'
building is symmetric in elevation and planned as shown in Figure 18.1. The preliminary 13. Type of soil Rock
14. Response spectra As per IS 1893 (Pa" I): 2002
15. Time history Compatible to IS 1893 (Part J): 2002 spectra at rocky she
for 5% damping

lS.2 EQUIVALENT STATIC LATERAL FORCE METHOD

A step-by-step procedure for analysis of the frame by equivalent static lateral force melhod is
as follows:

18.2,1 Step 1: Calculation of Lumped Masses to Various

Floor Levels
The earthq\lake forces shall be calculated for the full dead load plus the per cenlage of imposed
load as given in Table 8 ofIS 1893 (Pari 1l: 2002.. The imp<>;ed load on roof )s assumed to
be 7..eru. The Jumped masses of each floor are worked out as follows:
Plane frame structure and its Jumped mass modeJ.
292
Me ( Earthquake Resistant Design 0/ Stf"UCtures 1
Roof 18.2.4 Step 4: Vertical Distribution of Base Shear
Mass of infiH + Mass of columns + Mass of beams in longitudinal and transverse direction of The design base shear (VB) computed shall be distributed along the height of the building as per
that floor + Mass of slab + Imposed load of thai floor if permissible. the expression.
= {O.25 x 10 x (3.5/2) + 0.15 x 15 x (3.5/2) 20) + {(O.25 x 10 x 0.40+ 0.25 x 15 OS.l)
x 0.35) 25) + {O.lO x 5 x 10 x 25} + {(0.2S x 0.45 x (3.5/2) x 3) x 25} + O'
363.82 ~'i (weight) = 37.087 ton (mass)
3 nl, 2nd , 1Sl Floors where,
Q, = Design lateral forees .t floor i,
= {O.25 x 10 x 3.5) + (0,15 x 15 x 3.5)) 20}+{(0.25 x 10 x DAD + 0.25 x 15 x 0.35) 25) Wi -:: : Seismic weights of the floor i,
+ {O,IO x 5 x 10 x 25) + {O.25 x 0.45 X 3,5 x 3 x 25} + (S X 10 x 3,5 x 0.5") hi Height of the floor i, measured from base, and
= 632,43 kN (weight) = 64.45 wn (mass) t1 Number of stories
Using the Equation 18.1, base shear is distributed as follows:
* Imposed load on roof not considered.
,., 50% of impo,ed load. if imposed load is greater than 3 kN/m' w.h,2 )
Q, = VB ( w.hf + w,h.! + w,hi' + w,";
Seismic weight of huilding

= Seismic weight of all floors = M, + M, + M, + M,

_ [ 632,25 x 3,5'
- 99.933 632.25)( 3.5' + 632.25 x7' + 632.25 x 105' + 363.82 x 14' J
l
= 4.306 kN

= 64.45 + 64.45 + 64.45 + 37.08 = 230.43 ton

Similarly,
Note: The seismic weight of each floor is its full dead load plus appropriate amount of imposed Q, = 0.1724 x 99.933 = 17.224 ~1\l
load, as specified in Clause 7.3.1 and 7.3.2 ofIS 1893 (Panl): 2002. Any weight supported in
Q, = 0.3872 x 99.933 = 38.733 ~'i
between stories shaH be distributed to the floors above and below in inverse proportion to its
distance from the floors. Q, = 0.3967 x 99.933 = 39.646 kN
Lateral force distribution at various floor 1evels
18.2.2 Step 2: DeterminatfDn of Fwulamental Natural Period
39.646 kN 39.646 kN
The approxjmate fundamental natural period of a vibration (T in seconds, of a moment
Q
),

resisting frame building without brick infill panels may be estimated by the empirical expression
To = 0.075 X hO." = 0.075)( 14. 75 = 0,5423 s 38.755 kN ?S.401 kN
where h is the height of the buHding, in metres,

18.2.3 Step 3: Detennination of Design Base Shear 95.625 kN

Design seismic base shear, VB;: Ah W

.4;, 0.24 11.842 = 0.0443 4.306

2 5

= 1,842. for rock site from Figure 2 of IS /89.1 (ParI 1): 2002
99.933 kN
D,,,igll seismic base shear. Vfi = OJJ443 x (230.43 X 9.g1) = 99,933 kN
Loading diagram Shear diagram
 ----. --------------------------------------------
. . ( Earthquake Resistant Duign oj Stnlc'tUrttS c
18.3 RESPONSE SPECTRUM METHOD Taking kim = ());
Therefore,
A: FrIJIll2 witlwllt Colltlidering the Stiffness of lnfills ("",2,. _ 8.3());)' (m') + 1O.75(m,i)' (m')' - 4.45()).')(""1' + 0.575("")' = 0
A step-by-step procedure for an.lysis of the frame by response spectrum method is as follows:
By solving the above equation. natural frequencies (eigenvalues) of various modes are
18.3.1 Step J: Determiruuion of Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors Eigenvalues
Mass maLrice, M and stiffness mamce, K of the plane frame lumped mass model are,

o o o 1
~ 'j'
MI 0
2 81 657
o M, o 64.45 o
ron
[()) 1 = 1475
M=
o o [
37~08
0 M, 64.45
[ 2065
o 0 o o o
Column stiffness of storey,
The quantity of w? is called the th eigenvalue of the matrix l-MlUt +KJi* Each
12 x 22360 x 10' (025 x 0.45'1 natural frequency (Wi) of the system has a corresponding eigenvector (mode shape), which is
12EI 12 )
k =-,-
L
= 3.5
, =11880.78 kNlm denoted by i' The mode shape corresponding to each natural frequency is determined from the
equations
Total lateral stiffness of each storey,
k j = k, = k, = '" = 3 x 11880.78 = 35642.36 kNlm L-M())? +K J<I>, =0

L- Mm; + KJifJ, =0
Stiffness of lumped mass modelled structure

L- Mw~ + K J<1>, =0

L-MW!+KJfil, =0
Solving the above equation, modal vector (eigenvectors), mode shapes and natural periods under

~
71284.72 -356436 0 different modes are
= -3564.36 71284.72 -3564.36
'j' kNlm EIgenvectors {<p}
[
o - 3564.36 7J 284.72 -35642.36
o 0 -3564236 35642.36

[-""~ "ru~l
0.0795 0.0808
For the above stiffness and mass matrices, eigenvalues and eigenvectors are worked out as -0.0608 0,0644 -0.0540 0.0690
follows: ( <P) (<P, <P, <P, <P,)
-0.0798 -0.0273 -0.0448 -0.0799
: 2k _ w2 m -k, 0 0 -0.0872 -0.0865 0.0839 0.06%
-k, 2k - ())'m -k, 0
IK '. w'ml =0
0 -k, 2k - ())2m -k,
0 0 -k, k - m'0.575 m
 McW lrthquake Remt4nt Design oj Structures .-=:J Clmptef' 18 Step-btrStep Procedure Jor Seismie Anal,,,,.'! ... ) I11III:
Mode shapes 18.3.2 Srep 2: Determination of Modal Particlpation Factors
The modal participation factor (p.) of mode k is,
4

,.]
,
I IY,tP"
, P2 = t'';Ll- - -
\
,,
,,
2 I lI)(tPi2)2
i=l
,
Similarly,
p, = 1.95, p, = -0,68

18.3.3 Step 3: Determination of Modal Mass

The modal mass (M.l of mode k i. given by,

'---'-
, --Model
"-"-Mode-2
;---Modd
l Mode..il

o where,
g = Acceleration due to gravity.
Nat..ral time period =:: Mode shape coefficient at floor i in mode k. and
(/Jfk
w:. Seismic weight of floor i,
[0,6977 0 0 o - 4

0 0,2450 0 I IY,<1>"

ru:J -."i:""__,,,,-,
T
0 0 0.1636 M
0 0 0 ,= g ~ IY,(<1>,,)2]
I

1
 ( Chapter 18 Step-b'll~Step P1"OCedure lor Se;smu: AnGlY,fIi,fl ... ) Mlli_

The average response acceleration coefficient for rock sites as per IS 1893 (Part 1): 2002
M, = [9.81 (64.45(-0.0328); 64.45 (-OJl608)::,:()4,45(-0.0798) + 37.08 (-0.0872))]' is calculated as follows:
9.81 [9.81 (64.45 (-0.0328) + 64,45 (-0.0608)' +64.45 (-0.0798)' + 37.08 (-0.0872/)] For rocky. or hard soil sites
207.60
s. = g~;15T;
0.00 $ T $ 0.10
0.10 $ T $ 0.40

M _ [W;4>i2]'
1",,1 -
=18.54, M, =3.82. M. = 0,47.
g .
ll.OOIT; 0.4O$T$4.0

= 0.6978 => ~ =
,- [" ]. sllrularly. M,
For Tl 1.433
g lW;(4),,)' g
1=1
For T, = 0.2450 => S,2 = 2.5
g
Modal contributions of various modes
For T3 = 0.1636 => ~<l-
g
= 2.5
For mode 1,
M, 207.60
M = 230.43 = 0.90 = 90%
M, 18.54
For T4 =0.1382 => S"
g
= 2.5
For mode 2. Ai = 230.43 = 0.0804 = 8.04%
M, 3.82 .' Design lateral force in eacb mode
For mode 3~ Ai = 230.43 = 0.0165 = 1.65%
QH = (A, P j 4>i! Wi)
M. 0.47
For mode 4, Ai = 230.43 = 0.0020 = 0.20%
(Ahl 11
4>" 1+j f [0,0343) (-14.40)(-0.0328) (64.45 x 9.81))] r(10175)]

l
(A" 11
4>,1 W,) 0.0343)(-14.40)(-0.0608)(64,45 x 9.81)) '(19.043)
18.3.4 Step 4: Dererminntion of Lateml Force at Eacll Floor [QiI] = = = (25.018) kN
. (A" P, 4>" W3 ) 0.0343) (-14.40) (-0.0798)(64.45 x 9.81)
in Each Mode
The design lateral force (Q,,) at floor i in mode k is given by.
[
(A" P, 4>41 W4 )j 0.0343) (-14.40)(-0.0872)(37.08 x 9.81)) (15.720)

where.
Q" = A, 4>" P, Wi
-43.44
-35.199
1 [-44,204'
29.499
[ 21.
749
-37.722
1
A, = Design hOlizontal acceleration spectrum value as per dause 6.4.2 of IS 1893 (Part 1): Similarly. [Q,~] = 14.920' [Q,~] 24.5l7 [Qi.] = 43.675'
2002 usmg the natural period of vibration (T) of mode k. [
27.207 - 26.385 . -21.878 -.
The design horizontal seismic coefficient AI! for :arious modes are,

Z IS
AM=-'-~
2 R g 18.3.5 Srep 5: Determination of Storey Shear Forces in
Each Mode
Aid = t ~ S;, = 0.~4 ~ 1433 0.0343
The peak shear force is given by,

A" = ~, ~ S;, = ()'i4~ 2.5 = 006() Vik= 2," Q&

j:;:;i"l'l

Similarly Ah3 :::: 0.060. Ah4 ;;;; 0.060.

1
 I
The storey shear forces for the first mode is~
Complete quadratic combination (CQC)

'f V"
V21
[(Q" + Q" + Q" + Q.,')j
(Q" + Q31 +Q.,,)
[70.056]
59.781
...(}, -
., - [ v" - -
(Q3' +Q.,,)
= 40.738 kN
1=1+1
V"J (Q.,,) 15.720 where,
r ::::: Number of modes being considered.
Similarly.
Pij .:;:; Cross modal coefficient j

Ai = Response quantity in mode i (including sign),

-36.514'
6.927 [V,'11-16.572]
V" 27.632 [11,4]
V"
5.824]
-15.925
Aj::: Response quantity in mode j (including sign),

8\,"(1 + /3ij)/3'5
4 "- 127. ' Vi) = VD = _I .867 ' Vi' = \I.~ 21.796 Plj ;:;;; ~- 2 "---~--~~-2
[ (l + /3ij) + 41,;-/3ij (l + /3,)
27.207 c V43~ _-26.385 V... -21.878
where.
';;::: Modal damping ratio (in fraction).
18.3.6 Step 6: Determination of Storey Shear fbree due to f3ij =: Frequency ratio w/ Wb
All Modes Circular frequency in i th mode, and
(0, :::

Wj = Circular frequency in JIh mode.

The peak s10rey shear force (Vi) in storey i due to all modes considered is obtained by combining
Therefore aU the frequency ratios and cross modal components can be represented in
those due to each mode in accordance with modaJ combination i.e, SRSS (Sqll.an' RODt of Sum matrix form as,
of SqlUJTl:S) or CQC (Complete Quadratic CombinatiQn) methods.

/3" /3" (i}'1/ (0\ Wi((}l

Square Toot of sum of squares (SRSS)
If the building does no' have closely spaced modes, the peak response quantity (A) due to all
modes considered shall be obtained as,
/3ij = ['" ~:: /332
/321

/3., /3"
/3" /3"
/3" /3"
/3.3 /3...
' '] ["'" =
w,t W2 (J)./ (02
w,iWl W/(f)3

w,t W4 m/m4
wi 0)1
(i}3/

(V/Ct.>4
m3
"""'1
(})4/ W '1
(J)4/(()3

m'/(f)4 ...

J 2.84 4.26 5.04-

wbere. 0.35 1 l.49 1.77
A; = Absolute value of quantity in mode 'k', and r is the numbers of mode, being =[ 0.23 O~66 I 1.1 8
consIdered.
L1sing the above method, the storey shears are.
0.19 0.56 0.84 I 1
,ron

'''Il'
V, ~ [(VII)' + (V,,)'+ (V,,)' + (V'4)'J" PrJ. P13 0.0073 O.003l
P,.
V7
- [(70056)' + (-36.514)2 + (- 16.572)' + (5.824)']"
= f( 11.21 )' + (V,,)' + (V,,/ + (V24l'J~
~ [(59781), + (6.927), + (27.632)' + (-15.925)2]'"
=80.930 kN

= 68.110 kN
Pij = P
[" p"
11

P41
P22
Py:;

p" p"
P23
P33 p",
P44J
= 0.0073 !
0.0031 0.0559
0.0559 0.0278
J
0.0023 (J.0278 0.2597
0.2597
! j
v, = !(VJ,)' + (11.,,)2 + (V,,>, + (V,,)']'" r~

. r /'
.-~

" 1(40.738)' + (42.127)' + (-1.867)' + (21.7%)'f = 62.553 kN The above quadratic combination i.e, A = i'L 'L AiPIj }~) can also be written in matrix fonn
v, ~ [(V41)' + (V,,)' + (V,,)' + (V",)'],h ~ i"' j"

[(15.7202)' + (27207), + (~26.385)2 + (-21.878)'1" 48.499 kN

 T

F,1"" , ~ F, = v, ~ v, 68.11 - 62.553 = 5.556 kN

:PlI P" P" Ff/w, , ~ F, = V, - Ji, ~ 80,930 68.11 ~ 12,820 k:-.1

[A, Az A3 A,J l::: PZl

p" p"
PZ3
Complete quadratic combination (CQC)
P41 p" p" FIT", ~ F, Ji, = 48.48 - 0 = 48.48 kN
Here the terms Ai or Aj represent the response of different modes: of a certain storey level. = F, = V, - V, 62,95 -
Ffi,.e,, 3 48.48 = 14.47 kN
Using the matrix notation the storey shears are, = F2 = V2 - V3 = 66.61 -
Ff/,we 2 62.95 = 3.66 kN
Fr."", = F, = V V2 = 80.70 -
rT
,I l00073
0.0073 00031 0.0023]" 70.05]\
I
r I
0.0559 00278 -36.51 \ _ 80 0
j

B: Frame Considering the Stiffness of lnfills

j - 66.61 = 14.09 kN

~':=11\,,[70.05-3651-16.57582] 000310.0559 I 02597 -16.57 ;-[ .7J

The frame considered in previous section is again analysed by considering the stiffness of iufUl
I 00023 0.0278 0.2597 L 5.82! walls. The infiH is modelled as equivalent diagonal strut.
The mass matrix [MJ for the lumped plane frame model is,
I I I 0.0073 0.0031" 0.
0023
1[ 59.6.92781\\ o o
~
()
1, 0.0073 0.0559 0.0278 66
o 64.45 o
V2 =
/\ [59.78 6.92 27.63 -15.92] 0.0031 0.0559 0.2597 27.63) =[ .61] j" ton
-15.92 j
M, o 64,45
\1 \ 0.00'..3 0.0278 0.2597 1
o o () 3708

fr--'-'-' .
""t'" \-'''.''l
1 0.0073 0.0031 0.0023 . 40.7 \ Column stiffness of storey
I 0.0073
1
1 0.0559 "C ']
k~ 12El ~ 12X22360XI~'(0.001893) = 11846.758 kN/m
V, ~ ~ \[ 4<J.73 4212 - 1.86 21.79]
0.0031 0.0559 0.2597 -1.86 / 3.5
0.0023 0.0278 0.2597 1 21.79 / Stiffness of lnfill is determined by modeling the infill as an equivafent diagonal strut. in which,

r r - - - - - ..-.--....--,----------=_=___ Width of strut,

! 11 0.0073 0.0031 0'00231115'72~
I
V, = \ [15.72 27.20 - 26.38 - 2 1.87]
,
0.0073 1
0.0031 0.0559
0.0559 '0.0278
1
27.20
0.2597 - 26.38 !
[48.48]

\ .00023 0.0278 0.2597 I . -21.87 I

18.3.7 Step 7: Determination of Lateral Ebrces at Each Storey where.
Er = Ela~tic muduJu~ of frame material::::: 22)60 N/m2
The design lateral forces Fmn{ and F'j, at roof and at i th 1100r, are calculated as, E; ': Elastic modulus of masonry wall :;;; 13,800 ;-';/m 2

Fflfflf= Vmqp and F; = VI - Vi .. ! Thickness of infiH wall = 250 mm

Ii = Height of infill wall = 3,5 m
Square root of sum of squares (SRSS) !:: Length of infill waH.;:;; 5.0 m

F",.,r = f',. = V, = 46.499 kN

Fp ,"" , = F, V'." V, ~ 62.553 46.499 ~ 16,053 k:-.1
Ep. ( Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures
Eigenvalues
1,. ; Moment of menia of columns = /2 (0..25 x 0..45') ; 0..001893 m'

1, = Momen' of inertia of columns = /2 (0..25 X 0..40') = 0.0.0.1333 m'

[aJ'] = [1442 11698 26217 j,
a" = '!. [ x
22360 D0il1.!l93 x~]''" = 0. 611
2 2x138ooxo..25xsin2x35 .
m 36719

Wf = 1442, wi = 11698, wJ = 26227, wt = 36719

a, = II: '2.e6Q."~Q.QI333_X. 5.0. ]'" = 1.45 m
~ 13800 x 0..25 x sin 2 x 35
I ~.-.
Eigenvectors {<p}
W;::: ";:.j a h+ at := 0.7885 m
L
0.0795 0.0808 -0.0397']
A ; Crosssectional area of diagonal stiffness = W x f = 0..7885 x 0.25 = 0.1972 m'
0.0644 -0.0540 0.0690
ld =: Diagonal length of ~trut [i1;:]i = 6.103 m -0.0273 -0.0448 -0.0799
Therefore, stiffnes~ of infi!l is -0.0865 0.0839 0.0696

Natural frequency in various modes

For the frame with two bays there are two struts participating in one direction, total lateral 0 0
0

[":"
stiffness of each storey
0
k j = k2 = " =" = 3 x 11846.758 + 2 x 299086078 = 633712.430 kN/m [wJ = 0
108.157
0.
0
161.947 0. laMS
Stiffness. matrix !A1 of lumped mass model is, 0 0 0 19L621j

'1 ['"'
'k, d,

_L+,.'~m
-k, 0. -0.6337 0
-k, kJ. + k~ -kJ o -0.6337 1.2674 -0.6337
Natural time period
K

jJ
0 -kJ k3+ k 4 -k, ; 0. -0..6337 1.2674 0 0.

'ff'
L 0. 0. -k4 k4 ~ 0 0. -0.6337 0..6337 0.0.581 0
0 0..0.388
For the above stiffness and mass matrices, eigenvaJues and eigenvectors are,
0

["
0
-k] 0. 0.
IK
,
IfrMI=
-Ie,
o.'
.'" 2k -m2m -k, 0
= 0., !11m W', Modal participation factors

()
-k,
0
2k-aim
-k,
-"4
k-w'O.575m~
,
L WitPn (WJ4lJ + I'P + WlP:n + "'44-
WZ 2l 41 ) ~14.40
Thercfore_ quadratic equation in ill is, PI = -~-- = (W,(4>l1)'+ W,(4),,)'+ W,(4)31)'+ 11'.,(4),,)')
(m/r1 8.3(.(1);:)1 (0)2) -1- !O,75(v;)} (w?}:: _. 4.4:'){(lJ})(m2)3 -I- O.S7S(t12)'1 = () I. W,('l',,)'
. . ( Earthquake Reil.stant Design oj Structures __ ...~. _ _ _._mJ
Sirnilarly~

A" = 0.037, A.. = 0.035

For rocky, or hard soil sites

I +.151': 0.00 S l' S 0.10
i::d Sd = 2.5: 0.10ST50.40
Similarly. p, = 1.95, p, = 0.68 g { . 0.40 S TS 4.0
1.0011',

Modal mass 1', = 0.1655 => Sill = 2.5

For g

,l/ J
[ 11\<P"]'
::::: _~=L~ .._~
For 1', = 0.0581 =' S,g,
- g
=1+ 1ST = 1.871

g[ t, W,(@il)'] For 1', 0,0388 => S.,g = 1 + 151' = 1.582

M ___ [9.81 (64.45 (-0.0328) + 64.45 (-0.0608) +64.45 (0,0798) + 37.08 (-0.0872))]' For 1', ~ 0.0382 "" = I + 1ST 1.492
g
., _ 9.81 [9.81 (64.45(-0.0328)' +64.45 (-00608>' + 64.45(0.0798)' + 37,08(--0.0872)')J
= 207.60 Design lateral force
Similarly, M, = 18.54. M, = 3.82, M4 = 0.47. Q" = (AJ P, 4>;] W;)
Modal contributions of various modes P,. 4>"
(AM W,)]
[0,060) (- J4.40) (-0.0328) (64.45 x 9.81)"
(17,922)]
A P. <P W,) 0060)(-14.40)(-0.060S)(64,45x9.8l)) (33.215) kN
( h2 I 21.:
For mode 1,
M
M, = 230.43
207:.stl = 0.90 =90% f'
.
[Q,,] = (A. P,. 4>" I,) = 0.060)(-14.40)(-0.0798)(64A5x9.81)) (43.637)
3
[ L(27.419)
M, 18.54 .(A'41\ 4>" W4 ) D.060) (-14.40)(-0.0872)(37.08 x 9.81))
For mode 2, 'M = 230.43 = 0.0804 = 8.04%

Fo _A 3 M, 3.81 _ 0016- _ 6-01 Similarly.

r m""e -. M 230.43 - , ) _ l. ~'lC
M, 0.47 _32,512] [-27.972] [ 12.980'
For mode 4. -M' = 230.43 = 0.0020 = 0.20% -26.343 18.667 -22.512
[Q,2] = 11.l66' [Q,,] = 15.514' [Q,41 = 26.065,
[
Design later,,1 lorce at each floor in each mode 20.361 __ 16.696 _ 13.057 J

Tht: oes.ign lateral fOTCt' (Q"k'J al floor i in mode k i~ given by,

Qil. ::: AI.: (/>iL P,: Wi

Storey shear forces in each mode
The ,lcs'gn h~}ri:wntl:l! ;;eismic coefficient AI, for various modc~ are. The peak shear force will be obtained by,

?2~ ,/1." = 0.060 "

A /J J ::::
/;
0.24 1 2.5
2 5 V" = I, Q"
jo;.;+!
 The storey shear forces for the first mode js~
Chapter 18 Step-btl-Step Proeedure for Sei8m1t'!" Analfl$ie ... ) .i.
0,0073 0,0031

Simiiarly,
V, =
j II
\ [71.057 31.528 -lJ 82 13,008J 0,0031

\
[ 0,0073
I 1
0,0559
0,0023 0.0278 0.2597
0.0023][71.057]\
0,0559 0.0278 31.528
0.2597
1
-1.182
noos!
= [79,125]
r
=I
r~: = r'2;~:~11', \',_ __ /';3"I1=r-:~:887j' [11.14] 3,476]
I'
1-,. .
.!
... 1
0,0073 0.0031
0.0023]l' 27.4
19
l\
i)
0.0073
V,
" I' V" 31.528"
, V
" -.
5
1182 . v"
11",
= H~ =,
v,
-95042
I J 3 008
V, = II [27.419 20.362 -16.696 -13.057J 0.0031
l \ OJ1559 J
0,0559 0.0278
0,2597
20.362
-16,696
LL4::J L 20161
. J
1 V
l,," L-16696 4
c'4,J l'
-13,057 j\
, I, ;
LO.OO23 0,0278 0,2597 1 -13057 J!
S,,,,",',), .hear force due to all modes = l40.964]
Square Root of Sum Of Squares (SRSS) Lateral forces at each storey due to all modes
VI ;::: !(~;!d2 + (V J2 )2 + {V n )2 + (V )2JY.l
14 Square Root of Sum of Squares (SRSS)
!(l22.!94)' + (-27,327)' + (-10,487)2 + (3A75)']~ = 125699 kN
F~[ = F, = V, = 40.196 kl"
11.2 = [(V,j)- + (V,,), + (V,,)' + (V,,),]"
=[(104.272)' + (5,185)2 + (17.485)' + (-9.504)']~ = 106.281 kN Ffl'~" F, ~ V, - v, = 78.827 ' 40.196 = 38,631 kN
V, = [IV,,)? + (11.3,)' + (V,,)' + (V",)'J""
Fpo",' F,= =V, - 11.3 = 106,281 - 78.827 = 27.454 kN
Fpoo ,' "F, V, - V, = 125,699 106.281 = 19.418 kc'1
= [(71.0;"7)' + (~L528)' + (-1.182)' .. (13.008),]" = 78,827 kN
V, = 1(\/,)" + (V,,), + (V,,)' + (V44 )'J'"
Complete Quadratic Combination (CQC)
= [(27.419)' + (20.362)' + (- J6.696)' .. (-13.057)']"' = 40.196 kN
F.,,,[ = F4 = V, = 40,964 - 0 = 40.964 kN
f1Jmpiele Quadratic Combination (CQC)
Fn",d = F, = V, - V. = 79.125 - 40.964 = 38.161 kN
rr-- .~-----
..
'J:-- - - ..- . -... ~=c;::__-___c_
Fa""" = F, = V, - V, = 105.977 - 79.125 = 26.852 kc'1
i/
i; 1122J Sh1
0.0073 0,0031 0.0023J 122.194]\ .. r FfJood = F, = Vj - V, = 125.512 105.977 = 19.535 kc'1
I/J::C 27327 - j 0,487 3.4 75] 0.0073 1 00559 0,02781-27.327 \
of Bilse
~\
0.003J 0,0559 1 0,2597 -10.487 j Comparison Shear with and without Infills
L 0,0023 0,0278 02597 1 3.475 / Ratio of Base shear with infill 10 without infill (SRSS) = 125,699180,930 = 1553

18.4 TIME HISTORY METHOD

!I
I! 1 -1-'0:0073 00031'" O'()()231rJ04 272/1
. , "'- 1/ 11 1)::1">"1'1 i;.1
, \. !, ,-!~ J
V -'
"ll -" ..o()4 I' (),0073 00559 00278 5.1 84 \ Dynamic response of the plane frame model with inftlls. to a spedfied time history compatible
o2597JI to IS code spectrum for 5% damping at rocky hard soil has been evaluated using mode
I/I':
"
J 00031 0,0559 j
iO'()(J23 0.0278 02597 J I
17485 ;
1
.-9,504 1
superposition method. A step-by-step procedure for analysis of tbe frame by time history
~!
method is as follows (Tedesco ct, aI., 1999),
eM (Ji)(lrt.h.quake Resistant Design 01 StntctUT"'f!S --------------J
18.4.1 Step 1: Calculation of Modal Matrix
The equation of motion for a multi-degree-of-freedom system in matrix form can be expressed
as

[mj{x) + lej{X) + [kj(x) ; - .1',(1) [m](f}

where.
[m] = mass matrix o o

M;\1' ~2 ~3
[kJ = stiffness matrix o

IHT
64.45
Ie] ; damping matrix
(I) ; unit vector o 64.45
xR(t) ground acceleration LQ 0 0 o o
The solution of equation of motion for any specified forces is difficult to obtain, mainly Naturdl frequencies and mode shape for the plane frame model
due to coupling of the variables {xJ in the physical coordinates. In mode superposition analysis
0 0 '1

[
37~75 I08~57 ~ ~] [O.l~55 O.()~&1
or a modal analysis a set of nomlal coordinates i.f. principal coordinate::; is defined. such that.
when expressed in those coordinates, the equations of motion become uncoupled. The physical 0 ()
radls T;
coordinates {x) may be related with normal or principal coordinates {q} from the transformation 0.0388 0
expression as, lill]; 0 0 161947 0 0 0
0 00328j
o 0 0 191.621 0 0
(x); [4>]{q) [<:I>] is the modal matrix,

~, ;[=~:::lj ~ ;l-~~:]' 4>3l=~:rj' ~4 l~~~:]

Time derivatives of {x} are,

[x) ; [<:I>1@
=
(x) ; [<1>](q) -0.0872 -0.0865 0.0839 0.0696
Substituting the time derivatives in the equation of motion, and pre-multiplying by [<pl results
in, Therefore, [M], [K] and [C] are,

[~ oo ~ ~]
[<1>jT[mj[<:I>]{q) + [<1>1' IcJl<:l>J(4j + [4>1' [k][4ij{qj ; (- Xg(t) [<:I>jT[m]{I})

More dearly it can be represented as follows: 1M]; [4>1' lmJl<PJ ; 1 0

[M]{q} + [C](q) + [K)(q) = (P",,(t)) cO o 0 I

where, 0 0 0
0
[M) = I<P]' Imll <PJ
[K) = l<:l>f [k][<P1 =
['#'
~
11698
() 26227
0
0
I
Ic] = [<P]' [e][<1>]
IK] [<Pfik)[<1>] 0 0 0 .l6719 J
(Pen(/)}; H',(/)[<:I>]' [mJ(l})

1M), fC] and iKJ are the diognnalh:ed modal mass matrix, modal damping matrix, and modal
slijJ.'?ess rna/ril::, rc"peCl~v,';ly" and {PcfdlJ} is the effective modaf force vector.
Ie] diag(2M, (, D~) = l
;3.7975
0
0
()
0
10815
0
0
0
0
16.1947
0
0
0

() I
19.1621 d
 . , . ~:thqtiC4ke Resistant Design of Structures )
18.4.2 Step 2: Calculation of Effective Force Vector
ii, .,. 10.815 <1, .,. 11698q, - 4.30 iiglt)
The exchation function is,
ii, .,. J6.1947 il,'" 26227q, = - 1.95',(1)
{P,fJ{f)} = 1- X,(f)[<P]'[m](f}) or (- i,(1)r,)
ii, .,. 19.1621 4, + 36719q, = 0.68 i/I)
r. = j<P};[mJ[l} _ (<P);[m](l) The displacement response qr in normai coordinates can be evaluated by any of the numerical
, (<P};[mj{<P), - M, methods. Here. Piecewise-linear interpolation method has been used for evaluating the response
of linear system (Appendix 1). For the given time history as shown in Figure J8.2, the response
-14.40,]
ModaJ participation factors for the plane frame are Tr =
430 , time history q in the principal coordinates or nonnal coordinates are shown in Figures 18.3 to 18.6.

[ -0.68
1.95 Displacement response q]
0.006 ~...~~~--~---':=---~-':':---~----,

-14.40; 0.004

r 4.30l
1.95.1 (-J,(I))
0.002

1 -0.68, o
30 35 40
Tlle compatible lime history (x,II) as per spectra of IS 1893 (Part I): 2002 for 5% damping -\l.002
at rocky soil strata is given in Figure ] 8.2.
-\l.004

-0.006 .
-o.oogL._~ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
Timelfl sec
FIGURE 18.3 Response history fJ) in normal coordina~

DIsplacement response

0.0001

35
FlGURR Uti; Compat.ible time bistory a~ pt:r spt-'Ctra of IS 1893 (Part 1): 2002 for 5% damping
at T<JLky soil.

:::1--- -.--.~. ------ .-----~ .~

1B.4.3 Step 3: Calt:1llation of DisplllCemeflt Response in
)\}omwl Coordinate
l"k ,In'-'olJp1ed t:quaHofi'i in the normal coordinates are,
Time in sec
FIGURE 18.4 Response history fJ2 in normal coordinates.

...
i
 T
. , . ( Eo.rthquClke Resi$tflnt Design of Structure$

OJ)()OO251_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _-.:D:::is:cp:::la:::ce~m:::en"_'t..':re=spl"0"_'II5~e~_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ expreSSIon.

L (<Pl,q,(t)
4
0.00002
(X(I)) ~
OJ)OOOI5 !",I

0.00001
(x(I) = L (<P},q,(l) = (<P}j ql{r) + (<Phq,(I) + {<Ph q,(t) + (<P1 4 q,(r)
4

0.000005 1'"""1

o r-0.03281 r 0.07951 r 0.08081 J-O.

0397
1
40
-0.()608 ' o.0644l -
0.0540 00690
-0.000005
1- . r
q,(I) + 1-0.0273] q,(1) + '1.-0.044s! q,(1) + 1-0Jl799: q4(1)
~
0 0798

'(-
-0.00001 :
l-0.0872. ,-0.0865 . 0.0839j 0.0696J
0.0000J5

.{I.OOO02 0.0328) q, (I) + (0.0795) q,(t) + (0.0808) q3 (I) + (-0.0397) q, (I)1

__-.;:;::==-________---'
!
0.000025 L _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _. _ _ (-0.0608) q,(t) + (O.0644)q,(I) + (-0.0540) q,(t)+ (0.0690) q4(r)
TIme in sec (-0.079&) q,(t) +(-0.0273) q2(t) + (-0.0448) q,(t) + (-0.0799) q,(r):
FIGt:'RE 185 Response history qj in normal coordinates. (-0.0872) q,(r) + (-0.0865) q,(tl + (0.0839) q,(tl + (0.0696) q, (tl J

0.000006:--- ..... ____ _ _~D.:is::pl:.c::e:m:en:'::re::'spoc:::ns~e:!.q~4_ _ _ _ _ _ .......... _ _ Therefore the response of masses at varIous floor levels in the physicaJ coordinates {xi
are obtained as shown in Figures 18,7-18JO.
First sturc-y displacement In ;r
0.0002 , - - - - - - - - ... ~--.....:.:=====::::=::.~.'- -----~ ...
0,00015

0.0001

40 .S M0005

) 0 35

.!f -0.00005
Q

-0.0001

(J.onoo(),," -....... _-_.-

Time lnscc
fiGURE lS,~ RespllllSe bistory q4 in normal l'OOrdinates,
FIGURE 18.7 First storey displaeemClll response bi"tory in pb~'5icai coordinates.
18.4.4 Step 4: Displacement Response in Physical
Coordiruues
~
Di;.;pJa(:emc,nt rcr:ronsC'- in physical cnordimrics (1') ".", c,,I'.ul,j'e,'1 f,'"",
_, !he lran~forrna,jon i
!
.J
 Ch.a.ptdr 18 Step-by-Step PtvcedUf'e for Seinnic Analysis... .ip_
-------)
Fourth storey displacement in x
Second storey displacement inx 0.0006,--------==--..=----..:..---.----------
M(J()4 I-~-~--~~~~----=-:==:::":::===~---------'

()'o003 0.0004

0~OOO2
E
E

"~"
8
35
35

C.
6
i

-O(J()04]
(j.0003
-O~OOO6.L------------------------'
~{W004 L _ _ ~_ _ ~~~_~_~~~~ _ _ ~_~_~~-;;::-..,.-_ _~~~ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ Tune in sec
Time in sec FIGURE 18.10 Fourth storey displacement respo.... history in physkal coordinates.
FIGURE 18.8 Second storey displacement response history in pbyskaI coordinates.
18.4.5 Step 5: cakulBtion of Effective EDrthqlUlk2 Response
Forrt!S at Eadt Storey
When the relative displacements of the masses {.t(t)] have been established, the effective
earthquake forces or the elastic restoring forces Fit) acting at each mass mj are determined
from.
{F,(t) = [k]{.r(t))

[ ~"
= -~.6337
-0.6337
1.2674
-0~6337
0
-0.6337 o
, 1 jl""')
1.2674 '-0.6337
xlO
6 x,(I)

x,(I)
35
0 -0.6337 0.6337 ~ x 4 (1)

0.0002

~ i 1267424x,(I)-633712x2(t) 1
l
--0.0003 r
-633712x,(I) + 1267424 X2 (I) - 633712..-3 (1)
o0004 ~
= -633712x2(1) + 1267424x,(I) - 633712X'(llj
o.{l()():,\L- .~~---"..--~-----~----.-.---~~---~~----~-~
Time In sec -633712x,(t) + 633712x 4 (t)
~'i(tC'kI!. l-~t9 Third -:lorey displacement response history in physical coordinates.

1
 T

Chapter 18 Step-bt;-Step Procedure for Seismic Analysis ... ) . _

The obtained elastic restoring forces at various floor levels are sbown in the Figures 18.11 Lateral load at third floor
SO
to 18.14.

Lateral load at flTS! floor

40
25,-----------------~~~~~~~-------~-------_.
30
20 Z
-"
15 .S
v

.S ..e.,~
u
;: ."~
c

"'
.
B -5
35
e
.S!
..,'"
35

e ~IO
.S! '"
111 -15
iii
20
~25
Time in sec
-30~-----------------_=--~--------------------~ FIGURE 18.13 Third storey lateral load respoDse history in kN.
in sec
FIGURE 18.11 F"ast storey lateral load response history in k!lI. Laternlload at fourth floor
40r-----------------~==~~~~':=~----------------,

Lateral load at second floor 30

is 20

35

35

20

Time sec
FIGURE 1814 Fourth storey lateral load response history in kN.
Set
FiGURE 18.12 Second storey lateral load response history in kN. 18.4.6 Step 6: Calculation of Storey Slreo.r
The storey ,hears are calculated as,
I {V(t)) = lS1[kJ(x(r))

1
.fHi_ riarthqua~ llesi3:u.:::n7
"n;-:e=,,:;:gn=-o::f;-S"_=c:;'=UTe=s--------~ -----""')
c Chapter 18 Step-hy-Stp Procedure Jor Seiamic Analysis ... ) _ _

where [S] is the (n x n) upper triangular matrix given as, Storey shear at second floor

I
100
o I
o 0
[S] =
50
;z.
0 0 0 I ~
- .S

-0.6337 0 .."
~ 0
35 40

W('Ji' r: I
0
I -0.6337
I '1r "'"
0
1.2674 -0.6337
-0.6337
o 6 x,(t)

12674 -0.6337 x 10 x,(t) , ] 1""']

LO 0 0 Ie- 0 0 -0.6337 0.6337 x,(I)j

'''m"", 1
["" ]
V,(t)
V,(I) -
V,(t)
-633712x,(I) + 633712x,(1)
-633712"2(') + 633712x, (I)
c -633712x,(.) + 633712x,(1)
-100 L------------------;;:::::;,;-:;sec;-------------------'

F1GURE 18.16 Second sto...y-storey shear response history V,(I) (kN),

Storey shear at third floor

The storey shears at each storey are shown in Figures 18.15 to 18.1S. 80r---------------~~----------------------~
B",. (first) storey shear
1501~----------------------~--~-------------- ______~

3
.5

..
~
35 40
3 ~
0
.~
-20
"c2 35
"' -40

JUO I ~oL---------------------~------------------~
Time
C,I) i ------ ---------------
F1GURE 18.17 Third stor.y-slorey sbear ....pons. hislory V,(t) (kN).
Time in sec
N(:;iJRE 18.15 fi~irsl stl1rey (ba.~(!) shear response history V 1(i) (kN).

..
)
 we (
lO,
20 j
Ecrthquake Resistant Design of Stf"Uctun;:s

Storey shear at fourth floor formulas as specified in IS 1893 (Parr 1): 2002 and are di<tributed along tbe heigbt of tbe
building by assuming parabolic distribution (applicable only for regular structures with limited
height). The forces determined by the response spectrum method and time hislory method
account for the effect of higher modes of vibration and actual distribution of forces in the elastic
range,
IOj
3 REFERENCES
.5

! [1J BIS 1893, Criteria for Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures-Part 1: General
Provisions and Buildings (firth revision). Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
2002.
[2] Tedesco, J.W., McDougal, W.o.. and Ross. CA Strucrural Dynamics-Theory alld
Applicatioll, Addison-Wesley Longman, 1999.

_lo,-i-----------:r;;;;;;;;;:::;:---------~
APPENDIX 1: LINEAR INTERPOLATION OF EXCITATION
Time in sec
FIGURE 18.18 Fourth storey-slOrey shear ....ponse bistory V,(t) (kN). The recurrence formulas written to obtain the response in a singie degree of freedom system
based on [he interpolation of the excitation function are given below:
18.4.7 Step 7: Cakulation of Maximum Response 1Ii+\= AUi + BUi + CPi + DPhl
~axlimumf response of relative displacement, elastic restoring forces, storey shears at each storey ui+l ;: A'u; + Jj ut + C'Pt + D"P;+l
In pane rame has been summarized in Table 18.2.
The coefficients A, B. C, D, A'. B', C', D' depend on the system parameters "l,. k and ,. and
on the time interval 6.t = 6.t,'
TABLE 18.2 Snmmary of maximum response for ti,e example structure
Location
1.899 x II}'
3.54 x II}'
(F,)~ (kN)

23.300 120.390
A = e-("" .. ( h sin O)D .dt + cos O)D .dt J
32.870 104.460
4.68 x II}' 43.855 72.090
x, 5.13 x )0.4 28.236 28.236

The m!~~~al base shears V,V) obtainedfrom time history method is presented in Figure 18.15.
m base shearobtamed from Ume history analysis is 12039 kN h'1 f
spectrum analysis is 125.69 kN. . w I e rom response
( ) (2" ) 11
;'-" -- sin liiotlf - 1 + -'- cos (J)Ol::.lJ'~'
,,1_(' \ O),/"t) J
SUMMARY
The chapter illustrates the proc d f" .
2002 with and wi . e. ure 0 sel5m,e analySIS of a real frame as per [S 1893 (Part 1):
f h' thout cumndenng the effect of infilL Equivalent static response spectrum and
,me IIStobIY methods have been used tt) analyse the frame and a c~mparison for aU the methods
has a so cen made A step-bv t hh
In the e ujval' ',' J ~S ep approac as been employed to i1Iustrate the procedures.
q em ~tatlC force procedure, the inertia forces are determined based on empirieal
I
1
 )

Chapter 19

Mathematical Modelling of
Multi-storeyed RC Buildings
D' = k~JI-e-,:w"'(J.(
L 1-(
, SinmD~t+COSmD~IJlj
The numerical solution for the equation (A 1) is obtained as follows after determining the values

r;:-;::::- 11442
~, = "k,tm, = ";-1- = 37.975 radlsec
The lime s~p is lake~ as the Tjme step of the tIme history i.e At ;;; 0.01 sec
The coefficIents obtamed for equation (AI) are
A = 0.9296, B '" 0.009597. C '" 0.0000324. D '" 0.0000164
A' = -13.812. B' '" 0.8932. C' '" 0.0047, D' = 0.004878
Substituting the coefficients obtained xn the recurrence formulas for displacement and velocjtv
we get the response of tbe uncoupled equation in normal coordinates (q).
19.1 INTRODUCTION
Mathematical model of structure is it, idealization by a suitable form amenable to structural
analysis by a standard procedure. The most important step in the design process of a building
is to create an appropriate mathematical mode! that will adequately represent its stiffness. mass
distribution and energy dissipation So tbat iLS response to earthquake could be predicted with
sufficient accuracy. The model and its degree of sophistication are dependent upon the analysis
and design requirements specified in the code, Some of the common types of models employed
~ ~,
for buildings are 2D plane /rame model. 3D space frame model, and reduced 3D model with three
degree offreedomper storey. A practice commonly followed is to employ 3D space frame models
for static solution and reduced 3D model for dynamic solution. If the main purpose of ana1ysis
is to calculate seismic actions for proportionjng and designing of RC members, a member-by~
member type of model is most suitable. In such a model, beams. columns and walls between
successive floors are represented as 3D beam element. TIle degrees of freedom considered are
3 translations and 3 rotations at each joint of these elements:. Masses can be lumped at nodal
points with all 6 DOFs there. The principal issues in mathematical modelling of a building
system are: (iJ assumptions in modelling (ii) modelling of beams and columns, floor diaphragms.
shear walls, infill wans, staircases and soB and foundation. The idealisation of an RC structure
for seismic response analysjs should capture all-important features of structural behaviour under
design earthquake forces. The detailed finite element analysis of a building is usually not
required. as accurdte predictions of displacements and point-by-point determination of clastic
stres.ses are not necessary to be determined for seismic design.

19.2 PLANAR MODELS

Majority of typical buildings are structured on the basi' of frame" sbear walls and box type of
elemenl", like staircases and elevalor shafts to transmit vertical and horizontal loads. These
elements are tied together by beams and slabs, which are supposed to act as rigid or flexible
327

-"",.0'
 ) Chaptet' 19 Math.ematknl Modelling of Multt_otore.yed Re B'I,I.iidin.gs ) a-
diaphragm dia.phragms in their planes. Frames and shear walls are assumed to have stiffness
in their own plane. When the frames and walls in a building are located along two onhogonal
directions, much of the action can be represented by plane frame idealization, Therefore plane-
frame idealization of buildings IS a natural choke of structural mode1. The various types of
I

~
plane-frame models employed are as follows:

19.2.1 Shear Beam Model

A shear beam modeJ is one in which the shear force acting on any maSs depends only on
relative displacements of adjacent masses, The sbear beam model represented by close-coupled
~'Ystem is shown in figure 19.1. This modeJ assumes that girders are infinitely stiff and axial
deformations of columns are ignOred. The columns behave as shear springs with its stiffne:'$ equal
h /
10 12EI/h1 where EI is the flexurd] rigidity and Ii is the storey height. Thij, ussumpUon restricts
tbe coupling between s.tories ~nd results in a simple model. The building can thus be represented ." ,,"!
a~ a lumped mass system connected by !ihear i'prings as shown in Figure J9.1ib), The masses FIGURE 192 Flexure beam model (Car coupled system).
arc lumped ill each Door Jevel; the interstorey spring stiffness is equal to the sum of the stiffness
of columns in that storey. Holzer's method is normally employed for detennining natural
frequencies and modes. Because of simplicJty. the shear beam model has often been used for 19.2.3 Idealized Plane Frome Model
low-rise framed buildings. The effect of assuming no joint rotatjon can result in significant When the plan consists of combination of parallel frames and frame-shear wa~Is, ~en single
errors jn both mode shapes and frequencies of low frequency structures, while neglect of axial idealized plane frame model of all such frames can be represented as, s~own In FIgure 19.3.
deformation in columns may also result in error in frequencies of the order of 10%. Ana1ytica! Different units such as frame 1, frame 2, etc., represent the lateral res.lstlll? frame alo~g each
formulations are also available for shear beam model. line These uni~s are then connected at storey levels by rigid links, which !i1mulate the mplane
ri idit of floors. The finite width of core and wall are taken into account as represented by
r!.m ~ith rigid ends, This type of plane frame model can be analyzed by a standard plane frame

h
programme.

, - - UnU /E
I
r Link bars -,- - Shear wall
-\Uni,2 ~-~

fJ
i
h
i I I r~
i ~.)
i
I , i ,
(a) (Ill i i
FIGURE 19.1 (a) Denecti....r a frame under I.teral l.ad; (b) shear beam model (cI... 1 I
Fd
I,

coupled system). --

b-l
i .. " i
~

19.2.2 Flexure Beam Model ."" ...~,-" ",-

A flexure beam roodel (Figure J 9.2) corresponds to a typical cantilever beam with masses
lumped at discrete pOints. This represents an example of a far-coupled system. The force acting
T m J ),n..",.-r

on any mit.':!'; depends OIl dIsplacement relative (0 all other masses of the system. An analytical Axis of
'w symmetry
mooel of a multi-storeYed building, that considers joint rotations as well as axial defomation
FIGURE 193 Idealization or plane frame (link model).
in c.olumns. correBpond to a fJexural beam model. A plane frame Idealization considered as an
assemblage of beam and column elements, as.suming primarily flexural deformation in its
member::: wjH lead to SUdl model,

J
 C~::_-_-_-_'_"~C:;,;h=.!:.:pt1'..19 Mathematical Modei~~ng of Multi~$toreyed RC Buldings) . _
19.2.4 Equivalent Shenr Wall Frame Model
In ~rder to analyze the building with paralJel frames In plan as shown in Figure 19.4 an
19.3 3D SPACE FRAME MODEL
eqUIvalent
. h - ed
shear] wall-frame
. model is established (Kban-Sbarounis 1964),Th
e equ1\ ' 'a1ent fr'arne If the layout of the building is unsymmetrical, the building can be best analyzed by a 3D space
IS 0 tam , by. umpmg t~getber all the frames into one bay equivalent framc: and combining frame model. Any combination of frame and walls can be idealized as a space frame consisting
all shear" ails mto an eqUIvalent shear walL This equivalent frame-shear wall system is analyzed of assemblage of beam and column elements. Each element of model in space frame consists
:~r total l~teral loa~s on the building in the particular direction, Subsequently the forces of a beam element with six degree of freedom at each joint. The stiffness matrix of this beam
c( u:puted m the equIvalent frame are distributed to the component elements from which the
element is 12 x 12. Any torsional effects are automatically considered in this model. The ground
eqmvalent frame WaS composed jn proponion to the lateral stiffness.
motions can be applied in one. two or three directions, individual1y or simultaneously, The
analysis. is best suited for non~rectangular units. building with unsymmetry in plan or elevation
equivalent Link
frame members Equivalent and complex frame with miSSing bearn/column and building with floating columns. The maID
js.sues in 3D modeUing are as follows:
j / j wall
(i) structural ide.:ilization of building by 3D beam elemem,
(ji) modelling of floor diaphragms,
o ii) finite size of joints between members, and
(iv) modelling of non-structural elements such as staircases and infiU waHs.

l j i
19.4 REDUCED 3D MODEL
!
The majority of buildings in Which floor diaphragms are sufficiently rigid in their planes, the
dynamic analysis can be carried out by using reduced 3D model. This is based on following
1 assumptions.
FIGURE 19.4 Equivalent shear w;;r)l frame (block frame model) {Khan-Smtrounis, 1%4}.
(i) the floors are rigid in their planes having 3 DOFs, two horizontal translations and a
single rotation about a vertical axis,
19.2.5 Plane Frame Model of Coupled Shear WaUs (ii) the masses of the building and mass moments of inertia are lumped at the floor levels
at the corresponding degrees of freedom,
~he ~ulti-storeyed shear walls with openings are called coupled shear walls these can be (iii) the vertical component of the earthquake motion is ignored, and
1 eahzed b~ a fr~me with finite joints. The coupled wall is thus represented as ~ frame except
(iv) the inertia forces or moments due to vertical or rotational components of joint
that the fi~lte wIdth of the columns m comparison with the beam is recognized, A typical
motions are negligible, therefore ignored.
representanon of coupled waH by a frame model is shown in Figure 19.5.
The simplified model with above assumptions is shown in Figure 19.6, The dynamic degrees
_[cOn~~eting beam of freedom are drastically reduced by static condensation and yet it produces quite accurate
results, In case the floor diaphragms are not adequately rigid in buildings with very stiff verticalJy
;~ -- fll~::;J'i&l1 : resisting e)ements such as elevator cores, and diaphragms having large openings. irregular
~E=I1~~Column shapes etc., the in-plane rigid assumption is not valid. In such cases a more complex model with
,:, additional degrees of freedom is considered to properly represent in-plane flexibility, The floor
.~-,;--- j : Outline slabs in such cases can be idealized as an assemblage of finite e)ements.
~.- of wall

19.5 SOME IMPORTANT ISSUES IN MODELLING

,,~,.'
, --- <c', ,
,
, I
"
! ' 19.5.1 Modelling of Floor Diaphragms
..I..,.n}- rlT ... ..;.....

fIGURE 19.5 Modelling or wupled shear wan by a plane frame. Typically slabs are considered to be supponed on rigid supports, these are analysed and designed
for gravity loads separately from the frame syslem, The floor slabs should be adequately
 -
_~_ _ _-;;;::;:;;;,~,-u.;;iJ;;;;;;;;ti.;;;;iljMi:(;;:deHing
Chapter 19 MuthemohOO 0
()f M~Tti.storf!yed He Buildin9-~)
_ -
eM ( Earlhqttakt; Resistant Derig'n of Structure$" r~_~~
of floor diaphragm by grillage elements . .
Modellmg . . bv rillage elements in both the dlfcctwns.
The concrete slabs/diaphragms can ?e ldeal~ ~ ~ in which combined bending and torSIon
Figure 19,7(a). The grillage element ,-s ~be~: ~;) Four to five grUlage elements in each
effects are included (Figure 19.7(b ( aC COt fue n"';ibility of floor slab.
orthogonal direction can reasonably represen

Is 1Beam support
, ---- - --_.----
,

Simply
r---~
,,
-------- - ----~----
r---[ . Sim:illy
supportec
supported ,
:-;.
:1
I:
h- -:
U-J i,
A

!
, '..l
+ ug(i) +
~
FIGt:RE 19.6 Building model with 3 DOF, peT ROOT (Ileskos, 1997). , Free

represented in 3D model of the structure so that their dead loads and live loads are properly (9) PIau of (ontt'cte slab
accounted for. Under seismic action floor. slabs play an important role of transmitting inertial
loads to the frame and tying together element.' of the later into a 3D entity. To perform these
roles, slabs sbould be adequately connected with their supporting beams; walls and columns. The

slabs are modelled in two ways: (il rigid diaphragms; (ij) flexible floor diaphragms.
Section AA
Modelling of rigid diaphragms

r!
The in-plane stiffness of floor should be properly recognised and included in the model. The
most convenient way of doing this is by introducing at each floor level an additional node termed
'mtl$ter' node with 3 DOFs: two translation and a rotation about nonna] to the pJane of floor 2
(Beskos, 1997). The master node is placed close to the centroid of the plan of floor and should
not coincide with other Iloor nodes. The other corresponding 3 DOFs of all Iloor nodes. called
L
slaves are related to those of the master node through a 3 x 3 transfer matrix. If the floor is
horizontal. all these master and slave DOPs refer to global co-ordinate system and the slave
GMf\-7"- z
DOFs can be condensed and only master node DOFs is left ..AI
(b) Grillage elcment l3 DOFs per node)
Modelling of flexible diaphragms , ' bv grillage elements (Macleod; 199n).
FIGURE 19.7 Modelling o' floor dlagraro .
The in-plane flexibility of floor needs to be modelled under following conditions:
f flo slab by finite element
(I) when Iloor flexibility can signiftcantly affect distribution of forces to the later.l force Modelling 0 or f F 'Ie Flement (FE). This can
resisting elements~ fl "bTt\l of floor i~ the use 0 1m ~ . r
AnOtLer method of modeJling eXI' '.' '1" ,,ngle FE is usually nnt sufficlen' or
" .. d (... ) . dl<cuSSed eafler. ,". , . i' b th
(ill when in-piane stre" field in the floor diaphragm needs to be computed for design of take care of situations (n) a~ _ 11l as ' <'. be required for proper moaellmg Of. sa., e~l
diaphragm, and representing a slab. a few flnIte el~men~r l~:~) atibihty of sJab DOFs with supporting beams.
(iii) some of the floor beams are pre$tressed and the same model of the floor-frame system . to be exercised
a care IS '
in accounung f '" P
can be llsed for ca1cuJation of the effect" of prestressing foree on the various structural
members..
 "---'-"'---
If there is no pressing need to use FE for floor sJab. the in-plane flexibHity of the latter can
,,
Column ,
be approximated through proper selection of the moment of inertia 1)' of the supporting beams ----.: ...;--
" Beam element
about normal to the plane of floor with or without adding bj-diagonal bracing to each slab panel
(Beskos, )997). , i: \ Beam element
F(1oting
.
._--------
. _ ._r-,,--
1,
~----
------
19.5.2 Modelling of Soll-Fonndntion ,
,-----
The flexibility of soil is usually modeHed by Inserting discrete spring-dashpot elements between Ground beam
the foundation members, footings, grade beams or piles. and the soi] medium, The spring and SQiI interface node Footing Soil interface node
dashpot constants are determined from elastic haJfspace solution. 10 case of stjff. massive (b)
(a)
foundation, the effects of soil-structure interaction are important Today's hardware capabilities (a) Beam with footing; (b) WaU on ,trip footing (Macleod, 1990).
allow incorporation of the entire system of building superstructure, the foundation elements and FIGURE 19.8
the underJying soil into a single model for the purpose of a seismic response analysis. This is very
rardy done for muilistoreyed buildings unless the significant effect of soil-structure interaction Raft foundation . .
i<: {'l'lvisaged in soft soils. Seismic design standards still do nOt include full incorporation of soj]- . d I The dee raft should be modelled consldenng
strucLure imeraction effects in seismic analysis and design. especially as these effects ate mostly :~::ta~/~~::a;:f~:~t~~nU~~n; ;;:~~17~ ;~:~lernent $or greater aCcuracy, plate bending or
favotlJ'abJe. Practically all modern codes for earthquake resistant design of normaJ structures are nat sbell elements can be employed for modelllOg raft foundatIon.
based on the assumption thaI the :;:tructure is completeIy fixed to the ground. The soil-structure
interaction should include the effects of both kinematics and inertial interaction.
The consideration of soil flexibility by elastic springs considers SSI effects only partially
Pile foundation .
.
y gIOU of iles The lateral stiffness of plle
due (0 lengthening of time period of structure that usually results in the reduction of base shea.rs A column may be resting on pJle. cap supported. b P gs Pon t~p of the pile. The choice of
and moments. but this does not take into account the change in input motion as a result of energy ted bv hnear and rotational spnn il
group wou 1d be repr~sen . ., ue of ile soil characteristics. whether or not the p e
feedback from vibrating structure and radiation damping which can be included by considering springs depends Oil ptle geometry~. E-.val P
is end bearing the interaction of pIle m a group_ IS IS a c
Th"
omplex problem. The representation
klnematic!> interaction. Another important effect in soil modeUing is the soil damping, Certain
amount of energy of a vibrating structure is dissipated in soil through radiation damping. There of pile group 'by springs may require a finite element study.
are two components of radiation dampJng: (i) translational dampjng~ (ii) rOCking damping. The
translation damping is of the order of 30%-35%. While rocking damping could vary between 19.5.4 Soil Models
5% and 7%. 10 the modal analysis of structures supported on soil medium the effect of soU
cL1mping is considered on the basis of equivalent modal damping, The equivalent modal damping The commonly used models of soil (Macleod, 1990) are described below:
is worked OUT on tl}e basjs of strain energy in each component of structure and soil in a particular
mode of vibration. Winkler model .
. r .
Tvpical Winkler deformallon
The elasticity of soil can be represented by a SImple mear sApnC:~sed deformation 8, the load
I 'J.S.3 FoumuUum. Models . . ". 19 9( ) A pressure q over an are a .
1S shown in rlgure . a, .. d _ k & where k is the spring suffness
Iypes of foundation
('tIe fo,--md;';'!lon modelfing Ivould depend on the type of foundation. The defonnation relation of Wlnk~er spnng -': ;=i:n:~tio:S o~ ;oi( su'rface. values of k~ are based on
,.',(lllltOonJy cmployed for bujJdjng~ are:(i) isolated footing and waH footing; (ii) raft; and or module!\ of subgrad~ reactlOn a~d 5 1 I' h' o-hl ' approximate because soil behaviour 15 not
plate-bearing tests. ThIS type of soll rn od e 1S le Y
,;.i) TIle foundation moocHing (Macleod, 1990) for each tYPB is described below:

Ie",la, ,,1 ,ooling ,md wall h.oting

r:. ~'oiumn ()n isolaled footing along with foundafion beam could be modelled as beam dements
a~ ,~hown ill FIgure 19.X(;.li. WalJ as strip fonting CQuld bc mo<iefied by beam dements:ls shown
"1- ::il~l'['C I :,:.(i{hL (bl
00 ~I~
(a) Winkler model; (b) Elastic balf space deformation (Mac ,
FIGURE 19.9
Mid. (Earthquake Resi.qtant Design of StrtU::tUN:8

understanding of these modelling issues will greatly facilitate an automated design of structural
linear. The merit of Winkler model is to include flexibility of soil, which can be used to study
relative effect of soH movements on structural behaviour, rather than as a meanS of predicting systems by the use of an appropriate computer software.
these movements.

Elastic half space model REFERENCES

In this model, soills considered as a linear elastic medium requiring conventional elastic spring AnagnostDpouios S.A., Comp~,er Analysis and Design of Eanhquake
[1J k D E and
Besos,.. ' R" D" b
constants to define its properties. Elastic half space deformation is shown in Figure 19.9(b). Resistant Slrucfures-A Handbook. Principles of Earthquake eSlstant eSlgn y
Typical values of elastic constants in elastic half space are available in closed fonn expression LM. Roesset. (ch. 7. p. 333). Buildings by SA Anagnostopoulos. (eh. 8. 369);
(Clough and Penzien, 1986). Reinforced Concrete Structures by M.N. Fardis, (eh. 9, p. 441). ComputatlOna
Mechanics Publications, 1997. ..
Clough and Penzien. Dynamics of Structures. McGraw-Hil!, International EdItIOns,
19.5.5 Modelling of Stairco.ses [2J
1986. .
The staircases connect the successive levels or stories of a structure and thus contribute to its F' tel Mark Handbook of Concrete Engineering, MultI-storey Structures (ch. 10) by
[3J
latera] sliffness. If the lateraJ-load-re.';;isting frame is re~atively flexible such as in low-rise frame ~'.:n'FimelEarthquake Resistant Structures (eh. 12), by Aranaldo T, Derecho and
structures and the location of staircase in plan affects significantly the torsional rigidity and Mark Fintel, Van Nostrand Reinhold Company. . '
response, it may be proper to include staIrcase in the structural model. In this way the effect Farzad Naim. The Seismic Design Handbook. 2nd ed .. Van Nostrand Remhold
[4]
of participation of staircase on seismic effect can be modelled as: (1) inclined truss member Company, New York. 2001. .
(ii) inclined beam member. Only monoHthic connections of the staircase and its supporting Macleod. l.A . AlUllytical Modelilng of StruclUral Systems. Elhs Horwood. England.
[5]
hearns to the rest of structure ,are included in the model as the nodef> between the elements.
1990. I dF " P d' g'
Khan. F.R and Sbarounis, I,A . "Interaction of Shear Wal an rames. meee m j
[6]
19.5.6 Modelling of In(i1ls of ASCE, 90 (5t 3), 285-335, June, 1964.

The consideration of stiffening effect of infiH panel on the frame is often important as it can
considerabJy alter the behaviour of building in elastic range. The effect of infill from elastic
to inelastic behaviour of a buHding can be quite complex. Yet its effect can be fairly weB
represented by. diagonal strut (Figure 19.10), having the same thickness as panel one, effective
width may depend upon number of factors, Empirical expressions are available for stiffness of
f>trut on the basis of studies conducted by various investigators .

. . ,.' / //././",/~/> / ~'/ </.' -' /

lnfill panel Equivalent dillgonal Nlrut

FIGURE 19.10 Diagonal strut model of'intill.

SUMMARV
The process uf de .... elopment of suilablc mathematical model for building system is described.
Various models with their underlyillg aSi;umptions and limitations arc presented. A clear
Earthquake Resistant DesigtJ
(ERD) of Reinforcetl
Concrete Building!
 Chapter 20

Ductility Considerations in
Earthquake Resistant
Design of RC Buildings

20.1 INTRODUCTION
As per IS 1893 (Part 1): 2002, Clause 6.1.3, "Actual forces that appear on structures during
earthquakes are much higher than the design forces specifi.ed in the code." It is recognized that
neither the complete protection against earthquakes of all sizes is economically feasible nor
design alone based on strength criteria is justified. The basic approacb of earthquake resistant
design should be based on lateral strength as weU as deformability and ductility capacity of
structure with limited damage but no collapse. The code IS 13920; 1993 entitled "Ductile
Detailing of Reinforced Concrete Structures SubjecIed to Seismic Forces-Code of Practice" is
based on this approach. This standard covers the requirements of lateral strength designing and
detailing of monolithic reinforced concrete buildings so as to give them adequate toughness and
ductility to resist severe earthquake shock without collapse. Thus, the ductility of a structure is
in fact one of the most important factors affecting its seismic performance and it has been clearly
observed that the well-designed and detailed reinforced struCtures behave well during
earthquakes and "the gap between the actual and design lateral force,;; is narrowed down by
providing ductility in the structure."
Ductility 1n the structures will arise from inelastic material behaviour and detailing of
reinforcement in such a manner that brittle failure is avoided and ductile behaviour is induced
by allowing steel to yield in controlled manner. Therefore, one of the primary tasks of an
engineer designing an earthquake resistant building is 10 ensure that the building wiH possess
enough ductility 10 withstand the size and types of earthquakes, which it IS likeJy to experience
during jts lifetime.

341
 , . l!!!:.r!hquo.J:e ReFutant Deilign of Structure3
(~----;;CI;C,a:::pt~-r-2-a -D-uc-tility Considerations in Earthquake Re.sistant Design... ) . .

20.2 IMPACT OF DUCTIUTY

The structural engineer must: have to understand the impact
u"
p Inertial fOfj::e
maximum
. de f onnatton
. th a t a structure or element can undergo without significant joss of initia:
yieJding resistance to the initial yield defonnatjon.
of ductility on the building response when it is subjected
to earthquake force. For exampJe consider a singJe degree
freedom system consisting of a metal rod and a weight, as
:: --'0
'/::;:~~--
,
20.4.1 Member/Element Ductility
Displacement ductility
shown in Figure 20.1. As the ground moves or displaces, the
::haracteristics of the ground to weight connection will playa Ground motion In order to determine the ductility ratio of an element yield displacement ~d. ultimatl
vital roJe. If this connectIon is very rigid, the weight will displacement must be defined clearly. Yield load is defined as the ~oad wh~n the rem10rcemen
ex;:;erience the same or larger forces as compared to ground FIGURE 20.) Ductility of at the center of the resultant of tensile forces in the r~inforcement ~Ields, ~Flgure 2~.2(a). Som(
force but jf the connection is very flexibJe as is in case of a metaJ rod (MCEER web site). iterative calculations are needed to determine the YIeld load: but If the Yield load IS defined a
rnetal rod, it wlH bend or deform and the weight will subject 10 Jesser forces because some of described the yield displacement can be computed as the dJsplacement when the load re.ache
the energy will be consumed to displace the system. Most of the bunding responses under th~ vield 'load. At the same time. the ultimate displacement c.an be defin~ as the maxlmun
curthquake are within these two extremes. dispiacement where the load does not become lower to lhe y,eld load, (F'gure 20.2(b)).
From this simple example We can easily conclude that ductility. property induced in the
building system, wiH improve the behaviour of the building-primarily by reducJng the forces Load ~ Load-displacement
I hysteresis curve
in the structure, Therefore, ductility is an essential attribute of an ear!hquake resistant design
,~t ,\lruclUI.) that sen'~ as a siwek ahsorber in a s!ructure and reduces the transmitted force to Yield load Py , --t~
one thal is sustainable.
,,

20.3 REQUIREMENTS FOR DUCTILITY

/)
y 0.
In order 10 achieve a ductile structure we must give stress on three key areas during the design Yield Ulthnate
displacement displacement
process. Firstly, the overall design concept for the bUiiding configuration must be sound,
Secondly, individual members must be designed for ductility, and finaUy connection and other Ca) (b)
structurdJ details need careful attention, It is weB recognized and accepted analysis of .FIGURE 20.2 (al Yield criterion: (b) Definition of ductility ratio (Machida. 1999).
experimentaJ resuils and analytical studies; that in earthquake resistant design of structures, all
structural members and their connections and supports i.e., all critical regions whose yjelding Ductility ratio is influenced by varlous factors. and must be evaluated p~operlY ~onsiderir
~trength may be reached and exceeded by a Severe earthquake, should be designed (sized and all of these factors according to designed structures and members. The ductIlIty ra?~dbecom!
detailed) with Jarge duetility and stable hysteresis behaviour so that the entire strueture will around 10 when the axial compressive stress, compressive strengmof concrete and Y.Ie streng
remuin ductile displaying .Ii[able Ilysteresis behaviour. There are" two main reasons for this .
of rernforcement are m. the range 0 f 1 MPa 20-30 MPa, 300-400 MPa, respectively.
ductilJty requirement: first. it aHows the structure as a whole, to develop its maximum potentia1
~trength, lhrough distribution of internal forees, which is given by the combination of maximum Rotational and curvature ductility
strengths of all components; and second, large structura1 ductility allows the structure to move In order to ev'al ua te the duetII,tv
~ of a ,structure , curvature ductility ratio or rotation ang
as a mechanism under it:; maximum potential strength, resuJting in the dissipation of Jarge
Ji1.1tHlnt of energy (Bertero. ; 99 i), ductility ratio of each element is needed. . ' . . .
The rotutional ductility factor is often expressed on th~ basis of pl,asllc hlO~e Id~ahzal1o
- I ("18) where' k
!1,.-+vlJy'
0 = maximum plastic hinge rotatJ{)n, ML ~v = YIeld rotatIon (m case.
~O.4 ASSESSMENT OF DUCTILITY -~ where,MIl
. end moments, fJ,. - '6E1'
a heam loaded by two anti-symmetn.c . ' '" and E are 'Itt
e t of inertia and modulus oj ela....ticity of the beam respectively). ~t:
: tPcti!iry is (he capabihty of a material, structural component, Or entire structure to undergo
~oment: I:n~:~l::%t~on that could be used in the definition of ductility factor. This ~efimtl
~~~~~<;n~~r
ddonn:l.!ion after its Initial yield wiU)out any significant reducl:ion in yieJd su'ength. Ductility
is genemlly measured in terms of ductility ratio or ductility facror, which i~ the ratio of the eanti-symmeuic deformatjon of heam members that occurs in beams of latera
loaded frames.
. , . ( Earthquake R estSt.o.nt
. Design of S~ctures ) (
TABLE 20.1 Contd.
Curvature ductility is the ratio of curvature .
curvature ar first yield of tension steel' tb . at the ull1mate strength of the section to the
relationships as: 10 e sectlon_ It IS defined for bilinear moment-curvature Codes
-~-'--'--=-:'=---
Calculation methodS - - - - - _....._-_......- -
where, Q)Uti.r: minimum amount of reinforcemeOl. At: gross concrete area of
seclion, Ac. . : confmed concrete area of section, (/Jw,MlIl: 0,12 for ductile and
Pc= tP max == 1+ p 0,08 for limited ductile structures,
y 1/>, Jlc = required curvature ductility,
where, <p" = plastic portion of maximum curvature and 1/>, = YIeld
. curvature (Figure 20.3). rrk =nonnalized axial force
The following equation is derived for rectangular column
M NZ Code

lT~~M-------------------
_A,_, =_ JAg N' 1
if>f,,'.A,j'-O'OO6
'h' /(' l A"
where, Am: total effective arca of transverse bars in tbe direction unde.r
M'y ~~!-~-----,
consideration ~-ithln centre to center spacing of hoops sets Sf,. n'" dimen-
sion of core of rectangular or square column at right angles to the direction
,
of transverse bars under consideration measured to the center line of the
perimeter hoop. Ag: gross area of column. A,.: core area of column, ~ul;PJ:
1 ,:
: ; - - - Bp curvature ductility factor. Pl ';:; ; AtlAg, A$I: total area of longitudinal steeL
: m := fw/O.85f~, Iv!: lower characteristics strength yield strengrn of transverse
L -_ _-,~~--- ................ L-----~ steel, f~: concrete compressive cylinder strength, N': axial compressive
load on column. It, strengtb reduction factor
FIGURE 20.3 BT
I mear moment-curvaturt': relationship for beams (Machida, 1999). Ash may be controlled by other requirement on transverse reinforcement.

--_ ....

It 15 ~e. simple index to characterize the severitv . ~f flex~ral damage than curvature ductHities.
. The rotational ductilities are better measures
ductlhtJes are substantially larger than ot ti ~ ~f mel.a:'~c flexural deformation, True curvature 20.4.2 Strw:tu.Tt1l Ductility
ductility factor J1r in a buildjng with l~b a ona . ~ucttht1es. Comparing the member rotational Structure ductility in a global sense depends on the displacement ductility of its members
due to the possibility for substantial foca~z:ct:!;:;. Ji.b' th~ fanner is typically larger. This is
1
because response displacement of each member can be evaluated even with static analysis. Its
The JSCE code, the EC 8 and the NZ co~e .:eng wh!l~ the bUlldrng can still be elastic. quantification requires a relationship between I.teralloads and displacement of whole building.
factor of member or to express the relat' b proposmg methods to calculate ductility This may be obtained by a pushover analysis by plotting total base shear versuS the top Slorey
plastic hinge region and the ductilit fa~~n et~een the, arno.unt of shear reinforcement in the displacement or preferably, versus the displacement at the level where the resultant force Qb =
v, or as summanzed m Table 20.1.
1: Fi is applied (Figure 2004). The Ub is detennined from the work of lateral forces F, as follows:
TABLE 20.1 DucUlity calculations (Machida, 1999) ,
Codes Calculation methods
'l: 1'; Ui
Ub:: -"1""",,_ _
JSCE Code Evaluation of dUCliJity factor ('~:)"'~f"'m~e::m~b::e::r---------- Q,
/1,/ = [Ilii + (l-I/(,)(oulob)J/JI, u,
where fi is the lateral force at floor i and its lateral displacement. The code defined that lateral
where. f.Ii, ~ 12(O.5V"J + V ltV 3 . force distribution can be used for analysis. The ductility of a building may be quantified by the
normal compression stress ~():1 nonnal compressive Slress' u1>:
S;t b:ia d
concrete, i/ ri ; shear capa' f nee al ~re, Vcd ; shear capacity from factor
.s elty rom l'hear retnforcement Urn:.."
'iiI =: a partu:ll safety factor (may be assumed <11' t.5) , Ji.b=--
uy
Vl1UI =: shear force acting on v
reaches its flexural caPflcityC ~7 secuon of the element when the element
.
For a single storey frame the relationship between the beam ductility (J1.~) and system ductility
HCR The f~llowtng
('onfm1ng ~ the minimum amount of
' f equ~!lon is proJXl~ed to (lb",n (Ji.b) is,
. rem orccment corresponding to the ductility factor
(J.iwdf> L74(A/A ...J (OJ~Ji... + O._~7m;. - 0.07> lOw,mm
-----
Conld.
 MU_ ~~::thqu~-~$'tant Design of St~t-ure!J--------------"=>
AF
tI-
F.'i ---".,
"'1
5
"
(iii) With the increase of ultimate strain of concrete, the ductility factor increase!;. Thus

F4_'i::
"1/
"'1
4
, ! confining of concrete increases the ductiHty appreciably.
(iv) An increase in yield strength of steel with all other varjables constantly decreases
Qh ::::
- - - - - .... "11 ! ductHity. The ductility increases with the increase in concrete strength.
F3 ----: : 11 " 3 , '

""
II., (v) The lateral reinforcement tends to improve ductility by preventing snea! hi\u!e'1.,
"~'I
F2 -"':,':: 2 restraining the compression steel against budding. The lateral rejnforcement in the
""
1'" form of dosed stirrups is effective in binding the eompression zone thereby confining
FI~':"" " 'TTrrrrni the concrete and increasing the ductllity of section.
1 - J 1 (vi) Shear failure occurs at a smaller deflection than the flexural failure and hence absorbs
much less energy, Memhers should be designed and detailed by providing web
reinforcement so that their strength in shear exceeds the strength in flexure, Therefore.
Q"
ductHity increases as the stirrups in the specimen increases.
F1GljRE 2M P h (
US over or overload) analYSis (AnagQostopoulos) 1997). (vii) Bond failures and anchorage failures are sudden and brittle. Special attention must be
given in details to prevent lhem from occurring in structures, which must behave in
khlk,. :: ratio of Inember stiffnes-s beam and, '. a ductile manner.
Figure 20.5. '.. t co umn. ThIs raho is descrjbed graphically in

20.6 DUCTILITY FACTORS

F The displacement ductility ratio or ductility faclOrs (fl) are used in the reduction of the required
linear elastic strength of structure, In actual) the need for incorporation of response reduction
factor (R) in base shear formula in IS 1893 (Part 1): 2002 is an attempt to considerthe structural
k , ductility in addition to over strength. energy dissipating capacity, the stability of vertical load
carrying system at maximum induced inelastic deformations. The vaJue of R is prescribed in
Tabk 7 of IS 1893 (Part 1}: 2002 for different types of building systems. It shows a low value
of R approaching 1.5 assigned to an extremely brittle bulJding i.e. unrejnforced masonry wall
buHding and a high value of R (= 5) is assigned to 3 more ductile structure like special moment
resistant frame reinforced concrete or shear wall buildings.
The response reduction factor may be same as ductility factor (,u} in the case of structures
with a very long period with respect to the period of the predominant frequency content of the
nGURE 2(},S earthquake ground motion. Sometimes the response reduction factor may be equal to R = ~2p -I
2(03). which is only applicable if the structure is subjected to relatively very short acceleration pulse
(with respect to its fundamental period) and the input energy for the linear elastic structure is
the same as that for the inelastic (perfe<:t1y-plastic) structure (Bertero, 1986).
20S FACTORS AFFECTING DUCTILITY The NZ Code I:; proposing the relation of the maximum values of the design ductility
('
factor and structural types which correspond to structural action is summarized in Table 20.2.
.ollle lmp<'r:anl r~~,... L' h
- .'.l._~"rs on \VHJC fhe ductility will depend are;
TABLE 20,2 Categories t>f structurallmcmb actions (Maebida, 1m)
Ii"! J)t!cldily im~f'C':J.SCf; !!:1e~rly with an increase in ",' .
lor .<:nt:ill V,ol/ue i)1 aV'~1 c _ the <:;hear strength carned by concrete Applicable ductility factors (p)
S.No. Categories
\Il)
'" :, .. ",;.,
"'{" omrressrve stress (0 < 0: < 1 MP
fi;[diiilyllO<:arlyredocr.;;"UDtoth"
.'
. '-.0- , :h'
~),CMachida,1999).
CpOlnt\.\' ereax1alcornpresSlveslressbec "1 1. Ductile structure !J 3- 6
I" LI, <''''I,,,,! COlnpreS"Ive :t>lrec', 'I b i d f allufC.
a anee ' omes cqua
" " ' - <t
2. Structure of limiled ductility demand .u <6
3. Structure of limited ducliliry capacity !J < 6
COJ1ld.
_,n_ ( Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures
.
'---~-.......:=..-----

C----~--t
Clwpl,r-r 20 __~.~~~~_~ __ onsl era tons
n Earthquake Resistant De$ign~
t __ ....... ~-----

Mild steel is more ductile and its reduced post yield s~ng.th gain. is advantageo~s.
MR-

TABLE 20.2 Conld. Pr . ded that the yield strength is confined to specified hnuts, deSIgn can detemllne
S,N(), Categories Applicable ductility factors (}l) se~~~n maxjmum flexure strengths In order to desig~ other areas of the structure to
revent remature brittle shear faiiure (capacity design ~pproach) ,
~'ld st!) shou1d be used. as primarily reinforcement lfl areas. where earthquake
4, Elastic SltuCture
5. Structure incorporating mechanical 1 -. cted such as beam in moment resisting frames Hlgher strength steel
energy dissipating devices domage IS expe , - I lements where
(with a yield strength> 300 r..-fPa) is appropriate for other strUctura e
6. Struclure locked into the ground Ji=!
flexural yielding can't occur under earthquake load

6.0 Flexural Members

20.7 DUCTILE DETAILING CONSIDERATIONS
AS PER IS 13920: 1993 6.1 General
. I ; : arne members resiSling eanhquake~induced forces and
These reqUIrements app Y to J" '1.0' uirernents
Provision for ductile detaihng in the members of reinforced concrete buildings are given in IS designed to resist flexure. These members shall salIsfy the fvl wmg req .. .
13920: J993, These prOVisions are for the anchorage and splices of longitudInal reinforcement, . I ', th member under t'arthql1ake loading shall not eXfxed O.lf~i.,
spacing, anchorage and splices of lateral reinforcement. and joint of membeL It is often 6.1.1 The factored a.na stress on e
observed in past earthquakes that the problems in structura1 detailing may also be a significant Possible Explanation: .
cause of damage. The discussIons herein focus on the provision of ductile detailing provision General!) axial force in the flexural member is relatively very 1c.ss but If f~ctored
for RC buildings and its possible reasons for providing struCture (Madhekar and Join, 1993. . I co~pressjve stress in the frame member exceeds to O.ljel;' aXIal force WIll also
NZS 3101. 1995, AC1318, 1999, Euro code g, 2002), which will be helpful to understand the ~~l~onSidered besides bending and member will be designed as per clause 7.0
importance of the ductile detailing for earthquake resistant desjgn of structure.
The member shall preferably have a widlh to depth ratio of more Than 03.
6.1.2
5,0 General Specifications Possible Explanations:
5.1 The design and con.truction of reinforced concrete buildings slurU be govemed by th. To provide more uniform desig~ app~o~ch
provision of IS 456: 1978 (now IS: 456: 2000), excepl as modi/'utd by Ik. provisions To minimize the risk of lateral mstablhty
of this cod., Experience gained from past
5.2 For aU buildings which aTe more than 3 stories in height, the minimum grade of 6.13 The width of the member shall not be less than 200 mm.
COncrete shaH he M 20 If", = 20 MPa)
Possible Explanations:
Possible Explanations: To decrease the sensitivity to geometric errQr .
. . . fro ~ . ,th RC frames resislin o earthquake mduced forces
The concrete strength below M 20 may no.t have the requisite strength in bond or Expenence gamed m practlce \\ I Q

shear to take full advantage of the design provisions The depzh D a/the member shall preferably be not more ,hall one-jourth a/the clear span,
Bending strength of a reinforced concrete member is relatively insensitive to concre!e 6.1.'1
compressive, tensUe and shear strength and durabiHty. which are adversely affecfed Possible Explanations: .
by weak concrete To take into account the non-linearity of strain distributjon and l~teral buckhn~
E erimental evidence indicates that under load reversals or dIsplacement JI~1Q
5.3 Steel reinforcements of grade Fe 415 Qr Ie.. slurll be used XP,. an"e the behaviour of continuous members having length to depth ratios
non mear r b > f i t ' ely slender
Possible Explanations: of less than four is significantly different from [he behaVIOur 0 re a IV
For rcil1fnrccment~ the provisions, firslly, of adequate ductility and secondly, of an members
upper limit on the yield stress or characteristic strength, are essential. It is a general
6.2 Longitudinal Reinforcement
practice: 10 limit the yield stress of reinforcement to 415 MPa
The /olt! as well as bottom reinforcemenl shalf ("()lJsiSI of af least two bars througlwuf
Strong steel is not preferable to low strength steel in earthquake prone region because 6.2.1 (a)
typical stress slrain curve of low steel shows the following advantage;;: (a) a long yield the member length,
plateau; (h) H grc<lter breaking t:traln; and (c) less s,trength gain after first YIeld
. , . C!art~!p~~~"!lesista"n=t-,D=es:ci,"gn"-,o"f-,S::t::.':":::<::;t:::,,"-re::.:,,-_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _,-_ _ _ __ Chapter 20 Ductility Considerations in E~rthqu.aJc:e Re.tutont De.trign.,. ) M-
Possible Explanations; Possible Explanations:
To eMure integrity of the member under reversed loading Such arr';'gement will make a ductile junction and provide adequate anchorage of
It i~ a construction requirement rather than behavioral requirement beam reinforcement into columns
The capacity of the beam is developed by embedment in the column and within the
6.2. J (b) The lenSlon sleel ratio on any face, al any section, shall not be less lhon Pm!, = compression zone of the beam on !he far side of the connection .
O.24Yfdlf". where f;A and I" are in l"fFa. The length available for the development of the strength of a beam b:rr' IS gradually
Possible Explanation: reduced during cyclic reversals of earthquake actions because of the Yield penetrauon
To provide necessary ductility or to avoid brittle failure upon cracking from the face of a column

6,2.2 The maximum steel ratio 011 any face at any section shall not exceed Pmex =. 0.025. Ld - lOa

Posc.ihlc Explanations:
To avoid steel congestion and limit shear stresses in beams of typical proportions
Practically, low s.teel ratio should be used whenever possible db

6.2.3 Tht positive sted at a joinl .face must be at least equal to half oj the negative steel at
that fixE. ilLl-j
Possible Explanations: La=developmen! length
in tCIlS)On
To ensure adequate ductillty at potential plastic hinge regions, and to ensure that -'- db"" bardj
minimum tension reinforcement is present for moment reversal
To allow the possibility of the positive moment at the end of a beam due 10 earthquake An<:horage of beam bars in an external joinL
induced lateral displacements exceeding the negative moments due to gravity loads
To produce balanced condilions and limit the incorrect assumption such as It: ,ear 6.2.6 The longitudinal bars shail be spliced, only if hoops are provided over the entire splice length,
strain distrihution. well defined yield point for the steel, limiting compressive strain at spacing 111)1 exceeding 150 mm. The lap length shall not be .Iesslhoo the bar development
in concrete of 0.003 and compressive stress in the shell concrete length in tension" Lap splices shall not be provided (a) wlthm a JOIn!, (b) wfthm a quarter
6.2A The steel provided at each of the top and bottom Jace of the member at any secrio~"along length of the member where flexural yielding may generally occur under the effect of
its length shall be at least equaJ to one~Jourth of the maximum negative moment steel earthquake forces. Not more thnn 50 per cent of the bars shall be spliced at one sectJOn.
provided at tlte face of either join1. 11 may be clarifwd that redistribution of moments Possible Explanations:
pennined in lS 456: 1978 (dause 36.1) will be used only for venicalload moments and
nm for taleral load momenJS
Lap splices of reinforcement are prohibited at regions wh~r.e flexural y.ieldin~ i!
anticipated because such splices are not reliable under condJt1ons of cychc loadine-
Possible Explanations: into the inelastic range
This 15 to ensure SOme positive and negative moment capacity throughout the beam Transverse reinforcement for lap splices at any location is mandatory because of the
in order to alluw unexpected deformations and moment distribution from severe possibility of loss of concrete cover
earthquake <:letion

[I mrmIl'1 ~
~ To allow the passlnilllY of the positive mument at the end of a beam due to earthquake
induced l'ltcral displacements exceeding the negative moments due to gravity loads
(I' To produce balanced conditions and limit the incorrect assumption such as linear
~tf.ain distribution. well defined yield point for the steel. limiting compressive strain
in connelt'" of (UJ03 and comprcsfllve l'tress in the shell concrete !..db -+t-- i> 150mm
{).?.\ In all f?xfr'rtwl)oint, both (Iu' top and the hottom bars of the beam shall be provided with LiI"= deveiQpment length in tension
lindu)J"Gge length, h('yond the iluterfi:u::e o/the column. equal to the development length in
db "" har diameter
fr:flsion pli.J.~ fO times Ih(' bar diamefer minu,\ the allowance for 90 defirees bend(s). in an
inlrmo/ ioinf. /)0111 faiT bars (~{th(t beoH1 vhall be taken continu(Ju,. .ly thmufit/t the colum.n.. Lap splice in beams.

1
6.2.7 Use of welded spliced and mechanical connections may also be made. as per 25.2.5.2 of
IS 456:1978. However, not more than half the reinforcement shall be spliced at a section
where flexurol yielding may takL place. The location of splices shall be governed by 6.2.6.
Possible Explanations:
Welded splices are one in which the bars are lap welded or butt-welded to develop
the breaking strength of the bar
A mechanical connection is a connection which relies on mechanical interlock with
the bar deformations to develop the connection capacity
In a structure undergoing inelastic deformations during an earthquake. tensiJe stresses
in reinforcement may approach the teMile strength of the reinforcement. The require-
ment of weided spliced and mechanical connections is jntended to avoid a splice failure
when the reinforcement is subjected to expected stress levels in yielding regions
The location of welding splices is restricted because tensile stresses in reinforcement
in yielding regions cannot exceed the strength requirement
63 Web Reinforcement
6.3.1 Web reinforcement shall consist of venical hoops. A vertical hoop is a closed stirrup
having a l3S' hook with a lO-diameter eJ.1ension (but no! < 75 mm) at each end that
is embedded in the confined COre. In compelling circumstances. it may also be made up
of two pieces of reinforcement: A U stirrup with a 1350 hook and a 10~diameier e.ttension
(but not < 75 mm) at each end, embedded in the confined core and cross tie. A crosstie
is a bar having a 1350 hook with a 10 diameter extension (but not < 75 mm) at each end.
The hook.. shall engage peripheral longitudinal bars.
6.3.2 The minimum diameter a/the bar forming a hoop shall be 6 mm. However, in beams with
clear span exceeding 5 m, the minimum bar diameter shall be 8 mm.
Possible Explanation:
This refers to construction and durability (corrosion of reinforcement) rather than
behavioral requirements
6.3.3 The shear force to be resisted by the vertical hoops shall be the maximum of: (aJ calculated
factoTed shear force as per analysis. and (b j shear force due to formation o/plastic hinges
at both ends of the beams plus the factored gral.>ity load on zhe span.
Possible Explanations:
Actual forces that appear on structures during earthquakes are much higher than the
design forces specified in the code, it is assumed that frame members will dissipate
energy in the nonllnear range response. unless a frame member possesses a strength
that is a multiple on the order of 3 or 4 of the design forces. It is desirahle that the
beams should yield in flexure before failurc in shear
The design shear force should be a good approximation of the maximum shear that
may develop in a member at any event. Therefore. required shear strength for frame
members is related to flexural strength of the designed member rather than factored
shear fonoes indicated by lateral load analysis
A~B l.2(D+ L)
L -I 2

Possible Explanations: .4,

Stirrups are required to prevent the compression bar from buckling Mu,lim Mj,lJjrn

~
Transverse reinforcement is required to confine the concrete in the regions where
yielding is expected so as to minimize strength degradation
Th provide shear strength for full flexural capacity of the member I t
i

Irl
~

(Sway to right)

B,
Iii MII,Hm Mu,ii:n
i. .,

Wd(>75mm)
~
t t
~
(Sway to left)
Calculation of design shear foI'C' for beam.

6.3.4 The conlributio~ of bent up bars and inclined hoops to shear resistance of tM section
- Hoop U~stirrup
..;hall nO! be considered.
Ream. ""~:h reinforcement.

MU_ ( Earthquake Re.s;stant Delrig'fl. of StruC'ttort:e
Possible Explanation:
~palling, of the concrete s~el1 is anticipated during strong motion. especiaUy at and
ear regIons of flexural YIelding. an web reinforcement should be provided in the
form of closed hoops
6.3,5 The spacing of hoops over a length of 2 d at either end of a beam shall nol exceed (a)
~4, and (b) 8 Umes the diameter of the smallest longitudinal baT' however it need not
,;, ess than IO? mm, Theftrst hoop shall be at a distance not exce~ding 50 mmfrom the
~e mt face, \krtlcal hoop~ at th.e same spacing as above shall also be provided qver a
Jngth equal 10 2 don euher sIde of a section where flexural yielding may occur under
t te effect o~ ecrthquakeforces, Elsewhere the beam shall have vertical hoops at a spacing
not exceedmg t1i2.
Possible Explanations;
~ot~tial plastic hinge regio~s in beams require special detailing where a plastic hinge
evelops',]t ~::es thr~e mam purposes 0) prevents buckling of longitudinal bars in
co_mpresslOn, (11) proVIdes some confinement of the eoncrete; and (iii) acts as shear
remforcement
In the case of members with varying strength along the span or member for which the
p;r:na~n.t load ~epresents a Jarge proportion of the total design load. concentration
o l~e a~tJc ~otauon may occur within the span. If such a condition is anticipated.
t1'afLwerse remforcement should also be provided in regions where yielding is expected
_t
i
; Min 2 bars for full length
aiong top and bottom face
As~pminBd
( Clwpter 20 Dtlctility CoJtsiden:z.tians in E,!:rlhqu.ak 8esistant .Design. . J
Possible Explanation:
the member subjected to axial forces gJeater than a specified limit ,hall take both the
load bending and axial
7,/,2 The minimum dimension of the member shall not be less than 200 mm. However, infro.mes.
which !utve beams with cenler-to-center span exceeding 5 m Dr columns oj unsupported
length exceeding 4 m, the shortest dimension of the column slw.ll not be less than 300 mm.
Possible Explanations:
to avoid very slender columns
to avoid column failure before beams (strong column weak beam concept)
experience from practice with reinforced concrete frames resisting earthquake-
induced forces
7.1.3 The ratio of the shortest cross sectional dimension to the perpendicular dimension shall
preferahly be no' less than OA,
Possible Explanation:
Experience from practice with reinforeed concrete frames resisting earthquake~
induced forces
7.2 Longfludinal Reinforcemen,
7,2,] Lap splices shall be provided only in the central half of the member length, ], should be
proportioned as a tension splice. Hoops shaU be provided over the entire splice length a1
spacing not exceeding 150 mm from centre-to..centre. Not more than 50 per cent of the
bars shaU be spIked at one section.

As:'fpmaxBd Possible Explanations:

Lap splices of inadequate length may lead to column distress and even failure. 11
should be enclosed with transverse reinforcement because of the uncertainty ir
moment distributions along the height and the need for confinement of lap spliCe!
subjected to stresS reversals
Longitudinal bars in potential plastiC hinge regions should be distributed reason.bl)
and uniformly around the perimeter of the section in order to assist the confinemen
of concrete
7.2.2 Any area of a column that extends more than 100 mm beyond the confined core du.
to architectural requirements shall be detailed in the following manner. In case th
B = Breadth of beam contribution of this area to strength has been considered. then it will have minimur.
db = Diameter of longitudinal bar longitudinal and transverse reinforcement as per this code, However if this area has bee.
reim'orcement. treated as non-structural.. the minimum reinforcement requirements shall be governed b
lS 456: 1978 provisions minimum longitudinal and transverse reinforcement. as per I
7.(1 Columns and Frame Members subjected to Bending and Axilll mad 456/]978,
(;rneral Possible Explanation:
(, / ~'7;;\~ r;quirementa apl:J-y to frame members, which have a factored axial stress in excess
0) .. hi; under Ihe '!fJp('i (~f eanhquake forces.
The unreinforced shell may spall as the column deforms to resist earthquake effect:
Separation of portions of the shell from the core caused by local spalling creates
 -----~-----~---D ) -, ,.
.
~,---=- ~---~-"-~---t--;-
Cha.pter 2!) .~ C~~msl ro IOns
in Earthquake ,Re,ustani e,ng11:.::.jJ __
.~---------
. . ( Earthquake Resi8fant Design. of Structures
re transverse ties must provide lateral support to each
rely upon concrete. Theref0 , 1
falling hazard. The additional reinforcement is required to reduce the risk of portions 'ob"lity due to outward buck mg
COlumn bar to prevent s~ 1
of the shell falling away from the column

Minunum longitudinal
and transverse steel
as per IS 456: 1978

Reinforcement requirement for column with more than 100 rum projection beyond core.

7.3 Transverse Reinforcement

single booP
7.3.1 Transverse reinforcement/or circular columns shall consist of spiral or circular hoopJ'.ln
rectangular columns rectangular hoops may be used. A rectangular hoop is a closed
stirrup. having a 1350 hook with lO-diameter extension (but not < 75 mm) at each end
that is embedded in the confmed core.
Possible Explanation:
Columns of building subjected to seismic loading often carry large flexure and shear
Joad. when diagonal tension cracks are possible, shear reinforcement will be required.
Therefore, the anchorage and the shape of tie must be such that tensile forces resulting
from truss action can be transversed from one face of the column to the other
7.3.2 The paral/ellegs of rectangular hoop shall be spaced not more than 300 mm centre-to-
Lf-----I
h 'c S 300 trun
centre. If the length of any side of the hoop exceeds 300 mm, a crosstie shall be provided.
Alternatively, a pair of overlapping hoops may be provided within the column. The hooks h shan be larger of h'c and Be
shall engage peripheral longitudinal bars. overlapping hoops with a crosstie
7.33 The spacing of hoops shall not exceed half the least lateral dimension of the column, Transverse reinforcement in co.lumns.
except where special confining reinforcemenJ is provided as 7.4.
hall be the maximum of.: a) calculafedjaclOred ,'1'hear
Possible Explanations: 7.3.4 Th e d est'gn shearI~force for columns s 1.
. and b) a factored shear force given vy
The maximum centte~to-centre spacing of the transverse reinforcement is considered force as per ana ysu
necessary to restrain buckling of longitudinal steel and for adequate confinement of be M""l
the concrete. Too much spacing would not provide adequate lateral restraint or
confmementj too small a spacing would not allow aggregate particles to pass between
Vu ~ 1.4 iL---li--- J
M.. lim +
51
...bin

the transverse bars when concrete is being placed ,F Cf! Of opposite sign of beam~ framing
hI.. d ft.FR are moment OJ reSls,an , 'J ~
Observations afrer earthquakes have shown significant damage to columns in the non- where M u/im an u,lim. d h is the storey height. The beam mamen.
confined region, and the minimum ties or spirals required should provide more into the column from OppOSIte faceJ~ ~~6: /978.
uniform toughness of the column along its length capacity is to be calculated as per
Column bars carrying compressjon are liable to buckle under large strain. When
yielding take.::: place in sreel approach. the lateral restrain provided the cover cannot

1
 Possible Explanation:
~----~"'-=-';;-D=udili.t.
~. _____~C~,M~pt~,~r2~O-= Con8iderati~n,fl in EaTt~quake .Resistant Design,.. ) UM
The moment capacity of a joint may be limited by the flexural slrength of the beams Th' stipulates 3 minimum length which provides c10seJy spaced transverse reinforce-
framing into the joint. Where beams frame into opposite sides of a joint. the 1S h flexural yielding normally occurs
ment at the. member ends, theW ere
Th Ie core to support the longitudinal compressive
combined strength may be sum of the negative moment strength of {he beam on One oVlded to confine conere , . 'th th
side of the joint and the positive momenl strength of the beam on the other side of IS IS pr . . . b
reinforcement agaInst melastIc uc klin g a nd for resistance in conjunctIOn WI e
the joint confined concrete, against shear

1i'=i0==="1- asJointperreinforcement
8.1

h,
~--
4

Transverse
reinfvrcement It (;
as per 12.1
T

>!!s.
- 4

Confined joint with bc;ams

(M bL. ... MM. '\ framing Into all four sides
\{.. :;:;; IAI . ii,hm "',tim , con6rung reinforcement IlS
~ ItSI J .ll-4-..i..L per S.2

Calculations of design sbear force for column. Column and joint detailing,

7.4 Special Confining Reinforcement . I conifining reinforcement shall

7.4.2 When a column terminates into a joo!ing or mal. spenD
extend at least 300 mm into the jootmg or mat.
This requirement shall be me! with, unless a larger amoUnt of tran.~verse reinforcement is
required from shear .wrenglh consideralions. Possible Explanations:

}. 4, ] Special confining reinforcement shall be provided Over a length Ie from each jolnt face, yield penetrati.on _ fl e I demands at the base, special confining
towards midspan, and on either side of any section, where flexural yielding may occur due to very h,gh aXial 1odads and t 3; ; m into lbe footing or mat of building
reinforcement shall exten at leas .
under the ~lfect of earthquake forces. The length '10' shall nOi be l.ess than (0) larger
lateral dimension of the member at the sectum where yielding occurs, (b) J16 of clear span
~ Sped.l confining

::I
(~f"the member, and (e) 450 mm. I.
, remforcement
POssJbJe ExplalJatlon~:

E;~""";"''';;~i';'''~
/ ' ", 2300mm
Potential plastic hinge regions in columns shaH considered to be end regions adjacent
to mnment re!\ll'ting connections over a minimum lengrh from the connection
Provision of special confining reinforcement in footings.
EUI- (Earthquake Resist(lflt Duign. of Structures f
\
M

Chapter 20 Ductility Conlliderations in Earthq:uake Rellieto.nt De.sign. n

) Ea_
7.4.3 When the calculated point of contra-flexure, under the effect of gravity and earthquake 7.4.5 Special confining reinforcement shall be provided over the full height ofa column, whic?
loads, is not within the middle half of the member clear height, special confining has significant variation in slifJness along its height. This variation in stiffness may reswt
reinforcement shall be provided o~er the full height of the column. due to the presence of bracing, a mezzanine floor or a R.C.C. wall on either side of the
column thar extends only over a part of the column height.
Possible Explanations:
This provision was added to provide reasonable protection and ductility to the mid Possible Explanation:
Due to presence of bracing, a mezzanine floor or a R.C.C. or infill waH on either side
height of columns between transverse reinforcement. Post-earthquake observations
have shown significant damage to columns in the non confined region. with the of the column, the effective height of the column has reduced. The shear required to
develop flexural yield in the effectively shortened column is substantially higher than
minimum required ties or spirals providing a more uniform toughness of the column
shear required developing flexural yield of full-length column. If the deSigner has not
along its length
considered this effect, shear failure may occur before flexural yield resulting 1n fail
The eccentricity in the point of contra-flexure would result in additional shear load,
as the nonnal confming reinforcemenl shall be based on the calculation of point of in brittle manner
contra flexure being within the middle half of the members clear height
7.4.4 Columns supporting reactions from discontinued stiff members. such as walls, shall be
provided with special confining reinforcement over their full height. This reinforcement
shall also be placed above the discontinuity for at least the development length of the
largest longitudinal bar in the column. Where the column is supported on a wall, this
reinforcement shall be provided oVer the full height of the column; it shall also be
provided below the discontinuity for ,he same development length.
Possible Explanations:
Columns supporting discontinued stiff members, such as walls or trusses, may
develop considerable inelastic response. Therefore~ it is required that these columns
have special transverse reinforcement throughout their length .
This covers all columns beneath the level at which the stiff member has been
discontinued, unless the factored forces corresponding to earthquake effect are low

Development
leogtbof~ ~ (I), (2), (3) and (4) relatively stiffcolumtls-they attract parge seismic shear force,
longitudinal bar""l Column with varying stiffness.
-'--
7.4.6 The spacing of hoops u.led as special confining reinforcement shall not exceed 114 of
min;mum member dimen.vion but need not be less than 75 mm nor more lhan 100 mm.

Sptrial conflning reinforcement requirement for column under discontinued walls.
Possible Explanations:
The requirement of minimum spacing is to obtain adequate .co.ncrete confine~t
and the requirement. the spacing does not exceed 100 mm is mtended to restraIn
longitudinal reinfm:cement buckling after spalling . .
The limitation has been guided by tests to provide adequately umform confimng
stresS to the column core
7.4.7 The area of cross section, AJ./v of the bar forming circular hoops or spiral, to be used as
special confining reinforcement shall nat be less than
 eM l!arthquake Reai.atant Design 0/ StructU1'1l$

reinforcement required at the end of the column. The spacing of hoops shall not exceed
A" = 0.09 SD, h, [.-A:.t _I} 150 mm..
!y lA,
Possible Explanation:
whe:e, .ASh ;;;;:; area of the bar cross section. S "'" pitch of spiral or spacing of hoo s
Dk - dlameler of core measured to the outside of the s iral or h . 'P . The minimum transverse reinforcment required in the joint is the same as the
~o:res()'ive stren~h ofConcr.ele cube, h = yield stress:;steel (of~~:;;!i:r~:::~c:;~~~)c confinement reinforcement specified for the column ends immediate\)' a'nove or
g - gros.~ area oJ the- column Cross section and A - ,r 1 ' below the joint, eKcept that where the joint is confined by elastic beams on all 4 sides,
> k - area OJ concrete core ::;. 1t Dkl 4
these requirements may be relaxed. This is because the resl half of the confinement
PossIble Explanations:
is provided by the rigid beams framing into the vertical faces of the joint
For working out the amount of laterd.l hoops for necessary confinement a criterion
may be adopted that the load carrying the cross section of the column ' b d 9.0 Shear Walls
cq~I 10 that of (he column without sheH concre.te, Using this Criterio~;hee c~~ ~
1
~:~~~: i7:v~~ ~e !:eforming circular- hoops or a spiral llsed for confinement ~f 9.1 Generol Requirements
9.1.1 The requ.irements of this section apply to the shear walls, which are part of the lateral
e Tes: a.nd ex~rience show that columns containing the amount of spiral reinforceme force reSisting system of the structure,
exhIbit consIderable toughness and ductility nt
7A.~ Possible Explanation:
;::;,:~ o~~::;::c::::,n~:;tt O;:~h::;:.~~=g rectallgular heop, 1() be "sed as special Wall being relative stiff elements, will in general resist aU earthquake forces
9.1.2 The thickness of any part of the wall shall preferably be not less then 150 mm.
{A,A, -I}
A.,,, = 0.J8Sh/"
f,
Possible Explanations:
To avoid very thin section~ because these sections are susceptible (0 latera! instability
~~:!::/:;~:;:~:nSion Of;h; r~clangular confining hoop measured its outer face. to in zones where inelastic cyclic loading may have to be sustained
hoo d' mr:: an k - area of confined concrete COre in the rectangular To safeguard against premature out-of plane buckling in the polenlial plastic hinge
p measure to Us outside dimensions region of walls
Possible Explanations: 9.1.3 The effective flange width to be used in the design offlanged wall sections, shall be assumed
The limitation has been guided b Ih . 10 extend beyond theface of the web for a distance which shall be the smaIler of (a) half
flexural ductir ' . y e expenence and various tests to achieve high the distance to an adjacent shear wall web, and (b) 1/1(Jh of the IOtal wall height.
It) capacHy and to confine the concrete
Re~t~g~lar hoop~ are less effective in confining the column core hence 018 Possible Explanation:
mu up ymg factor In pJace of OJ)9 in circular hoops, is introduced .
~ Tests show that efrective flange width increases with increasing drift level and the
8.0 Joints of Frames effectiveness of a flange in compression differs from that of a flange in tension. The
value used for the effective compression flange width has litde impact on the strength
8.1 The speckll cOnfi . K and deformation capacity of the wall therefore to simplify design a single value of
th . - mng remJorcemenl as reqUired at the end of column shall be JTOvided effective flange width based on an estimate of the effective tension flange width is
rough the jO!m, unless rhe Joint is confined as specified by 8.2 J
used in both tension and compression
P05sib1e Explanatlons:
9.1.4 Shear wolh shall be provided with reinforcement in the longitudinal and transverse
!bis also helps resist the shear force transmitted by the [ramino membeF and directions in the plane of the walL The miniJn1Am reinforcement ratio shall be 0.0025 of
,Improves the bond between steel and concrete within the jOint e ., the gross area in each direction. This reinforcement shall be distributed uniformly across
i9 fhIs helps maintain the vert' 11 ' d ' " .
of the Ower ,hell lea oa carrymg Ci:tpaclty uf the joint even after ">;palHng the cross section of the wall.

8.2 Possib1e Explanations:

A. which has be
lOin!.
i/
, .
.f '.

co umn width may be"'y, 'd d . I h If

O.f!

at lean 314 f th amslJramtn~ tnta all verttcalfaces ofd and where each beam width The unifonn distribution requirement of the shear reinforcement is related to the
' ' / ' VVI e Will a. the special confining intent to control the width of inclined cracks
 N (
915J'fh
.
Etl'li/aqtJllke Reeistant Design of StructUre-II

t e factored shear stress in the wall exceed 0 5 I . , .

)
2()() mm, reinfoTr:ement sholl be '4 d . s.2 'if", or if the wall thICkness exceeds 9.2.3 'The nominal shear slress in the wall t, shall not exceed f,,_'as per Table 14 of [S 456:
longitudinal and transverse d' pr~vt e, In two curtains. each having bars running in the 1978.
lree/lOns In the plane 0/ the wall.
Possible Explanations; 9.2.4 When 'tV is less than fc shear reinforcement shall be provided in accordance with 9,1.4,
The Use of two curtains of reinio . 9.1.5 and 9.1.7.
deterioration of the cone te d reement wIll reduce fragmentation and premature
n 9.2.5 When fv is greater lhan fc., the area of horizontal shear reinforcement. AI!, 10 be provided
The requirement of two 1: e:: er ~yclic loa~g into the inelastic range wiThin a vertical spacing, Sl'j is given by
shears is based On the ob: ~f relhDforcement In walls canyjng substantial design
...ervatlOn t at under ordin::!nl tru' ..
probability of mainta1nin as' , . - J cons ctlOn condltlOns, the
section is quite low Furth g Ingle layer of remforcement near middle of the walJ
to inhihit fragmen~tion ~;;e' presen~ of reinforcemem close to the surface tends
earthquake e conCrete m the event of Severe cracking during an where, V.I1S ;;:: (Vii - lct. .P",). is the shear force to be resisted by the horizontal reinforcement.
9.1.6 However, the amount of horizontal reinforcement provided shalt not be less than thf'
The diameter of the bars to be 14Sed in a minimum as per 9.1.4.
IMcbless of thal part. . ny part of the wall shall not exceed 1//(1' of/he
Possible Explanation:
Possible Explanations:
Research has shown that shear behaviour of wide beams with substantial flexural
This is to prevent the use of v 1 < "
reinforcement is improved if the transverse spacing of stinup legs across the section
The maximum diameter of bars ~ ar~e dIameter bars In thm wall sections
Th'. JS reStricted to avoid the use of large bars in thin walls is reduced
9.1.7
e I'fla.XlfnUm SpaClng of reinforcemem' . It d' . 9.2.6 The venical reinforcemenl that is unifonnly distributed in the wall shall not be less than
1.15, 3t~ and 450 mm, whe I . h hom ell er lrectlon shall not exceed the smaller of
of the wall web re II' IS t e rizontallength of the wall, and tll' is the thickness the horizontal reinforcement calculated as per 9.2.5.
Possible Explanation:
Possible Explanation:
Uniform distribution of the reinforcement across the height and width of the waH
This limitation has been uided b . helps control the width of inclined cracks
concrete g y the expenence and various tests to confine the
9.3 Flexural strength
9.2 Shear Strength
9.3.1 The moment of resistance, Mul" of the wall section may be calculated as for columns
subjected to combined bending and axial load as per IS 456 1978. 'The moment of
9.2.1
The nominal shear stress "...", shall be calculated as: 'tV:;; ~ resistance of slender rectangfllar shear wall section with uniformly distributed venical
tll'd w reinforcement is given in Annex A.
where, Vu := factored shear force t = th' Possible Explanations:
wall section. This may be taken} 1'<08 ,lCkness of the web, and d w = effective depth (if
, as . 10> for rectangular sectlons, These equatjons were derived assuming a rectangular waH section of depth /w and
PossIble Explanation: thickness t"" that is subjected to combine uniaxial bendjng and axial compression
The nominal shear strength of the sectio ' . Two equations are given for calculating the flexure strength of the section. Their use
provided by concrete and 'h ' n IS computed wah the nomina) shear strength depends on whether the section fails jn flexure tension or in flexure compression
, ear reInforcement
9.2.2 The design sh.ear strength of con.c (Medhekar and lain. 1993)
1978. rete t, shall be calculated as per Table 13 of IS 456: 9.3.2 The cracked flexural strength of the wall section should be greater 1han its uncracked
flexural strength.
Possible Explanation:
The shear carr,'ed bY .. Poss.ible Explanations:
I,ue concrete is affected . , '1 '
and the ratio of the Jon.1tudi I pnman y by the COncrete tenslle strength '" Applicable to those wall sections which, for architectural or other reasons, are mucb
0" na steel Jarger in cross section than requjred from strength consideration alone
To prevent a brittle failure involving sudden fracture of the tension reinforcement

I
.J

9.3.3 In walls that do not have boundary elements, vertical reinforcement shall be concentrated
at the end of the wall. Each concentration shall consist of a minimum of 4 bars of 12
mm di.ameter arranged in at least 2 layers.
POSlsible Explanation:
Cha.ptcr 20 Du.ctility Con.siderotions in Earthquake Resistant Dengn. .. )
that is required to be developed in the boundary element for this purpose. is given
by (M, - Mw) . Th u,
s the boundary element should be designed as a short column

Concentrated ver<ical reinforcement near the edges of the wall is mOre effective in
resisting bending moment
for an a~;lload equal lolhe sum of the above axial compressioll aTIll. the gT?'ii.l~ \\)atl
on it
9.4 Boundary Element 9.4.3 if the gravity load adds to the strength of tM wall, its load factor shall be taken as 0.8.
Boundary elements are portions along the wall edges that are strengthened h.Y longitu- Possible Explanation: .
dinal and transven-e reinforcement. Though they may have the same thickness as that of Moderate axiaJ compression results in higher :noment capaCIty of the wall. H nce. the
the wall web, if is advantageous to provide them with greater thickness. beneficial effect of axial compression by gravIty loads should not be fully rehed upon
7
Possible Explanations: in deSign due to the possible reduction in its magnitudes by vertlcal acceleranons

To consider the factor of safety as these boundary element carry all the vertical forces 9.4.4 Th en::emage of vertical reinforcement in the boundary eiements shall not ~ less than
at the critical wall section. when the maximum horizontal earthquake force act on the O.;!:er cent, nor greater than 6 per cent. In order to void congestion. the practIcal upper
wall limit would be 4 per cent.
WaH sections having stiff and well confined boundary e)eIilents which develop 9.4.5 Boundary elements, where required, as per 9.4.1 shall be provided throughout their
substantial flexural strength, are less susceptible to lateral buckling, and have better height, with special confining reinforcement. as per 7.4
shear strength and ductility in comparison to plane rectangular walls not having stiff
and well confined boundary elemem, Boundary elements need not be provided, if the entire wall section is provided, with
special confining reinforcement as per 7A.
9.4,1 Where the extreme fibre compressive stress in the wall due to factored gravity loads plus
factored earthquake farce exceeds 0.2f"". boundary elements shall be provided along th, Possible Explanation: .
vertical boundary of walls. The boundary elements may be diScontinued where the The load reversals impose severe demand compression o~ the concrete In boundary
calculated compressive stress becomes less than 0.15fd:' The compressive stress shall be element hence the confining reinforcement shaH be reqUIred
calculated using a linearly elastic model and gross section propenies.
9.5 Coupled Shear Walls
Possible Explanation:
9.5.1 Coupled shear walls shall be connected by ductile coupling beams. if the earthqUilke
During severe earthquake, tbe flanges of a waIl are subjected to high COmpressive and
tensile stress reversals. Hence. the concrete needs to be wen confined so as to sustain
, beam excee d f.. -'-V--,
induced shear streSS in the coupling OJIsfj; where I, is the dear span
the load reversals without a large degradation in strength
9.4.2 A boundary element shall have adequo.te axial load carrying capacity, assuming shori of the coupling beam and D is its overall depth. the .en/ire earthquake induced shear and
column. action, so as to enable it to carry an axial compression equal to the sum offactored f!exu," shall. preferabl>, be resisted by diagonal It?lnforcement
gravity load on it and the additional compressive load induced by the seismic force. The Possible Explanation: . .
lauer may be ca Icuiatcd as: ~ (M _M,) _"'_ Cou led shearwall of limited ductility shall be connected by ductJie couplmg beams.
. C'", COu~ling
beams must have large ductility as they are subjected to extenSIve l.n~as:
where, M" =:; factof"('d design moment on the entire wall section . ."1//1' ;; moment of defonnations at their ends. In fOuch coupling beams the entire earthquake m uc
resistance provided by distribut('d vertu'al reinforcement across the wall sec/ion. C = shear and flexure shall be resisted by diagonal reinforcement unless the eartlJquake
renter;o Centfr di'ilanc(' between the bou.ndary efement,~ along fhe two vertical edges of
w

the fi'uli. . OJ1,fj;

induced shear stress IS less than D
Possihle EXpiaoJHion:
9.5.2 The arl~a oj rdnforcement to be provided along each dialional in (J diagonally reinforced
~ The boundary' cleme-nl is assumed to be effective in resisting the design moment due
[0 earthquake jnduced fon:e"i along with the web of the wall. The axial comprc';;''ijon . beam sha 11 b e.. A uI -- 1.74 j~
V"sin a ' where, Viol is the fanored shear force, and Ct
i..:ouplmg

1
 EM ( Earthquake Resistant Design of Struct'U~8 "

is the a~gle made by the diag~nal reinforcement with the horizontal. At least 4 bars of 9.8 Construction JoinJs
8. mm drGmeter shall be provlded along each diagonal. The reinforcement along each
d,~gonal shall. be enclosed by special confining reinjorcement, as per 7.4, The pitch of The vertical reinforcement ratio across a horizontal construction joint shaJl not be less
spIral or spacmg of lies shall not exceed 100 mm.
Possible Explanation: than, 0.92
I,
(r v - Pu ) where,
A,
1;. is the factored shear stress a1 fhe join.!, P If is (he jactored

The desjgn~ of a diagonally reinforced coupling beam is based on the assumption that
axialjorce (positive for compressionj, andAg is the gross cross sectional area oj the join.!.
the sh~ar torce resojves jtself into diagonal compression and tension force, these
forces Inter~t each other at midspan where no moment is to be resisted. Thus the Possible Explanation:
shear force Will be equal to (2T, sinal, where T. ~ 0.87 i, A,d' The diagonal bar; that The design shear force at the joint must be less than the shear force that can be safely
a~ to compresslOn need to be restrained against buckling. Hence. special confininl! transferred across the joint, Vj. The calculated shear friction concept is given by Vj
reinforcement has. to be provided an along their length '"' = 1'l.0.8P, + 0.87/,A,), where, J1 is the coefficient of friction al the joint (J1 = 1.0).
9.5.3 T1 d' a! . and Av is the area of vertical reinforeement available. To account for the possible
1e Ul~on or hanl.ontal bars of a coupling beam shall be anchored in the adjacent
effects of vertical acceleration, the axial load is taken as O.8Pt' instead of P<I its.elf
wol/s wl1h an ancho~oge in the adjacent walls with an anchorage length of 1. 5 times Ihe
developmem length In tension 9.9 Develupment, Splice ami Anchorage Requirement
Possible Explanation: 9.9.1 HorizontaJ reinforcement shall be anchored near the edges of the wall or in the c(lnfined
This, jncre~se In development length is to consider the adverse effect of reversed eore of the boundary elements.
cyclIc Joadmg on the anchorage of a group of bars Possible Explanations:
9.6 Openings in Walls Horizontal reinforcement acts as web reinforcement for reSisting the sbear force.
9.6.1 Hence it should be well anchored
The shear strength of a wall with openings should be checked along critical planet that
pass through openings. ' The capacity of the beam is developed by embedment in the column and within the
compression zone of the beam on the far side of the connection
Possible Explanation:
9.9.2 Splicing oj verticalflexural reinforcement should be avoided, Q,'I far as possible, in regions
;:, opening i~ a.shear waH causes high shear stresses in the region of the wall adjacent where yielding may take place, This zone offlexural yielding may be considered 10 extend
.tt. Hence, !t,lS necessary to check such regions for adequacy of horizontal shear for a distance of I.,." above lhe base of the wall or one sixth of the wall height, whichever
remforcemem In order to prevent diagonal tension faiJure due 10 shear is more. However. this distance need not be greater than 21"" Not more than one third oj
9.6.2 this verIical reinforcement shall be spliced al such a section. Splices in adjacent bars
Reinforcement shall be provided along the edges of openings in walls. The area oj the
~enical and horizontal bars should be such as it is equal 10 that of the re ..pectiw: should be staggered by a minimum of 600 mm.
~nterruPled bars. The ver1ical bars should extend for the full storey height. The h~rizontal 9.9.3 Lateral lies shall be pmvided ar9und lapped spliced bars that are larger [han 16 mm in
ars ~should be provided with development length in tension beyond the sides of the diameter. The diamefer of the tie shall not be less than one jourth oj the spliced bar nor
openmg. .
less than 6 mm. The spacing oj ties shall not exceed 150 mm center TO cenlre.
POs.sible Explanation:
Possible Explanation:
Reinforcement shaH prevent crack propagation The splicing is not allowed in regions of potentia] plastic hinging :-.ince su(;h spIkes
9.7 Discontinuous Walls are not considered to be reliable under reversed Ineiastic cycles of deformation unless
each spliced bar is confined by stirrup ties
Columns supporfing dis('ontinuou.f walls shall be provided wifh ,\'PN'ial confining
'einforcemenl as per 7.4.4. 9.9.4 Welded splices and mechanical connections shall confirm to 25,2.5.2 of 1S 456: 1978.
However; not morf than halfthe reinforcement shall he spliced at a section, "".;her;! flexural
Possible Explanation:
yielding may take place.
Column ~lJPportjng dhcontinued shear walls may be subjeL:ied to significant axial
Possible ExpJanation:
co~presslOn and may have to undergo extensive inelastic deformations. Hence they
nC'd1 In be adequately confined QVC'r their full height to ensure good ductility The location of welding splices j1'; restricted because tensile slrcsse~ in reinforcement
in yieldjng regions cannot exceed the strength re<Juiremenl

1
 )
SUMMARY
Ductility is one of the main attributes for earthquake reslstanl design of structures. To make
reinforced concrete structures sufficientEy ductile, various provisions are stipulated in the code
IS 13920: 1993 emitled "Duclile Delailin.g of Reinforced Con.crete Structures Subjected 10
Chapter 21
Seismic Forces". These proviSIons are related to the anchorage and splices of longitudinal
reinforcernent, spacjng. anchorage, and splicing of lateral reinforcement, speclaJ confining
reinforcement at the potential plastic hinge region, minimum size requirements for tlexural.
arial member etc. The ductile detailing requirement in shear wall is also discussed. The chapter
Earthquake Resistant
deals with 'he imponance of ductility and a clause - by clause explanation of IS 13920; 1993
so that one can understand and appreciate Its importance.
Design of a Four-storey
REFERENCES RC Building Based on
[I J ACl 3 I 8M 99JJ 18RM-99, Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete
(3]8M~99) and Commentary (318RM-99)", American Concrete Institute, Farmingmn
IS 13920: 1993
HHls, Michigan.
[2] Bertero, V.v.. Anderson, I.C, K .... winkler. H., Miranda, E., et aI., "Design GUldelioes
for Ductility and Drift Limits", Report No. UCBIEERC-9ili5, Earthquake Engineering
Research Center, Univensity of California. 1991.
!3J Bertero, V.V., "Implication of Recent Earthquakes and Research on Earthquake
Resistant Design and Construction of Buildings", Report No. UCBIEERC-86103,
E.nhquake Engineering Research Center, University of California, 1986. 21.1 INTRODUCTION
[4) Eurocode 8, "Design of Structures for Earthquake Resistance-Part 1: General Rules,
Seismic Actions and Rules for Buildings", CEN, (2002). In this chap.er, a detailed design of a four-storeyed office building having a regular layout
[5J Englekirk, RE., Seismic Design. of Reinforced and Precast Concrete Buildings, John which can be djvided into a number of similar vertical frames. has .bec~ conSidered to di~strab
Wiley & Sons, 2003, the anal sis and design of a frame. Only one frame in transverse dlJ'ectJon has been conslde~e(
16J IS 13920, Ductile Detailing of Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Seismic for anal;sis and design. A standard computer program on a personnel computer h~s
been came(
Forces", Edition 1.2, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, 2002"()3. out for the analysis. The design is carried out according to IS 13920.: 1993 followmg the IS 456
[7J Machida, A., Moehle, I., Pinto, P. and Matsumoto, N., "Ductility Consideration for 2000 and SP 16: 1980. The detailing of reinforcement at level 2 In .he frame conSIdered ha.
Single Element and for Frame Structures", Proceedings of Comparative Performance of been presented.
Seismic Design Codes for Concrete Structures, Vol. 1, T Tanabe (Ed.), E1sevier
Science, 1999.
[8J Machida, A., Moehle, J., Pin.o, p, Park, R. and Niwa, I., "Detailing Considera.ion", 21.2 PRELIMINARY DATA FOR EXAMPLE FRAME
Proceedings oj Comparative Performance 0/ Seismic Design Codes for Concrefe
Structures, Vol. I, 1'. Tanabe (Ed.), Elsevier SCience, 1999. The floor plan of a typical puhlic-cum-office huilding is shown in Figure. 21.1 ..The plan is regula
[9J Medhekar, M.S. and Jain, S.K .. "Seismic Behaviour Design and Detailing of RC Shear in nature in the sense that it has aU columns equally placed. Thus, entIre bUJldm~ s:.ace fr;~:
Walls. Part I: BehaviOUr and Strength", indian Concrete Journal, Vol. 67, No.7, can be djvided inro a numher of vertical frames. An interior frame 4-~ as shown m 19ure ..
Pp. 311-318, 19H
is t.:onsidered for nnJlysis and dc~!gn. Following are some of the salIent features of the fram!
i lOJ Medhekar, M.S. and lain, S.K. "Seismic Behaviour Design and Detailing of RC
Sbear Walls, Pan II: Design and Detailing". Indian Concrere Journal, Vol, 67, No.9, J. Type of structure Multi-storey rigid jointed frame
Pp. 451-457, 1993. 2. Zone IV
iJ IJ Nacim, Fanad, The Seismic Design Handl,aok, 2nd cd. Kluwcr Academic Publisher, 3. Layout As shown in Figure 21. 1
The Netherlands, 2001. 4. Number of stories Four (G + 3) as shown in Figure 21.2
,12] NZS 3101, CflnCrete Slruclures Standard Pan l-The Design of Concrete Struclures. 5, Ground "orey heigh' 4.0 m
ScanduJ'ds New Zealand, Paercwa Aotearoa, J995. 6, Aoor-to-Iloor heigh. 3.35 m
37J
 300 x 530 mm
14. Size of exterior column
300)( 300 mm
IS, Size of interior column
n n n ~ n n -, n n r n ~ 16. Size of beams in longitudinal
jJ ll-' q.i lW lj-l t.:J l iJ LlJ 1iJ [I-' T and transverse direction 300 x 450 mm
4.6m 17. Total depth of slab 120 mm

--.:

..;.,
r
-.
.
. j..J
+
2.:'m 21.3 LOADING DATA
[
T I-' t
4 .6m
Dead Load (DL)
Terrace water prootlng (TWf) = 1.5 kNlm'
Live Load (LL)
Roof =
Earthquake Load (EQ)
1.5 kN/m' a" = (ZJ2) (Sb l g)(IIR)
Live load on floor Z = 0.24 (Zone IV)
[iJ rh r!l m ,rh h rh rh ;:t] _I Floor Finish (FF) = 0.5 kN/m'
= 3.5 kNlm' S.lg = 2.5', I = 1.0.
LJ LJ Y c..' I I LJ U
4<011j R = 5.0 (SMRF)
11 @3.7~4Q.7Qm _ - - -----~ Weight of slab a" (0.24/2) x (2.5) x
25 D kNlm', where D is total depth of slab (1.015.0) ; 0.06
FIGURE 21.1 Typical plan of the building,
T = 0.09 hl-id
(Assume total depth of slab = 120 rom) = 0.09 (14.05)1";11.50
0) I @-r-:--B @-,
L~ ~! G
r::I ; 0.372
I' 12S""""', I I Weigh' of walls
~I
I 4 I
~i L:::...J
G 3.35 m External walls (250 mm thick)

10 01' @+
I"

' For T= 0.372

. ~ 5 kN/mlmeter height (20 @ 0.25) S,lg ~ 2.5' (from IS
\.:J I .,' -,
Level 4
9 14)+1-==--- Internal walls 150 mm thick 1893 (Part I): 2002)
~-0 ~ 3 kNlmlmeter height (20 @ 0.15)
, [2]1 I~ L::..J
3J5m

1---=,=2=0-I.....
,I
CD 110 ,~.~ 21.4 ANALYSIS OF SUB-FRAME 4-4
21.4.1 Dead Load AruUYsis
i ~ G ~
-1~vei ~~_ (2) I'," 300 x 450 7 300 x 450 300 x 450 ' ; DL at roof !ev.l
DL at floor level
~ 12 Weight of slab
Weight of slab = 25 D = 25 x 0.12 ~ 3,0 kNlm'
,,--:ltLL2..J L-;-~ 0' [ J
300X530-'"
G !~ 4,00m
= = =
25 D 25 x 0.12 3.0 kNlm'
Weight of finishe., = F.F + T.W,F.
Weight of tlnishes (F.f) ; 0.5 kNlm'

level I
~
'0 D
0.J /300 x 300 @ 30n x 300 @ 1
300 x
530
= 0.5 + 1.5 = 2.0 kNlm'
Total weight; 3.5 kNlm'
Total weight = 5.0 kNlm'
/' (:-:, . -J' '":>' /;' //:\;;;7 ~~~y /~; ~/:/(-/~-'.' I;: ;0 h c/5/' "./ .4> . j ;~~/ Total weight on beam CI-C5
C5 C5 Cl Total weigh! on beam C] C5
Tributary floor area on beam CI-C5
FlGtJRE 21.2 Detail of (rame 4-4. Tributary floor area on beam CI-C5 ; 0.5 )( (0.9 + 4.6) x 1.85 x 2 ; 10.175 m'
= 0.5 x (0.9 + 4.6) x 1.85 x 2 = 10.175 m'
Slab weighl on beam CI-C5
7. External walls 25~) mm thick induding plaster Slab weight on beam CIC5
g lntwmal wa!i~;
= 3.5 x 10.175 ; 35.62 kN
I SO mm thick includin u plaster = 5 x 10.175 = 50.875 kN Weight on beam CI-C5 per meter
9. Live load 3.5 kNlm' b Weight on beam CI-C5 per meter
= 35.6214.6 = 7.74 kN/m
'0. M<lterial~ M 20 and Fe 415 = 50.875/4,6 ; 11.05 kNlm
Self-weight of beam
11. Seismic analysis Equivalent static method (IS 1893 (palt I): 20(2) Self-weight of beam = 25 x 0.30 x (0,45 - 0.10) 2.625 kNlm
I2. Design philosophy L,m!! 'late method confonning to IS 456: 1978 = 25 x 0,30 x (0.45 - 0.10) = 2,625 kNlm
J 3, Duclifjty dc!-:ign lS D920: 1993

TOlal weighT on beam C I C5
= 11.05 + 2.625 = 13.684 kN/m
Total weighf on beam C5-C5
Tributary floor area on beam C5~C5
= 0.5 x 2.3 x l.15 X 2 = 2.645 m2
TOtal weight on heam C5C5
5 x 2.645 = 13.225 kN
Weight on hcam C5-C5
= 13.22512.0 = 5.75 kN/m
Self-weight of beam
= 25 x 030 x (OA5 _. 0.10) = 2.625 kN/m
Tl.l1al weight on beam C5-CS
= 5.75 + 2.625 = 8.375 kN/m
The dead loads On various beams and columns in the frame are shown in Figure 21.3.
13,684 kN/m
,111111111111
Weight of walls
= 20 x 0.l5 X (3.35 - 0.45) = 14.50 kN/m
Total weight on beam CJ-C5
= 7.74 + 14.50 + 2.625 = 24.86 kN/m
TOlal weight on beam C5-C5
Tributary floor area on hcam C5-CS
= 0.5 x 2.3 x 1.l5 x 2 = 2.645 m2
Total weight on beam C5-C5
= =
3.5.x 2.645 9.2575 kN
Weight on beam C5-C5
= 9.257512.3 4.025 kNlm
Self-weight of beam
;, 25 x 0.30 x (0.45 - 0.10) = 2.625 kNlm
Weight of walls
= 20 x 0.15 x (3.35 - 0.45) = 14.50 kN/m
Total weight on beam C5-C5
= =
4.025 + 2.625 + 14.50 21.15 kN/m
8375 kNlm 13.684 kNlm
Chapter 21 Eo.rthqu~ke Buistant Df!~ign 0/ a .FOUT'-8tOrey Be Building". J Wi
21.4.2 Live (Imposed) Load Analysis
LL at jlaor kvel
LL at roof level Weight of Jive load = 3.5 kNlm'
Weight of live load; 1.5 kNlm'
Total weight on beam Cl-e5
Total weight on beam C} C5
Trihutary floor area on heam CI-C5
Tributary floor area on beam Cl~C5
= 0.5 x (0.9 + 4.6) x 1.85 x 2 10.175 m'
0.5 x (0.9 + 4.6) x 1.85 x' 2 = 10.175 m' Total weight on hcam Cl-C5
Total weight on heam CI-C5
= 3.5 x 10.175 = 35.62 kN
= 1.5 x 10.175 = 15.265 kN
Total weight on beam ClC5
Tota! weight on beam ClC5
35.6214.6 = 7.74 kNlm
15.26514.6 = 3.32 kNlm
Total weight on beam C5C5
Total weight on beam C5C5
Tribut.ary floor area on beam CS-C5
Tributlll"'l floor area on heam C5-C5
= 0.5 x2.3 x 1.lS x 2 = 2.645 m'
= =
0.5 x 2.3 x 1.15 x 2 2.645 m'
Total weigh! on heam C5-C5
Total weight on heam C5-C5
= 3.5 x 2.645 = 9.2575 kN
= 1.5 x 2.645 = 3.9675 kN
Total weight on beam C5-C5
Total weight on beam C5C5
= 9.257512.3 = 4.025 kN/m
= 3.9675/2.3 = 1.725 kN/m
The live loads on various beams. and columns in the frame are shown in Figure 21.4.
3.32 kNlm
~rnu.3~2 fulJ.lj~1i1.7~5DkNmlmDm
~
iikNimIl'

2l.!S kNlm 7.74 kNim

\ 7.74 kN/m 400 kN/m

fIDll
24.H6 kl\Jrn 21.15 kN/m 24.86 kNIm
I 7.74 kNim ,tOO kNirn
7.74'kN/m

til

:;U5k~/m 24.S6 kNlm 7,74kN!m

7.74 k::-J/m 4.00kN/m

.1".
FIGURle 21.3 I)ead ],oad on Frame 4~4 (kN/m). FIGLRE 21.4 Live Iad on Frame 4-4 (kNlm).
 Wi- ( Earth.quake Re;ri~iant De{(ign oj Structures
21.4.3 Earthquake Load Analysis
Delermination of IOIaI base shear
Qi (kN)
D.ail load [J,'. load
(a) Weight of floor i.e. (W, + FF) (1 ) (6)
Live Joad on roof == Zero
= 40.70 x 11.50 x (3.0 + 0.5) = 1638.175 kN
Live load on floors
Roof (LevelS) 5,074 14,05 1001.62 0.452 56.50
(0) Weight of roof i.e. (W, + TWF + FF) Tbird Fioor (Level 4) 6.578 10,70 753,16 0.34 42,50
= 50% 'Of 3.5 kN/rn" = 1.75 kN/m'
= 40.70 x 11.50 X (3.0 + 1.5 + 0.5) Total live load on each floor
Second Floor (Level .3) 6,578 7.35 355.36 0.16 20,00
= 2340.25 kN First Floor (Level 2) 6,022 4.00 105.95 0.048 6.00
(e) Weight of peripheral beams (Transve"e) Ground floor (Levell) 0.00
={2(4.6 - = 40,70 X 11.50 x 1.75 =819,08 kN ---
0.4512 - 0.312) x 2.625) x 2 + z: = 2216.04 r::= 1,0
{I (2.3 - 0.3012 - 0,3/2) x 2625} x 2 = 54.86 kN
Concentrated mass
(d) Weigh! of peripheral beams (Longitudinal) The seismic loads (sway to left) and (sway to rjght) on [he considered frame are shown
At roof = (b + c + d + e + f/2 + g +
= {II(3.7 - 0.3012 - 03/2) x 2.625} x 2 in Figures 21.5 and 21.6 respectively.
= 196.35 k."I h + il2 + j x 3,3512 + k x 3,3512) + 0,0
(e) Weight of parapet wall (1.0 m height,
=
5074.98 kN ------i----l
L -t '
150 mm thick)
, i I
=2 x (40.70 + 11.50) x 1,0 x 3 =313.20 kN
(f) Weigh! of external wall (thickness
At 2nd and 3rd floor
(8
=:

+ C + d + f + g + h + j + (j + k)
__l __ I
of wall 250 mm) 42.50kN
3.35) + 819.08 = 6578,95 kN
= 20 x 0,25 x (20.9 + 74,8) x
--~
(3.35 _ 0,45)
= 1387,65 iN
. -r--- .
(g) Interior beams (Transverse)
At I" floor =(a + e + d + f + g + h +
= H2 x 4,225 + 2,0) x 2,G2S} x II
= 27432 kN i + (j + k) (3.35 + 4,0) 0,5) + 819,08
I

(h) Interior beams (Longitudinal)
= {(3.7 - 0.3) x 2,625 x II} x 2
(il Weight of interior wall (thickness
Length (Transverse)
={(4.6 - 0.45/2 - 0.312) x 2
= 104,5 m
Length (Longitudinal)
= {(3,7 a,}) x 11 x 2) = 74,8 m
Height = 3,35 - 0.45 =
2,90 m
Weight = 20 x OJ5 x (1045 + 74,8) x 2,90
= 1559.91 k~
(j) Weight of extetior co\umniheight
= 2 x 12 x U..lO x 0,53 x 25 = 95,4 kN/m
(k) Weight of imerior column/height
2 x 12 x 0.30 x 0.30 x 25 = 54 kN/m
iT-T---~---J
= 6622,8() kN I
= 196.35 kN
= 150 mm), Total weight = 5074.98 + 2 X
6578.95 + 6622.80 = 24855.69 kN
+ (2.3-03 x 10
'/,'f7{:;; <,N','
Total base shear
Fj~URE 21.5 Equivalent static lateral load Figure 21.6 Equivalent static lateral load
= (X,. x W = 0.06 x 24855,69 (sway t,o left) on Frame 44 in kN. (sway to rigbt) on Frame 4-4 in k~.
= 1491.34 kN
21.5 LOAD COMBINATIONS
Base shear in each frame
. , t for Dead Load (DL), Live Load or Imposed Load (lL) and
= 1491.34112 = 125 kN The analysIS has been earned ou . . ns i e swa to left (+EL) and sway to fight (-ELI
Earthquake Load (EL) In both the dlreCtl . ',' f tYhe above case" has hcen made according
d d t
by a stan ar enmpu er p
rogram The com bmatlon 0
. . . 11 bJ ~ 21 1 The member forces for tea ave
. h h
to Clause 6,3 of IS 1893 (Part I): 2002 as gIven In a c ,.
load comhinations are given in Tahle 21.2.
 (
TABLE 21.1 Load combinations
TABLE 21.2 Conld.
Load case , ,
cases Member
I
Node Forces I U>aJ' Load Load 1 Lwd ! I.mui Load I
Load
c~c~
,i
!
case 2 case 3 : case 4 i CA~e 5 case 6 ' case 7
1
)5 (DL + II.) M.
! ~o_ 1
:>-
1.2 (DL + IL + EL)
I Axial
Shear i
' +362.6
+7.24.
294.4
40.25
1 285.7 I 293.0 (2821
I -28.61 i 48.39 \ -:11.10
172.4
46AIl
16)5
-3~.ffi

~',
4 1.2 (DL + IL - BL)
)5 (DL + EL) 6 ! Moment +12.60.1 68.1 -47.86 I 81.79 I -63.15 7832 -66.63
5
6
1.5 (DL - EL)
0.9 DL + 1.5 EL
i Axial
i Shear
i -362.6
- 7.24
i -294.4
--40.25
I -28S.7 1 -293.0
28.62 _48.39
i -282.1 ,-172.4
I
1- 16 )5
39.69
7
DL 1.5 Moment i +11.64 66.74 -48.02 80.32 -66.32
8 Axial 1 +215.4 174.1: 170.4 174.1 97.60
Shear +6.36 32.82 I -22.60 39.29 -~1.69
7 -,_+-M_o-:.rn-:c_"n~+'.~,64! 54.69 --:~:::7-.5-:S-l--:-6;::5-A-:5-+!:--4:-:9-.8:-5-'-:c62:-.6-+---.5--2.-:7-:0_
1.. __
I 9 AXIal -215.4 '=i74Ji
-1 ,OA -174.1 :-169.5 1-102.2 -non
. ___ I : Shear . -6.36 I -32.82 I noo 30.00 i -37.6 31.69
_ ~ Moment -50,64 i 63.34 -53.46

+7.18 36.75 -25.20 i -33.04

Axial +512.2 390.7 428.8 381.3 428.9 211.2 258.9
Shear -2.82 18.29 -22.%1 23,60 -27.77 2438 -26.99
9 Moment -3.75 38.83 i --44.85 49.53 I -55.08 SO.57 I -54.03
12 Axial -512.2 _428.8 -38l.3 , -258.9
Shear +2.82 -23.6(1 26.99
Moment i -53.91
12 172.4
_46.40
10 -12.6 63.10 -78.32

1-". ~l72A
-362.6 , -285.7 -294.4 -282.1 :-293.0 l-i61,5 I'

.~..- ....-t-..,.~.-+-:-c~
~ -M'
Moment,--:=-:---+-",;";:4:;8.-:2_1-::66 7:h6~8(>:3 2 .
~" -';~ i .w 66.32. -77.13
"'0

11
Axial
Shear
170.4
22.6
I-:'c-J..-==-~--;cc;-;.--r'''-.
Moment -10.64 I +'
372'
: 174.1
-32.831'
'

-54~69 .._~~.!:,_.
1695
30.00
I' 174.1
..3929
-65.45
97.60 102.2
31.69 I ..37.6
i 52.70 I' --62.6
Axia] -215.4 -liOA -174.1 -1695 1-174.1 i ..
97.60 -102.2
Shear +636 ..22.6 32.R3-30.00. 39.29 I -31.69 37.6
i Moment -10.65 38.14 -55.30 5064 ""'f>:!2.J.. 53.~. -63.34
14 Axilll +69.04 5245 57 98 5148 6039 1 2986 I 3677
Shear -4.82 1420 -219' 1 1889 -2630 I I 20.23 ' -2496
12 Moment -8.97 2237 -3679 3024_~_::~::~20_~32'6m-412~
15 Axial -69.04 -52.4< , -<7.981 -53.48 i -60 39 -29.86 -3677
1 Shca~ <4.82 ~~420' 2195 -1889 I 26~O -202'), 2496
_L_ Mumen! __ _3'
_~-7.IH ~ _-l~ .. 31 ~L44 3" 35.08 _4235
COUld
 .M,. ( Earthquake Re$tstant Design of St'l'1kcttl1'eS

TABLE 21.2 Contd.

TABLE 21.2 Contd.
Member! Node! Forces
riO. 1%Q.
Loan
case I
Laad
case 2
Laad
case 3
1
i
Loan
case 4
M{~mher
no.
I Node
,
na.
I Forces Load
case)
l- Wadi.
case 2
Laad
case 3
1
!
wad
case ~, case 5
Load
6
Laad?

221.8 475.6
I B4.2 2S'14~'34 1
,
3 Axial -;:;:96120:38 6. 94 24.52
13 1 -44.16
-138.2
77.88
203.3 I Shear +12Ll ! 59:42
1'

4,556 139,] I' K58 I, !L2.1

,7.72

ZO ,'toment +96.05 -32.07. 185.3 -6:c.6~ 209~__ 92.2 ~_,I..79_5_

I -221.8 1-475.6 '-- .~.~ -~--~i-~-94---t--=2..'U4 -834! -24.52 I -7,72
44.16 -77.88 1, 8 Axial
- 1.96 -20.38 1 -;;. 1 ' 7 I 94 3' , 0.85
-38.49 108.2
Shear +103.8 120 ')0
H 45.74 1..6.0 , 32.4 ".. I 53.36
, 168.1
Moment -56.31 -W8.5 :, 18.23.1::l22 .3 36'],1 ~~~ ~-'--~.. -~--
333.6
12,97 12.97 16.04 15,~~ ! j 5,7~
14 -12.53 69.56 Axial +1.08
I 16,04 1
-132.9
-168.1' -333.6
J2.~3 -59.56
IW.9
21
1-,
1'-'
Shear
Mument
Axial
+43.42
+34.(12,
-I.OS
-0,24
1 -12.92
_12,97
69,56

I -12.97~
-7.14
6735 1 -23.46
80.! 1
76.88
-16.04
~24.",
-34.67
-i5.71
I
T~71'
63.0S
65.66

69.56 I
1
-O.2~ 30.10 -7.14 6:t03 , -24,] 6
-2869 122.2 ShC1lf
+43.42 .~4,67 I
I +185.5 I Moment -34.02 -<l7.3~.'2:.92 ~ 76.8 23.40 ----I~ __
-()5.M

f
I Axial 187.9 95.56 lJ6.3 I 37.36
.-.~~ i11
13-~ tA;i;
Axlal- ---
+1.96 694 20.38 834 25.14 t--. 7.72 24.52
i 94.35
/ She", . +28.63 54.45 -17.99 52.45 1- .
15
19
Moment
Axial
+47.18 78.40 -1535 7235
26 76
-29.fl7
ll~:;n~PI.96
+~~~~1 I
45.74
-18.23 I 1205
1085
32.47
-36.11
126.0
1223
D.K5
i
53.36
i ~~~:2
.__.~.L i Shear
Moment!
--185.5 , -187.9
-28.61 -54.45
+48.74 , 104
I 17.99
-95.56 1-JJ6.3
..
-524,
-37.36
26.76
22
. 18 1 Axial -694
114,2
I 2038
59.42
834
139.1
::zs:J4~7. 72
45.56 102.1
R58

I ~r+63.51
i9-r
' Shear
63.71
+29.51 i/
37.74 I 68.16
1

35.70
-26.49
473
,

i
] 18.2 1-4490
I
I 103.4 ,

,
-59.78
14.83
Shear

~:I:~8-.o'8~
+12L1
96 as
I -IS
' 53 ~
' " 07
~i- 15 07 1
6263 -179.5
.(..::-2::0'C9.:.:.0:.,....+-~.::;:;..
92.20
+,;;;;,I"'-7s-
!::~1
I
39.38 1 4 f34 4210 18.01 42,85:
i
ho-HM~ment
43.21 .,
5292~~._ ~~~:~ _~~:~~
16 7.73 3.65 33.7 -5.86

,- m
: : +48.97
1 AXial-63.51
51.65 I 26.67
-63.71
53.80 1 22.57
37.74 , -;;8.16 I -35.70
38.37 1 7.13 Shear
+122.0
+9771
Moment
70.95
018
1242
iSS 7 -=-.' . .
'l'l.4L?
Shear-29.51 !
-39.38 -7.73 1-47.3 -IUJ 9 -A:Ja-I--1
+088-1 3445 -15.07 --4.210 -18 'O~ 4281 1 -18.75
1 -43.21 : -3.65 -33,7
~.~-.---+.
lMOlnC1l1 +49.88 1 80.27 -0.76 1 90.96 -10.33 , 74.52 J 1 5.86
-26.77
,
S -"'r +1029 1090 5578 JI 17 4516 SO 40 I 13,88 ,
! 2 : Axial ,
-17.71 I -24.43 Moment -53.70 -S770 1. 60 ...L.::::_
'-09'6 86. . 14.78 i ...sO
-----t- . 4!2j8 _. 31. L.
..
3.35 : -26,41 i - ---+-7--1--:"7~_' I
17
L, 1 Shear 1 +118.7
Moment, +87.71
53.73
-51.78
136.2
J91.9
38.94
-85,45
8.31
142.0
219.1
-20.95
2.76
1-112.3
,

1 lOS.8
13.77

19D
9
Axial

Shear
I
-.'0.
r--::2.41!

+43.42
I
23.47

7.14
I
23,47 1 29 . 1"'1
6219
.
207
-13'03
,L
'19 ! 2
_

70.89
-;495
24 l4 t~
6S.1I I
':\022
53.86
3D.22
I
71
I
Ax 24 1 Moment 1 +34.08. --4.39, 58.91 ,...-:;-;::_

' :
I ;al 1 +17.7] 24.43 -3.35 2Ml -8.31 /. 20.95
-13.77 - - I -29]2 1-29]2 1 -30.22 30.22
: 'Shear' +106.2 126.2 43.76 i 132.6 29.51 100,2
-2,92 141 AXial-J]2AI ' -23,47 -23.47 7089 207 1 63 86 -]495
~414

I
Momcnt /-58.84 '-1149 20.721-130.0 39.62 '-il1.7 1 S-r +43.42 62-19! 7J:1
--~ ~--71~Axi~-1 -13.28 j -6.985j -6.98! -5.78 , -1.53 ~5.78 i 57,86 ,~"
Mom,,;nt -34.08 1 -58,91 ~.3 9. -5610 ,_130'r
-L. t - :55 ()O _
-1.53 ---t-:c 14C""j AXial- -088--;50'/- 34.35 I8ill I 4211 I :~ ~~ t~~:~
t ~;:nt +~~;:;05~~ 1~~~~ -~1~Lrl~~;0-~'-~ _:~;~
Shear . +4342 1 8.14 61.18 1 3.34 69.63 1-13.69 I' 52.61
18 L-~1 MO"","!..i +38 n 046 1 61.46, -7.82 68.41 -20.50 55.74
2
, 1 I Axoal + 13 28! 6.985,~ --=-=-+--,,,.7=8:-r, --:1--=.50:-1, - 1.53 . 25 I 1

I I MomeOl I 3 f---:--C-:-;~-Hl88' ~4
ISQ' . 1I: .875 -3435 .lSOI
Shear +4342 61]8 8.14 , 3.35 52.61 -13.69 19 1 AXlal ,I -. I' 89{}4 7095
225:2 12()<1 :'i9~6
-.. -n
I
7.83 i -55.74 1, 20.50 141'1 ~2 f/l
l
I, '12- I~A,ial-- -1R 71 -61 46
-=i 7 7~1:~1C:5-1-:-:--::-+---::-:---t--:~2"6-.4"l-rI--1"-1-=.7=-7'1-_"-10=-."95:-
Shear
Momenl, -9771 j,-J557
+122,\1
~Ol&tI720
'-
j
124,2 22"0
- . - ~-~-+-7--D 1~1 ~ _ _~
1-70

I
i Sh~f
''>loment
1+_+58.8~_+-=20.72
106 2
. , 43.76
110 I, -39.62
29,52 132.6
,30.0
'-2.92
'_57.86
i 100.2
111.7
.-.~---[~.'
5
Shear I
~,-- ~
TAml ,+2951
: +635)
5 J
7. S
19 38 8840
7 1 " 7'1
432,
68 if,
~;:
1()'1:l; 90'16'
S 89 '
14" 1 47 il'
2677 ~~"7:
I I
L~~_
117 Axial +17.71, <1.35'-';--:2::4"
..::3-+,----;8:-.3::-1:-' 26.4J -1:1.77 20.95 26 ; Mlln'1Cn! .L..+4~~.l-.._~~:.~ ~~_~ __ L- ______ ' ~~_~

~~~:~t~+I_~~;,-I:~~~ ;;;~ I.~~;:~ l~:~J:~?~. _1_1_;:_;_6.

CHild

COl/rd.

J..
Mi' ( Earthquc.ke Resistant rie8ig;;"7;i Structures
6.2 Longitudinal reinforcement
TABLE 21.2 Could. Reinforcement at section 2 due to hogging moment 219.1 kN-m
Member i Nude i rt)rces
Load Load I
! Load ~ Load ! Load Load Load I Assuming 25 mm dia bars with 25 mm clear cover
~_,~~. no. ,:'tlse .1 . case G.
ca~~'ase 4 ! case 5 , case 7 Effective depth (d) ~ 450--25-2512 ~ 4125 mm
: 10 I Axial -29"Jt -7553 -39.38 I I
-88.40 I -4:<.21 I -78,89 ,-33,70 From Table D, SF 16; 1980
1 Shear I
i +51.61 ! 54.26 28.29 58.72 26,26 41.84 I 9.37 I U . 'bd' = 276 (For M 20 and Fe = 415)

.~_. _ _ M~ment i -22.52 : n::n ,26: 1.1 8 I

-4~,62 , ~.42 -~34 ,__~-=- i
/"'J .. Inn' .
M;hm ~ 2,76 X 300 X 412,5' = 140.88 kN-m " '
I
iO Axi.1 1
: +24.69
Shear*.!7.42 I 3.72
-t
)3,58 I 53,S8
~4. J 6
0
1.67 27,22
h2mJ6210 I
53.93
-5,07
53.93
20,48
I
I
Actual moment 219.1 kN-m is greater than M"Jlm. So section IS doubly remforced,
Reinforcement from Table 50, SP 16: 1980
27 I
, -+Moment +15.34! 0.51 2~.02. -:L78, ~~:-7,OO. _.~:~~ M.lbd' = (219.1 x 10"li(3oo x 4125') = 4,29 = 4,30
liS
\
Axi.1
Shear
.~-.--L-.i MomenL
\ 15 i AXial
I
-24.69 -5358-53,58
+17,42
-~15.34
+2951
24.16
--24,02' -051
I39,38
~.72' 27.22

I
75.53
1
--6~~,;~ 1 -53,931-53,93
-27.61 I
43.21
1.66, 20.48
1.78 -2238
I -5.07
7J):}
7&.89
d'id = (25 + 12.5)141.25 = 0,091 = 0,10
Referring to Table 50. SP 16: 1980
p"'OP) = 1-429 and Pl(oouo..) = 0,498 ,
corresponding to M.)bd' =4,30 and did =0.10
I I Shear ,+51.61 2?i.29 54.26 26.26 J .'i8.72 41.84 I Reinforcement at section 2 due to saggmg moment
2S ,~~~~10n~~-.l. +22:~:17 37.26 -5,42: 42.62 -12.70: 35.34 M,"m = 2,76 x 300" 412.5' 140,88 kN-m , " '
i 20 i Axial I -29.~! I -:~.38 -75.53 -43.21 -88,40' -33.71 1 -18,89 Actual moment 112.3 kN~m is smaller than M Illim so sectIOn 15 smgly remforeed.
! i Sheaf !
+6~.51 _ 63,71 37.74 68)6 I 35,70 47,30 i 14.83 Reinforcement from 'Thble 2, SP 16: 1980
.___ !_~~~ -49.~1 -80.27 0.76 ~90.96! 10.33 -74.52 i 26.77 Mjbd' = (112.3 x 106 )1(300 x 4125') = 2.54
(2
P 2(00"o..) = 0,857 "
Required reinforcement maximum of equallon (1) and (2), l.e.
21.6 DESIGN OF SUB-FRAME 4-4 P = 1,429 and p("""om) = 0,857 , '
R~~forcement at lOp (A,) = 1.429 x 300 x 412,5- = 1768.38 mm- (2 @ 164> + 4 Iii
A detailed design of a sub-frame 4-4 level 2 has been carried out with the design aid of 456:
22~ = 1922 mm') 6~'
a1
2 '
1978 and IS 13920: 1993, Reinforcement at bottom (A b ) = 0,857 x 300 x 4125 = 106054 mm (2 @ 1 ,,+.
@ nip = 1162 mm') "
21.6.1 Design of a FlexlUe Member 6,2.1
(a) Top and hottom reinforcement shall conslst at least bars throughout O~
the member length
To illustrate the design procedure a llexure member 17 has been considered, The design forces
6,2.1 (b) Tension steel ratio Pm','; 0,24.[[;11,., i.e, 0,258 given 0,857
have been taken as the maximum values from the combined load cases tabula led in Table 2] .2.
6.2,2 Maximum steel ratio at any section, not exceed Pmv. :;;: 2,5 given 1.429
5.0 General specification 6,2 umgitudirtal reinforcement
5,1 Member shaJJ be designed according to IS 456: ]978 OK Reinforcement at section 7 due to hogging moment 130 kN-m
),2 Ruildings >3 ~{orey height, minimum grade of concrele M 20 OK M . Ibd' = 2,76 (For M 20 and Fe = 415)
If.lim 2
5J Steel reinforcement of grade Fe 415 or less shaH be used OK Mutlm = 2,76 x 300 x 412.5 = 140,88 kN-m ," '
Ac~ua} moment 130 kN-m is Jess than MSi1iffl , so sectIOn IS smgly remforced.
5.0 Design of Ilexnral member Reinforcement from Table 2, SP 16: 1980
MjbJ' = (130 x 106 )1(300 x 412,5') = 254 2
D, I General Referring to Table Z, SP 16: 1980 corresponding to M"Ibd = 254 and M 20
(d, I Factored axial 'Stre;.;s less than 0.1 fek. NA (3
Pimp, = 0,858
6.1.2 The member ;.;hall prcfcrahly have a width-tn-depth falia of more 0.3
WidlhlDepth = 3001450 = 0,67 > (],3 OK
Width 1, 20{) mm :::: 300 mlil OK
Depth :f 'A (Clear Span) j,e, '4 (4600 " 3(0) = 1075 mm OK
 MM. ( Earthquake Resistant Design of Strudures

Reinforcement at section 7 due to sagging moment 57.86 kN-m

Pb = 5151(300 x 412.5) = 0.00416 ~ 0.416% dl4 = 412.514 = L03.125 mm
Actual moment 57.86 kN-m is Jess than M,dim, so section is singly reinforced. at bonum
Reinforcement from Table 1, SP 16: 1980 8dm" = 8 x 22 '" 176 mm'; 100 rnm
Referring Table 2, SP 16: 1980
MJbd' = (57.86 x 10')1(300 x 412.52 ) = 1.113 S""" l' s=0.87 x415 x 100.50 x
M .I,,,,Ibd' '" 2.72 (P, = 0.938 and j" 20)
Referring to Table 2, SP 16: 1980 corresponding 10 Mjhd' = 1.113 and M 20
MuJim (Hogging moment capacity)~ 412.501(129.59 x 1(00)
p("""om; = 0.337 (4)
Required reinforcement of equations (3) and (4) i.e.
= 2.72 x 300 x 412.5' '" 138.84 kN-m = 115.53 mm
p(top) ::::; 0.858 and P(lJOtlOl1l} ::::; 0.337
Mu.li",Ibd' = 1.35 (P, = 0.416 and j", 20)
M uJim (Sagging moment capacity) Adopt 8 mm bar at a spacing of 100 mm
Reinforcement allOp (A,) = (0.8581100) x 300 x 412.5 = 1061.7 mm' (2 @ 16<1> + 2
@ 22 = 1162 mm") = 1.35 x 300 x 412.5' = 68.91 kN-m and bevond distance 2 d from support.
maxim~m spacing of stirrups Smax ;: dl2
Reinforcemenl at bottom (A b ) = (0.3371100) x 300 X 412.5 =417 mm' (which is greater
i.e. 412.512 = 206.25 i.e. 200 mm clc.
than minimum reinforcement f(::quirement of 0.2..18%) (2@ 164'+ 1 @ 12~::::; 515 mm2)
6.2.1 (a) Top and bottom reinforcement shan consist of at least 2 bars throughout the
member lcngth OK 21.6.2 Design of Exterior Columns
6.2.1 (b) Tension sleel ratio Pm', ,; 0.24.[1;;11,,, i.e. 0.258 (liven 0.857 OK In this example. the columns at ground floor are designed for illustration. The exterior columns
6.2.2 Maximum steel ratio at any section, not exceed Prruu : : : 2.5 given 0.857 OK I and 13 (Figure 21.1) are designed for the fore""s as tabulated in Table 21.2 based on maximum
6.3 interaction ratio.
Shear reinfOl'cern.ent requirement
6.3.1 Detaiis of web reinforcement OK Assume size of column 300 mm x 530 mm
6.3.2 Minimum diameter of hoop 6 mm and in case of beam with clear span> 5 m Concrete mix M20
hoop diameter 8 mm OK Venical reinforcement Fe 415
6.3.3 Shear force maximum of
Axial load from load case 5 475.6 kN
(a) Calculated factored shear force as given in Table 21.2, i.e. 142 kN
(b) Shear force due to formation of pla,tic hinges at both ends of the beam Moment from load case 5 203.3 kN

AI Section 2
P, = 19221(300 x 412.5) = 0.0155 ~ 1.55
% at lOp
Pb ~ 11621(300 x 412.5) = 0.00938 ~ 0.938
% at bottom
Referring Table 50, SP 16: 1980
MU.!i",lbd' 4.7 (P, = 1.55 and d'id = 0.10)
Mu,um (Hogging moment capacity)
= 4.70 X 300 x 412.5' = 239,92 kN-m
MuJ""lbd' = 2.72 (Pi = 0.938 and .f.., 20,
T.ble 2, SP 16: 1980
MJUin: {Sagging mOment capacity)
= 2.72 x 300 x 412.5' = lR84 kN-m
AI Section 7
Pi = 11621(300 X 412.5) = O.0093g = 0.938%
all.op
The general reqUirement of Ihe column for ductility will follow IS 13920: 1993 and
V;'H = Vf+L = 1.2 X 32.6 x 4.612 = 90 kN vertical reinforcemenl of the column is designed according 10 456: 2000. The transverse and
For sway to right
special confinement reinforcement will be determined by following the IS 13920: 1993 and IS
Va," = 90 - 1.4(J 39 + 139)14.6 = 5.39 kN 456: 2000.
Vub = 90 + 1.4(139 + 139)14.6 = 174.60 kN
For sway 10 lefl 7.0 Column subjected to bending and axial load
Va," = 90 + 1.4(240 + 69)14.6 = 184.04 kN
V~b = 90 - 1.4(240 + 69)14.6 =-
4.04 kN
7.1 General
Determinarion afshear reinforcement 7.1.1 IS 13920: 1993 specification will be applicable if axial stress:> 0.1 J"
P = 100 x 5151300 x 412.50 = 0.416% i.e. 475.6 x 10001300 x 530 '" 2,99 Nlmm-, :> 0.1 x 20 = 2 NImn,-' OK
~,= 0.44 Nlmm2 (p = 0.416%. M 20) 7.1.2 Minimum dimension of the member 1. 250 mm (300 mm) OK
~, = 184.041300 x 412.50 = 1.487 Nlmm' 7.1.3 Shortesl cross-section dimension/perpendicular dimension 4. 0.4 i.e. 3001530
= 0.56
""tc,llliU for M 20 =- 2.8 N/mm2 OK
Vu> = Va - 1;. bd = 184.04 - 0.44 X 300 X 7.2 Venical (longitudinal) reinforcement
412.5 X 10-3 129.59 kN Assume 20 mm </J with 40 mm cover (d' = 40 + 10 = 50 mm. d'lD = 501530 = 0.094
Adopt 8 mm two legged vertical Slirrup' = 0.10)
At)':;:;: 100.50 mm 2 From Chart 45, SP 16: 1980 (d'ID = 0.10, 4i5 Nlmm")
Pij,.,bD = 475.6 x 10'1(20 x 300 x 530) =,0.15
Malj,.,bD' '" 203.30 x 1061(20 x 300 x 530~) = 0.12
aM (Eo.;,ti;;i;;<ike Resistant Design of StructUNlS
)
Reinforcement on fOUf sides from Chart 45, SP 16: 1980
Plio, ~ 0.08, reiniorcement in % 0.08 x 20 1.6% = = 7.4 Special confining reinforcement

7.2.1
=
A, pbdiiOO = 1.6 x 3(){) x 53011(){) = 2544 mm' (8@ 201/1 = 2513 mm') 7.4.1 Special confining reinforcement wiJJ provide over a iength of 4i towards the mid-span
Lap spltces only III central half portion of the memher of column
Hoops over the emire 'plice length at a spacing < 150 mm
Not mme than 50% har shall be spliced at one section ' depth of member =530 mm
7.2.2
A?y area ~f column that extends more than )00 mm should be detailed as per '" '" 116(clearspan)=(4.0-0.45)16=59Imm =>say600mm
FIgure 6 In IS 13920; 199.~. { 450mm
7.3 Transverse reinfon:emcm
7.3.1 Hoop requirement as per Figure 7A in 1S 13920: 1993 7.4.6 The spacing of hoop shaJl not exceed
If the l~ngth of .hoop > 300 mm a cross tic ~han he provided as shown in Figure 7B
7.3.2
1I4 (minimun member dimensions) =114 x 300=75 mm
or dCLailed as FIgure 7C
S_?c should not be less than 75 mm =>75mm
~O(lp <.;pacing shall not be exceeded half the least Jateral dimension of column {
l.e. :'100/2::; 150 mm should not be greater than 100 mm
73.4
Thc design sh~r force for column shalJ be maximum of (a) and (b). 7.4.& Minimum area of cross seetion of the bar fOrming hoop is,
(a) Calculated faclored shear foree as per analysis i.e. 77.88 kN (Table 21.2) = 0.1& Shirli, (o4.,IA, - 1.0)
A.<i,
(/'1) A factored shear force gIven oy A" =
0.18 x 75 x,235 x 201415 530 x 300)/(470 x 240) - 1.0 =
62.62 mm-
V~ ::; 1.4[M~1:m + M:~lm)/h.w] U,e 10 mm dia bar (78.53 mm') at a spaeing of 75 x 78.53162.62 = 94 mrn c/c.
where MhL d M" .
, ' I I . lim an lI.lim are moment of reslstance, of opposile sign, of beams and IL,
IS the storey height. ,l 21_6.3 Design of Interior Columns
Moment of resistance of hearn at section 2 is
The interior columns 5 and 9 are designed for the forces as tabulated in Table 21.2 on the basis
P, 19221(300 x 412.5) ~ 0.0155 z 1.55% al top of maximum interaction ratio.
Ph ~ 1/621(300 x 412.5) = OJ)0938 = 0.938% at bottom
Referring Tobie 50, SP 16: 1980 Assume size of column 300 mm x 300 mm
Mu.u,,/hd' 4.7 (P, = 1.55 and d'id ~ 0.10) Concrete mix M20
M".l,m (H,ogging moment capacity) = 4.70 x 300 X 412.5' = 239,92 kN-m Vertical reinforcement Fe 415
M"Jm/hd - = =
2.72 (P, 0.938 and .fot 20. Table 2, SP 16: 1980)
Axial load from load case 4 42&.9 kN
.II",;,," (Sagging mOment capacity) = 2.72 x 300 x 412,5' = 138.84 kN-m
v" = 1.4 (239.92)13.675 = 91.42 kN Bending moment from load case 4 56 kN-m
~" = r,bd = 0.898 x 300 x (530 - 50) = 129.338 kN (T" = 0.62 x 1.448 (As, The general requirement of th~ column for ductility will follow from IS 13920: 1993 and
c51212 = 1256mm' and 0= 1+ 3 P/A,i& 1.448) = . vertical reinforcement of the column js designed according to 456: 2000. The transverse and
Thercfo!c, nOminal shear rcinfOl''\:cmcnl shall he provided in accordance with 2651.6 special confinement reinfo",ement will be determined by following the IS 13920: 1993 and IS
of IS 4)6: 2000.
456: 2000.
U<;c 8 mm diameter two-legged stirrups (A~v::; 2 x 50.26 100.52 mm2}
For mi:tlmum stirrups
7.0 Column subjected to bending and axial load
S, oS A". 0.87(,i0.4 h i.e. 100.52)( (l.g7 x 4151{14 x 300 s 302 mm
The ~padng shall he Ic!:ser of 7. J General requirement
it 4~O
(;:,) 0.7"', d ::; 0.7') ::: it)O 111m 7.J.1 IS 13920:1993 specIfication will be applicable if axial stress> 0.1 10,
(bJ )'0(; lnrn (733}
i.e. 428.9 X 10001300 x 300 ~ 4.76 Nlmm' > 0.1 x 20 = 2 Nlmm'
ie) 107 ,-It; ':n!t:liJ~lIed 7.1.2 Minimum dimension of the member should not be less than 200 mrn (300 mm) OK
Provide x mrn (II {wn-legged ~,(tl'rur.<; ahou! 300 mm cit, 7.1.3 Shortest cross-section dimension/perpendicular dimension should not be OK
Ie" than 0,4 i.e. 3001300 = 1.0

....i
,
 MUA (iJU.rthquu.ke Resisl<lnt De.Bign oj Strt4etUi"!!.B
c Clutpt.w 21 Eu.;thquoke Re.Bista.nt D.e8ign oj 0. Four-storey RC Building.. _ ) a.
7.2 Vertical (longitudinal) reinforcement
Use 8 mm diameter twolegged stirrups (A", = 2 x 50.26 100.52 mm')
Assume 20 mm t/J with 40 mm Cover (d': 40 + 10: 50 mm, d'ID: 50/300 _ 0 16) For minjmum stirrups
From Chart 45. SP 16: 1980 (d'ID: 0.15, 415 Nlmmz) - . S, ,; A" O.87f.)OA b i.e, 100.52 x 0.87 x 415/0.4 x 300 " 302 mm
Pufj,,hD : 428.9 X 10'/(20 x 300 X 300) : 0.238 The spacing shall be lesser of
M"IL,hi2 : 56 X 1cf/(20 X 300 x 3002) : 0.104 =
(a) 0.75 d 0.75 x 250 =
187.5 mm
Reinforcement o~ four sides from Chart 45, SP 16: 1980 (b) 300 mm (7.3.3)
P/j" : 0.095, remforcement in % = 0.095 x 20 = l.9% (c) 302 mm as calculated
= =
A, pbdiloo 1.9 x 300 x 3001100 = 1710 mm' Provide 8 mm ~ two-legged stirrups about IS7.5 mm c/e. But hoop spacing should not
Provide 6@ 20 mm i.e. 1884 mm 2 be greater than half the leas! lateral dimension i.e. 30012 = 150 mm C/C
7.2.1 Lap splices only in central half ponion of the member
Hoops over the entire splice length at a spacing < J50 mm 7.4 Special confining reinforcement
Not more lhan 5()% bar shall be spliced at one section 7.4.1 Special confining reinforcement will provide over a length of [0 towards the mid-span
7.2.2
A~y area of column that extends more than 100 mm should be detailed as per of column
FIgure 6 oj IS 13920; 1993,
r depth of member: 300 mm
7.3 Transverse reinforcement
7.3.1
10 1, j 116 (clear SPll1l) = (4.0 - 0.45)/6 = 591 mm "'" say 6()O mm
~oop requirement as per Figure 7A in IS 13920; 1993 [450mm
73.2 OK
It. the length of hoop> 300 mm a cross tie shall he provided as shown in
F,gure 7B Or detailed as Figure 7C in IS 13920: 1993. OK
7.4.6 The spacing of hoop shall not exceed
7.3.3
~~h "?;~~g~~OUJd not be: greater than half the least lateral dimension of column i.e. 114 (minimum member dimensions) = 1/4 x 300 = 75 mm
7.3.4 S""" ~ should not be less than 75 mm =>75mm
The design shear force for column shall be maximum of (a) and (b)
(a) Calculated factored shear force as per analysis i.e. 27.77 kN (Table 21 2) {
should not be greater than 100 mm
(b) Factored shear force given by ,
7 A.8 Minimum area of cross section of the bar forming hoop is
VI<l.4(MUlJm + M"!Jim)lh ...l ]
::= A,k = 0.18 Shj,klf, (A,IA, - 1.0) ,
where M PL . and MM. . A" = O.IS x 75 x 250 X 201415 300 x 300)1(250 x 250) - l.0 = 71.56 mm-
. h' u,lIm. ,IT,lIm are moment of reSIstance, of opposite sign of beams and J,.
15 t e storey heIght "1) Use 10 mm dia bar (7853 mm") ar a s{Xlcing oj 75 x 78.53nL56 = 82.30 mm clc
Moment of resistance of beam at section 7 is i.e, 80 mm c/c.

P, = 1162/(300 x 412.5) =0,00938 = 0.938% at top 8.0 Joints of frames

Ph ~ 515/(300 x 412.5) = 0.00416~ 0,416% at bottom 8.] The special confining reinforcement as required at [he end of column shall be provided
Referring Table 2, SP 16: 1980 through the joint as weU, unless the joint is confined by 8.2
Mu,Hrrlbd' ; 2.72 (P, = 0.938 and!" 20) 8.2 A joint which has beams framing into all vertical faces of it and beam width, is at least
M",Hm (Hogging moment capacity) : 2.72 X 300 x 412.5' = 138.84 kN'-m % of the column width, may be provided with half the special confining reinforcement
M",li,,/bri' =L35 (P, = 0.416 and.!;, 20) required at the end of the column, The spacing of hoop shall nol exceed 150 mm.
M.,iim (Sagging momem capacity) = 1.35 X 300 x 412.5' ~ 68,91 kN-m Therefore. A" = 785312 = 39.26 mm'. Use 8 mm dia bar (50.26 mm') at a spacing
Vu = 1.4(69 + 139)13.675 = 79.23 kN' . of 82.3 x 50.26135.52 = !O5 mm etc.
,V" :. r,bd = 0i3 x 300 x (300 - 50) = 83,91 kN (T,. ~ 0.67 x 1.67 = 1.] 18
A - 942 mm and Ii" 1 + 3 P,)A, f", 1,67)) = 21.6.4 Detailing of Reinforcements
T~crefore, non-nnal shear reinforcement $hall be provided in accordance
Will> 26.5,1.6 of IS 456: 2000. Details of reinforcement at level 2 of subframe 4-4 shown in Figure 2J .7.
 r
~
-- Earthqu.-..'-.... Re8i~tant Design of 0. Four-storey Re Building... )
Mit_ ( Earthquoke Resi.,!tant Design 01 St'I""Uctures Ghapt.t-r 21 """''''

REFERENCES
8~@ 8~@ [1) IS 1893, Criteria for Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures-Part I, Gener~l
150mmcJc I,..... Provisions and Buildings (Fifth Revision), Bureau of Ind,.n Standards, New Delhi,
2002, S b' d S' ,
8+@ [2) IS 13920. Ductile Detailing of Reinforced Concrete Structures u 'lecte to el.Sml('
I!Omm
Force Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, 1993,
[3) IS 456, Plnin and Reinforced Concre/e-Code of Practice, Bureau oflndian Standards,
New Delhi, 2000,
[4) paulay T. and Priestley, MJ,N" Seismic Design of Reinforced Concrete and Masonry
Buildings, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1992,
[5] SP 16, Design Aids for Reinforced Coru:rete to IS: 456-1978, Bureau of Indian
Standards, New Delhi, 1980,

8~@
J50mmcJc

2300 mm --ol----- 4600 mm

lWafttn:emeut detllil at kvell

2# 16+ 1#16+
4#2H 2#220 SO@

I[}~:; T
r:f-~
sn.~
r" 6#20+

.T
Q
~
~ , 8
~
1j 1T
~

1 ~---

2# 16+
2#22+
2~
16.
1# 12+
1 lUi
1--300_ \' 530
I-- 300--1 I-- 300--1
Sectioft atA-A' Section at 'B-B' Section at C-C' Scctic:m at D-IY

FIGURE 21.7 Detailing of reinforcements at 11 2 or su ....fram. 4-4.

SUMMARY
The earthquake resistant design of a real building frame is an ideal way to demonstrate to
structuraJ engineers the difference between conventional civil engineering practices and concepts
of eanhquake resistant design. The aim of tbis chapter is to illustrate a detailed worked out
example on selsmic analysis and design of four-storey RC frame building. The seismic analysis
is carried out by equlv<:tIent static medlod USing a plane frame programme alongwith dead and
Jive load analysis. Design force..1i have bee;n worked out by considering all the load combinations
as per IS 1893 (Par! I): 2002. Seismic design has been carried out by lateral strength design
method following the du,,'ile detamng as per IS 13920: 1993,
 Exterior
I / frame with
II shear wall
1
Chapter 22

Earthquake Resistant Shear wall

Design of Shear Wall Shear wan

as per IS 13920: 1993

; EQ
1t
4 bays @ 6.5 m,;;ach
FIGURE 22.1 Typical plan of the building with sbear waiL
22.1 INTRODUCTION
is assumed that the thickness of roof and floor slab is 200 mm. The dimension of aU beams of
the Jllustration of design of shear wall ~e l~~crs J
A 14-stol'eyed reinforced concrete huildin w' h he r
t
wall In zone IV h~s been considered for
.
consisting of Spccial MOlTInl Rcsisti~"J Fra . a orees have ~n reslsted by a dual system
frames are 500 mm x 500 mm and the columns size is 700 mm x 700 mm. The strocmre is
assumed to he fixed at base. The grade of concrele is M 20 and steel used is Fe 415, On the
The, main empha:>lR in this chJ. ter j e _. m~s ~S~RF) ~nd r~mforced concrete shear walls. basis of the above data and the dimensions, the weight of typical fioor and the roof has been
,hear wall and SMRF : h P s On (I) dlstnhillJOn 01 deSign lalcral force in SMRF wilh estimated in Table 22.1. The calculation of base shear corresponding to the whole structure in
wit oul shear wall and (i-) d ,- f h the X-direction is calculated in Tahle 22.2 as per IS 1893 (Part I); 2002. The distribution of
requirement, through practicat example. 1 el';Jgn 0 s ear waH and rcjnforccmcnt
total base shear along the height of the building at each iloor is given in Table 22.3 and
corresponding shear are given in Table 22.4.
22.2 DESCRIPTION OF BUILDING
22.3 DETERMINATION OF DESIGN LATERAL FORCES
The building
in .lAme :;:;: 0 24) c f ~. ~h'is S!fUr~Y I::;
IV fZ considered ' assumed to be a hospital huilding (J ;:::: 1.5) situated -
\~ r h' h h
.
has heeo considered for [he ,t dO
S
1"
. OnSI$l.ml (\ !ve blocks
h '1'
'
oU{ 0 w Ie t e centra) block Wilh shear wan The building considered consists of parallel arrangements of three identical interior frames
and lwo eXlerior frames wilh shear walls in the direction of motion (X-direction}. A two-
(R = 5) has been opted for t U y. C UI dmg ha.:; a dual sys:tcm; the response reduction factor
wo rcasons (a) the shear wall and 'h SMRF dimensional plane frame 11UJdcl has been used for the detcnnination of latcral forees in the
ro r(;SiSl the tOlal design laten I fo" , ,e: systems are designed
interaction the dual system:t aH~~:):~c~~~(~rtlon to their relative rigidities com.idering the
or SMRF with and without shear wall as::;umlng no torsional effect. Thc mathcmalical model
resist !lot less lhun 25 N of'l d . . . , s, and (h) the SMRF arc designed to inderV'ndent!v connects all the plane frames in the dircL'tion of motion hy assuming the same horizontal
l le eSlgn seismiC nase sh Th '
c!.;ntr~! h!ock and its cleva"o . h
/(J 1'-.- displacement in a floor. In the example, two exterior frame'S with shear wall may he modcHcd
L. . ' ear. e lyplcal plan and ckvation of the
. n l~ sown m Figure 22 I as single frame (say frame X-I) with double stiffness, strength and weight Here the shear wall
The vA- u'Ifeellon
, or the hloc1- consists of 4 h f..
SMRF @ 6 5 ' . . . is modelled as a wide column connected to the adjacent columns of the SMRF wilh rigid Iink_
3 bay of frames @ 6 m each. The h i ' "t". ay 0 .' .' .. m L3ch and m Z-dlTCcllon
The (,.:ulumns and structural walls h u idJng 1:. 14 stor~ycd and 110m-to-floor heighls are 3.1 1'0. Three identical interior SMRF are again modelled as a single lumped frame (say frame X-2)
The 110m heams and slahs abo' ha~:e ~ame ~ross~scc~lOm, t.hroughout the height of the huilding, with triple stiffncsfi. stre,ngth and weight. The modcHed frame X-I and X-2 arc connected with
of 250 rom lhickncs$ is ccnl; II I H,l ,c ~l11vcr:)al dl:ncn~tOns at all [ioor Icve) f). A shear wall hinged rigid bars at each floor level as shown in Figure 22.2 and [he prescribed lalcrai force.:;
a y OC<:l:lcd ,1L the CXtenor 1ramc<.; in Xdircction of tbe hlock. It

:'92
M i . ( Earthquake RtutiJ.tto.nt De1Jign of StruetUN!S
C------~c;;;h::a::Pt;:,,;:-!2 Ea~!J.quake Ressstant Design of ShetAr wnll. .. ) .N

TABLE 22.3 Floor.wise distribution of design lateral force

TABLE 22.1 Seismic weight calculation of the building
Wi hr (Wi hlt1:W; h/) Q, (kN)
Slab Beam Column Shear Live Total WI (kN) hl(m)
(kN) (kN) (kN) wall (1u'J) load (kN) load (kN) 7625,6 x 10' 0.1703 430,30
4048.5 43,4
~.--.~ .. 14 432,55
14 2340 1212,5 379,75 116.15 4048,5 40,3 1665,1 X 10' 0.1712
13 4120,0
J3
12
! 2:i40i1i
2340
1212.5(2) 759,5(3, 232.5(4) 175.5(.'1)
175,5
4720,()
12 4720.0 37.2 653Li
5488,5
x 10'
x 10'
0,1459
0,1226
368,63
309.76
1212.5 759.5 232,5 4720,0 11 4120,0 34, I
11
1O t

2340
2340
1212,5
1212,5
759,5
759.5
232.5
232.5
175.5
175,5
4720,0
4720,0
10
9
4720,0
4720,0
31.0
27,9
4535.9
3674,1
x 10'
x 1O'
0,10)3
0,082
0.065
255.94
207.18
164,23
9 2340 1212.5 232,5 175,5 4720,0 2903.0 x 10'
8 t 2340 1212.5
759.5
759.5 232,5 175.5 4720,0
8
7 !
4720,0
4720.0
24,8
21.7 2222,6 x 10' 0.049 123.80
90.96
7 ~ 2HO 1212,) 759.5 232,5 175.5 4720,0
6 4720,0 18,6 1632.9 x 10' 0,036
1133,9 x )0' 0,025 63.16
6 2.140 1212.5 759,5 232,5 175.5 4720.0 15,5
5 2340 1212.5 759,5 232,5 175.5 4720.0
5
4 1 4720,0
4720,0 12.4 725,7 x 10' 0,016
0.009
40,43
22.74

;1
4 2340 1212.5 759.5 232.5 175,5 4720.0 4720,0 9.3 408,2 x 10'
181.4 x 10' 0,004 10,11
.1 2340 1212,5 759,5 232.5 175.5 4720,0 4720,0 6.2
45,3 X 10' 0,001 2.53
2 2340 1212.5 759,5 232,5 175.5 4720.0 4720.0 3,1
2340 1212,5 759.5 232,5 175,5 4720.0 !;44774,g x liP !:2522.31
!:65408.5
(1) Weight or slab == 26 x 18 x 0.2 x 25 =: 2340 kN
TABLE 22.4 Design lateral forces at each Ooor in the X-direction corresponding to entire
(2) Weight of beam = 0.5 x 0,5 x (18 x 5 ~ 26 x 4) x 25 = 1212.5 liN
structure and resulting shear
m Weight of column = 0,7 x 0,7 x (3,112 + 3.112) x 25 x 2 = 759.5 kN Seismic forces
(4) Weight of shear wall = 6 x 3, I x (),25 x 25 = 232,5 kN
Lateral force F:r Srorey shear,
(5) Live load on nOOf.'; = 26 x 18 x 1.5 x (251100) "'" 175.5 kN Floor level Height (m) Storey weight
(kN) (hl') !: F" (kN)

TABLE 22.2 Calculation of seismic base shear (Ve) as per IS 1893 (part 1): 2002 430,30 430,30
14 (Roof) 43.4 4048,5
. -~----.~-=--,-----~--~-------
13 40,3 4720 432,55 862,85
I. fundamental natural lime period {Tr;} 368,63 1231.48
37,2 4720
T. = 0,075h o." ~ 0,075 (43.4)," = L268 sec 12
309.76 1541.24
I) 34,1 4720
2 Desjgn horlzonLal seismic coefficient (All) 255,94 1797,18
1O 31.0 4720
A" = (7)1) (lIlI) (S"Ig) 207,18 2004,36
27.9 4720
9 2168.59
Z 0,24: 1 = 1.5; II = 5.0 4720 164,23
8 24,8
(Sjg) for T" 1.268 sec, 5% damping = 136fT:;;;:. 1.36/1.268 =- 1.073 123.80 2292.39-
7 21.7 4720
A/, ~ (0,2412) (1.5/5,0) (1.073) = 0,038628 90.96 2383.J5
6 18.6 4720
3. 63,16 2446,5 )
Design Base Shear 15,5 4720
5 2486.94
VB ::cAliX W 4720 40.43
4 12.4
0.03S628 x 65408,5 = 2526,60 kN 22,74 2509.68
=
3 9,3 4720
10,) I 2519,79
6,2 4720
2 2522,32
as calculated in Table 22.3 arc applied on combined frame (say frame X). The distribution of 4720 2.53
3.1
laLeral forces in frame X- J and frame X-2 is given in Tahle 22.5. TabJe 225 indicates that a1
ioe top (J 4 1!1 floor level), lhc lumped frame X~ 1 takes 108% of the total storey shear. This
 Mm. ( Earthqua.ke Resi:lta.1it De8ign I)J structures

lntenor firames ~ r- 2 exterior frames _

C with shear wall
retlects the fact that in frame sbear waH systems, interaction between frame and wall under
lateral loads results in the frame supporting the waH at the top while at the base most of the
i I I T horizontal shear is resisted by the wall. Table 22.5 also indicates that the two exterior frames
! with shear wall take about 92% of the base shear and three interior frames take about S']f. of
I base shear in X~directjon. TabJe 22.6 shows the design values for the shear waJl under the
i ! different load cases as per Clause of IS 1893 (Part I): 2002. The laS! column of the table
i indicates the design axial10ad for boundary element of shear waH (adjacent columns of :.:.hear
I She",
i ~Rigid /1 wall wall), which include the effect of additional increase of axial loads in columns due to earthquake
induced overturning. The SMRF of the building should not be designed less than 25% of the
,
: links i\ ! design lateral loads as per IS 1893 (part I): 2002. The fon:es in shear wall under different load

I
. I ! i combimuion are given in Table 22.6,

r- I ~ TABLE 22.6 Design forces in shear wall (frame XI) under different load <uses
~~~. ,I !:
;
.~ Load case Moment Shear Axial force Axial load (kN)
-1~--f--~it- ! (kNm) ikN) (kN) (In botm.dO!)'

r- I I I J ------
eleme/lt,'i

I-~- .
J.5iDL+LL) 1747 71.06 10390 24545
i
U(DL+LL+EQZ) 17920 2658 8403 4532.5
! I
i
i i
L2(DL+LL,EQZ) 20760 2772 8217 5040

FIGURE 22.2 T -d' .

~
>1 ~ ""! l> I~
~
15(DL+EQZ)
1.5(DL-EQZ)
22630
25710
3332
3456
9114
8881
5425
5970
wo Jmel1$JOnal plane frame (X~rrame) model of shf!ar wall building. 0,9DL+L5EQZ 23240 3356 5516 480S
0.9DL-l.5EQZ 25IlO 3431 5283 5120
TABLE 22.5 Distribution of se' 10 h
ISmlC s rey s ears between the frames X"I and X~2
Frame (Xl)
{J interior jrames)
Frame (X-2) (2 exterior storey 22.4 DESIGN OF SHEAR WALL
frames wiJh sheilr walls; sheo.r (kN)
Store.v shear % of 10101 (kN) Storey shear % of tOUlI (kN) The design of a shear waH in a 14-storeyed reinforced concrete bujlding has been presented for
14 (Rooi) 466.46 108.40 -36.16 8AO illustration (AFM 1992, Medhekar and Jain, 1993; Naeim, 2001). The design forces as per IS
13 566.85 65.70 296.00 1893 (Pan 1): 2002 in the shear waH have already been calculated and summarjzed m Table
12 34.30 862.85
562.30 4566 22.6. The sectional and reinforcement details fulfilled according to the Clauses of IS 13920:
II
669.18 54.34 1231.48
550.16 15.70 991.08
1993 arc presented as under;
I() 64.30 1541.2.:1
545.89 30.37 1251.29
,9 542.15
533,32
27.04
24.60
1462.21
16,5.27
69.67
72.96
1797.1>
2004.36
Clause
as per
Design requirement as per
IS 13920 : 1993
Details provided in the shear
walls
7 5)3.%
75.40 2168.59 IS 13920
22.39 l779.03
6 77.61 1292.39
482.40 20.24 9.1 General requirements
1900.95 79.76 2383.35
5 4,8.31 The design of shear waH is based on Lateral force resisting system In the DK
17.92 2008.19 82.08 9.1.1
4 379.27 2446.51 Ihe assumption thai it will be the part buHding is a dual system consisting of
15.25 2107.67 84.75
:,j:
106.19 2486,94 of the lateral force reSisting system of SMRF and shear walls, In general, Ihc
i 2.20 2203.49 87.80 2509.68 the structure shear walls will resist all the !<lteraj
230.09 9.13 2289.7() 90,B7 2519.79
183.78 force being a relatively sI1ff element
7.28 2338,54 92.72
_.. --~------~ 2522,.12

9.1.2 In order to safeguard against premature Assumed thickness of s.hear wall OK
out-of-plane buckling in the potential 250 mm
plasljc hinge region of waHs. mini-
mum thickness of shear waH should
not be less than ISO mm
9.1.3 Shear waH is subjected to combined
flexure and axial load therefore; the
ends of the wall will be subjected to
high axial load. Therefore, il is nee-
essary to thicken the wall in bound~
aTY regions. This is readily achieved
hy providing flange elements with
sufficient dimensions so as to provide
adequate flexural rigidity at the end
of the wall section. Thi~ effectIve
Dange width to be used in thc design
of flanged waH sections, sha11 be as-
sumed to extend beyond the face of
the weh for a distance which shaH be
smaller of (a) half thc distance to an
adjacent shear wall web (b) 1110 Ih of
the total wall hetght.
9.14 To control the width of incHned
cracks in the waH, {he code recom~
mcnds the reinforcement in both the
direction of waIls i.e. horizontal and
vertical. The minimum reinforce~
ment ratio should be 0.0025 of the
gross area in each direction of the
wall and sbould be uniform across the
cmss section of the wall.
To reduce fragmentation and prema-
lUre deterioration of the concrete
under load reversaJ loading in
inelastic range. it is preferred that the
jnngiLUdinal and transverse rein-
forccment should be provided in
two cunain.s if (a) factored shear
-,lrt!ss: in the wall exceeds O.25.fj;;
I.lf (h) wall thickness> 200 mm
To prcv~nf the usc of very large Diameter of bar llsed in horizontai and OK
diameter of reinforcement, the code vertical reinforcement is 8 mm, whieh
restricts. the diameter of bar upto is ~maller than 111 0 (250) =:; 25 mm.
:/J nth of the thickness of part.
) ------hha"jJtf.i' 22 Eorthquake ..Resistont De.rign oj Shet1r Walt..
The shear wall is provided in between OK
the middle two columns of the ex.terior
frames. These columns will act as a
flange element or boundary elements
for the shear waH. Therefore, there js
no need for further thickening of shear
waH at the end or boundary regions.
Calculated reinforcement in horizontal OK
and vertka] direction is greater than the
minimum prescribed reinforcement.
Provided reinforcement is uniformly
distributed In both the directions
Since the thickness of shear waH is 250 OK
mm and also the factored shear stress
tfv} is greater than 0.25.[1;; the rein~
forcement is provided in two curtains.
(see Clause 9.2. I)
1
-ppW
9.1.1 The maximum spacing of reinforce~ Spacing provided in horizontal and OK
ment in either direction shaH not ex- vertical direction of reinforcement
ceed the smallest of 1.15, 3 '., and is 130 mm which is smaller of (al l,.lS
450 mm; where I. is the horizontal = 1160 mm, (b) 3 Iw ~ 750 mm and
length of wall, and t. is the thiclmess 450 mm.
of the waH web. This limitation has
been guided by the experience and
various tests to confine the concrete.
9.2 Shear strength requirements
OK
9.2J The nominal shear stress. ~" shall he The nominal shear stress,
calculated as
1,
=
1728
250x48oo
= 1.44 N/mm'
where. V, =3456/2 ~ 172& kN
Vu := Factored shear force Iw:= 250 mm
tv. ;;;; thickness of web
d. = 0.8 x 6000 = 4800 mm
d,. = effective depth of wall section.
This may be taken as 0.8 I, for II><::: 6000 mm
rectangular sections.
I. = horizontal length of wall
Thc design strength of concrete (1,) Assume horizontal and verticaJ rejn~
OK
9.2.2
forcement (A,~) is 0.25% and concrete
shall be calcu loted as per Table 13 of
grade M 20, permissible shear stress in
IS: 456: 2(}()()
concrete 1S 1'1' ::: 0.36 N/mm2
, OK
9.2.3 The nominal shear stress in the wan. 'C" m.u "" 2.8 Nfmm
'C~. shaH not exceed r,. max as per Table Therefore, 1, (1.44 Nlmm'l <
14 of IS: 456: 2000
1,. mru< (2.& Nlmm')
When 'fv is less than re. shear rein- "' (1.44 Nlmm') > 1, (0.36 Nlrnm')
NA
9.2.4
.forcement shalt be provided in accor-
dance with 9.1.3, 9.1.4, and 9.1.6 of
the code
9.2.5 When '~ is greater than 'Cp the area of Shear force required for horizontal OK
horizontal shear reinforcement, An. shear reinforcement is
V'6" ;;;; (tv - 'Cc} t...4w
te he provided within a vertka1 spac~
= (1.44 - 0.36) X 250 x 4800
ing Sit> is given by
V~ = O.87!,A h d,IS,
= 1296 kN
Spacing required for two legged 8 ~
where, \lib = (\lu - 'Cc, /l",,) is the shear lOr bar is,
force to be resisted by the horizontal 0.87 x 415 x 100 x 4800
reinforcement. However the amount
j S,= 1296><10'
of horizontal reinforcement provided ~ 133.7 mm
 ~---------(""I,-a-,'t-"-..,.Z2~E~rthquQ,ke
L. __._. Ruistant De.:ngn Of Shear Wall... ) . ,
shall not be less than the minimum as This requires the ratio A/S, = 0.747
per 9.13 of the code A" = Area of uniformly distributed M., = 20 x 250 X 60002 X 0.063
Minimum horizontal reinforcement = vertical reinforcement :;:;;; 11 ,341 kN~m
0.0025 of gross area, this requires the The remaining moment i.e, Mu Mv. =
ratio = 0.0025 x 250 = 0.625 /3= 0.87f, 0.516 12855 - 11341 = 1514 kN'm shall he
Hence, provide 8 mm diameter bar 0.0035.,
resisted by reinforcement in boundary
at 130 de in 2 curtains as borizontal Es :: Elastic modulus of steel elements.
reinforcement Pu = axial compression on wan
9.2.6 The vertical reinforcement that is Hence, provide 8 mm diameter bar
OK 9.3.2 The cracked flexural strength of the NA
unifonnly distributed in the waH at 130 cJc in 2 curtains as vertical
wall section should he greater than its
shall not be Ie.ss than the horizontal reinforcement also.
uncracked flexural strength.
reinforcement calculated as per 9.2.5
9.3.3 In walls that do not have boundary Concentrated vertical reinforcement NA
9.3 Flexural strength elements, vertical reinforcement con- near the edges of the wall is more ef-
9.3.1 The moment of resistance, Muv, of the sisting of at least 4 bars of minimum fective in resisting bending moment.
OK 12 mm diameter arranged in two lay~
waH section shall be calculated as for
columns subjected to combined axjai ers shall be provided along the edge
load and uni-axial bending as per IS: of the wall.
456-1978. The moment of resistance
9.4 Boundary elements
that is provided by uniformly distrib-
uted vertical reinforcement in a slen- Boundary elements are portions
der rectangular wall section mav be along the wall edges that are streng-
calculated as follow!;: ~ thened by longitudinal and transverse
reioforeement. Though they may
(a) For x,/l.", ::; x;/l". p :;:; ; AJ/(t.,)...); A;( = Asl".JS\, have the same thickness as that of
Mill'
p = A"llwS,. = 0.7471250 = 0.003 the wall web, it is advantageous to
~i~~.l~ provide them with greater thickness.
q, = O.87x415xO.003 = 0054
20 . 9.4.1 \\-'here the extreme fiber compressive Gross sectional properties OK
stress in the wan due to combined I., = 6000 mm, I. = 250 mm
5195x 10)
A. = 20x250x6000 = 0.173 axial load and bending is greater than
As = 1500 10' mm'
X

x, r
= 0.054 + 0.173 ) =0.496
0.2 feb boundary elements shall be
provided along the vertical bound- I.. = twl;.I12 = 250 x 6Ooo'IJ2
4.5 x' lO l2 mm 4
.
I,. ,2
!..<c _ (
x 0.054 + 0.36
0.0035 ~
aries of walls. The boundary element.,
may be discontinued where the calcu-
j

f = !'C.+ M,(V 2)
I -, 415 ' = 0.66 lated compressive stress becomes less (A,t: 1\
w ,0.0035+0.87---;)' than 0.15 h.l.
\ 2 x 10
Since xjl.,., ~ x:liw 5195 X 10' 12855x IO'x 3000
= 1500 x 10' + -4.5~Tci'2--
0.054
= 12.034 Nlmm" > 4.0 (0.2 x 20)
Therefore, provide boundary dements
-( 1+'-_.)I---0.416X0.496
0173' /1
0.054 ,2
')1 9.4.2 A boundary element sball have The adjacent columns of shear waH act OK

[ -(0.496) 'll 0.516 )

0.168+---
3
2

J
;i
adequate axial load carrying capacity, as a boundary element From Table 22.6,
assuming short column action, so as the maximum compressive axial load on
to enable it to carry an axial compres- boundary element column is p. = 5970
= O./)n3
sion equal to lh~ sum of factored kN under different loading condition::>.
 Mnw (Earthquake Resistant Des,i.i!J'l~~a!:r;Siitru;;;;,:;t.;;re;:;;s-----------------, L _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _..:.(..:.)!>-{="::.:"~',r~::::.-=_'_E::;:curt.hqua"ke kensl.4nt . DeBigt; of Shear Wall.. ) 4"M
gravity load on it and the additional Let with existing column size having SUMMARY
compressive load induced by the seis- dimension 700 mm X 700 mm and as~
mic force. The latter may be calcu~ sume longitudinal reinforcement 2% of Multi-storeyed reinforced concrete building frame with shear waHs (duol system) arc now fast
lated as the gross area becoming as popular as an alternate structural form for resisting me earthquake forces, However,
A, '" 700 X 700 = 49 X 104 mm l the design of a dua) system always requires special consideration for distribution ofiateral forces
where, betwccn frames and shear walls. The aim of this chapter is to illustrate a simple procedure for
l
Mu ! : faclored design moment on the A, = 0.02 x 49 x lif 9800 mm the distribution of lateral forces in shear waH and frame. A two-dimensional rigid link model
entire wall section A,ialload capacity ofooundary elemenl has been discussed in which shear waU is model1ed as a wide column connected with frame by
M", Moment of resistance provided column acting as shon column rigid link. Seismic design procedure of a shear wal1 has also been presented by considering each
hy distributed vertical reinforcement Pu = 0.4 k,A, + (0.67 j,. - O.4,~k) A, clause as mentioned in IS 13920: 1993 with lhe help of a worked out example for a 14storeyed
across the waH section reinforced concrete buiJding.
= 0.4 x 20 x 49 X 10' + (0.67 x
(w = Center to center dislance be-
t ween the boundary elements along
415 -0.4 x 20) x 9800
the two vertical edge;; of the waiL = 6566.49 k!,;,. > P" (5970 kNi REFERENCES
If the gravity loads add to the strength
NA [I) AFM 883. "Seismic Design for Buildings", Technical Manual Of Army 1M 5-809-10,
of the wall. its load factor shall be
laken as 0.8. Na" Navfat P-355 and Air Force, Department of the Army, the Navy, and lhe Air
44,4 Force, Washington, 1992.
The percentage of vertical reinforce- Provided venicaJ reinforcement is 2% [2) IS 1893, Criteria for Earthquake Resi"ant Design of Structures-Part I: General
ment in the lmundary elements shaH of gross area 9800 mm 2 Provisions and Buildings (Fifth Revision), Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi,
not he less than 0.8 per ccnt neither 2002.
greater than 6%. In order to avoid Provide 20 bars of 25 mm diameter
equally distributed on the four sides [3] IS 13920, Ducl.'ie Detailing of Reinforced Concrele Structures Subjected 10 Seismic
congestion, the practical upper limit
would he 4%,
or section. Force, Bureau of Indian StandardS, New Delhi. 1993.
[4) IS 456, Plain and Reinforced Concrete-Code of Practice, Bureau of Indian Standards,
9.4.5 Boundary elements where required as New Delhi, 2000.
9.4. 1, shall be provided with special
DetaiJing in the adjacent columns of OK [5) Medhekar, M.S. and Jain. S.K., "Seismic Behaviour Design and Detailing ofRe Shear
shear wan or boundary clement is
<.:onfining reinforcement ax is required Walls. Part 1: Behaviour and Strength", Indian Concrete Journal, Vol. 67, No.7,
accorded to IS 13920: 1993
for column in IS 13920: 1993. pp. 311-318, 1993.
[liJ Medhekar. M.s. and Jain, S,K., "Seismic Behaviour Design and Detailing of RC Shear
Walls-Part II: Design and Detailing", Indian Concrete Jourrwl, VoL 67. No.9,
22.5 DETAILING OF REINFORCEMENTS pp. 451-457, 1993.
[7) !';'aeim Fan.d, The Seismic Design Handbook, 2nd cd., Kluwer Academic Publisher,
Detat:li O! h11lgitudinal ana {'!an~VCr,\;e
Detai1~ Qflongiludina,i and tranwerllC The Netherlands, 200 L
reillJ(lrccm~nt, m column" as l>[Jeo.:ial
\;onfimng remIQnccmcnt H',quin.'mnts reinforn;mem in columns as special [8J SP 16, Design Aid" far Reillforced Concrele to IS: 456~1978, Bureau of Indian
of I;) 1.192;). J\,I93 (Clause 7.4, confining reinforccmCfll requjn:m~''f'v;
oflS 13920; 1993 (Ciatll'C 7.4)
Slandards, New Delhi, 1980.
12'.)f)mm/
[
.L . ~__-=_. ~~~oo
-~--. mm ". j ~o mm I
[9] SP 34, Handbook on Concrete Rcinjorcemrml and Detailmg, Bureau of Indian
Standards. Kew Delhi, 1987.
:()Omm
I

Li;1
.. ~ .. ~~.;:::-;:;-:~~: :::-=..::;:tB I7(l(),mm
.'0 tOllpllldinal 11m .d 25 Jrln, g IlVP d'an"j('ll'J hm-;)~ r 30 "Je in ::: Cl.lfLOlnS 20 long!tudlnaT bar of:?5 lUnl
diamekr (equally di>;trihulz:d ;1". noril))!Hnl ;lnd 'Vertical remforeemenl diamclcr (equally di_4trihu!ed
'1:;1;,c lnw :..idc:, Or~i<:c;l(>n) 01) thc fOUl sides of :.'Clion)

1
 T 114;;
, ,
h ,, ,,
,
Chapter 23 + H} -;---:
,, ,,
,
"

t 112 'ri
Capacity Based h
, ,, ,
",
Design-An Approach +h
..L

for Earthquake Resistant {a)

. . f'lastu:.: hlflges
(hI

Design of Soft Storey ., C

fI
Uul>.rrq
et!Lr~ ",,6h.. for,:amco,e,,\;('rlj
'
'1 b ~'d design <:oncepc change of failure mechanism from (a) StQrey
e,,?< f"{

RC Buildings FIGl.'RE "",I apan Y a,<

mechanism (b) Beam mechanism.

23.2 PRELIMINARY DATA FOR (G+3) PLANE

FRAME
.
A four-storeyed (G+3) rewforee ed
designed on the concept of capacIty bas . e aS5um
n:'
d concrete iane frame as shown jn Figure 23.2, has been
ed data for the analysis of frame are given
23.1 INTRODUCTION in Table 23. L
The basic concept of capacity design oJ structures is the spreading of inelastic deformalion
demands throughOut the structures in such a way that the formation of plastic hinges takes place T
5m
at predetennined positions and sequences. In other words. the capacity design is based rm
deterministic allocation of strength and ductility in the structural eiemems for successful 1
re,vponse and collapse prevention dl}.ring a catastrophic earthqlJake b); rationally choosing the
.HJccessive regioll,\ qf energy dissipation so rhat predecided energy dissipation mechanism would
hold throughoUl the seismic: acrion. The rcason to name the capacity design is lhal, in the
yielding condition, the strength developed in weaker member is related to the capacity of lh~
'-IJl 35m
T
-}
Hronger member. :=::::::=;n 3.Sm
In multi~storey reinforced eoncrere buiJd~ngs this can be achieved by formation of plastic
hinges .at the end regions of nearly all the beams in all stories of the building while vertical
-}
members (coiumns and walls) remaJn essentiaIly elastic in all stories. with the exception of the I~] 3.) m

or
base dIe bottom storey (Figure 23.1), This will provide a strong column-weak beam slruclure
by eliminating the possibllity of column sway mechanism (soft storey) of building and avoiding
'hear failures in colUmns and beam, (CEB, 1998), This chapler will iIIuslrale the eapacity design I
~~
~~-I :---
I i~
........
'j'""
-JL +
procedure for <l multi~storcy huilding frame with the help of an example.
FIGURE 23.2 Plan and elevation of G+3 plane frami:.

404
 _IIiM ( Earthquake Resistant De$ign 0/ Structures

TABLE 23.1 Preliminary data for G+3 plane frll1lle 25kNim 25 kN/m
Type of Structure
Muitistorey rigid jointed pJane frame 86.7kN
2 Zone 55.4I<N
~I;rrfiITII:!D.4[]7[]5]kN]I!mIIITrntBJf~irIIII[[~:J.[[]J]IITItE~
V 2.475 tN/m
3 1'1 umber of stories
(G+3) 55.4 kN
4 lmp",ed load
5 Terrace ""aler proofing (TWF) 2 kN/m 2 at roof and 4 kN/m2 tit floors
1.5 kN/m'
6 Floor finishes
0.5 kN/m2
7 Depth of slab
]20 mm 131.8 kN
8 ?\1ateriafs
9 L'nit weight of RCC 1\1 20 conCrete and Fe 4 J5 steel
109.9kN
25 kN/m)
10 L.'nit weight of masonry
20 kNim 3
11 Modulus of ela.'tlicity of concrete
2,23 x 10:' k.N"/m 2
12 Bay width of plane ji'amc
5m
13 Tota! ~eighl of buitding frame
14 m
14 HrigOl of ..."-tQT{:Y
3.5 m
15 Beams
16 Columns 300 x 450 mm
300 x 450 mm (ouler) in upper noon;
109.9 kN 1h--rrTrrn"l"'fn, M-1".,.-rTITl
17.5 k.N/rn 109.9 kN
300 x 500 mm (internal) in upper floors "';""i'T-rmrrnTTTTll
300 x 550 mm (outer) in ground tloor
17 Clear cover of beam 300 x 650 mm (inlernal) in ground floor
25 mm
18 Clear cover of column
40 mm
19 Seism)c coefficient All
0.09 131.8 kN
Z = 0.36. I = 1.
R = 5 (SMRF)
Ah = (212) (1IR) (S,Jg)
S,ig = 2.5 (T" O.09hNd 0.09 x 14"'10
A, ~ (0..1612) (115) (2.5) 0.09 109.9 kN
= 0.3984

23.2.1 DetenninaUou of Loads

Dead load calculations

The dead loads On various. heams and columns in the frame are calculated according to yield
1inC' theory and ,~hown in Figure 2,).3.

Dead load al ro~f level

Weight of slab Dead food at floor level
Weight of s/ah
T~)lal intensity of lo.ad of slab including floor .......~....--..-.- 5 m -~-~-~'->1'~~-~-- 5m-----
r!ni..,h and termec waterproofing =: (0.12 x 25 Total intensity of load of slab including Ooor
,. U + 0.5) ~ 5 kl'lm' finish ~ (0.12 x 25 + 0.5) ~ 3.5 kNlm2 FIGURE 23.3 Dead load nn G+3 plane frame.
J,oading on beams Loading on columns
Loading On beams Loading on columns .
:u) Slab load on oolm ;:;: 25 kN/m. (Self-weight of slab as pom~ IO~d on ~olum~ (Self-weighl of slab as poinllo~d on column
\!;i Self-weighl uf beam ~ 2.475 kN/m.
(a) Slab load on beam ; 17.5 kNlm.
from transverse beams, selt-wcIght of trans- from transverse beams, self~welght of trans-
(b) Self-weight ,,[ beam ; 2.475 kN/m.
(e) Weight of wan = 14.03 kN/m verse beams, column self-weight) verse hearns, eolumn self-wejght)
MII4 ( EMt}'- .. ~..
,"/-..-.:. ,n.e.'!.stant
r L -: Detngn
of Structures )
11.. wad (Imposed) at floor level
(aJ Slab load of 625 kN on middle column (a) Slab load of 43.75 kN on middle column Live loa4 (Imposed) at roof level 1
Intensity of live load::::: 4 kN/m .
and 31.25 on each end column. and 21.875 on each end column. Intensity of live load ~ 2 kN/m2
Loading on beams
(b) Beam load of 12.375 kN on middle col- (b) Beam self-weight of 12.375 kN on middlc Loading on beams Slab live load on beam: 20 kNlm.
umn and end columns. eolumn and end columns, Slab live load = 10 kN/m. Loading on columns
(c) Column self-weight 11.8125 kN (e) Column self-weight 11.8125 kN Loading on columns Live load from slab is 50 kN on middle
(d) Wall load of 63.84 kN on each column Live load from slab is 25 kN on middle
column and 25 kN on each end column
column and 12.5 kN on each end column
tive load calculations
Earthquake load calculations
The liveand
theory loads on various beam
is shown' . s a nd coJurn~s m
. t~e fra~e are calculated according to yjeJd line
Seismic weight iumped at each storey is shown in Figure 23.5. Seismic base shear has been
considered as per IS ;~';;~:;t2i;42~;. tntenslty of Imposed loading (Jive load) has been calculated from seismic coefficient method (VB) and response spectrum method (VB) as per IS
1893 (Pari 1): 2002.
12.5 kN 25 kN 12.5 kN
10 kNiro 10 kN/01
Seismic
501.54 kN

I 0 k~ 104.5 k~
Imposed load
i23.91 kN Dead loads
Slab weight 261.25 kN 182.75 kN
62.98 kN 62.98 kN

+
20kNim 20kNfm 723.91 kN Beam weight
35.437 k:'i

+ Column weight 17.72 k:>i

25kN 25kN Toml scismic weigh! 159.6 kN 338.12 kN
723.9t kN WaH weight
2673.27 kN.
501.54 kN kN
Total weight

FIGURE 23.5 Seismic weight lumped to stony levels

20 kNlm
Total seismic weight ~ 2673.27 kN
25kN 25 Ie"; Base shear from seismic coefficient (VB) ~ A, . W = 0.09 x 2673.27 ~ 240.60 kN
Base shear from response spectrum an.lysis (VB) ~ 162.524 kN

VBIV. ~ lAg

20kNlm 20kN!m

25 kN 25 kN
23.3 STEP-BY-STEP PROCEDURE FOR CAPACITY
BASED DESIGN
.23.3.1 Step 1: Seismic Analysis of Frame (G+3)
Seismic analYSIS of the plane frame is carried oul with all load combinations as per IS 1893
(Part I): 2002. The maximum interaction effect for columns and maximum force for beams
from a1l1oad combinations for each member is considered for design. Design forces in columns
and beams are presented in FIgures 23.6 and 23.7. In capacity based design. beams are designed
similar 10 normal design procedure for the calculated forces by the linear elastic analysis for
/<-- - - 5m --- I- 5m different load combinations. Figure 23,8 shows the actual amoUnl of longimdinai reinforcement
l'~JGURE 2..'1.4 Live load on G+3 plane frame.
provided in the beams.
 .'iI_ ("Earthquake Resiat<ml: Desi.gn of Structures
C 01111'1'1 $.'{ Capacity Based De$ign-~n Approach far Earthq~ke ... J 4.i.
127:5 kN-~1
i 136 k.'1-m I
,..-----, I
y
136 "'''I-m , 1,27.5 kN-on
-~j-

I
-~

.J..
Liiix:'J 19 20 85.4 kN
i
Columll JO
P, "168.6 kN
~
I' CoJu1l)nll Column 12
f--~-]
58 kN-m
~--~.-

i 42kN-m
f--------,
42 k.'1-m i I 58 kN-m !
M~ = 127.5 kN-m
Ml "" 337 kN-m
' P,= 149.0kN
A{~'" J54.54 kN~m
P, = 168.6k~
Mx = 127.5 kN~m
~. "'" 2.98 k.1'\~m
C:olumI1 ~i:ze
300 x 450
l
i
CoJumnsi7..e
)00 x 500
A~)' 3.37 kN-m
Column Si7..e
'--~
300 x 450
,--._---.
, 24SkNi'j i 248kN-m i 248 kN-mJ i 245 kNm
r It---
~h:r/
7 J
[ 15~.7kN I r1=. ~.-- J7 18
I 15".7 kN
1
r-~~--
,- ._, I,L-~
J Columr.7
: r 492.5 ki'>J
i
- I
Column g COlumn 9 i
123 k."\f~m
I i 1l0kN-m
~'-.----- ~~-~~~-- I 123 kN~m
ll Pu:= 639.4 k.1\;
M, "" ;6252 kl'\-rn Ml 213.6i k..'i~m :
i P,,492.5kl'> i
.1 M, 9.84 kN"nl i Mx"" 162.52 kN-m i
Mr ==-12.79 k..NMm
1Column size . Column size
M,, 9.84 kN-m I
~ )OOx4S0 t'olumn size
L 300x500 i,--------
300x4S0
3055k.""~n~ ~~.5kN~~
i
.. ,., [J09-kN=;1 309 kN-m !

--,'
, 6
[ IgL8k~
'---- L:J - - - - .6
I 181.8 kN
I
166 kN~tnI

I
"~ P, ;;~Im'lkN
Mx:~5553 kN-m
My ,,0.66 kN-m
j
I
I Y
P,C:~~~~ ~
M7;~ J1SXAkN-m
I M}":= 16.78 kN-m 1
I
11885 "''1-m1 II66kN-m ~~
1'885kN~lIlJ

[28'_.'-
Frn~
Column size Column size
kN:~, ..
i 'I

I 300x500 . 300X450 ,
\--_
282.5
I i \---_ ..
297 k.'.;-m i 282.5 kN-~

T A~-' kN
-~

~i!k.'] 13
. -]1 , 14
J I 173.8 i

I( 21 ( 3 ) 167 kN-m J L 150 kN-m J50kN-m ,

I 167k..1\J"-m.-
I Column 1
I P" '""' lJ'nS kN
; .tt, = 2(,7.5 kN-m
I M, 2"3:.55 kN<!1
I
I Y
P" Column 2
l427.7 L\
M, ~ 49$.98 'N-m
J'
Y
P" Column J
co 1177.5 kN

M, : 267.; kN-m )'

I
.HI 2~.55 k.J.~"1ll
J
CO"

MI' -23.5..; kN-m

. Column 517.(,
L 3(}()X550
)
'
CQIUlUll size
I~XB
i Column size
IOOxS~
-OJ;;; "JII L_~:.-'_
1--- :,m ----+I-~-:~-- :: In -----+[ 100
5m
5m ..t-
f)GFR.E 2.3.6 Design axial and biaxi:d bending for.;es for maximum interaction rali of
mlumns rrom aU load ('(~mbinadons. FIGURE 23.7 Maximum design s11ear~ m. ximum h.....
...._oing and sagging bending moment of
b~m., in a.U loatd combinations.

The design (Drees of columns are not completely based on linear ela<;tic analysis, rather
that plastic binges may not farm at the oase of the column ahov~ and at the top of the column
they dcpeno upon lhe actual flexurdl capacities of the heams framing into the same joint. So
below the loint (except at the hase of the column of a ground storey),
 .'p' C~arthqu.ake Resistant De$i~ of Structure$'
~--~------------~
1
l02J mm 2
I I 1099mm' Ii 10'l9 mm' I i 1021
~

mnl : reinforcement are shown in Figure- 23.9. An example of calculations for determining the flexural
19
capacities of beam is presented in Appendix 1,
i 20
r

t:=.k.'l-m li6-kN~~
-~-~-

452mm2
"

i j 339 rr.m 2
- I L:
I 339 rnm1 i
I 452 nlln2 i
I
i
136 kN'mJ
,
[1175 kN.mJ
l-~'~

~c..; r----~~-
L 20

Ii 67 k>'l.m I lS05 kN-m 50.5 kN-mj

L-._.__
~7 kN-m
~_
j
2~10 nlfJl2 I
1
2tHOmm : l2010 mm1 i /201Omm 2
17 ""- i
1R
,
~~-~l I i
1O~;;n
1005 mm 2 I 1005 mm'l IIt
i ~.-~.~ ---~---~-"~1

i
~6,~.::.m.J f~' 1254 .6 kN.m./. 6 125';:';-;::';:;;'1
'--~'-~
kN:"'J ,--_
17 ]R '--~"2

I ~~~...~ .~6 kN:'::J

..J~.-1
/1466kN'",j ; 146.6 ki"J-rn :
-2513 1
I 2513 rum
,-~---,

I mru~
i

.1
2
i
I 2513 mm2 i
i 2513 mm
2 i

15 , 16
~---:-=\ r-
1570mm 2 I i I. '~70 mm2 , I 1570mm2 I ' ,
,
i 1570~
323 kNm l 322 kNm I ~J kl>:"'J i 323 kN-m !
r
_. __ ,C.J '\
I~ . -,'--~~'l

16 ~\
224.8 kN-~ ~.8 kN-m j r;4.8 kl>.n~ !224.~ kNm '
L . . . - - . _ _ ..J

~'2412mm2 i
1
.., l2412 mm
2
2412 mm 2 1
,
I 2412rnm' I
'..i. l' i ..L
,l 0 14
r 1407 rum' I i
1407 rnm2 i 1407ntrn] I I 1407mm2 i
"\
i

r;';;9.4kN'~ ~.4k1l~1 u.! 309.4 k~'~m .r;-;;' f309.4kN-~l.

i

, 13
I~2Jj k:':n;.l c.~ ~~6~~1
IT
I' 202.6 kNm ~6k~.:'"

I--~.----

I'IGCRE 23.8 P ded

5m
-. 5tn
roVl oop and bottom reinforcement in beams rur the design forces.

23.3.2 Step 2: DetermiTUItion of Flexural Capacity of Beams

The flexural capacities of th h d
_., 5m
- Sm

c eams un er hogging and sagging condition for the provided FIGURE 23.9 Flexural capacities of beams: as per prtlvided reinforcement, bogging (above)
and sagging (below).

,l
 .,,- Earh.quake Resistant Des"ign o/(i,S;t"=;;;;:,,,.;;:"';:.;------------
c Ch(lptt:r 23 capacity Based," Design An Approach for Earth,quGkew ) ."4
23.3.3 Step 3: Establishing a Strong Column-Weak TABLE 23.2 Determination of moment magnification factors at ali joints
Beam Mechanism
Joint Seismic Sum of resisting Sum of resisling moments oj Check for Moment
!~_dimjn~le the possihm~y ~f a column sway mechanism (soft storey) during the earthquake, 110. direction momems of top and left and right beams at joint (I) ~ (2) m(J.gtlifi~

11 b essential Ihat Ihe plasoc hl,nges should be formed in beams (except at the base of the columns bottom col~ns at with on oversrrength factor cation
ot, ground storey), ThiS, C?ndltJon can be achieved after moment capacity verification of eoJumns joinl (l) oj US (2) faclor (I"
with hea~s at ever~)oln~ of the frame with the formation of beam mechanism only, The 13.15 1 (0+1275)=127.5 1.35(0+67,09)=90.57 OK
~eforrn~t!On~] CapaCltles o~ be~ms and the initiaJ design capacities of columns for seismic action 2 (0+ 127 .5)= 127 ,5 1.35(0+ 127,5)=172,12 Not OK 1.35
IT) o~c ,dlrecrlOn are Sh?WD I~ Ftgur: 23.10. The amount by which the design moments of columns
14 1 (0+ 154,54)= 154.54 1.35(136+50,50)=251,77 Not OK 1.63
a: a ,JOint, ~o" he ~agmficd. is ach,eved by the determination of the magnitication factor at that
~artJcular J,omL fhe ~rocedure for determinating the moment magnifieation factor m a joint is 2 (0+ 154,54)=154.54 1,35(136+50,50)=251,77 Not OK 1.63
~ tlustrated In Appendix 2 and the values of moment magnification factor for each joint i~ given 10.12 (J27,5+ 162,52)=290,02 1,35(0+ 146.59)= 197.89 OK !
In Tahle 23,2, ' ' 2 (127.5+ 162,52)=290,02 1.35(0+254,62)=343,73 Not OK 1.185
11 I (154,54+223,61)=378,15 1.35(254.62+146.59)=541,63 NolOK 1.432

~
2 054.54+223.61 )=378.15 1.35(254,62+ /46.59)=541.63 Not OK 1.432
_.. 15 7,9 I (162.52+188.4)=350,92 1,35(0+224.85)=303,54 OK I
2 ( /62,52+188.4)=350,92 )35(0+323)=436,05 OK 1.242
m.5kN,m
8 ) (223,61 +255.53 )=479,14 1,35(323+224,85)=739.59 Not OK 1.543
2 (223.61 +255,53)=479, 14 1,35(323+224,85)= 739 ,59 Not OK 1.543
4,6 I (188.4+267.5 )=455,9 1.35(0+202.58)=273.48 OK 1.0
2 (188.4+267.5)=455,9 1.35(0+309.36)=417,63 OK 1.0
5 1 (255.53+498,98)=754,5 1.35(309,36+202,58)=691,12 OK 1.0
2 (255,53+498,98)=754,5 1.35(309.36+202.58)=691,12 OK 1.0

23.3.4 Step 4: Determinatinn of Moment Magnifi.catinn

Factors for Columns
As per Table 23.2. the moment capacities of columns are to be checked for the sum of
the moment capacities of beams at the joint with an over strength factor of 1.35 (adopted
from Euro code, Ee So). If the "sum of capacities of columns" is less than the "sum of moment
capacities of beams multiplied by over strength factor ", the column moments should be
magnified by the factor by which Ihey are lacking in moment capacity over beams, If the ,urn
of column moments is greater than sum of beam moments, there is no need to magnify the
column moments. In such cases the multiplying factor is taken as unily. After obtaining the
moment magnification factors~ the column flexural strengths are to be increased accordingly at
every joint and the maximum revised moment from the top and bottom joints to be taken
for design, The calculations are shown in Figure 23.11, The column is to be designed for
the magnified moment and the axial load coming on to the column from analysis as given in
Tahle 23.3,

FlGUR~: 2,l.U; )k:formational capacitie8 of column-."an d b earns at every joint in seismic

i
L
 TABLE 23.3 Revised design capacities of columns
Final De.fign
~-~.-~~.~-~~~-~.~-~---.---.

Storey No. Column No. Size Axial load Mx My CffiSleel interaction

(mmx mm) PUz (kN) Mux (kNm) Muy (kNm) ratio
~---------------------.-----.-----------------.~--

4 10, 12 300 X 450 168,6 172,12 3.37 2.327 0,90

4 11 300 x 500 149 25L74 298 2.513 0,97
3 7.9 300 x 450 492.5 210,84 9.84 2.793 0.97
3 8 300 x 500 639,4 345.03 1279 3,77 1.00
2 4,6 300 x 450 838.8 233.99 16,78 3,258 1.00
2 5 300 x 500 1032.9 394.28 20.66 4.60S 1.00
1. 3 300 x 550 1177.5 207.5 23.55 2.437 1.00
2 350 x 650 14:27.7 49R.n 28,55 2.486 1.00

Z3,3", Step 5: Capacity Design fCfr Shear in Beams

The design shear forces in beams are corresponding to [he equiHhrium condition of the beam
under the appropria1e gravity load (permanent dead load + % of live load) and fO end resisting
moments corresponding to the actual reinforcement provided, further multiplied by a factor rllJ,
(PJgure 23.12), This YRafaclor compensates the partial safety factor Yx applied to yield strength
of steel and to account the strain hardening effects. In the ahsence of mare reliable data, YR(1 may
be taken as 1.25.
W"'G+O.3Q

A~-!Il C ~8 M'BR
Ii
Seismic dirt<"Ction 1 (righl (0 left)

V.1.~ 11 v's,
W~G' O.lQ
M' '"
AR \......

V.'!..'Il!,
!,~IJ~
. 11'" VRS1j
.-',M
BR
Seismic direc.tion 2 Oeft to nghl)

l..---_ _ . I

FIGURE 23,12 Equilibrium (,"Undltion i"OT the determination of shear forc" (PeDelis and
Kappos, 1997).

where, MAR' M~i"R' MBIb M' HI? are 'he actual resisting moments al1he hinges accounTing for the
ac(ual area of the reinforcing sled (all positivi') and rNa the amplification faCTor taking into
accouni the redu.ced prohabi.lity thai all en.d (.'1"'0,\,'; sections cxhihil simufraflPOu.dy the same OV(lrw
,\iI"Pllgfh. G, dea.d load, Q. Jive load acting 011 lhe beam.

VA.S!;;::; wI (MAN+M~R)IV _110'/+ (MAR+A1;lk~ .,l,'rccl,unJ

YRdl / . 8n\1 - 2 rkiJI..-----,---) ,

VA,S' :=: ;1 + YRd (!:!.~k: MJU-I ), Vt;s:: ; ;: _~I + r Rt!( ~M~fLT:~l!R ) ".direction 2
 r------:c;rh;-"-i'-t.'-.,-;~c:.I-;;C,..apec--;itCy-=B.'-ed~D-;C-'8~i-gn-:~-n A.,.....vp-"'-.-cch:--;t.'!-.r-;ll':-.-rt"h-qu-.. . .-.J . ,
....,-.-
-U9 ( Earthquu:e Rcsistard Design f)f Structure6
where. M and MCRd are the flexural capacities of the end sections as detailed (the earth-
Design shear force for Beams 13 and 14 in seismic directions 1 and 2 are calculated as VRd
quake action has to be considered with both signs), I, is the clear height of the column and
V _ J41.5 12_(202.58+309.36 1 YRJ: 1.35
, A.S' - '-2- - . ~ 5 ) ~ - 57.235 Iu'l Calculated capacity based design shear forces in the co)umns of the plane frame are given
.V _ J41.5 +1 25lf202.58+309.36) in Table 23.5.
BSl - -2-' 5 = 198.735 kN
TABLE 23.5 Capacity based design sbear in columns and design or lateral ties
VA.", = +1.25e0936~202.58) = 198.735 kN Specially confining
Columns Capac(1)' based shear (kN)
reinforcement
V _
B.S2 -
141.5 - 125(309.36+202.58)
-2- . 5 = - 57.235 kN
1.35 267.50+267.5)13.5) 206.35 kN 10 <I> @ 50 mm c1c "pta I"
1,3
Slmi:arly the capacity design shear forcc~ for other beams and their shear reinforcement 10 !J> @ 150 mm clc after to
are given In Table 23.4, 104> @ tOO mm clc uplO I"
2 1.35 498.98+498.98)13.5) ~ 384.92 kN
TABLE 23,4 Capacity based shear and shear reinforcement ror beams 10 <f> @ 175 mm clc afler I"~

1.35 233.99+233.99)13.5) ~ 18050 kN 10 iP @ 45 mm clc upto 1"

Beam No. Seismic direction Seismic direction 2 Maximum shear Shear reiriforcemenI 4,6
kN kN kN (IS 13920:1993) 10 4> @ 150 mm clc after 10
---_....
13,14 -57.23 198.735 198.735 8 mm @ J()4 mm e!c 10 4> @ 45 mm clc upto II'
5 1.35 394.28+394.28)/3.5) = 304.15 kN
198.735 -57.235
10 4> @: 150 mm c/c after 1(/
15,16 -66.21 2Q7.71 207.71 8 mm @ 103 mm clc
207.71 -66.21 l.35 {(201.84+20l.84)13.5) = 155.70 kN 10 <f> @ 45 rom clc upto la
7.9
17,18 -29.55 -29.55 171.05 8 mm @: J04 mm c/c 10 <f> @ 150 mm clc after tv
171.05 171.05
1.35 {(345.03+345.03)13.5) 266.16 kN 10 <l>- @ 48 mm clc uplO 14
19,20 -9.58 85.68 91.95 6 mm @ 100 mm c/c 8
91.957 -3.3 I 10 <l>- @ 150 mm cle after 1#

1.35 (172.12+172.12)13.5) = 132.78 kN 10 4> @: 45 mm clc uplO If!

10.12
23.3.6 Step 6: Capw:ity Design for Shear in Columns 10 > @ 150 mm clc after tu

Capacity desi?", shear forces arc evaluated by considering the equilibrium of the column under II 1.35 251.74+251.74)13.5) = 194.20 kN 10 <I> @ 48 mm clc upta I"
the actual re5.lS1lOg moments at its ends, as shown in Figure 23.13. ]0 4> @ 150 mm cle after If)

D ~~DRd
Ti v,,,;.[:[)
23.3.7 Step 7: Detailing of Reinforcements
The detailing of shear reinforcement for the whole frame is shown in Figure 23.14, special
confining reinforcement requirements as per IS i 3920:1993, The details of main reinforcemcnl
~qi.CJ) = rRd Mmw:;-MeR"
',. are not shown,

V~d.L"J)

-a M CRJ
FIGURE 23.13 Capacity design values of shear forces acting on columns {Pencljs and KaPPOS1
1""7).
.,Ji- ( EarthqtJ4ke Resistant Design of Stt'Udures

SUMMARY

1/
(7"'508
The main cause of failure of multi-storey rcinforeed concrete huildings during seismic: motion
is the soft storey sway mechanism or column sway mechanism. if the structure is designed on
strong column-weak beam concept. there arc possibilities for eliminating a column sway
mechanism. This procedure for design of structure is known as Capacity Based Design, which
of course would be the future design philosophy for earthquake resistant building designs in
India. In this chapter, a 0+3 reinforced concrete frame huilding has heen designed on the basis
of capacity design hy following IS 13920:1993. At prescnt capacity based design concept is
applied for the solution of a soft storey prohlem wilh a v1cW to avoid the conceotnHion of
ductility demand in thc soft storey clements by dlstribuling it throughoul the structure hy
propOl1ionatc design of strong column and weak hcam structure,

IOl@J:SOmmrJe ----"'''1 REFERENCES

IOl@4Smm [1] Armstrong, I.e., "Capacity Design of Reinforced Com.:rcte Frames for Ductile
Earthquake Performance", Bullt!fil1 of the New Zealand Sociery f(Jr Earthljuokr
Engineering, VoL 5, No, 4, Dccemher, 1972,
[2} CEB~ Seismic Design of Reinforced Col1crC1e StrUC!iJres for Controlled Inc/as/ic
Response, Thomas Telford, UK, 1998,
[3) Chapman, H, North, P'), and Park, R" "Capacity Design Principles and Practices",
Bulletin of the New Zealand National Sociery for Earthquake F.J1gineering. Vol. 13,
No, 3, Scptember, 1980,
[4] Dad!, V, V.S" Surya Kumar, Seismic Evaiuation of Reinforced Concrete Building
with Soft Storey", M. Tech. Dissertation, Department of Earthquake Engineering, lIT
Roorkcc, June 2004.
[5] Eurocode 8, "Design of Structures for Earthquake Rcsistancc--Part 1, General rules,
Seismic actions and rules for Buildings", eEN. 2002.
[6J IS 13920, Ductile Detailing of Reinfi>rced Concrete Structures Sub)ecled to Seismic
Force...---Code of Practice", Bureau of lndian Stand3rds. New Deihl, 1993.
[7] IS 1893, Criteria for Ea,rthquQke Resistant Design t~f Stn/c1/.mfS- Part 1: Gel'lf'ral
provisions and Buildings (Fifth Rcvision), Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
I~:!\----lCl"'. "" - ", llil-f---- lOo;l)@ljS.:_104lo@lS0 --+!o>ll
IOl@lOO 2002.
lO4>@:SOmrndc:
4>@SOmmele IS] NZS 3101, Cot/crete Sfru{':tures Standard. Pun I-Til" Desixn oj Concrete S;rucwrt.:S,
Standards New Zealand, Pacrcwa Aotcaroa. 1995.

-
f9] Paulay. T. and Goodsir, \VJ., 'The Capacity Design of Reinforced Com:!'cte Hybrid
Structure..;; for Multistorey Blllldings", Bulle/in of the New Zl'aland Nm;o!1aj Society
jor Earthquake El1gim'ering, Vol. 19, No. 1, March, 1996.
FIGur~ 23.14 JelaH
t& IS 13!:}20:1993. ) ~Ul!
0" S - ~
~onn"
nmg reUlf"rtem~n! (sheRr) lor the whoie frame :lu::cording
5000 flO} Pendls, G.G. and Kappas, A.l, "F..arthquakc~Resj:a"rl! Cont'n:le Structures". & FN
SPON, an Imprin! of Chapman & Hall, 1997,
 i.1 C(l.padty Based De$ign-- An Apprul,lch for Earthqucke. u ) - .

APPENDIX 1: BEAM FLEXURAL CAPACITY CALCULATION AS PER Availahle A", = A" A", = 2412 1197.46
For Xu <.: DJ, the moment of resi5tancc of T-
DESIGN AID IS 456: 1978 beam is given by the equation
= 1215,3 mm'.
In hogging momem capacity calculation, the top face reinforcement in tension and bottom face Additional moment capacity due to available (t87x/,xA"
X = "
reinforcement in compression, lherefore hogging capacity of beam section will he calculated on compression sleel " 0,36xf"xb j
the hasis of rectangular section while in sagging capacity calculation, the lOp face reinforcement C
in compression and hottom face reinforcement io tension, flange action of the slab win also be M, A" x!" (d-a)iiO O.87x415xl4D7
taken lmo account. Hence sagging capacity of beam section will be calculated on tbe basis of = 1407 x 353(4 17-40jilO" = 187.24 k!><m = (}36x 20x J603
T-sectjon as shown in Figure AI. A,:J:: required for provided A s(" = 44Jl1 mm
lAw xf.)I(O.87 x 415) Therefore Xli <.: 120 mm
= (14D7 x 353 )i(O.87 x 415)
Mu= O.~7 x4J5 x A",2 X
=1375.62 mm 2

o
But A.,,, avalhlble is 1215.28 mm:!.
ThcreJ:(:re flexural moment comributl(ln for
d(l _~L)Il06
bfxdxftk
1215.28 mm' ii"" "
= (I.S7 x 415 x J407 x 417 x
Mo = 0,87 X 415 x A", X (417 - 40)110"
= 0.87 x 415 X 1215.3 X (417 40)110
6 (1- 1407x415 .\10 6
l J603x417x20)
= 165.42 kNm
End moment capaci!y (\fbcams at a joint in End moment capacity ofbcanL'> at a Jtlint in = 202.58 kNm
seismic direction J (loading fromrighllo left) seismic direction 2 (loading from left to right) T,)t.l hogging capacity of beam
FJGURE Al Moment capacity verification of columns at any joint in two seismic directions M = Mu + M, = 143.942 + 165.42 Total sagging capacity of heam
(Ptnelis and Kappos, 19(7). = 309.36 kNm
M = 202.58 kNm
wherc, AfJR1 , MUkl> ~R2' M iJKl are the design moments of the over and under columns at a
JOInt before capacity revision, laking into account the axial load. M1R :. M't?;. M1R2 MrlQ. are the APPENDIX 2: DETERMINATION OF MOMENT MAGNIFICATION
resisting moments of left and right hcams at a joint in seismic directions 1 and 2. FACTOR AT EVERY JOINT
The sum of the resisting moments ()f the columns, taking into account the action of axial l?~d.
Flexural capacity calculation 01 beam 13 should be greater than the sum of the reslsting moments of all adjacent heams for each (posltlve
Hogging moment capacity CIllcuIations Sttgging moment capacity calculations or negative) directlon of the seismic action (Figure A 1).
Provided top steel, 2412 mm 1, and houom steel, The sagging action of beam near supports IM(k;! + IM~11 ~ r,M IMkll + 1M.:?!!
1407 mm 2 . Beam dimensions: B ;::: 300 mm, D will cause the monolithically cOilstructed slah lM(/c1 + IM~21 ~ rRd tMk21 + 1Mm!
= 450 mm, d 4:;(},25-R = 417 mm to act as flange of T-beam. conlrlhuting
additional compressive force, thus increa5ing where fRd is a factor which takes into account the variability or [hc yield Slress and the /r
the flexural c.pacily of the heam for the prohability of strain hardening effects in the reinforcement (overs~rength factor). ~t )s t.a~en ~s
provided reinforcemenL 1.35 according LO Eeg for sets.mie Ductility Class High. Therefore. the capacny deslgn lS
= 143,942 kN lo;l.llisfied jf the columns nrc designed for the following momenlS:
A" ~ 1407 mm',
Steel corresponding to M"hm. i~ 10 Ms1.cn = Q{'/).! Ms!
hi = 6+bw+6DJ Ms:..c/I ;:;: CX(.-o.2 M.Q
(JAR x 036 x 20 x ,(Xl x 417
= ~7x5000 + 'flO + (, x 120 when:
6 ' IM~,I+IMRII
= 1603 mm an)1 =: 'YRd 1"01 l"ul
IYI J/:! + /'11 Rl
_ { Earthquake Resistant Dtlsign of StructU'N!.Jl

IX - ~
IM~I+IMR,I
em - ,R' IM~I+ IM~,I
M(~I' M~j, M'ia.. M~2 are the design moments of the over and under columns at a joint before
capacity revIsion, taking into account the axial load. M~H' Mill. Mho Mfa are the resisting
momenls of Jen and right beams at a joint in seismic directions I and 2. (XeD!> Ucm are the
moment magnHicalion factor in seismic directions 1 and 2 respectively. MSl.cJ)' Msz.CtJ are the
magnified column moments in seismic directions 1 and 2 respectively.

fJl:7 J88.4 kN-m 188.4 kN_ln-o\::'

\\
//
!
202.6 kN-ro
okN-ro II
e~~
i t:-,
~~J
~\\
OkN-m I )
I , 2026 k.N m
Ii
-<:i:J) 267.5 kN~m ~267.SkNm

rl-sru--m-;c-ac-ti-on"dircction 2 I
PART VI
Earthquake Resistant Design
(ERD) of Masonry Buildings
 Chapter 24

Identification of Damages
and Non-damages in
Masonry Buildings from
Past Indian Earthquakes

24.1 INTRODUCTION
The masonry buildings have proved to be the most vulnerable to earthquake forees and have
suffered maximum damage in past earthquakes. A survey of the affected areas in past earthquakes
(Bhuj, 2001, Chamoli, 1999, JabaJpur, 1997, Killari, 1993, Uttarkashi, 1991 and Bihar-Nepal,
1988) has clearly demonstrated that the major loss of lives was due to collapse of low strength
masonry buildings. The loss of lives could have been minimized upto optimum by making the
buildings earthquake resistant. This requires diagnostic analysis of the structural behaviour at
the <As Built' condition of these construclions. Diagnostic studies are best achieved by dynamic
testing of stereotyped, prototype buildings, which manifest their struclural distress pattern, and
verification upto ill! optimum limit. Each earthquake puts buildings in the affected area to an
earthquake withstand tcst and provides an oppormnity to learn lessons for future preparednes~
to meet thc challenge of disaster. Thus, the efforts of post-earthquake damage .survey should be
directed to arrive at engineering lessons for improving earthquake resistant design and construe
lion practice. This chapler IS motivated towards the identification of typical features of damage~
and non-damages of masonry buildings during recent earthquakes in India. The experience anc
observations of damages and performance of structures in earthquakes with the results of eanh
quake engineering research must he utilized in improving earthquake resistant design and con-
struction lechniqucs of 111asonry buildings ror preventing damages in future earthquakes.

24.2 PAST INDIAN EARTHQUAKES

The characterislic of past earthquakes where masonry construction is significantly damaged i~
descrihcd in Tahlc 24, J , The table iHu5traies some paramerers of earthquake and losses in term:

I 427

:1..
 ~ ..

1
_ ( Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures

-
_o e~
-""'". '"
<:>' of life and property. The masonry construction without following the earthquake resistant
. ""'" "" '" ~
.. "<
~ z
<:, , ,~"
,. .; E + "'0 '" a features has been subjected to massive failure in earthquakes. The occurrence of disaster is
'''' N .; I S :::'" '"c'" onci'" dependent upon severa] parameters like: (i) magnitude of earthquake (jj) closeness of epicentre
e ;::
., " <:~...;'"
,
'"
N
'" '" N
'" '" '" N from urban area (iii) size and distribution of population (iv) provisions of earthquake resistant
features (v) type and qllaJi[y of construction and maintenance.

24.3 FEATURES OF DAMAGES AND NON-DAMAGES

The seismk performance of masonry buildings during the mentioned earthquakes is documented
in reconnaissance reports (BERI, 2002; DEQ, 2000; DEQ, 1997, lSET, 1994: GSI, 1992; DEQ,
1988) from which a number of observations are summarized as follows:

o + 24.3.1 Bhuj EartluIlUlke. Janunry 26. 2001

0 0

'". '". A massive earthquake of magnitude (ML = 6,9 on Richter scale, Mh = 7,0, Ms = 7,6 and Mw =1,7)
0 0

N '"
N occurred on the morning of 51" Republic day of India (January 26, 2001, Friday) at 08:46:42,9
hours (1ST) as reponed by Indian Meteorological Depanment (lMD), New DeihL The epicentrc
of this earthquake was located near Bhachau (latitude 23.40 c.N and longitude 70.28 E), focal
depth 25 km with radius of fault area 23 km, The major cities affected by the eanhquake were
Bhuj, Anjar. Bhachau, Gandhidham, Kandla Port, Morhi, Ahmedabad, Rajkot, Sundernagar, etc"
(Figure 24.1), where majority of the casualties and damages occurred.

"<
-" '" C;
~ Z
U
u
c
'"
"" '" '"'" "'" "'" "d'" .,'"
N if,

'" "'..-:'"c '"ci'"

~
'0;- E ""0
"; + M
;8
,- c '"
N 00
.,~ <- ~
'" N'"
~
00
C N <- Sl M

~
~ <-

,
.,
, ",~ "
\
,~ ~
1"< t: '"il-",
~ G
" {l"
~

. .;:::~
u
, l'
'"
II ""
t ~
~
;;, "tI .2 ] ,~

~ ;.: ~ ~ ~ ~

'" ~ t2" ~ ~ "

~ ~ ~ .~
.;j t u
e %- 5- ~
C5 cS ~ ~ ~
FI(;URE 24.1 lsoseismal map of Bhuj Earthquake of January, ZOO} (ERJ, 2(02),
 Types 01 construction

r
DFj.ffefen~ types of, masonry constructions have been ohserved in the earthquake~affected
Igure _4.2), whJch can he summarized as
areas

ra) ~radjtional e""hem houses reinforced with wooden sticks and <un-dried clay hrick
( done) constructIOn, BOlh lhc constructions were circular in plan of ahout 4-8 m
dlam~ter. Inca!ly called as hhunga. The walls were raised on a shallow foundation with
a con!c~l root on lOp lieu with ropes 10 form a thatch roof.
(11) Rural vI}~agc houses made up from random ruhble masonry laid in lime/mud/cemem
(3) (b)
J~(mar. 1he r~of was covered with M(Jn~lor.e clay tiles. In uman areas hous~s were (c)

con;"lrucH.'.d WJth dressed stones/concrete blocks/sun-burnt clay hricks in cement mortar.

[0) eel (I)

F'IGI:RE 24.3 'TYpical features or damages and nQIl~damages (9 and b) Collapse of the
curner zone (c) Out~uf-plane coUapse of a waU, 1n presence of an r.c. tie beam and a rigid slab
(d) Overturning uf the waD (e) Collapse of roof (f) No damage due to horiwntal bands.

(d) Rc-cyclcd construction materials and the structures whhoUl earthquake resistant
(b)
FIGURE 24.2 Traditional construction ,'D Db"J'"~ cd features arc the main cause of faUure of masonry buildings in Anjar region.
(b) voeta
a_ II
s of wooden roof with joist and planks.
iIIufct
M' area (a) Arch type stone masonry

24.3.2 Chamoli Earthqunke. March 29, 1999

Types 01 damages and non-damages
A moucrtlte earthquake of magnitude 6.8 rocked Chamoli area of Kumaon Garhwal Himalayan
Typical features of damage~ and -d' . . . rcgion at 00:35 hrs on March 29, ] 999, The epicentre of this earthquake was close to Chamoli
2001 are hiohl'o . .' non amages m rna,somy hUlldmgs dunng Shuj earthquake.
b lQhted In FIgure 24.3 and are summarized as follows: and the maximum intensity ohserved was VIII on MSK scale. The most affected area by the
earthquake was the Chamolj and Rudraprayag district as depj~tcd from Figure 24.4. The stone
(a) ~~nc ~l1a~(.mry hOU~cs' tn mud mortar withoUl i.l~y earthquake resistant feature!'; as per masonry houses in mud mortar with slate roofs gcneralJy supported on timber or bamhoo trusses
Th 4:t...,6. 1:\ the mOst common Iype of conslruCtlOH for economicallv weaker seclions sllffered maximum damage as compared to the other types of constructJon.
inl~~'~C. hO,ngcs .WC~ m~stly ~~magcd dur~ng th7 earthquake due 10 Ia'ck of (I) StlllClUfni
." e-nLy 1,)lo.bands.I, (n) posHlve mechamsm of roofing SYstem (no bottom tic membc) lypes 01 construction
('HicnnncdlOnor II . r.
h' ~ - e ween wa to roof (rafter rest directly on the waif), (iv) connection
Rc(w ccn ~all t~ wall and, within the two w)'thcs of wall (no through ~tonc). Typical fearure' of masonry construction have been ohscrvcd in the t-'nrthquakc-affccLcd areas
andonl :uhhfe masonlY 111 ccmcnl mortar with reinforced conerelc :-,'ab l,.'nd ,',- 11,' {Figure 24.5), which C(Jn he summarized as:
Cl'nstru ,t l' " J ' ..,.. I e
': \,; lOll () slOg e~ Of two-storeyed rc&idential unil.S with plInth "-nd lintel hand {a) MajoriLy of ma~onry buildings W{';!'C load bearing hox lype made up of stone, brick or
pen ormcd vc;rv we 11 The waH t" ri' h d . , , ":onerr:lc hlock, Old ~lonc ma::.onry houses were constructed in mud mortar whh largt)
lh " . -', .roo mle ace a nommal slldmg and separation, and
. c w,llls !:CIWCCI,1 plmlh and hillel hands sustained shear cracks, Sil.c of 'itone blocks sandWiched between many thin wafen; of (2 to 5 mm thick) slates
The SeJ~mK performances 01 "I, Y l ..1,
de 'nd : "'~. mc~ masonry and ~emcnt hlock masonry have arranged in luyers. The resulting stone masonry is different from typical mndom ruhhle
hh(fC. cd upon th.e ea:thquake rcKtstant features. BentOnite factory building and stone masomy_ The wi:lll thk:kncss varied ahout 45 em to 75 em consisting of two wythcs each
;ck m,L\;Onry wtth lintel hands, near Bhuj, escaped from damage;;:. or 10 to :;0 em thick ;.;cparaicd hy filler materials. The filler materials were Inoscly

.L
 (h) Random rubhle stone masonry without layers of thin sla\es were laid in mud mortar
and plastered in cement-sand mortar to provide finish surface. The walls were
composed of [wn wythes with total wall thickness varying from 45 (0 75 em. The usage
of hurnt-clay hrick ma,;;onry conStruction in cement sand mortar has also heen seen in
the recent years after Uttarkashi (1991) and Killari (1993) earthquakes. These
eonslruclions have generally lintel and roof hand.

Types of damages and non-damages

Typica11eatures of damages and non-damages in masonry huildings during chamoli earthquake.
J999 have heen highlighted in Figure 24.6 and arc summarized as follows:
(<1)Random ruhhlc: stone ma.'mnry wililou! any layer or .">I<.II.C:-, ur u;;;e of thkkcf ;>lilies hd~
sutlcred maximum damage in comparison 10 si.one masonry with multi-layers Df thin
.slJtct. in mud mortar. It is mainly due to energy dissipation through friction and
material hysteresis.
(h) Much of the damage may he due to ageing, in1crior construction materials, lnadequatc
L{1Il:;.itude ("Ei support of the roof' and roof trusses, poor wall-to-waH conneetion~, poor detailing
IllGLRE 24.4 hoseisma) map of ChamoU C311hquHkc. 1999 (Shrikhandc ei at. 20(0). work, weak in-plane waH due to large openings. ldck or integrity or robustness nnd
asymmetric HOOf plans.
(c) Non-compliance to the earthquake resi<;tan! construction features. as well as poor
cDnstruction practices, use of local availahle nluteriais were respon~ih1c for the
majority of structural damage

FlGURE 24.6 l,)'pical features oJ damages (3] Overturning or waU {b) & (c) Out~of~planc
I'ailures bl" wall due to lack of l:onnection between wall and floor.

2:4.33 Jabalpur Earthquake, May 22, 1997

A moderate earthquake of magnitude (A1b) 6.0 occurred at 4.21 hrs on .May 22, 1997. The
epkenlre of lhe earthquake was ncar to the city of JahaJpur. The maximum intensity VIII on
M\11 :-.<:al;: was unserved ,-wound Jah..llpur dty in a radius of about 15 km (Flgurc 24.7). The
('an!Kli.l~lkc was fell in the region of Jabalpur, Sconl, Mandlu and olh('r towns ill the ;';armada
Ix;l! of .~\iladhya Pradesh and adjoining dis!rict of lJttar Pmc..lcsh and MuhlU<lshlr:l. Majority of
hutl\c;{. which wen.' damaged in the earthquake, were mwJ houses having thick mud wdli;.; with
n'"," . COf1.,>(rUl..'ICd n( lik~; ;l!H! .:orpor1cd on ,I \nmhoo gr't!,
4h_ l E~tthquake ResiBt4ut D.c.';ign of Btruei'Ure;s

(b)
FlGlJRE :24.8 Traditional coru;l.nlctioH in earthquake affected areas (8) "rick masOlllY with
l1exiblt rouf (Ill Uricl. Illa..... cnry wil.h RCC ~lab without any eartbquak~ r~$istant features.
L

'1 :n>es of damages a.nd non-diunages

. ,I fypk~1 !btl1rc;.; 1l1" damages ,md nOlhjamagcs in masonry huilding during Jahalpur Cilflht.!u~lko,
IY97 h~\ve hccn hIghlighted in t~'igun: 24.Y unci arc <;ummaril.t.:d ale> follows.
((i) Hc;}vy dar:atlgc to a very hrge numher or two or lhrcc~slorcy hrick ma.r..onry huilding>;
COn1>lmC1ed hy ditlcfcnl t!0vcmmcnt agent:ich.
{h) Unreinfon.:cd hrid: in fill walls cracked at relatively timall deformatLon.s and they would
;1ho have !>UffCfCd Ilc);urc failure if their slcndcrm,'')!\ ratio (height to thkkl1ess.) would
have bccn large.
(c) Frequent fJilurCli of the walls enclosing the stairs at the roof leveL
(d) Non-engineered r.uildings suffered heavy damage due to ageing. inferior construction
malenals, inadequal.c support of the roof and roof trusses, poor wall-la-wall connec-
tions, poor detailing work, outof-pIane instability of walls, lack of integrity.
(c) One- and two-sto~)' unreinforccd masonry buildings performed sali~factorily, espe-
dally rhose. which did not suffer layout or planliing deficiencies and where the quality
of workmanship and material were go()d.

X'}-
~
"" I
J

I b)

1"I(:t)frf. 24"9 Typku! I'tiHtuv :.r rr,.lH<Ully w(11i \iii Ou'~nr-rlaJlc Hl('xurc) failure "r waU
Ill) Diag(Jllni (!;lu~ar failun:;)., imd ("'J F<lth:rc :~~ ':nmH.:t'ti(in.
 (1) The extent of damage would have been drastically reduced. if modem earthquake
resistant design procedure and construction practice had heen followed.
24.3.4 Killari Earthquake, September 30. 1993
An earthquake of magnitude Mh ;. 6.3 occurred on Septemher 30, 1993 with its epicentre cJO!;C
to KillarL The peninsular India has been considered seismically stable, The earthquake caused
strong ground shaking in the region of Latur. Osmanabad. Sholapur. Gulharga and Bidar. There
was a heavy damage in the localised area of 15 km close to Killari which is on the northern side
of river Tarna. The maximum intensily in the epicentrallrack was VIII+ on ~ (Figure 24.10).
A large numher of s.tone masonry houses collapsed. The reason for large loll or lives was the
collapse of residential hntlses and its lrme of occurrence, which happcn::d lO he in early hour;;:
of morning when people were fast asleep. - (0) The limhcT rr~Hll{,~ Jnd Oc.1m;; hounded hy Stone wJ.lI!' had been tlscd ill many 01 UI;.'
o (t';
Types of construction
Typkal fcalUrc!' or Inasomy eOI)struction have hecn ohservcd in the earthquake-affected area::,
(Figure 24. J I). which can he !'unlmarlzcd as:
tal The locally available heavy deccan wap stone!;, moslly rounded and smooth werc uscJ
irt huilding C1-mSirlK;tl<lO. The walls 700 mlTI to IfiOO mm lhick were made of random
ruhhle :mlOC ma':;onrv bid in mud mortar with gmai! openings for doon; and window:.:.
The foundulions of these houses arc tukcn to a depth varying from 600 mm 10 2500 mm
hc!ow the lOp cover of hlack coHon 50it The mof consisted of timhcr r.1flers running
in two perpendicular directions ovcr which wooden planks and a thick IUyCI pf ud r::
is laid. The l'OHlpact laycr of mud or. mol' v~lri~s hctwccn 300 mm ond gOO m:n maklflg
il hc.avy. Dry pa~k masonry has HI:.o hC'cn used in many hOllSC~_ ,
old and !radil1nnal hnl.!;'cs, TI1C vertical pO!'b of wOIJd wcrc pn,lYldcd ,II a di!-.tancc of
<.iIK.tli 1.0 il'I \0 L5 il'I, A s!<mc wag \4'a:: maJe around this fra!ne TI>(' rn\~:'.., oj ,~"Kh
housc~ were abo heav\, duc to 11~ of thick layc:- of mtJd.
TIle rn:;.,(;d rorm (If co~slructiont such a~ slDn.'Y of hriek ma:-.cnry or ,,1nne b!ocb il!

ccrnelil mnl1Hf Iwd he,~t'j added over storey or u"adit:ional r<:.ndol"l'l rub:;:e m3Si.1!-:T>
c{lnsellclion. The building of stolle mkL\onry employing ca1thquake rcsiMant mca:jurcf,.
Ihnu~h few in number wr,;rc also eXlsling in the earthquake affccleG. area. hlock n,C
mas~nry. adol1e huildlng and lhatched huts type or construction had llis0 hcen pre\'akm
o in the regiori.
Ahmadnagar
v

/
I
/
.!
FiGllRE 24.11 Typkal [eaiurcs of conslrudion fa) I)r~
Kan.ac.ak.. (h) DcluH" of fraditional construction ot roof.
p'H~ masonry in rura' hOWit''i ..I"

!\
I ,
1I.'ypes [I_I a.J:llii!ges a,nd nou-danlages
Tvpical rC::l~en.::~ 0: . d,lt1'.a~cs :lntI nOll"-damage:.. HI
' nll.b0nl,;c
." I1U1Id'n'''
t;-.>
,lll''1"
. , l7

! ~)<;3 h,l\;(' heen highlighled in r""igufc 1,1. 12 Jnd nrc stlml11,)ri7J:.'.d a:-. !"o!l,)w:;:
KII,,i
"
~"'\''''VI\.
'",,,, j,
1;':",

1- . l:l) TfR: nnjnrilY \11" d;lInagt' ,x;curf(,:d 10 shmc ma:,,:,nry hdUflCS :n l'unJol1l rub!'">!;:
lin.jt il; mud m{Jrtar. The mas{mry wJlh mud ,mu other ()I'gvnic m;Hcnal used !nrhl11tl1n::
CO~_\l::K
 L
78. ! _.,_.,-2,7::;"'9,-.,.-C,
i
8
-osr -1\
0L.::,-;:::-:";:-'

.-----r=
------- I/:?,
TuttI ' ,
P

p~GtJRE 24.12 Typical feaLures of

id [)iagonal shear failure.
fanm:'l~ (a) Out of~pJanf.~ (anun~

haJ Jt~i.t;l'iorawd in ~treng{h over lhe year>:. The Jargc numher of fore ~f1o.;ks had
{h} Cnrncr failure and ",-',--1 :
alre::tdy weakened these slrucHucs,
(h) Tllcrc were <l rcw cases of coJlapse of reinforced concrete roofs. whieh were s>uppurted ,,
'.
I
on dres:;ed stone masonry or brick ma}ionry in t:cmcnl mortar. The failure of masonry
walls caused falling of roofs Wee a shceL
(C) The roofs of old stone masonry houses with wooden frame::. have remained intact
re~I.ing on posts and hearns, though ma:;onry walls failed.
(d) The huildrngs made of cnlshcd stem\.": hlock in cement mortar undcnvent minor damage.
The stone masonry buildings with earthquake resistant features like corncr strengthen-
ing withstood ihe shock wilh minor distress.
(e) The houses of dry pack masonry with heavy roofs far away from the epicentral regions
also performed satisfactorily, mainly hecause of low intensity of shaking. I
i

24.3.S Uttarkashi Earthquake. October 20, 1991 I

i
In 'he early hours on October 20, 1991 an earthquake having Mh = 6.6 rocked 'he Garhwal
region of Uttar Pradesh (now in Utlaranchal) for 45 seconds and caused enormous destruction
of houses and loss of life. The affected area lies in knmnm seismic zoncs IV and V The gn:~ter
~o.\\ of life Dentrred {x,;ctluse of its occurrence in the night when pt<oplc were skcpill~ and
[-,udding,> c'Plhlj,,>.;d un IhelO. Thc' cpi..:enlrc of earthquake W;}5 81 a place caned Agora. The JfCa
"llCt:teJ r-y i,lle earthquake i, <;hown if; Figure 24.13, which Inc!ude;.; Ultilrkashi. Tchri und
:~'h;lrn(\li reg"'ns- Tni;' maXinHlI11 intcl~sjly in cpicenlraJ [rack wa~ VJU+ on Mndifi\~d Men'all!
'I "
,,
,

S\ Aj.?

t;lH',nsily Sc;;.k', NtllT!crnuo' lam.h'!ides oc-cufrcd in thes\,': &;;trkts. TIt': ld:.TOmlTlUllfcation and
i)(;V'f!f sFpph' V"'~TC c()rnrkle!y cutoff duc 10 hrokcn lcicphnnt~ and clcdrit: pole",. Gw;-,n~ ,;lcl f:'IGlJRE 24.13 lsosejsmal map of Uttarka..,hi earthquake of Ocl., 1991 (GSl, 1995).
hridg;' located aholll 6 kill fro'T! lJttarka~,hi on road to Gangotli collapsed. t:ulling off hUlldred:.:
v;i:agc~ ,\ i<Jlf',c numh,;:r "r l\~_..,idcnli;;J home.;;. educational and health huiluir:gs wcrt
;';"'il';'J'("~ 'PI"- ",,;'f;' ';(,I)'i!,,' 1';)::<"\ tlf nun (;:I"O;-I,QC ttl htli!uings, whk!i had {.;H'lhlj1lat:c I'('\;;,<l~\nl
Tvpes "I construction
.. L-. - 'd' the earth(juakc-<lft,-',ctcd areas
Typicai fealures or ma.sonry conslrudl:}11 have heen l}tlscrv(.: In
(Pigurc 24,14). whkh can he xummal'li'.cd as:
.,"+ ( Erlrthquake Resi5t(lni Design of Structures
M.i.

FIGORE 24. J4 C:onv(>oti91)ai cousl'rtlctioD in UU.arlt:ashl tUWH {a) ul1d (b) Old com'cntiHlla~
hnusc with wooden beams and l;oJumns {GIS, ]992).

{u) RUluiom Ru~hte Ston.e M(1sonry: J\1ost of the buildings have hccn constructcd usino-
hlC'il.lIy avallahlc, m,aterials such as stone and mud. The walls. pillars and vcrand:
columns were hud! In random ruhhle masonry laid in mud monaI', The founda!ions. of
the hOll!:i~S were con:~lnJcLCd with higger stone!.'. The door ;.l:nd window lintels were usually
made wl~h wood In older eonstrul.;tion and reinforced cement \;onerete in newer (d)
eO~1stnJetiOn, The roofing consisled of CGl sheets laid on wooden planks and wooden
F1GURE 24.15 Typical features of damages (a) and (b) Outofwplane of enernal waU$ (c) OuL-
,:a1ters. ~e use of w,oo,d had rapidly declined due to its non-availahility for huilding
of-plaut" collapse of outer ltaf (d) Shear failure of "ails (GlS~ 1992).
~onstnJ(.tJOn, The hmJdmgs currently buill had reinforced cemeni concrete heam slah
fl'J: roofing and walls in ruhhle stone masonry laid in mud/cement mortar, The stonc waH (a) The widespread damage. in most casCS resulting in collapse, occurred to old stone
OJ\ckne~s ranges from 35 em to 45 cm, There is nonnally no interlocking or proper masonry buildings of random rubble construction in mud mortar or no mortar. The
cOllncchon between the wans al the comers. buildings had thick masonry wans with inadequate interlocking stones and no eurthquake
(b') C,emenf ('oncrete BlocK Construction: Thl; huildings using eement concrete hklCks of resIstant features were uhserved like hands or corner strengthening.
,'il.ngl,e or douhle storey load hearing walls, 200 mm Ihkk were also ccmstruclcd in these (b) Thc damage., were more in the houses with ondrcs$ed nr -round $tone;; than the houses
dfSl~dS, TIle,'iC h!ncks. were laid in J:6 cemenl sand mortar. Dul,; L(j heavy snowfall the
with half drc~sed flat slOnes.
;,oof~ \i'/e.rc .mud~; ~roping either with CGI sheets or in RC slah Clmstruetion. Som~ of (c} The wide sprC2d d(lmages were also ohserved to the cemenl C(1JiCrctc block cnnslruclion
;hcsc bUl)(hj)~n; iJ!.fU c-anilquakc I'csi:"lanl pfov};;itms "f lS: 4326 in Ih(' form of lintel hut no compiete collapse was seen. TIle huilding,> !l_ad nO earthquake rc!>istant features"
ha:1:.1, rod ham.! ,l:!d r:ah:c hand. Cd) The earthen huildings suffered wide cracks in walls_ scpar<'liion of walls a! >.:orncrs and
(("I brrr/wn RUf!dilJr:.: rrllc rtlrdl construclion m"s;,ly consis.ted or mud, au"bc and storl(' CDmplctc col!ar~ of vlialL foofs and Hoors. More th.:m onc-storeyeJ pu:ldH1;p; in adobe
1'ij'IV'I1f'_'
, C_" I
,r .flJl ,'d II I'i:';~', I"lie lI( I0::)('
I ':11 mud buildings.
. was mO\Llv seif.. madc without any suffered more damage than single-storeyed huildings,
~':Ir(hqt'a~(" n,;:)sl;{ncC, The 1Iou:;\:;\ were rlasten:d wilt! mud ~rrom inside and oUl;,;lde. (c) The slone masonry hOll\CS of Iracitlonal construction U!~ifl[l, wondcll ;1t ;,;m:--. tinu planks
,1 he, one- (~r Iwn-si().f('Y nom;cs were genernlly very old, The live sweh Vlcrc E:hcl!ercd
wen: Illlt Jamag<:d
III :'";;' ~-:~:1::J\(~ Ibcr wl1:!c tt.'()Pl'~ ir.r.;l.; on the (if:';; non!',

f'nnuJ!.h ilK: ,ia!Ji<-ll'i\', ki"~': \1(V'HT(:d ill all lYJlC';'; ~)j', cOJ1l;twt:lion, with varying degrees from 10 cady hours 04:40 on /\lIgUS! 21, ItJ8X, a strong earthquake ofmagni!udc 6J; on Richlcr scale
:rflckjn;.: ": ~....-?n: h' >\1.:1 c"lh:p..,c\ iw; !hi ,Ii knlurn. 01 d;lnl,\j!c;; :<4.15} ,ire: with it, epiccnl rc dose 10 Bihar-~cpal horder occurre..,i The maxln"Hlnl in Inc Gpkcni:-al track
 f----'~-{~,~~ ..Jd"ntification of Damages and Nondamagea irt Maacnry ... ) . , .
\... ,--

is estimated In I)c Vllo vn on MMl scale (Figure 24.16), The mo~t affected towns of Nepal window opcning~ (Figure 24,17), The building heights ranged from one to three stories. The
were Dharan. Biralnagar, Dhankuta, SUl1SUrt distlict, P;mehthar, Therdlhum. 11am while [owns fO{lnJali,m soil i~ of aliuvial lype,
of Northern Bihar were Madhuhani, Darbhanga, Muzaffatpur, Munghycr, Barauni. Bhagnlpur,
Bihar Sherif, Nu]anda, Saharsa and Paina. Most of the damaged buildings in the earthquake were
old brick masonry houses and kucbcha houses withour any earthquake resistam l'eaturC's. L(Jrgc
scale liquefaction in the Gangetic plane, lnndslides in the hilly region and dampness due to
t'xC'cssive rain wert: Ihe additional reasons for this wjdespread damage in such a moderate siz{"
,)1' earthquake

&6'" ~&v 90 G

~_..L_ .. _ _ _ ~L_~_~~~~_,~~~. __ ~~_,_~ 1

(a)

f".llar,;ihaG

i
24' J 24':'

i
Cakutta (b)
I FIGlJRE 24.17 Traditional construction in earthquake affected areas (a) Masonry witb
inclined ronf (b) A reh type construction.
" ,
Types 01 damillges and non-damages
:-." Typical fcatllrc~ \,1' dalllHgc~ l\11~ non~(~<lm~ges 111 ,,1i'I<:l::tmry ~~uildings .~urin,g ~ihar-~cpai
ca:,!hqoflkc'. ll);-;R bve heen highlighted 111 Flgur::: 2... ,\g ;md me f>Umm31ll,Ca as jollows,
(~l) SprcDc1int; of ronr rafwr h()d caused "cparatjon :11 cnmcri: of walll'als.c ceiling
(h) Vcr\lL'~d ~r;Kking A r.rkk ma~onry arch,~s nc;.!r the crown, wedge acuon
(c) Failure ai ~hc comer;; or {)pening" "
"::'.' :L,.II:;'~. " 'J'," I, ,,)\ .. :lfl1:'I'."; ;1\ hH!T;{ hr:cJ. ip Jimc-:,llri,l ;'Hlrj~~L fhe roof {dj Horil.ootal shear cracks due [0 poor stn:Ii!!l:h or ccmc-nl-~ar!d ril!o
;n...:iir:t'd iilc :"(,oi ','\1 r:d[_~i. In CH'>C of UflpCT flat sitlhc 0;' r'Jd(', d byt'!" \l! hricks
le) AtrselK::: or hori:mnt.d h;md in hrick and Mone masonry h0utcs '"
U) fI(\vern:ncnl hl!iI:.lil\~H. {'(J"j;;u"!lctcd :1Ccort!in~ In JS t"ndcs have perJormcd We'll

...
.f
,~.
 1 coBapscd hecause of poor construction but wrvived. and remain intact during major
earthquakes when they exhibit excellent workmanship.
(g) Wall:; tbJt are inadequately anchored to the Hoor diaphragm can exhibit brge diagonal
cracks in the piers due to in plane toad". If the mortar .l0int~ are weak, a;.; in lime mortar,
the crack~ follow the joint
(hl Diaphragm.; that arc lnsurtkicntly an<.:hmed roan separate fro the masonry wall, I"
cnu~ing wall collapsc. UHdnchnrcd ~lbk ends of masonry walls arc !;W'ccplihlc to lhi!-.
pl\iblcm,
(i) The provision of venical steel OJ' elc111cnLI;, in the corner of the huildings a.s wcl~ a,<,
existence or horizontal tic heams increase rcsistance 10 eanhquukc~,
(j) Non-structural elemcnts must he givcn proper design ('onsjderation~ for lateral forces
and sh(~u1d he bn-l(;cd or fc'traln('~d. The cllllap'\c l)f niany or these Wh!l:> clearly i liu::':lr31c;.;
this point.
(I...) The potential out-of-plane failure of non~Slructufal cJcmcn1:.- (parapet. venccrs. gahles,
and I.manchnrcd waHs) during earthquake:) constitulc!> Ihc most :,CI;I)US lifc-,,,,ai"cLy
ha7:ard for this Iype of construell0n.
(I) Inplanc failure less common lhan out-or-plane failurc:-; was noted in many ~trcn}slhcll('.d
buildings. The typical ~hcar faill.1rc~ OCCUlTed in many huildings.
ll1t; arch conCitrtlctiofl ha:>. heen fuund to hc weak and are failure in moSt Cases
(h; S(>lne- S!l1.H..:turc.'I were cmnilgcd due 10 liquefaction of ,o;;oil (m) In general, huildings with irrcgular plans experienced more damage lhan rectangular
(i I huilding&. The damagc wa~ oftcn concentrated at curners due to lack or a detailed
In old hujJJin~~" tbe~c Wll5 a deLerioration of slrength and poor workmanship has been
the cause or li.ll hllt rn many cases analYl\i~ that included the cffccl::'- of odd 1ihapcd plans.

(i) Thl: framed construction has shown ocHer performance than the 10ad bearing clmsl:1Jctio)1
24.5 RECOMMENDATIONS
t,A LESSONS LEARNT
In compliance with the past catthquake rcslstlVC structures, a number of prindple." have been
formulated which may he J;ummcd up as: 0) The weighl and ripidily or a structure must he
c SCiSI.ilic hehaviour of masonl)' buildings during past earthquakes has provided scvcmllcs'.ons
me 01 these arc presented as under: .:. .. uniformly and symmetrically dislributt:d to the plane of ).:ymmctry pas,o;:lOg. through the centre
fa)
of gravity; (ii) Thl~ proportionality requiremcnts must. he mel by the building dimensiulls Le.
the length and height of the huilding should not he 100 greal~ (iii) The structure must hc light.
as pract}c.lblc and have its centre of gravity as. low as possih!e; (iv} Desirable- lough. ljgh( iJnd
e-Iastic material he used which have unifonn propeTitcs; (v)]n lhc vertical and horh.ootai plane:'.
the ~oad uwrying. clementi' must be coupled to form clo~e-d co})!()urs: (vi) The foundation;; or
cal1hquake rc~!"t~\nt huildings must be finn and have cnnogh depth.

SUMMARY
td; \-1amnry I}; wldely ;JSCU 1'0), hUll sing constructlon in Indi.;! and many counl!"ie:-. of' Lhc world due
\U innUrnCf&lhle adv'lntagc~ u,"'cr bOlh reinrorl;~;d Cl.'I)LTdc (hId sleel. Hovl'cvc)", lhere arc scnne
di:mdv<lilta:;,c<; iL~' ',\icll. parl./cularlYl when it i~ l() he huilt ill ~:cismic environment The seismic
resi.<.;tancc CUjX1CllY cf maSl)nry construction is- rc~al1"el'y !ow in comj}ari~on in sled ('I rcinJ"nrl:t:d
COntrClc consLructll.ln~, Pas! earthquakes have rc',c<'lJc,d thai r;I<1<;un"y Cl..}!~:;;\.r:Jl:tinn is susceptihk
10 dJnl<lge~ during c;mhquakcs hecause or lack l)f inicgral action, !tid. ur strong anti ductile
, I conned ion, b('lv.\~t'l) wallt.;, mor clements and liwn(k\()(,n, i:liltiCqU<ilC J-;l\-COg!il (or onl "nt~plan('

1
 forces, low tcnsjJe and shear strength of mortar. hlgh in plane stiffness of wall, low ductWty
and deformahility capacity and heavy mass. This chapter focuses on the behaviour of m;Jsonry
huilding during past earthquakes. in India, which help to identify the CaU!iCS of damage and noo-
damage in masonry ouildrngs..
REFERENCES
[1J Agarwal, Pankaj., "Experimental Study of Seismic Strengthening and Retrofitting
.MeaRures in Masonry Buildings)', PhD. Thesis, Department of Earthquake Engineering,
Universi,y of Roorkce. Rooikec. June 1999.
This earthquake was recorded at some of the stations o~ th~ network of strong motion
recording instruments in Himachal Pradesh, installed and mamtamed by the Department of
Earthquake Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee. A sample of the accelerogram
recorded at Dharamshala is shown in Figure AI, The mtensIty of shakmg dunng the earthquake
was not particularly severe in the KaograJDharamshala region as reported b~ t~e l~als. There
were reportlO of prominent horizontal swaying mOlion tea.ding to nausea~ ThJS ImplIes that the
vertical component of the ground shaking was not as promment as the honzontal component and
the m0110n was primarily rich in low frequencies.
8.838 ,
B 8 .. 828

fl] DEQ, lana/pur Earthquake of May 22. 1997: Rcconl1aissancc- Reporl, Dcparrmcnl or
Earthquake Engineering, Univer.':;ity of Roorkee, Roorkcc, Septemher, 2000.
...
~
.....
8 .. 818

-9.818
...g" -a,.e28

..
f3l DEQ. Damage 5,'ur ve:r /?eporl on Bihar-Nepal Earthquake of August 21. 199B.
Departmcnt of r..arthCjuakc Ei1ginccring, Universily of Ruorkce. Roorkee. 198K c -8.839
14] DEQ, A Reporl on Chamali Eanhquake of March 29, 1999. Department of I-::al'thljuake
Engineering. University of Roorkcc, Roorkcc, September, 2000.
2fl 6a
Til'te <s}
oo 189 129

14

Duhl.':Y. R.N., Thakk;'il", S,K , anJ Agarwal, Pankaj. "Performance of Mti~onry Building

.....
;51 ~ 8.839
~

during Bhuj Earlhqw:1ke". 12th Symposium on EGrlhquake Engineering, IIT Roorkec,

8."""
December. 2002. !~
8.81J)

[61 EERI. 'Bhuj. India Earthquake of January 26, 2001: Reconnaissance Report". ! --9 ..818
Earthquake Spectra, Supplement to VoL 18, July, 2002.
IiJ GSL Ullarka.\/ri Earthqu.ake, October 20, 1991. Geological Survey of india, Spc<.:iaJ
Publication >';0. 30, 1992.
[8J JSET. "Damage Report of <he Lalur-Osmanabad Eartl1quakc of September 30. 1993".
~ -8 .. 829
~ -Q.63G
2 . G8
rifle (s}
oo 14

Bulletin oj Indian Sodety of Earthquake Techn.olugy, Vol. 3 I, Nc. I" 1994.

B Vert. !
(9j Narayan .I.p., Sharma. M.L., and Kumar Ashwani. "A Seismological Repon on the ,
26 January 2001 Shuj, India Earthquake", Seismological Research ulters. Vol. 73,
J'.:o. 3, Maynunt,.\ 2002. j
1
[IOJ Shrikhande, M . e[ al. "The March 29, 1999 Eartl1quakc at Chamoli. India". 12th
WCEE. Auckland. New Zealand, February, 2()00.
/.III Thakkar, S.K . Dubey. R.N .. am! Agarwal, Pankaj. "Damages 'and Lessons Learnt from
R(;(;CEL Indian Earlnquakes", Svmposium on F.arthquake 4fft!cts OJ! Stru('lIlr'<;, Plant
29 . G8
TiM (s}
oo
'" 12. 14

<iNti /..-1(/("lilllcr\', New Ddhi, NovefllOcr 13-5, 1996. Figure At Strong mution records of Muzaffarabad earthquake of October 8, 2005 8t
11\ 11 (IS" SeisJno/ecftHlic Atlm (~f"frujitl (Iud jrs /:,'nvirorl(.:. Geological Survey of india, 2000. Dharamsha}Q Himachal Pradesh.
p.1J ClSL (Jf!(Jrkashi PflrlhqUllkt", GeOlogical Survey of India. 1995.
Seism.ic Performance of Buildings
,;!'FEfoiDlX I: MUZA.FFARABAD EARTHQUAKE OF o{~TORER 8, 2005
The mo;;t affected ;.reas on the Indian side are Uri. Baramulla and the adjoining areas
KupwlJra diSlliet like Sultan, Dhaki, Kamal Kote and a vast part of Tang~har~~~rnah. Ka~dl
0:
and Teethwal, ISO ion from Srinagar and 34 km from Muzaffarabd In Paklstan-oeeupled
;f;"io; c,:nLqlJ;l!...C OCnhTcd:lt 1ST 09:2n;4() hour::; nn SuturullY, OCloner B, 2005. The
Kashmir (POK), where the majority of casualties: look pia!;!.';, Ah~ut t400 people .were r~po~ed
/!]ccnlrc .d' il1,\ cilr!hquakc or magnitude {.6 wrls located at r14.49.1N, 73,629E ncar
killed in Jndia, out of which B50 were in Uri alone and 300 In Kupwara hesldes Snna~ar.
'A;'/.~:iT;lrilhad in Pa"-is.a:~lIH)Ctupiet1 K3shmir (POK). The focal deprh of this carlhquakc ha~
Udhampur and Jammu. In India alone. aboul 45,000 houses were destroyed and 75,000 were
"'.';:'-~ (":'-.lirnall'd ;)" 26 ~:)1. Thi" canhqua/"e \.va~ tile direct rC!o.ui( tl1(; colJi::.itm Indi:lJl plafe
or or partially damaged, Moreover, the tremors were also felt in Himachal. Pradesh, PunJ~b.
",,("JJ l>! :l~l'1hv'/"lrd at ;'1 r:iic or ;:nnw Ito 111m/year towards the Etlra."inn pl;lh;.
r

r:llranch81, Hary;ma. Raja:;thall, DeIhL etc. The Rhaking due 10 earthquake Tn these states With
Wi,. ( Earthquake Re.!li~tant De8ign of Stn&dures

{he exception of north Kashmir was nOl suffieient to develop seismic forees causing damage to
structures which may be verified by the strong motion records, for instance the peak acceleration
was 0,024 g in longitudinal, 0,0235 g in transverse and 0,114 g in venical direction at Chapter 25
Dharamsh.l. in Himachal Pradesh,

Elastic Properties of
The majority of the buildings 1n Jammu and Kashmir are masonry houses made of burnt brick
(46%), unbornt brick (20%), stone (24%), and wood (7.5%), while in the remaining ones, the
materials like grass. thatch, bamboo, etc, as per Census 2001, Similarly, the roofs are generally
Structural Masonry
lightweight sloping made of GI, metal, asbestos sheets (43%) or grass, thatch, hamboo, wood
(38%). In flat terrain, flat roof construction in eoncrete (18%) is also used. Heavy sloping roof
is seldom used in the construction.
In Uri, situated in seismic zone N, where the principal damage occurred. more than 90%
houses were made or stone masonry in low strength mortar without any earthquake resistant
measure while the rest were of mud unburnl and burnt brick. wood, grass, thatch, bamboo. etc.
j

GI metal sheets or asbestos sheets were used for roofs without proper connection to the walls. 25.1 INTRODUCTION
In Bammula, most of the houses were found made of either burnt bricks (62%) or unhurnt bricks
(24%) and stone masonry (6-7%) while only a few were found to be of mixed construction, Structural masonry is a combination of a few or all the constituent masonry m.aterials: m~'\onry
Le. with brick and stone together. The roof material in this area was Gl meta) sheets. Moreover, unit, mortar. grout and reinforcement. The physical and engineering propertIes of constltue~t
the openings in walls were very high and that too in a zjg,zag way. The use of light weight roof materials have already been widelY discussed in standard undergraduate textbooks and thelT
:.:onstruetion has been the only saving grace. -~~ t ' BIS codes . The strength and stiffness properties of integral
..
masonry or masonry
f '1
assembla e are not very common particularly in India, hence.very.bmlted III ?mlaUOn IS ~val-
able eve; in the codes, This chapter will deal with the engmeenng pro~rtles of const:went
Causes of Damage and Non-damages
materials in brief and with a detailed discussion On the str~ngth and stl~fness properties ?f
Th~ causes of failure of masonry buildings either of sLone masonry or brick masonry (hurnt or masonry assemblage, Infonnation and data given here are vahd ~or.respectJVe masonry ~ests In
Jnburnt) are similar to those found in previous earthquakes like Bhuj, 2001; Chamoli, 1999; laboratory. However, a good interpretation can be made for the slmllar type of masonry 10 case
labalpur, 1997; Killari, 1993; and Uttarkashi. 1991. These causes may he summarized as lack of absence of sufficient data,
)f structural integrity, absence of bond between perpendicular walls causing separation from
!itch other at the junction, absence of through or bond elements in walls resuhing separation of
nncr and oULer wythes, collapse of outer wythe of exterior stone masonry walls, out~of~planc 25.2 MATERIALS FOR MASONRY CONSTRUCTION
'allure of unanchored gable walls, parapet, ageing. inferior construction malerials+ elc. The out-
>(-p)ane failure is gcnerafIy observed in majority of damaged buildings. A major reason for 25.2.1 Unit
nosi of the failure is total disregard for earthquake resistant features 1n contemporary , '/ ay be bn'ck block made from concrete or clay, stone. adobe etc, Depending
',on::.trucll0n. However, old masonry constructions of the DhajjiMDewari type 1n the region t,. masonry Un! m . . . k bI k
upon the unit used in the masonry. the construction may be claSSified as bnc masonr:Y' oc
:onsists of corncr wooden post connecting honzontal and vertical strut making a frame and masonry slone masonry, adobe masonry. etc, IS 4326: 1993 in Clause 8.1 I ha~ speCIfied the
llrthcr stiffened by diagonal brace. The open spaces are filled with tight-fitting briek or stone
minimu~ requirement of masonry unit. The c.ode specifies that wel.i-burnt bflc,ks and : :
nasonry. This wooden frame with diagonal hrace helps to make the structure monolithic and t'oncrete blocks possessing a compress.ive/crushmg strength not less than 35 MPa shall be .
:lastic so that il works as an integral unit. These provisions a.re very much similar to the Moreover for squared sto;.e masonry, stone block masonry or hollow concrete blocks the
ccommonded earthquake resisting fcalures using various bands: at different height to tie waHs
sp~ification according to IS 1597 (Part 2): 1992 having adequate strength may be used, The
() each olher wltli vcnical reinforcement at comer and opening to form a united closed system. . h f .t be defined as the maximum stress to whlch the umt can be
n spite or its age, the Dha..iji~Dewari con.structions have performed vcry well during the compres:!i1ve strengt 0 unt may , . h bedd J e
subjected by a gradually increasing load applied in perpendIcular eIther to t e 109 p an o~
:anhquake. The efCicacies nfthesc mca:-;ure:-: have also been experimentally verified, particularly 1 position The modulus of elasticity of the individual umt lS not generaUy d~term~n~
n stOne masonry with mud or cement mortar and puhlishcd in various re."iearch papers and given norma " If' " "ed the modulus of eiaStlclty
and is therefore not specified m most of the codes. It JS requH , .
n Chapter :1 t .,ls0.
449

1
.Iiillil*. (r"E'-art=h"C""-.'",,,-:-n=.,",".,"."Cn7,-;l)'.",:7,gn=-"C.-;"S",=,...."Cc",,,",..=,---------------..-----.., c Chapter es Elastic P~pert~es oj Structural MtVJonry ; _M_
for the units may be obtained by secant modulus of stress--strain curve of unit under compression, in which~
which is the slope of a line from zero stress to approximately 33% of the unit compressive r. flexural tensile strength of mortar in psi (1 psi = 6.894 Nlm2)
strength. The modulus of elastidlY of the unit remains somewhat greater than the respective
rnuRonry.
= 6.894 Nlm2)
' " = compressive strength of mortar in psi (1 psi
The tensile strength of the unit is measured by the modulus of rupture or splitting tension, Compressive strength of nwrtar can he approximated as:
which increases with the unit's compressive strength, but is generally a smaller fraction of the I, = 3.25saf;m554/j + 1'(130 - FJ)
compressive strength. The ratio of modulus of rupture to compressive strength varies from about
0.10 up to 0.32 (Drydale, Hamid and Baker, 1994).
I, = compressive strength of mortar in psi (l psi = 6.894 Nlm2) ..
s = I for 2 in (50 mm) cubes. 0.9 for 2in x 4-in (50 mm x 100 mm) or 3-10 x 6-tn
Another stiffness index may be expressed in terms of Poisson's ratio i.e. the ratio of lateral
expansion to longitudinal deformatjon. Experiments reveal value$; 0.23 for un grouted clay (76 mm x 150 mm) cylinders
masonry to 0.40 for grouted clay masonry (Schneider and Dickey, J994). a = mortar curing factor values varies 0.7 at 7 days, 0.85 at 14 days. 0.93 at 21 days, and
1.0 at 28 days. For air-<lrled specimen at 7 days and 28 days. a = 0.8.
{3 = air content factor [{3 = 0.021 (57.3 A)J, A Air content in mortar by volume, where
25.2.2 Mortar
A<30.asa%
Mortar is a plastic mi;..l:Ure of material:-; ust:d Lo bind masonry unit into a structurdi mass. IS =
T = plastic mortar age faclor IT 0.029 (35 - Ti)]; and Tp = age of plastic mortar i.e.
4326: j 993 in Clause 8.1.2 has recommended mortar mixture used in masonry construction in time in mixing to time in use), in hours (rr <. 4)
seismic areas for various categories of building. The categories of construction are defined in =
/j = mortar type factor Ie I + 1.46 Jog (CIL)]
Clau..;e 7.1 dependlng upon the design seismic coefficient (all) (Category: A (0.04 < a" < 0.05). 1'= (C)L + 3.7)
B (0.05 < u, < 0.06). C (0.06 < ()., < 0.08), D (0.08 < u, < 0.12) and E (0.12 " u,).
Recommended mortar mixture for A categories of construction type building are M2 (Cement~
sand I :6) or M, (Lime-cinder J :3) or even richer. For the construction of Band -C category type 25.2.3 Grout
buildings the recommended mortar are M2 (Cement~lime-sand 1 :2:9 or Cement-sand 1:6) or Grout is a mixture of Portland cement, sand, gravel and water. It is generaUy used for incre,asing
richer and for D and E type of construction, the recommended mortar are H2 (Cement-sand 1:4) the compressive strength of masonry, It is pla~ed in. the cores of hoHow ~asonry umts or
or M, (Cememlime-sand 1:1:6) or richer. Masonry may further be subdivided on the basis of between the wythe of solid units to bind the remforcmg steel and masonry mto a structural
type of morlar used for example brkk masonry in cement mortar. The important properties of
sy'tero.,IS 4326 .' 1993 has recommended minimum cement " concrete of grade M 15 SO as to
'ded th ba'
the hardened mortar that affect masonry construction are bond strength. flexural tensile strength achieve good bond and corrosion resistance. Here masonry 15 further subdl\'l on e SIS
and compressive strength. Bond strength of mortar is usually Jesser than the flexural tensile of grouting. Grouted masonry excels in compressive strength.
strength of mortar therefore the flexural tensile strength of masonry is governed by the bond
strength of mortar to brick. These propertje~ may be determined as (Grimn, 1975),
25.2.4 Rein.forcement
Bond "trength of mortar to hrick ("an be estimated os: Reinforcing steel in masonry has been extensively used in lb~ western countries for revital.isi~g
tv = 0,(10511.8 + (F - 105)0'J(40 - A)(I24 - 1m) the masonry construction in earthquake prone areas. Reinforcmg steel ~xtends the char.a~tenstlcs
of ductiHty, toughness and energy 3bsorption that is very nece,ssary III structures sU~Jected t~
'[~ which, the dvnamic forces of earthquakes. Reinforcing sleel also reStst the shear ,and tensiI~ forces
..Ii, hond stH:ngrh of mortar to brick in psi (1 psi;::: 6.894 Nim1 ) gene;ated by the dynamic load. Masonry with reinforcement is ftl~er ChlSSlfie,ct as rem.f~rced
.
masonry. . f orced rna,sonr Y' ~rform'
Rem well in earthquake.
because !l has suffiCIent ducttllty to
In I d'
f = ini[ial lIow of romtar. 0$ a % (F= 195[1.72 + log(C.JL] l(WIC.. ) - 0.05J -72): and y-' '
sustain the load reversals beyond the capability of plaint unremforced n:-asonry. n la,
WiC . . , ;::: waler-cement ratio by weight where 0.4 < (WIC..,) < 1.0
reinforcement is provided in the fonn of various horizontal bands, and vertical rel~force~ent
il..~ air content Hi mOl'tar by volume. where A < 30, as a %
at the corners and junctions of walls and around the openings" Horizontal bands w1th vertlcal
f;) mrll1t1r pxpo~lln:, lime !spreading mortar of laying brick). whcre f < 120, in seconds reinforcement at cornerS and junctions of walls are provided to integrate t~c structure and steel
,f trxllral fClHil(' sJrcnglh <?t m(wlOj" can be approximated as: provided around the opening to prevent the diagonal cracks that ten~ to radl~te ,from the c:)rnecs
of opening:. )S 4326: 1993 ;;;pecifies the reqUirements and the Size of rem10rccmenl m the
masonry depending upon the bUilding category.

1
ewa [Barth-quake R'111i8iant Desigrt oj Strttctures

25.3 ELASTIC PROPERTIES OF MASONRY

ASSEMBLAGE
It is difficult to determine the strength and elastic propenies of masonry on the basis of known
propenies of the constituent material c.g. masonry units, mortars, grout and reinforcement. The Stress
prediction of the behaviour of masonry assemblage on the basis of its constituent material is too Unit
complex. Therefore, tbe strength and elastic properties of integral masonry are detennined by
making of wall specimens and resting under vertical and cyclic lateral loading (Drysdale, Hamid .- Prism
and Baker, J 994), which are discussed as follows: __- - - Mortar

25.3.1 Compressive Strength L _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Strain

Compressive strength plays an important role in load bearing structures. Compressive strength
of masonry is often used as the basis of assigning design stress and in some cases as a quality
control measure. Its imponance is realised in relalion to otber strength characteristics.
Test machine capacity. specimens height limits etc, have made the use of prism necessary
a<:; the principal type of compression test specimen rather than full scale specimens, A standard
Irism according to IS: 1905-1987 usually consists of one masonry unit long, one unit thick and
shall be at least 40 cm high and shall have a height to thickness ratio (hit) between 2 and 5,
as per actual construction. For convenience, the stack pattern is commonly used to study the
strength, stiffness and deformation capacity of masonry in compression (Figure 25.1a). When
masonry prisms with height~to-thickness ratio (hIt) of less than 5 are tested, the ultimate
::ompressive strength must be multiplied by the factor given in Table 25.1 to correct slenderness
::":ffects. The ultimate compressive strength of prism is calculated by dividing the maximum
,ampress;ve load by tl,e crosssectional area of prism. The ASTM E 447, Method B describes
.cst equipment,. test procedures of prism tests in detail
Unit Mortar
(e)
(a) (b)
FIGURE 25.1 (a) Prism under axial eompressiun (b) Slate ur stress .r units .nd mortar
(e) S~r.iu relationshlp for materials and prism (1I1cNary .nd Abrams, 1985).
The stress-str.tin relationShip and the value of Young's modulus for brickwork in co~pres
sion are frequently required in structural design. The modulus of masonry may be estImated
from the following methods;
Secant metlwd: Powell and Hodgkinson, 1976 (Source: Hendry. 1998) have tested brickwork
in compression to failure using four types of bricks having different strength for detefIm~mg the
stress-strain relationship. The mortar strengtb has been kept the same. The ,str~-stram curve
h b shown in Figure 25.2(.) and the results of these tests are summanzod .m Table 25.2.
B~ pl~~~ng these stress-strain curves on a dimension less baliis in Figure 25,2(b), It IS found that

_.__TABLE
....
25.1 Prism height to thickness correction factors (IS: 1905-1987)
Prism (lilt)
Correction factor (Brick work)
2.00
0.73
2.50
0.80
300
0.86
350
0.91
4.00
0.95
5.00
1.00 N-;
20 1
1.0,
Correction factor (Block work) 1.00 1.20 1.30 1.37
VOle: Interpolation is veiled for imermediates values. ~
~
~
o
When prism is subjected to uniaxial compressive force. Figure 25.1(a), the mortar has a $}O
endency to expand laterally more than brick. Since mortar and brick are bound together, the
trick confines the mortar laterally. Shear stress at the brick mortar interface results in an internal
c
0.2
tate of stress which consists of triaxial compreSSIon in the mortar and bilateral tension coupled
vith nnJ(),xiaJ ~ompression in the brick as shown in Figure 25.1(b). The stres5-:;train curve of o -~~'::--.~-.'+ ...-----'-...
l1e \lUi'., mortar and masonl1 under axial compression is shown in Figure 25.1(c). The figure 0.002 0.004 a.ooo 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
Strain rlelrnx
iaritle"i that the masonry has lesser Strength c()mpared to it" unit. It may also be observed that (b)
(til
he mode offailure of prism has been vertical :::piitting in case of large hIt ratio prism and typical
hear fuilure ill low hit ratio prislO. FJGURE 25.2 Stress-strain cnn'es for brickwork in compression: la) Fuu. I:ypes uf brickS
1:'A:3 mortar (h) Dimensionless sti'eSS-StTain Cllrvt",S (H('ndry~ 1998).

i
1
 ( Chap1.r.r 25 Elastic Properties nj Structural Masonry )

TABLE 25.2 Stress-strain relationship for brickwork (mortar 1:114:3. mean compressive
strength 15.24 N/mm') (Hendry, 1998) 25.3.2 Flexural Tensile Strength.

Brick compressive Brickwork c:,;o:m:::p::re::x:s=iv::e---------;E:la-s-n:-'c-m-od-:u-I:-u-s---~ Masonry walls subjected to lateral load either due to wind, earthquake or eccentric vertical
strength (N/mm2) slr~nglh (N/mmZ) ------~~
externalloadJor self-weight produce bending aboul the vertical axislhorizonta] axis or both the
langent- (N/mm') suanl*- (N/rom') axis, depending upon its Sl1pport condition and geometry. Bending about vertical axis llroduces
25,5 9,33 flexure tem;ion normal to bed joints iftn) and bending about horizontal axis produces flexure
4960 3740
45.3 20.10 tension paralleJ to bed joint (itp)' The flexures tensile strength (modulus of repturc) is, of course.
16830 ll610
69.6 19,93 different in bending in a plane norma] to bed joints (/,11)' than for bending in a plane parallel
18230 11900
71.7 27.65 to bed joint (frp) in the watL The ratio of flexuraJ tensile strength parallel to bed joint iflp) to
12930
"'hliun} tangent modulus normal to bed joints iftn)' referred to as [he orthogonal strength ratio R which is affected by
-:-"SecaJ}! ,nodulus <It 2/3 of maXlmuUl s!res~ many factors. It if; a measure of" the degree of anisotropy of the material and is set at 2.0 in
masonry codes:, However, the ratio range., from 1.5 to 8 for clay ma~onry (Baker, j 977),
lhe cu~ves for the four ,rypes of bricks are in the Same fonn and in good agreement as reported ASTM E 72 has defined lhe method and tested the procedure for determining the
by TUlDsek and CacovJ~. ],9:1. The relationship is closeJy represented by the parabola. flexural tensile strength. which is referred as Wall test ASTM E 518 provides two methods
The modulus of ettJ!ltlcny from the stress strain can be determined as. for performing tests on flexure beams known aM beam Us!. Method A uses concentrated load!;
at 113 points of the span and Method B uses a uniform loading over the entire span as shown
Chord modulus for a line joining lite M1A. 1998
in Figure 25.3(a) and 25.3(b) respectively.
curl'' at 5%, (~r fir. to 33% q(1/11.
Chord modulus j(Jr a line joining the Knuisson and Nielsen. 1995 (Source: Hendry,
curve ar 5% of fm /() 35% of fm 1998)
a Since ihis re~i~n usuaIJy lies w~ll within the reasonabJe linear part of the curve, the lower T
d
p rt.of the curve J~ Ignored because 1t often represents a relatively flat region associated with _t
closmg up of the mterface between the mortar and the units.
Empirical
'. ' A n urn b er 0 f aut hors have correlated the modulus of elasticity of masonry
basis: (a),f, = (P ~ Q.75 P,) l!INi')
[0 Its compreSSIve ;;trength (fm) on an empirical basis as below:
It = moduius of rupture (MFa), P= maximum machine app,jed load (N), ~f = weight of specimen.
Em ~ 7501m, 20.5 Gpa (maximum) MIA, 1998 (N), I"'" span, mm. b = average width of specimen, mm, d "" average depth of specimen, rom
Em = 400 - 1000f," Sahlin, 1971 I'IGURE 25.3 (.) Method A set-up (b) Method R set-up (RIA, 1988).
Ern = 2116 'fm Schubert, 1982
Em = 1180fmo,,, Sinha and Pedreschi. 1983 Many investigators (Grimn. 1975) have attempted to establish a relationship between
Em lOoo f." EC 6 and C1B (Bull, 2001 J material properties and flexural tensile strength. Flexural tensile strength (modulus of rupture')
of brick masonry is a function of tensile bond strength of mortar to brick. mortar cement
Comprcs~ive ;;trength of brickwork jn different mortar is given in Table 2< :j (SP 20
content, mortar bed joint thickness, and orientation of mortar bed joint with respect to span
(S&T); 1991), . .~.~

rABL~ 25;3 Strength of brickwork in different mortar (using clay brick of strength
32,7 !'\fmm .I (SP 21l (S&T): 1'J9l}
MOrlar c()mpl"c~sive
strength (28 days)
C emeni: II {}/(-' " ~ ond "N/~-;'i(i)"-
either normal to joint Or parallel to joint. Table 25.4 shows the result' of James (Hendry, 1998)
in different type of mortar. Test results indicated that the flexural tensile strength parallel to bed
TABLE 25.4 Flexural tensile strength of sman specimens (Hendry, 1998)
Erickwo-rlc....~~~pressiv(:---Rali()
Mortar Flexure slrengJh
s1rcn/ifh (28 days)
Parallel to bed joint
N/mm' (y) Y/X .~~~

I !/.:1. \ ------~~--- 3-,:ollrst' specimen 4-course

17.8 8.9 (Un
! .)/2;4;/2 1.78
1(j,g
9.3 0,86 ! :2:9 039 2.08
I;) 'n 4,7 1:1 :6 0594 2.40 2.03
g,) U2
I/;q
1.7 4J, 2,69 '1143 0.984 1,74 2.29
 rl_~-::,-::,-::,_._.. _______-"c"'"''''p::;:'''''::. 25 Eltutic P,..,pertie,~ oj St,MlcttJra~ Masonry) _ " .
joint has not been much affected by the type of mortar however a difference Was noticeable in
the orthogonal direction. 'to ;: : cohesion or bond strength between the mOrtar to brick in N/mm'2
Grimn, 1975 has established a formula for estimating the flexural tensile strength of brick In nonnal compressive stress in N/mm~ and
masonry as, # :::;; coefficient of internal friction of brick work . . ,
This equation suggests that as an increase in the normal compressive stre~s 1S applIed to
b 'k k th horizontal shear strength of the brickwork also increases, But t!us phenome~on
i:~r~~;ri;'le eOnly "pro when the normal compressive stress rem.ins under prISm compresSIVe
s~gth starts declining The decrease m shear strength corresponds
in which, strength ; af terward s the .Lear
"" "". . . . k 1994)
[0 the ehancre in the compression splitting failure mode (Drydaie. Hamid and Ea er, "
J; ::: flexural tensile strength of brick masonry normal to bed joint in psi (1 psi = Moreover the value of f1 also starts to decrease substantiaHy with increasing normal compressIve
6,894 N/m2) stress and it has been necessary to consider an average ~al,ue of #_ .
H =: workmanship con.:;tant for masonry in flexure (1 for alJ mortar joint fiiled and 0,8 A wide range of values of coefficient of internal fnenon (J1) and the ~nd s~ear stren~l~
has been re rted depending upon the material used an? the lest speclmen~ and ,load~n~
arrangement~ m~de ~nc~
joints partly filled)
The coeffIcient of internal friction (11) for bnck masonry "';lth ,ohd
k :;:; ~,me% orientation factor (1 for nonna) to bed joint and 2 for paranel to bed joint)
. f 0 0 l 084 "nd bond strength ('!O) varies from 0.20 to 0.40 Nlmm
h fb' . Perhaps
k 11 -
/, = bond strength of mortar 10 brick in psi (I psi = 6,894 Nlm2) vanes rom ,.. 0 , "
o 68 and 'l<t;: 0.3 is a reasonable value. Typical vaJue for the shear strengt 0 fIC masonry
if mortar joint thickness, in inch
C,JL:= cement-lime ratio by volume in mortar
~n os from 410 kNlm' 10 4690 kNlm2 (Grimm, 1975). . ..
g M' n are 'ntended to resist shear force due to in plane latera) load In addItIon to
aso~ry wa S , 11 d and bendj~g ExperimentaJ)v there is no standardised test for the
Typical values for the flexural tensile strength nonnaj to bed joint of conventional brick
maSl)ory range from 50 psi to 500 psi (340 k..~/m2 to 3,400 kN/m2) the eff~ct ~ comfPrhesslvetreOOngth of masonr'y along the
detennmatlon 0 sears
bed
Joint. However, in literature Triplet
. ,. _, "
t' test is mentioned for the determination of shear strength, wah an mt~ntlOn to mlm~l,ze
25.3.3 Shear Strength ~jng stresses on the mortar joint and to produce unif?IID, shear deformauon along the Jomt
but the variation in the results is very large, as shown 10 Figure 25.4,
Load bearing masonry waJJs are often subjected to axial compression (vertical dead and Hve
p
loads), flexure (eccentlic vertical loading, wind or earthquake loading) and also shear (in-plane
lateral loads and the effecu; ofaxiai load and bending). This combined loading creates a state I
of compJex stress in the walJ and becomes one of the causes to its failure, Depending upon the of compression machine
form of construction and the relative value of compressive and shear forces the possible shear
failure modes in masonry a.'\sembJages are; (i) shear slip failure along bed joint-if shear force
is greater than the normal compression force; (ii) diagonal tension cracking-if both shear force Fiberboard
and normal compressive force are comparative: and (iii) shear .compression failure or splitting Horizontal
failure-if shear force is a small fraction of normal compressive force. First two modes of M'"--r""'770,71?h'777/:h1==rn~~ reaction frame
failure are mOre commonly observed in the ca~ of failure of m.asonry walls during earthquakes.
11lerefore, the shear strength against bed joint failure as well as diagonal tensile (shear) strength
S1iifCl1cd I
o:gainst diagonal tension are of considerable concern 10 structural designer, especially where
St':isrnic design is required, section

Shear strength along bed ioint

T!u ~he3.r -:trength along the bed john is the function of bond strength between mortar and units Steel bearing

NI':illormal compressive ,Ire"~. II

block
j, best repre,enled by the Mohr-Coulomb type of equation i.e.
T -:0 Ttl +JJin Bcd fo, colnpro"si."
machine 1'12
' : :;.0 ult!rTlo:Itc ,>near strengtn of the brickwork in N/mm2
FIGURE 25.4 Diagrammatic representat;on of Triplet tt.'S1 equipment (Smith and Car'ter,
1971).

1
 ,r-------------;C"'h::,p:::'::.cr;:-;;.',""'iE'Ll",;;,:;;"";;:-ProP;;;~$~~~~~ M@_
OEf-axis compression test js also perfonned on the specimens construcled with mortar Joints where,
a/ various angles to the loading axis, whieh produces different combinations of compressive w = width of specimen, mm
IOfee norr.:1ui 10 bed joints and shear force paraIJel to the bed joint The modes of failure h = height of specimen, mm
(kp,'oding upun the cOlnpression and shear stress in the specimen are shown in Figure 15,5, 1 = total thickness of speclmen, mm , .
n = percent of the groRS area of the unit that is solid, expressed as a deCImal
The moduius of rigidity or shear modulus (mooulu!'\ of elasticity in !'\hear) may be calcu-
lated as follows (ASTM, 20(2);
---~.~ G=f,!r
ompreSSion

1 I failure
where,
Joint failure G = modulus of rigidity, MPa
L._.._ .. ___.__ _ h : : : diagonal remile (shear) SIress
t'.V+t'.H
i" r::::: shear strain calculated as
(b) llV = vertjcal shortening, mm
lit<, :URF, 25.5 ill) Off-axis compression tcst (Drydale, Hamid and Baker, 1994) (b) faHure 8 V horizontal shortening, mm .6. Vl
~cd:;~ 0; nmsonry in ~bcar wilh vertical eompf'CR'Iion (Hendry, 1998). " ::: vertical gauge length, mm (tJR must be bosed on the same gauge length as jor .
"I k' g test method compressive :stresses are introduced inlo the specimens through the
' d wn nr ac
This lO
method of,test requires a specimen of square wa .U.':ilze b'24mx24!l1
~ . . .. .
mag""al tensile (shear) strength
tleb , 0 ted' to a horizontal force at the top of the walL The vertical tie down IS also reqmred to
The railure of' \\'ali" during earthquake is caused by combined effect of normal compres~ive and su Jee t '.'(.on of lh. <pecimen and overturning of [he specimen. Figure 25.6 (b). TI1e results
preven roW. 1 '" "~ , I d' d ' f " nd wall
silear "trcsses, w}licb is reprcsenled by the principaJ tensile stress and when it exeeeds, the b ' ed from the rackin o test are relevant for the particular oa 109 con 1 IOn. a .
d:~gontl; ;C/H,:Jc strenglh of the masonry failure will take place. TheASTM lest standards specify tam
ooeometry used.m rhe le<t ~"alls
.~ . V" with no axial load, -'vield slightly higher results, whIch remaJO
2<;% to 50% reater than the bond strength of brick to mortar. .
a;~enee
two le;.:t method;; for determining the diagonal tension (shear) strength. ASTM E 519. Standard
T(~;..,t M('thoc] for Diagonal Tension (Shear) in Masonry Assemblages and ASThI E 72, ,Method -.? In the of experimental data, the foUowing equation may be used to eStlmate the
j"Of ConducH~lfl SueJlgth Tests of Panels for Building Construction are generally used for this .
dIagonal . ' streng th (G nmn,
tensIle . 1975) and shear modulus of brick masonry as follows:
pUrptlSC, The E 72 racking toad test may be applied for te$ting materials and construction of
oil rypes, while E 519 applies only for masonry (BIA, 1992),
The diagonal tension tcst is ba!':cd on subjecting a 1.2m x I.2m square section of wall by
the thickness {If the wall type to diagonal comp~ssion through loading shoes at two diagonaJly
Opposife corners of the specimens, shown jn Figure 25.6(a). The faiJure mode of the test is
j}lrough formalic)ll of diag0nal ~:mck para!!el to the line of action of the compression force,
Tile dwg0naj tensile Slre,% may be cakulated from the equation;

f, ~ ()707 PIA
w];':;

,Ij)j':ic(; toad 0\1) ;)Ild

1', ',','cr,:!:.(' of !he !!r:)~,~ OJ IW! LIre:.! of (he cross ..;;ection along the bed and hcad joints in
'ILl!

"h ".,0,_" ,'JC' i>, p;;;.:d in cak'.Ji~lLj(\f! if lhe specimcns arc c()nstru~:ted with solid units,
.. ', ", i ~<C;' .:, 11' r! ;" c;;:~' !II ';/!l:ciu(';'1 WJ(1l hn[low unii.). Net flfca of the sp('.("jmeo, rnm1
(,) (0)
,",;iu:i;w Ii ,'~
FIGURE 25.6 Standard shear test (a) DiagonaJ tension !e~" instrumentation fur modulus (~i
rigidity (hI Rackin~ lest frame and spccim~n (iUA, ~9R7t
'"
I
L
 l-_ _ _ _~_ _~--=Ch=c.?ter 25 Elastic prope-rties oj Stf"'U.Ctura! Ma.'wn;:U .".

Diagonal tensile (sbear) strength \4] American Society of Testing and Materials, "Standard Methods f~r Con~ucting
Strength Tests on Panels for Building Construction", ASTM E 72. Phlladelph,.. PA.
fd, = k(f;' )05
1989,
1m ;;;; diagonal tensile strength of brick masonry in diagonal tension, in psi (l psi = 6.894
[5] Amrhein, 1.E., Reinforced Masan.ry Engineering Handbook-Clay and Concrete
Nlm2) Masollry, 5th ed., Masonry Institute of America, 1992.
k = constant factor, the values of k ranged between 2.5 and 4.5. An average value of 3.5 ASlM. ASTM Standards in Building Codes. ASTM lnrernaJionaJ, West Con!'hobockcn,
may be used.
[6]
PA,2002. h
f~1 = Compressive strength of brick masonry prism) in psi (1 psi = 6.894 NEm!) ll1 S
[7] Baker, L.R., "The Latera) Strength of Bdckwork--An Overview"'", Pmceed lI of I l:
Sixth lnternational Symposium on Load Bearing Brfckwork, I:?ndon, ~997, ""IN
Shear modulus BIA., "Testing for Engineered Brick Masonry-:-Ouaht y Con"';l ,TechlUai Nmes ." ~
[8]
The shear modulus of brick masonry G is inverSely proportional to the shearing stress and is on Brick Consltucrion, Brick Indus.try ASSOCIatIon. Reston, \ng mJa , 1988,
propor1ionaJ to the pre compressive stress. For approximate crucuJation, G might be taken as \9] BIA, "Testing of Engineered Brick Masonry--Detcrminat!on of Allowable . .
Stresses'~, Technical Notes 39A on Brick Construction, Bnck Industry ASSOCJUtW)1,
G = El2(1 + v) Reston, Virginia, 1987, , ,
where, Bull. l.W., Computation Modelling of Masonr.\', Brickwork alld BlocJ..v..'UI'k S,rucfiH",C"
110]
E ; :;: modulus of elasticity in compression Saxe-Coburg Publications, UK, 200]. . ., "
v Poisson's ratio (for brick masonry value varies from 0.11 to 0.20) [11] CIB. "Intemational Recommendations for Design and Erectlon of Masonry BUJldmgs ,
MIA, 1998 has assumed the value of G = Q.4 E. Typical value for shear modulus of 1958. . ..
brickwork ranges from 1500-2000 Nlmm2 [I21 Dhanasekar, M., Puge, A.W" and Kleeman, P.W.. "The Fa,Iure oj Bnck Maso~,.y
Under Bi~axial Stresses'" Proceedings of lnstitutlol'J of Civil Engmeers, Part 2, 19,
295-313, June 1985. .
SUMMARY [13] DrydaJe, RG., Hamid, A.A., and Baker, L.R., Masonry STructures-BehavIOur and
Design, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1994. . ..
The properties of masonry are not very well related to its constituenfs materials such as unit [14] Eurocode No, 6, 1988. "Common Unified Rules for Masonry Strucmre1i", Commls!'JOn
mortar, grout and reinforcement. However, for seismic design of masonry structure there is ~ of the European Communities, Report EUR 9888 EN, 1988.
need to consider strength and elastic characteristics of masonry. The strength characteristics such . C T "Strength and Related Properties of Brick Masonry", Journal
[15] Gnmn. .., - "r
as compressive strength, tensile and shear strength are often required in checking design of Structural Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 101, No. ST 1, 217-232, January, 1970.. ,.
masonry structures. The modulus of elasticity, Poisson's ratio and damping properties are [16] Hamid, A.A. and Drydale, R.C. "The Shear Behaviour of Brickwork Bed Jom" ,
reqUired for carrying out seismic studies. There is a scarcity of data available on strength Proceedings of British Ceramic Society, No. 30, September 1982.
Charact~ristjcs an~ elastIC pr?pe~es . of n:asonry. This chapter deals with the engineering [17] Hendry, A~ W, Structural Masonry, 2nd ed., Macmillan Press: ]998. .
propertIes of constItuent matenals In bnef WJth a detailed discussion on the strength and stiffness [18] Hendry, A.W. and Sinha, B.P., "Shear Test on FuJI Scale Smgle Storey Brickwork
properties of masonry assemblage. The tests for detennining the strucrura] properties bave a150 Structures Subjected to Pre~compression", Civil Engineering Publtcarwns Wks ReI'"
been discussed. 1339-44, 1971. .
[19] IS 1905:1987 (1985). Code of Practice for Srrucfural Usc of Ullrel!1Iorced Mm,Ol:ry.
Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, 1985,
REFERENCES [20] IS 4326: 1993. Earthquake Resistant Design and Construcrion of Buildin6s-~Codc (~r
Prrutice, Bureau of Indi.n Standards, New Delhi. 1993.
[I] American Society of Testing and Materials, "Compre.. ivc Strength of Ma.,onrv Knutsson. H.H. and Nielson, J., "On the Modulus of Elasticity for Ma<;omy", Mar:orn:r
[21J
Assemblages", ASTM E 447--84, Philadelphia. PA, 1984, 1memational, 9(2), 57-61, 1995. . .
12J American Society of Testing and Material,';, Measurements of Masonry Flexural Bond McNarv, W.s. and Abrams, D.P. "Mechanics of Masonry in Compression", jmtnwl i~t
[22J
Strellll,\ll", ASTM C 1072-82, Philadelphia, PA, 1986, Srruct:rai Engineering, ASeE, Vol. 111, No.4, 857-870, April, 1985. '. .
[31 /".:Ylcrican Society of Te..,ting and Materia.ls, 'Test \1ctbod for Flexural Bond Strengtb MiA, Maso/Jry Codes artd Specification, A Co-puhlication of the M(}sonry InstItute o!
[23]
"I !Vlasonry", ASTM E 518--80_ Philadelphia, PA, 1987. America and 'CRC Press, New York, 1998.

1
 .~

- - -..~ ___ --.1

l24J Page~ A. w.. "Concentrate~ Load, on Solid Masonry Walls-A Parameteric Study aod
DesI::;n RecommendatJOns Proceedzngs of Institu.tion of Civil Engineers Part? 85-
271-289, June. 1982. - . -, -.
[25] P' K
!~pcr, . and Tr3utsch. W.o "Shear Tests on Walls", Proceedings of 2nd International Chapter 26
Bnck Masonry Conference (Stoke-on. Trent), H.WH, West and K.H. Speed (Ed. )
[261 Brmsh CeramIc Research Association, Stoke-an-Trent. 1971. "
:OW~IJ, B1/o: Hodgkinson, HR, "The Determination of Stress/Strain Relationship of
fie wor . roceedmg,'l of Fourth International Brick Masonry Conferen n' ,
Lateral Load
Paper 2,a,5, 1976, .' Y' ce,
127J Sahlin, S" Slr.crural Masonry. Prentice Hall. Englewood CHlfs, 1\ew Jersey 1971
lugge,
Analysis of Masonry
128J Schnerder., H.. Ie", on Shear Resistance of Masonrv" P d' r' .
. I
! nfern~t/orm ..
Brra MasonJj' Conference. Brugge, 1976.
J > rocee WRS () the Fourth
- .,
[29J s&e~nelder, H. and Schnell, w., "Tesl< On the Shear Strength of Brickwork" Betonw k
Buildings
. F<>rllgfcr{-7echmk, 44, 1978 ' er
i~nj NS,ChncJidcr. R.R. fin(j Dickey, W.L, Reinforced Masonrv Design 3rd ed Prenrl'" H"II
ew ersey, 1994. ~ ,~ "' """ '"',
[31j ?chubert, P:,."Modulus of EJa>ticity of Masonry", Proceedir:K' of Ihe Fifth !mer,
'l~!lOllal BJ uJ: Masonry Conjerencc, Washington, 1982.
[32J Smh., B,P:, and Pedreschi, R" "Compressive Strength and Some Elastic Pro rtie.s of
B:lckwork ,lnternatwnal Journal of Masonry CrmstruC'tion, J983. pe 26.1 INTRODUCTION
;33J Smthha' B,P, and Hendry, A,W., "Racking Test on Storey Height Shear Wall Structures
WI Operungs Subjected to Pre-comp ' " De' , Masonry buildings are widely used for housing constrUction not only in lndia but in many other
with Mason P ad res!o10n, s~gnmg, Engineering and Constructing
. ' ry r UCIS, EB, Johnson (Ed.). Gulf, Hooston Texas 1969 countries of the world. There are innurrtera.ble advantages of masonry construction over both
134J Sml!b, B;5, and Carter. c., "Hypothesis for Shear failure of Brick~ork": Journal 0 types of construction i.e. reinforced concrete and steel such a~ thennal comfort sound control.
;~7 ~~ruc'l1rol
D1VlSl0n, Proc'eedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers, APri( possibiJity of addition and alteration after construction, less formwork. easy and inexpensive
repair, us.e of local1y available materialS, need of les.s skHled labour, less: engineering
135] P T), Halldl~o{ik on Masonry DeSign and Construction, Bureau of Ind;an
Sta 2do id-S&N intervention etc. However, there are some disadvantages &s wen. particularly, when it is built
S n ar s, ew Deihl, 1991 in seismic environment. The seismic resistance capacity of masonry construction is relatively
1361 T umsek V and Cacov' F "s
M' ' W
II "
E '
Ie,.., orne xpenmental Results on the Strength of Brick low in comparison to engineered constructions. Table 26.1 compares the properties of masonry
aTsonry as, Prm:eedlngs of 2nd Internarionai Brick Masonry ConFerence Stoke- to the comparable properties of structural steel and reinforced concrete (STP 992, 1988),
on- rent, pp. 149~ 156, 1970, ' " Therefore. many developed nations have imposed certain restrictions on the use of unreinforced
masonry constructions. However. in developing nations unreinforced masonry construction is
still being used frequently. In India, masonry constructions are generally made by using locaHy
available materials like stone, brick, timber. adobe. mud etc, and are constructed in a traditional
manner with or without the earthquake resl.-;tant features mentioned in IS: 4326 and 13927.
Therefore, this type of construction is treated as non-engineered constTUction and most of the
casualties are due to coUapse of these constructions in earthquakes. Moreover the plight is that
even after gaining knowledge of earthquake engIneering since the last three decades, neither a
proper method has been developed for the seismic analysis and design of masonry buildings nor
{he topic is fairly covered in the current Indian curriculum in spite of the fact that about 90%
population of India lives in masonry buildings, The present and subsequent chapters are a step
towards with regard to develop a procedure for seismIC analysis and design of masonry
huildings. The procedure is divided imo several distinctive steps in order to create a solid feeling
and confidence that masonry buildings may al"tO be designed as engineered construction.

463
TABLE 26.1 Properties of masonry. slroclural steel, and reinforced eonerete masonry Diaphragm
unit strength and mortar strength (STP 992, 1988) t.~Z~~~$~;:':;; (distribution of lateral forces;
,/ depending rigidity)
Bricks 27600 Ii} 110000 kPa (4000 to 16000 psi) compression
2800 to 11000 !<Pa (400 to 1600 psi) lens;on
Mortar 5200 to 20700 kPa (750 to 3000 psi) compression Lateral load
70 to 2100 kPa (10 to 300 psi) tensile bond
SJre-sS(!j (ultimate) Brick masonry Steel Reinforced concrete Shear wall
{rcsi:n total lateral force)
14000 to 320::0.:0..:k:.:P.:a_..:4.:14.::::oo0 to 690000 kPa 41400 to 70000 kPa
Compression
(2000 \0 4600 (60000 \0 100000 (6000 10 10000

70 to 2 j(J() kPa 414000 to 690000 kPa 103400 to 206800 kP.

TensioJi
(10 to 300 psi) (60000 to 100000 psi) (15000 10 30000 psi)
FIexl,lJ'll:i wall
14000 to 32000 kPa 248000 [0 41400U kPa 41400 \0 70000 kP. (check for lateral force)
F!ext!fC
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ (2000 to 4600 psil.... _(36O(jO -'0 6000.c.0--,-p_'i:...)_-,,(o-,O-,00,-O;....:10;....:1.:.00,-0:.:0'-!:.p':.:i:.-) :nGURE 26.1 lo'orce resisting met:hanism in masonr)' buildings.
690 In 1400 kP. 138000 to 207000 kPa 690 to 2100 kP.
Shear
(100 to 200 psi) (20000 \0 30000 psi) (loo \0 300 psi) Step 2; Distribution of lateral forces on the basis of flexibility of diaphragms
Step 3: Determination of rigidity of shear wall by considering the openings
1400 to 2100 kPa 207000 \0 345000 kPa 1380 10 3450 kPa
Torsion Step 4: Determination of direct shear forces and torsional shear forces in shear walls
(200 [0 300 psi) (30000 [0 50000 psi) (200 to 500 psi)
Step 5: Determination of increase in axial load in piers due to overturning
Brittle Ductile Semi-brittle
Step 6: Check the slability of flexural wall for out-of~plane forte,
Coefficients 5,4 to 6.3 X 10-6 11.7 X 10-6 9,0 to 10.0 x
mmimmrC rnmlmrnrC mmlmm!~C
(thermal) ~~-.

26.2.1 Step 1: Detennination of Lateral Loads

(3.0 to 3.5 x Hr' (6,5 X 1O--.E in.linfF) (5.0 \0 5,5 x 10-<
in}in.rF) Earthquake load
Moisture 0.00018 [0 0.00025 One of the most important lateral loads on a structure is due to earthquake, which arises from
inertia (mass) of the structure. These earthquake loads arc sudden. dynamic and can be of
immense intensity. The magnitude of lateral force mainly depends upon the seismic zone, type
26.2 PROCEDURE FOR LATERAL LOAD ANALYSIS of soil or ground condition and fundamental characteristics. The design base ~hear shall fi~st be
computed as a whole, then be distributed along the height of the buHdin~s based on ~am~le
OF MASONRY BUILDINGS formulas appropriate for buildings with regular distribution of m311.S and stIffness, The deSign
~o ,unde:rstand the proper design procedure for Jow-rise masonry buildings, this procedure is lateral force obtained at each floor level shaH then be distributed to individual lateral load
:hv~ded lOtO l}everal distinctive steps. In actual practice, these various steps may not he so clearly resisting element depending upon fioor diapbragm aClion. Following arc [he ITI(ljor steps for
jeJmeated nor $0 distinctly separated, hut at this .o.;tage. at least, this step-by-step procedure is determining the lalcrdl forces
~ecommended in order to undersland if properly. Figure 26,1 shows masonry building suhjected
_0 a lateral load and it5 resisting mechani,,,m.]n load hearing masonry bUildings, the walls, which Design seismic base shear
;3.!'ry gr.:::vity load~, ,llso ad a,,{ .shear waJj., to resist tuteraJ load. The structural walls paralJel to The dc:-;ign seh;mk base shear force, VB that acts on the building in a given direction is a" follows
aleral force and subjecled to in~plane (,bem) forces and bending are culled shear wall.>. The walls
VB; (l", W
x:rpendictllur lO sej~mic force/1alcral force and suhjectcd to out-or~plane bending arc called
It'xflral walls, Followjng are the major Slepi' for the lateral load analysis of masonry building~: (X" ~ The design h()fj7.0ntai seismic coefficient for a structure. II IS determined hy the following
Sfep i: OctcnnirwtJon of l:1.1er,,1 load ba<;.ed on IS 1893 (Part !): 2001. c.xprcssion

I
I

1.
.i. (Edrthquake Resistant Design 01 Structures

(Zf2) (fIR) (Sa/g), provided that for any structure with T"" OJ sec the value of a, will not be
taken less than ZJ2 what ever be the value of lfR,
r----------;;Chapte.r 26 Lateral 'Load Analysis of MtuonrJJ .8uikiinga

where,
Q, : design laleral force at floor ;,
. " ,

where, Wi ,: seismic weight of floors i,

hi ::::; height of floor i, measured from base, and
(ZJ2) : Z IS the zone factor, based on Maximum Considered Earthquake (MCE) and service life
of structure in a zone. Factor 2 in the denominator of Z is used $0 as to reduce the MCE n = number of stories in tlte building is tlte number of levels al which the masses are
zone factor to the factor of Design Basis Earthquake (DBE), The counlI)' is divided into four located,
zones and the values of Zranges from 0.10 to 0.36, Zone factors for different zones are given
in Table 2 of IS 1893 (Part I): 2002, Example 1 Determine the lateral forces on two~storey un-reinforced brick masonry building
situated at Roorkee
(IIR) ::::; Ratio of importance factor and response reduction factor. The values of importance
factor and response reduction factors are given in Table 6 and 7 oflS 1893 (Part 1); 2002, The Building data The seismic dead load at roof le.vel (WJ)
ratio of (lIR} ::.hall not be greater than 1.0. Plan size = 20 m x 20 m Weight of roof
{So/g} <:;:;;: Average response acceleration coefficient for rock and soil sites based on appropriate Total height of building: 6 m = 2.5 x 20 x 20 1000 kN
natural period and damping of the structures. The equations of (S,.Ig) for different type of soil (each storey height = 3,0 m) Weight of walls
in different ranges of period are given in Clause 6.4.2 of IS 1893 (Part I): 2002, The value of Weight of roof 2,5 k."i/m' : (5 X 4 X 20 x 3)12 : 600 kN
lime period of the building may be determined as follows: Weight of walls: 5,0 kNlm' Weight at roof level (W,)
Live load al roof = 0 = 1000 + 600 = 1600 kN
Live load at floors: I kN/m' The seismic dead load at secondfloor level
(25% of imposed load if imposed load Weight of second floor
where, : 2.5 X 20 x 20 : 1000 kN
is lesser 'han 3,0 k."lm' as per
h = height of building, in m, Weight of walls
Table 8 of IS I 893 (part 1): 2002
d :::;, base dimension of the building at plinth level. in m. along considered direction of Zone factor (2) = 0,24 : (5 x 4 x 20 x 3) = 1200 kN
the lateral force, and Weight of live load
Importance factor (1) : 1.0
W = seismic weight of the building. Response reduction factor = 1.5 = 1 x 20 x 20 x 0,25 = 100 kN
Spectral acceleration (Sjg) : 2.5 Total weight at second floor (W,)
Vertical distribution of base shear to different floor levels Soil: Type II (Medium soil) : 1000 + 1200 + 100 : 2300 kN
The design base shear (VB) computed shall be distributed along the height of the building Total weight of building
(FIgure 26,2) as per the following expression = 1600 + 2300 = 3900 kN

- 573.74k.'N

- 206,26kN

(3) (b)
(b)
Elevatioo of masonry building and lateral for.
Fua:RJl: 26.2 (a) Seismic ~h('ar on building (b) Seismic: load (e) Storey shear.
 MM- (Earthquake Re:rl,'Iiant Dffsi!m;;;:;'"ff<S;;;",",;;::;:"':::~:::-,------~
The natural period of building as per IS 1893 (Part I): 2002
between the floors. The lateral loads are transmiUed from these transverse waiis to the side shear
T = 009h!Jd = 0.09 x 61.J20 = 0.12, => S)g = 2.5 wall by horizontal floor and roof diaphragms. The diaphragms distribute these forces to vertical
The base shear is,. resistjng components such as shear walls and vertical resisting elements if any, which transfer
the forces into the foundation. The diaphragms must have adequate stiffness and strength to
VB ~ AhW = (Zl2)(IIR)(Sjg)]W ~ (0.2412)(1.011.5)(2.5)]3900 ~ 780 kN transmit these forces. The distribution oflatera1 forces in the ma'ionry bui1ding will depend upon
Vertical distributIon of base shear to different floor levels is the flexibility of horizontal diaphragm i.e. how rigid the waUs are as compared to the rigidity
At roof level . . of the diaphragm. The rigidity of the diaphragms is classified into two groups on relative
flexibility: rigid and flexible diaphragm.
Q, = 780 ~__lllQ<lx(i~ .....
= 573.74 kN
(1600 X 6' + 2300 x 3') Rigid diaphragms
A.t second floor level
A diaphragm may be considered rigid when it'; midpoint displacement. under latentl load, i!< Ies!;
Q1 = 780_~()()-,,-3.'._~ - 206 "6 k" than twice the average di:;;piacements at its end;;. Rigid diaphragm distributes the Jtnn"zontal
(l600x6~+23()OX32) - .- " forces to the vertical resisting elements in direct proportion to the relative rigidifies, It is based
on the assumption that the diaphragm does not deform itself and wiJl cause each vertical eJement
~6.2.2 to deflect the same amount. Rigid diaphragms capable of transferring torsional and shear
Step 2: Distribution of Lateral Forces
deflections and forces are a)so based on the assumption that the diaphragm and shear walls
"igure 26.3 shows the distribution of lateral f, , .
o transfer the seismic forces to the <rround ~ces I~h box type shear .wall buildings. In order
undergo rigid body rotation and this produces additional shear forces in the shear wall. Rigid
mllding. The genera] load path is asl:>fi U '" er~s ould be a cont1~uous load path in [he diaphragms consist of reinforced concrete diaphragms, precast concrete diaphragms, and
Jements of the buiJding are defv'
O
d
h oWhS. ea quake forces, WhICh originate in all the composite steel deck.
, 1 ere t mug the tran~verse walt of the building and it is bent
flexible diaphragms
A diaphragm is considered flexible, when the midpoint displacement, under lateral load. exceeds
twice the averdge displacement of the end supports. It is assumed here that the relative stiffness
of these non-yielding end supports is very great compared to that of the diaphragm. Therefore,
diaphragms are often desjgned as simple beams between end supports, and distribution of the
lateral forces to the vertical resisting elements on a tributary width, rather than relative stiffness.
Flexible diaphragm is not considered to be capable of distribut.ing torsional and rOtational
forces. Flexible diaphragms consist of diagonaHy sheated wood diaphragms, etc. Figure 26.4
(3)
(b)
provides a comparison between flexible and rigid diaphragms (WiHiams, 20(3).
nd
2 flOOT Example 2 Distrjbute a seismic Joad of 100 kN in end shear walls A, B and C in case of
Roof diaphrllgm
(i) rigid diaphragm (it) flexible diaphragm
Rigid diaphragm
IS! storey Wan A = (100 x 5)1(5 + 3 + 2) = 50 k!\
Wall B = (100 x 3)/(5 + 3 + 2) = 30 kN
5m --I 5m

Wall C =(100 x 2)/(5 + 3 + 2) =20 kN A~5 /..

.~n~r~j'='
C=2
~ ~-~~J'I
8"'"3
Flexible diaphragm

(e) Wall A = (100 X 2.5)/(10) = 25 kN .~

.'
'CUlm
T '"
.
26.3 1,ali:rai force distribution ill a b

teral fol'ce.~ in ;;eeond storey'(d) rr

S y
t b"
(d)
bjected to lateral load (b) Bend of first 'to lOX ype liildmg (a) Bo:x type masonry building
tJ: 'b .re second storey transverse walls (c) Distribution of
Wall B = (100 x 2.5)1(10) = 25 kN
Wall C ; 1.l00 x (2.5 + 2.5)/(10) = 50 kN 1'--)' T~l 1"'1" i
J5 ') utiQn of lateral forces in first l;t.on.v. 100 k;-.i {To!al load)
_ rit_ CEl].r-'thq'-,,-alwC--;R::-e-,7i,-'t-an-t'-~-;OD:-e-,,:-~gn-Q-1;-;;St"'",-~:;C=t:-ure;;;=.-_-_-_~-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_~-_-_-_-_~-_-_-_~-_-_-.) c
.. -_ -ad Ana''''$i$ oj Masonry Buil4ingi)
Cha.pter 26 La """ J.ftJ If
_H _
wkNJm Cantilever pier or wall
. n f ed only at the bottom and top js free to translate and rotate, it is consid~red
JLUt!JtLLI' If the Pier or;" u''Wmon a force (Pl is applied at the top of a pier, it will produce a deflecuon,
~~~:t ~~e;e :: 'of the deflections due to monding moment (~l plus that due to shear (~,)

t R-1R-l

~---------~-~---~-----
I-- 1/2 1 112 - I
R-l
(Figure 26.5)~

p~J;;"--.--"7/

UlW~ Seismic
force
I I \ 1
1 I! I
+ Reaction .1,----.----'1
wif3
Reaction
~.l=i (bl
.~,._L
wii4 wf!4 wl!4 wl!4 wlJ3 wl!3 (,)
FIGURE 26.4 Comparison between flexible and rigid diaphragm (Williams, 2003). ;] . f fIxed bottom (b) Denedion
FIGURE 26.5 (a) Wan pier displaced .t top and canli e;'mng rom
of walls due to bending and shear deformations (Amrbem~ 1998).
26.2.3 Step 3: Determination of Rigidity of Shear Wall
D.c=~+~,
The lateral load capacity of shear waH is mainly dependent on the in-plane resistance rather than
= Ph 3/3E./ + L2PhlAGm
()tlt-of~plane stiffness. The distribution of lateral load to the shear walls is based on the relatjve
wall rigidities if a rigid diaphragm supports the walls and the segment of wall deflects equally. where, .
The rigidity of a shear waH is dependent on its dimensions, modulus of elasticity (Em)' modulus Am = deflection due to flexural bendmg
of rigidity (G m ) and the support condition. A,. ~ deflection due to shear
P = lateral force on pier
Pier analysis
h = height of pier
In masonry structures. it h gcneralJy assumed [hat in one- and two-storey buildings the walls. A = cross section of pier
may be considered cantilevered and the segment of the walls between adjacent openings are Em :;; modulUS of elasticity in compression
called piers and mighi be considered fixed at top and bottom. depending on the rciative rigidities G , :::; modulus of elasticity in shear (shear modu~us)
of the wallf; versus tho~e of the floor diaphragms. The main assumptions in the analysis are "
ISchneider and Dickey, ]994): For masonry, Gm ;; 0.4 Em

(Jj Rotl:lrional deformations of the portions above and below the openings are much
~, = Pr4(h)'
iit d + 3{hIdlj -:
~malJer than tho.~e of the piers between the openings and arc neglected. m c
(bJ Points of contra flexure are assumed at the mid pOints of the piers and shears are
a'isumed to be carried among the piers such that their top deflects by equal amount. RigidilY of cantilever pier R, = lI~, = Emtl(4(hId)' + 3(hld))
(ei Lateral forces will be tran~formed to the various paraHel resisting clements in diretl
proportion It) their .'>tit'fness Fixed pir or wall .
(:; Large pOr\l('n of the total lateral force is required to reduce ~amc deflection in For a wallipier fixed at top and tlte bottom. the det1cction from a force, P (Ftgure 26.6),
~l stiffer wafJ compared to !.hat of a more flexib!e one.
dD Stiffn~ss refer.'> to the lateraJ force magnitude required In produce it unit Af=~+~'
dcfl1."-Ction = Ph'/1ZEml + L2PhlAGm
(~ji) Relalive, rather than a.bsolmc, stiffnef\s can he computed since e;{ch wall IS
anJy being: {:ompuf(,Jt to tht" combint':d :)tiffness of the entirE wall system
 ~ Earthquake Resistant Design of Stroctures
C1Ul1'I.f'.f" 26 Lateral Load Analysis of Masonry Buildin.gs -kM
!J.
r

(,) (b)
(,) (b) FIGURE 26.7 (a) Horizontal combination of wall segments (b) Vertical combination of wall
fi1GURE 26.6 (al
Wall pier with top displat"ed and fixed at top and bottom (b) Oeflection of' segments (Drydale, Hamid and Baker, 1994).
walls due to bendmg and shear deronnations (Amrhein, 1998).

~or masonry, Gm = 0.4 Em Method for calculating the rigi1f.ity of wall with opening
The following steps are required for calculating the rigidity of wall with opening (Dry dale,
Hamid and Baker, 1994).
(;) Calculate the deflection of the solid wall as a cantilever, Il>ohd) (for one- or two-storey
ugidity of fixed pier building)
Rr = li/lr = Em/ih/d'l' + 3(h/d) (ii) Ca1culate the cantilever deflection of an interior strip, having a height equal to that
of the highest opening, is calculated and subtracted from the solid wall deflection.
l(fect of aspect ratio on deflection due to shear This step removes the entire portion of the wal1 containing all the openings
(~trip of higest opening(c)
Aspect rario (hid) % deflection due 10 shear (iii) Calculate the deflections of a11 the piers as fixed within that interior strip being
Cantilever walJ Fixed end wall determined by their own individual rigidities (6.peirs(f))
0.25 (iv) Add deflection of piers to the modified wall deflection to arrive at the total deflection
92 98 (i) of the actual wall with openings (~otal)
43 5
2
4
16 43 (ii) (v) The reciprocal of this value becomes the relative rigidity of the wall (R = _1_)
6.
5 16 lolal
8 4.3 (iii)
Example 3 Determine the rigidity of the shear wall, as shown, in terms of Et
(j) cry sqU~1 shear wall (hId < 0.25), rigidities based on shear deformation are reasonably
accurate
(ii) For intenTlediate height of shear wall (0.25 < hid < 4.0), including both the components
of deflection T
(iii) F
,~or h igh h!~ raliO., the effect of shear deformation is very small and rigidity based on Strip B
,lexural ,~tlnne,~,,> 1.'-: rC<l.sonably uccurate (DrydaJe, Hamid and Baker, 1994). _.1.
io;'izonfa.l and pertfcal combilUIlfons
.~ j-he. shear wall segments <Ire combined horizontally, the combined rigidity R = R. + R!) + R ~
" ,the segments are combined vertically, lhe combined rigidity 1JR = fiR. + J~R (~lIR"
FJguf(~ 26.7). cl (2 ("'
I' -I- 1.2 III 1.0 m 1.2m 1.2m 1.0m 1.2m
 MR- CEarthquo.k;; Resistent Design oj Structures

~waJl = ~~lid ""'allfe) - ~1rip A(c) + A2.3,4,5,6,7(J) For any wall i. the relative stiffness is given by,
A:'!.3,4's,6,1{f):::::: I/(RuA ,$,6.7(jJ)
R2 ,J.4's,(;;,7{j) ;;;;; R2{f) + R3,4,5,6(f} + R7(f) R, = kJ~>,+k2+"'+k,
R 3 .4,,)A},V) :::::: Jf.13.4,5,6(fl / f=l

83A.UU) ::;:: ~vlid 3.4.5.6{f) ~ 6;;lripB(f) + .:l3.4.5(j) Direct shear forces on parallel walls are equal to (VD)i = RiP
I
AJA.5(!J;;;;; R R R
3{j) + 4\1) + 5Ui Torsional shear forces
When the centre of mass and centre of rigidity do not coincide; torsional shear forces wiU be
For ~ ~ ~6 + 1.2 0.48 induced on the wall in addition to the direct 'hear force. The horizontal load, P, will be at Ille
d 10
centre of mass, thus a torsional moment, MI , is induced that is equal to P" x eX' where ex equals

A.dpA;c)
I
~ Er: r4 (h\l
d) + 3 (h)'
d i
. Et
= 1.2661 For i'. 3.6 _ 0 '6
the distance between the line of force (centre of mass) and the centre of rigidity. Even in
, ~ d 10 - ,0 symmetrical srructure+ where e = 0, a minimum eccentricity amounting to 5% of the building
dimension is assumed which is called accidental eccentricity (Figure 26.8).

R"JJ ~ R4 ~R5(fl ~ E/[C'i), + 3(1})] ~0187/Et

(f! For f] = :~ ~O.l2 1 ex _ p
I .1'
~-S Seismic. force)
, --
A},45[J) = 1I3(O.187Et) !.7821EI ,,, Weight WN
StiffnessRN

A3.4.5,6(/! = il[(~r+3(:;)1 2.3II1Et For 1= 3.6 = 0,67

Weight Ww
Stiffness R w
+
, CR

West wall
N wall

East wall
TB Weight WE
.1Stiffuess RE

A'.4.5.6;J) ~ 2.31 1lEI - 0.6711EI + 1.7821EI ~ 3,4221El Soulh wall

R 3 .4,:;,6U) ;;;;; 0.292 Et
~I::~.~::::::::~=1WiL~ei=gh~':W:S::::~::::::::1
R,U) = EI[(:;)\3(:;)J ~ 0,017Et For 1~ i~ = 3,6 Stiffness R s
FIGURE U.s 'rorsional shear detennination (Williams, 2003).
0,028EI h 3.6
For-;;;;;-~, 0
d' 1.2 -' Centre of mass
R'.J'';.67l/: = O.017EI + 0,292EI + 0,028El = 0.337EI
Centre of mass Xm is found by taking statical moments about a point~ say south-west comer.
A:;,:U5,tJ,7(/1 = 2.967JEl using the respective lumped weights of walls as forces in the moment summation (Figure 26.9).
t.,.,n 1.8821EI 1.2661EI + 2.9671EI = 3,5831EI
Rwall = 0.279Et X", ~ (W. x U2 + WN x U2 + Ws x U2 + WE x L)IkW

where,
26.2.4 Step 4: Determination of Direct Shear Forces and
TorsiolUll Shear Forces
LW (WR +W +Ws + WE +W w),
N

TJnred shear forces

WRt WN , w.. . WE and Ww represent the weight of roof and respective walls:
Similarly,
1.n ~~se of rigid dia~hragm ,il j~ assumed that the walls are tied togclher with the diaphragm. tbe
Y", = (WR x Bi2 + WE X BI2 + Ww x BI2 + WN x B)ILW
talcraJ force (P) wl'l be dlstnhu1ed to the walls in proportion io their relative stiffness.
-fiM ( Earthquake Resistant De.sign of St~ct"Ure,~ 1 R, R,x
where, . Towl wall shear
(P,); = ~R P,j-P,e,
~W (WR + WE + Ww + WN + IVs), , '
direct shear torsional shear
W", IVE , Ww, WN and IV, represemlhe weight of roof and respective walls,
;;;; perpendicular distance from the centre of rigidity, CR, to the axis of wall in
where, .x or y
Centre of rigidity question
~, or ~" = LOO
The centre of rigidityj XeR and fcr, is cakulatecl by taking statical moments about a point, say,
soulh~west comer, usjng the relative stiffness.es of the walls parallcl to the y-axlS as forces in the Similarly, for an applied horizontal force in the x~direction
moment summation (Figure 26.9), The stiffness of slab is not considered in the determination R RY
of centre of rigidity. Cp.. )! "" -'-~ P + -'- P:t e ,
~R,

(RwxO+RExL) = RExL . . J ."()uals the relative rotational stiffness of all the walls in the
. Centre of rigidity In the prece d109 equauons , r, 'V'.f " . " d '" be found by
(Rw+RE) (Rw+R) storey under consideration. It corresponds to a polar momen[ of mertla an may
the expression
P.v O,~S Seismic force) Polar moment of inenia
e,
Lumped weight WN
Stiffness RN
~-+-----

Lumped weight W w +
,
, CR

+ +CM+ T Lumped weight WE

?CR
Stiffness Rw
, ere
I U ! Ii
,
I jStiffness RE

~w comer I~_+-_____ L
1---'-_____ Lumped weight w's Pr tPr""RwX",~}'(e.l+ea)fJr
Stiffness Rs

FJGURE 26.9 Lumped model for torsional sbear determination. >. tor;;ional forces have always plus sign, This stems from the fac.t thal, since the
~::i(;Or:~ load P is reversible, the code generally .states that the effect of tors1Onal moment be
Since the walls parallel to the x-direction do not contribute significantly to the lateral considered only when they tend to increase the dlfect stress.
'Csistance in the y-direction, these relative rigidity terms do not appear in this summation, On
he other hand, the J co-ordinate of the centre of rigidity Y" entails the use of the Rx lerms (in- Example 4 Cakulatina- the torsional shear forces I-sm
)Jane latenll stiffness of the walJ in the x-direction) as foHows: in one-storey shear wall m~sonry structure with a rigid
diaphragm roof. The relative rJgidity of each shear
N
. Centre of rigidity waH is given . E!
Given:
;::
Building is a one~storey box syslem~
All walls are a toral of 5 m heJght; 4 m upto roof level O.M
'otal shear (urces on parallel wl111s and 1 HI parapet.
Seismic Zone V.
~he total horiz,,')mal .shear, (P.);, resisted by a partlcu]ar wall clement, with an axis pardile] to
he y-d1rection, duc to the applied horizontal 1':'Iad, {Pl,h, may he, oblaincd from the expression Z = 0.36, I 1.0, Rw = 1.5. Sh = 2.5
 Ch.apter 26 Lateral Load Analt;His of Masoni1/ Buildings) .0
Weights: Xc. = rXRfiR, = 3.69 m from west wall
Roof = 3.0 kN/m'. Wall = 5 kN/m' fCJ< = r,YR;r.Rx = 1.6 m from south walJ
Base Shear = 300 kN
To calculate the shear forces due 10 torsion, first calculate the locations of the centre of
Torsiorwl eccentricity
mass and the centre of rigidity. Torsional eccentricity in. y~di ration
Eccentricity between centre of mass and centre of rigidity
Location of the centre of mass
e" = 4.06 -- 1.6 = 2.46 m
Centre of mass, XCM and reM' is calculated by taking statical moments about a point. sal', south
Add minimum 5% accidental eccentricity
~es! comer, using the respective weights of walls as forces in the moment summation a; shown
m Tahle 26.2. 0.05 x 10 = 0.50 m
Total eccentricity = 2.46 + 0.50 = 2.96 m
TABLE 26.2 Calculation of centre of mass
7brsional eccentricity in xdirection
Roof slab iOx 15 x3;;::; 450 7.5 5.0 3375 2150 Eccentricity between centre of mass and centre of rigidity
NWall ."ix5x5:::: 125 7.5 10.0 9375 1750 e, = 6.79 ~ 3,69 3.10 m
SWal1 15x5x5= 375 7.5 0.0 2812.5 0
Add minimum 5% accidental eccentricity
EWall 5x5x5",-, 125 15,0 5,0 1875 625
WW.Jl IOx5x5= 250 0.0 5.0 0 1250 0,05 X 15 = 0,75 m
.---~-~--.--~---.-.,-----~--~--~-~--.--

L w= 1325 L WX =9000 L WY =5375 Total eccentricity = 3.10 + 0,75 = 3.85 m

~-------~--~.-~--------- ~- .~~------

Torsional moment
XCM = rWxlLw = 6.79 m from west wall
The tOrSional moment due to East- West seismic force, rotate the building in y-direction, hence
reM = l:wy/rw = 4,06 m from south wall
Mrx V,e, = 300 x 2.96 = 888 kNm
Location of the centre of rigidity Similarly, if considered seismIc force in N-S direction
The centre of rigidity: XCR and fCR' is calculated by taking statical moments about a pOint, say, Mrr = V,.ex = 300 x 3.85 = 1155 kNm
soulh~~esl corner, usmg the relative stiffnesses of the walls as forces in the moment summation.
The stiffness of slab and parapet height are not considered in the determination of centre of Distribution of direct shear forces and torsional shear forces
rigidity. The calculation for the centre of rigidity is shown in Tab1e 263. ]f we consider the seismic force only in EastWest direction. the walls in ~orth-SoUlh direction
will resist the forces and the walls in E-W direction may be ignored. Table 26.4 showS the
TABLE 26.3 Calculation of centre of rigidity calculation of distribution of direct shear and torsional shear.
~ ~,~~'.~.--.~~---------~------., -----~--~

!tern II, II. X (m) Y (m) XR, Similarly, if we con ..idered seismic force in N-S direction, the walls in E-W direction will
resi~t the force::. and ihe walls in N-S direction rna.y be ignored. Table 26.5 shows the calculation
N. W,JI 0,16 10 1.6
of distribution of direct shear and torsional shear.
S Wall (1,84 0,0 o
E. Wall 0.246 15 3.69 in Axial Load
W-WaIJ 0754 0.0 0.0 26.2.5 Step 5: Detenninatinn of Increase
- - .----
..
i.: Rx"'~!..~ ~'I:...R, =..__ ...~-.~~----I-
I...U...- ..- ....-.. ---~;3-.6-9- due to Overturning
In shear wall analysis, the principal forces nre in-ptane :;hear (direct + torsionai), in~p]ane
mmncnl (in-ph-me shear x lh of height of pier) tmd dead and live load carried by the pier. In
1.1'. ( EartkqUiake Resistant De.sign 01 Structures Chllpte'f' 26 Lateral Load AnalY$is 01 Masonry BuiuJings) 415M
TABLE 26.4 Distribution of forces in North and South shear walls
hem R, dy 1m) RJdy Direct shear Torsional shear Total shear
forces (kN) forces" (kN) (kN)

N-Wall 0.16 8.4 1.344 11.2S 48 +89 ]37

S-W'll 0.84 1.6 1.344 2.15 252 -89 252
1: 13.40
*Dislam:e of considered wall from centre of rigidity (IO - 1.6 8,4 m)

Rxdv 1~44
""'Torsional fo;.m;es in N~Wall --'-2 V)'Ey = :;40 x 888 := 89 kN
!'Rrd'f J.;"

Torsional forces in S~Wall =

TABLE 26.5 Distribution of forces in East and West shear walls

Item R, d, (m) Rydr Direct shear Torsional shear Total shear Cross section
forces (kN) force/'" (kN) (h'l)
E-W.II 0.246 J J.31 2.78 31.46 73.8 -76.96 150.76
W-Wall 0.754 3.69 2.78 10.26 226.2 +76.96 226.20
1: 41.72
Stress distribution
Distance of considered wall from centre of rigidity (15 - 3.69 "" 11.31 m)
Ryd x
*'" Torsional forces in E-Wall - - 2 ;'/re)';;;::: xll55 = 76.%kN
IRydJ;
FIGURE 26.10 Axial load on pier due to overturning.
Torsional fon;:es in W~Wall "'" Rytl:f VlleJ; 2.78 x 1155 =: 1696 kN
LRydJ;" 41.72 . Thus the axial load on a pier due to overturning Change to Povl is

p." ~ (Mp",)(I,A,)/J,
addition to these forces sometimes, the latera] forces from winds or earthquakes create severe
overturning moments on buildings. If the overturning moment is great enough, it may overcome where.
the dead weight of the structure and may cause tension at the ends of piers of shear walls. It I, :,;;; Distance from the centre of gravity of the net
, wall section in the first ~lorey lO the
may also induce high compression forces in the pier of walls that may increase the axial load ,
in addition to dead load and Jive load, The increase in axial load in piers due to overturning centroid of the picr in question:;;; L iiA/'E.4 i
moments may be evaJuated in the following manner (Schneider and Dickey, 1994).
Overturning moment at second floor level (Figure 26.10) Ai :;;; Cross-sectional area of pier in quest jon
(M(!vrh '" Vr (h2 + it) + V3h:;. I" "'" moment of inerlia of net wall section in first storey:::::.
,
t 1\ I;
i",]
rotiil overturning moment on pier in the first storey
k1,WJ :;;; {Mo ..th + tolal V x distance to the second floor level from critical level of the pier in Example 5 Determine the increase in axial load due to overturning effects of later'dJ forces
he first storey (Assume, at the Rill height of piers hr(, as shown in Figure 26,10). in wan as shown,
Mg_ (Earthquake Resistant Design of Structu'res .. )
Chapter 26 Lateral Load Analysis of Masonry Buildings _f$W
r=r~=:;=' ==""'!-l"'--~ V,.-200k'i Rooitloor~ increase in axial load on lhe individual pier in the first storey
==
n '

1;11; _ 33OO1;A; = 177.22 I,A;

tl MV'>"1
",.=''''''ZY'ZY'''''''''''''====='
fr=="" ~. -+1- v, ~ 200 kN 3rt' floor
1" - 18.621

! ";,;;;:;, 13m 26.2.6 Step 6: Walls Subjected to out-of-plime Bending

~.~li
v, 100 k'i in seismic design of masonry building, it is assumed that the total base shear induced by an
earthquake wiU be resisted by the in-plane shear wan and transverse walls or flexural walls which
1 will not resist any shear. However, the flexural wall will be checked for out-of~plane forces with
10r-r-W-;---T';:--
- - . -- . c" __ :c... J (2)
4m the vertical loads, This action produces combined actions of axial compression and bending
forces. Lateral stability of the walls need to be checked for this combined effect.
1:;1 noor
The relationship between the combined effects of axial load (P) and bending (M) can be
re]ated to the virtual eccentricity (e ;;;; MIP), and for linear elastic behaviour of section it can
2 'm m 3m be expressed as. Figure 26,11 (a),
Fm = PIA + MIS
Taking the sum of moments about the centre line of axis of the vertical load
where
M,a'" = V,(h, + h3) + V, x h2 = 20()(3 + 3) + 200 x 3 = 1800 kN
Fn; ;:. Hmiting (allowabie) stresses for combined axial compression and bending
M"w = (M",,), + total V x h = 1800 + 500 x 3 3300 kN A ;:. area of section and,
S =: section modulus
Centroid of net section of wall This equation can be used to define the linear interactir;n diagram and represented as
Pier Area A, dis from le}; edgf' (~f wall to Al ,hown in Figure 26. 1l(b).
Cl'tlfroid (m) If Po =: F m A is the section capacity at zero eccentricity and M 0 =: Fm ' S is the moment that
can be carried with zero axial load, the interaction ean be represented by the unity equation as,
:2 X il4 0.5
.3 X 1/4 2 + I + ].5 = 4.5 3.375 PIPo + MIMo = 1
3 3 x I/4 8.5 6.375
Axial load, P
___ ~A,:;:;; 2.0 ~A 1 = 10.25
.....
--------,------ !

Distance from lefr edge to centroid:;:;;; L~

LA,
:; ; ; 10.25 ;;
2.0
c
.,.
125 m

Moment of inertil1 of net seetion of wall

Id)
}'jeT A, (rr/) i, {1}l) A/,2 (m<1) i= (mt!) i,,;::::; A)l,2 + I A.,/,
12
---.~----.- .. - - - - I i

~.~l. ___ Mt:

:::5 4.125 f-S 0.167 g.667 2,06 365.07
()

(L',
";',

"
0,625
:L"{75
{L29
~L)4
0.562
0.562
_. . . __ ._. . . _, ,2"
(L852
9.102
I = 18.621
0.47 RJ,29
44&36

FlGURE 26.11
(a)
,'';
(b)
Moment,M

(n) Wall s.ubjected to axial and out.of-plane loads (b) Linear interaction
dia~rams (Orydale. Hamid and Bakt'l; 1994).
 _ _ r(-oE"ar:::,"hq:::u'"'ak=,-oR>=..
" ..
"'::a"n7,-;D;-:e::""'",,=-o::;f"S'"t:-rue-:'u-re-~------------ __....m~ \ . (_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ m m Chapter 26 Lateral ~ood Ana.iysis of MaJlonY...!lui.ldi~ .~fi

The unity equation in some of masonry codes also be present in the funD of
f.IF. + t.JFb ; I
where,
fa. f. = compressive stresses due to applied axial load and bending, respectively
Ftp Fb = allowable axial and bending compressive stresses, respectively
Both these equations are used for descrjbing linear behaviour of section. For masonry. the
effects of tensile cracking. non~linear Slress-strain behaviour of masonry. the equation is
conservative, However, the unity equation Can be useful for working stress design of cracked
sections, where the limiting compressive stresses under axial compression and bending are not
equaL For unrcinforced masonry, the allowable compressive stresses, Fa and Fb are given as
follows:
REFERENCES
[I] Amrhein, J.E., Reinforced Masonry Engineering Handbook, Masonry Institute of
America, CRC Press, 1998,
[2J Drydale, R,G" Hamid, A.H., and Baker, L.R., Masonry Structure: Behaviour and
Design, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1994,
[3) Schneider, R.R. and Dickey, WL, Reinforced Masonry Design, 3rd ed . Prentice Hall,
Englewood Cliff" New Jersey, 1994,
[4] William,. Alan. Seismic Design of Buildings and Bridges. Oxford l1niversity Press,
2003.
[5] STP 992. Masonry; Materials, Design, Construction and ItJaintenance, Harry A.
Harris (Ed,). AS'IM, Philadelphia, PA, 1988.

F. = 113f~

and

Fa = O.25lm(70rlh)2 for hlr " 99

; 0.25 fmLI - (hlI40r)2] for hlr :<; 99
where,
hlr =: slenderness ratio of the wall and
1m : : : design compressive strength of masonry
Nominal allowable load carrying capacity p. of the wall in out-of-plane is,

P,; f:"bl(lll + 6elt)) for 0<e<116

P,~bif~(Hl-2n) for e> t/6

SUMMARY
Masonry buildings in India are generally designed On the basis of IS 1905. The procedure for
seismic analysis and design of masonry buildings has still not received adequate attention in
India in spite of the fact that the single-most important factor of contributing maximum damage
and casualties in past earthquake is the collapse of masonry buildings. This chapter deals with
step-by-step procedure for lateral load analysis of masonry buildings. The analysis includes the
d~termination of lateral loads, distribution of lateral loads in case of rigid and flexible
dIaphragms, pier analysis of sheaf walls with torsionaJ effects and increase of axial load in piers
(\1 shea! wall due \0 overturning. A number of worked-{)ul example, have been presented to
illu~trate the procedure properly.
 r Clwpkr 1:1 "Sci$mic AnalY81$ and Design ,oJ Two-storeyed Ma.sonry Buildings) eM
I. 8m N
-~

-h
,.';,'., ;"h;""

Kitchen
===11
Chapter 27 =
- t= t-
Roofiev.1

Second storey 4m

Seismic Analysis and E

Lobby
Drawing
rOOm
==~. -i-
-
~
Seismic Second floor

Design of Two-storeyed I'.'

mouon level
First storey
4m

Masonry Buildings t :,
first floor ievel
IToilet II Store

Plan of the example building TypIcal wall section

27.1 INTRODUCTION ! J J. _~

Masonry buildings in India are generally designed for verlicalloads based on IS 1905. It is not -i- I
confirmed whether the lateral load effects from wind or earthquakes have been considered in
I
1,5m B
, L5m 10
2.5m
analysis or not, particularly when the buildings are constructed in seismic prone areas, In this ...L .. - h" ...L
chapter, an example has been presented to il1ustrate the design procedure for low rise masonry
j,Om I' 12-==:1 3-' .l 1.0m
I
6
I 4
1.5m 11
buildings, i,Sm I 9
...L J....
i 115 n1 115 rr1 Ii rr1 I lim: 2m I 2m I 2m 1 ml
lnl 1m 1m 1m
27.2 BUILDING DATA North wall eievation Sou;h wall elevation
}'JGURE 21.1 Example building.
The plan and elevation of building are shown in Figure 27.1. Assume data for the bulJding as
follows:
Dead load data
Material strength ThJcknes~ of floor and roof slab=: 120 mm n

Weight of ~Iab 3 kN/m 2 (Assuming weight density of concrete 25 kN/mJ)

P<:nnissible compressive ~trength of masonry (fm) = 2,5 N/mrn z
=:

(Assuming unit strength = 35 MPa and mortar HI type) Thickness of wall :;:: 250 mm '>,
'Wei oI!ht -of wal.i ;. 5 kN/rn1 (Assuming weight density of masonry :;:: 20 kN/m')
Permissible stresses in steel in tension::::::: 0.55 f'Y
(Use high :.trength deformed bar (Fe 415) i,e. h = 230 N/mm2)
Seismic data
Seismic zone V
Lj\iC loae on roof = J.O kN/m (for sei:::mic calculation
2
0) Zone facto! (2) = (),36
Uve load on ~'joor ~ J ,0 kN/m! Imp0l1ance factor (1) =:: 1
Ro,ponse md",,!;on faclor (R) = 3,0 (as per IS 1893 (Part l): 2002)

486
 SoH medjum type, for which average response acceleration coefficjent are as:
T" = 0.09 x 81 J8 = 0.032 sec
S {1+15T. O.OO::;T::;O.!O Salg = 2.5. for T = 0.032
-'l. = 2.50. 0.1 0::; T::; 0.55
Ah = ZISp = (0.36~(!)(25) = 0.15
g 136IT,0.55$T$4.00 2Rg 2 )\3
Dire-ction of i;eismk force =: E-W direction The total design lateral base shear (VB) along the direction of motion is given hy,
VB = A"W = 0.15 x 2220 = 333 kN
27.3 STEP 1: DETERMINATION OF DESIGN The design 1.leral base shear (VB) is distributed along the height of building as shown in
LATERAL LOAD Figure 27.2.
2
Wh 820x 8'
Seismic weight calculations Laterd.J force at roof level = VB _,,_' _ I - = 333 ---'::;;:-:";~-c-'-' = 23335 kN
(820 x
Description Load calculmion5 li)tal
I. W;h~
D1. and LL load at roof level
Wh' 1400x 4'
(i) Weight of roof x 15 Lateral force at roof level = VB -,-,-'-'-- = :133- ------~-- ------- "--:,- 99.65 k.N
3 X8 360kN
W;h;' I.
(820x~' + 1400 x4-)

r-
(ii) Weight of walls
(Assume half weight of walls at 1/2(2(8 + 15) X 4 x 5} 460kN I""]

second ~torey is Jumped at roof)

(iii) Weight of live load (LL) I 8m 1 i 233.35 kN
Roof r-~-l

(tor seismic calculation, LL on roo! is zero) [) x 8 x 15 o kN Ta 21J.35kN

(W,) Weight at roof Jevel (i) + (ii) + (Jii) 360+460+0 . und storey

l,
820kN
DL and LL load at floor level

1-"~
(i) Weight of floor Second
3 x 8 x 15 360kN floor I
I,333..
k'
(ii) Weight of walls
(Assume half weigh, of walls al 2 x 112{2(8 + 15) x 4 x 5) 920 kN
st
1 storey I
L~3 kN
second storey and half weight of
First floor
walls at firsl storey is lumped at roo/)
(iii) Weight of live load (LL) 1 x 8 x IS 120kN (,)
,/::1 '/',/",zl,'-//;; %
(b)
~'7. - - 333 k.'J 1/"", ,,2,,'
(e)
(Wi) Weight at second loYd (i) + (ij) + (iii) 360 + 920 + 120 J400 kN FIGURE 27.2 (a) E)~valion of building (b) Scismic load or storey shear (Ci ! Storey shear
Total lieismic weight of building (WI + ~() 820 + 1400 2220 leN (shear envelope).

Time period calculations

The approximate fundamental natural period of' a
Clause 7.6.2 of IS 1893 (Pan I): 2()02 as,
ma~onry butlding can be calculated from the
Z7.4 STEP 2: DETERMINATION OF WALL RIGIDITIES
In lhc second step. we will calculate the relative stiffness of exterior shear walls. 11 is assumed here
that aU Ute lateral force will be resisted by the exterior shear waU!>. Therefore, the stiffness and

where,
ma!-'se:; or interior wall may he neglected in ~eismic analysis.
h :.:.:; heigh! "0f hu~Jdjng. io ID, {i.e, 4.0 (first s.torey) + 4.0 (second storey) = 8.0 m} Rigidity of North shear wall
d .::; B~sc dnnenslOn 01 building at the pli.nlh Jevel, in In, along the considered direction
nl l![kf";1j {('fCe (i.e. g ID, flssuming ea.rthquakc in & W direction)

.1...
 C--"C:Ct"::,.;;',::,:-:2,,,"sO:e:',,:m::;:"c:-;A::~::.:;:~lJ::':;:i';--:.~:::dTiD;::;e:::","'gn='-:.-;;,-;x"w:::o:::.::,::,o::re:-:.:-:ed::7-'iM-;...
===ry-;B;:.-i"ld7i-ng-$~) .-IIRg'I-.
EI
f 3 = 0.043 Et
,1.1 '1~ 94 '
,~,,~"
-
v) -
~-'--
R '1' .~.
! 2.5 / + 3(~~)
\ I 1 1 .
1._ .'.9.4\.j 1
Rl.?.3.'J.tl:j) == R U ..3.9(f} + "'U,3,9.4i/) = 1.968/EI
A,.,jf = 2.01EI - H)61Et + 1.961EI '" 1,9(lSIEI
R J ,:3.9(j)
,1.J.2.19{j. R Wfdl ;;;;;; 0.343Et

RigiJ:lity of South shear wall

Rigidity of fixed pier i.'\ given by R~ = __ E.. ~--

c Ih)' fh\
\d +3(J)
= 0.5Et, Ils"lidh.;) :=: 2,0/'t

R,,6,7(IJ = 2 x 0,25EI + 0.615 I.t 15Et

I
b 5,6,7L1 = -R--'" = 0,8961EI
':>,6.7(1)

8 u ilu l (t) :=: 2.01El

tJ..,oilf' U.S.9(f) = 1.3221EI EI = 2,612EI
EI
L98Et

8,'o/idA2(f<) ::; 0.3821I

,1.\'1'(11/ = /lmbd woil,,) - 8 slnpA2(,,; + /.:.is.b,7(1)

= 21Ef - 0.382JEI + 0.8961Et = 2.51311

Et
~ (I.25E!
R""" = 0.398 E'
/""2.Jt" !,33If.'l Relative stiffness of walls
.6. 1 ?:; Ylf! = 1.322/[ -- 0.50461EI + L331El :;;. 2.151EI North shear wall = 0.345/(0343 + 0,398) = 0.462
RU 1,()I!1 = FJI2,IS = 0.465E( South shear wall = 0.3981(0.343 + 0,398) = 0,538

1
 Torsional eccentricity
27.5 STEP 3: DETERMINATION OF TORSIONAL
Torsional eccentricity in y-direction
FORCES
Eccentricity between centre of mass and centre of rigidity
1b calculate the shear forces due to (or~ion, first calculate the locations of the centre of mass and c,. ~ 7.50 .. 6.72 0.78 m
the centre of rigidity.
Add minimum 5% accidental eccentricity
Location of tlte centre of mass 0.05 x 15 = 0.75 m

Total eccentricity =: 0.78 + 0.75 ;:;;: 1.53 m

Centre of mass, XCM and f CM , is calculated by taking statical moments about a point, say, south
west comer~ using the respective weights of walls as forces in the moment summation. Because Torsional eccentricity in x-direction
of symmetrical Jayout of buildjng. the centre of maRS will occur near the centre of building i.e. Eccentricity between centre of mass and centre of rigidity
X''M 4.0 m) reM:;;; 7.5 m. However for methodology purpose the calculations for the centre e, ~ 4.0 - 4.0 = 0.00 In
of m:;ss i~ shown in Tahle 27.1,
Add minimum 5% accidental eccentricity
0.05 x 8 ~ OAO m
TABLE 27.1 CalculatiQn of centre of mass
-------.----------.... -~~

Total eccentriCIty ~ 0.00 + DAD = OAO m

item X (Ill) Y (m) WX (kNm) WY(kNm)
Roof slab 360 4.0 7.5 1440 2700 Torsional moment
N~Wall 8x4x5 160 4.0 15 640 2400
The torsional moment due to E-W seismic force rotate the building in y-directioll, hence
SWaU 8x4x5~ 160 4.0 0.0 640 0
EWall 15x4x5= 300 8.0 7.5 2400 2250 Mrx = V, e,. = 333 x 1.53 = 509.50 IL"lm
WW.ll 15x4x5~ 300 0.0 7.5 0 2250
Similarly, if considered seismic force in N-S direction
W =128(1 WX =5120 WY = %00 . Mrr = V, e, = 333 x 0040 = 133.2 kNm
XC" = LWXILW = 4.0 m from west wall (V, = V" because SJg is consta~t value of 2.5 for the time period 0.1 I ::; T S 0.55)
Yc:M = LWYI1:W = 7.5 m from east wall
Distribution of direct shear force arul torsional shear force
Location of the centre of rigidity
Since., we are considering the seis~k
force in.E-W on~ythe directio~, ~al~a~~;~ .~i~~~~: ~~
resist the forces and the walls In E-W dlrect10~ may be Ignore.
The centre of rigidHy. XCR and YeR , is calculated by taking statical moments about a point.
calculation of distribution of direct shear and t~rsJOnal shear.
say, south-west c:(lmer~ using the relatjve stiffnesses of the walls as forces in the moment
summation. The ~tiffnes$ of rdub is 110t considered in the detennination of centre of rigidity. The TABLE 27.3 Distribution of forces in North and South shear walls
caJcuiation for the centre of rigidity J~ shown in Table 27.2.
Ttlwl Jhear
/t1'1I7 R, d. (m) R j dy Rx (kN)
TABLE 27.2 Calculation of centre of rigidity
153.85 187.8il
3,728 31.67
/t(,1)) R .. x (m) Y (tIl) y x NWnll 0.462 8.07
3.728 179.15 179.15
S Wall 0.538 6.93
N"Wall 0.462 15 6.93
SWall
EWali
'3'
n..
0.5 8.0
0.0 a
4.0
\AJ~ Wtll1 0.5 0.0 n.D
=!..O I =6.93 =4.U
X cr( = UR F'R,j
4.0 m from W~WaH

Yo "'. 'LYRJ2R j :::': (l,9~ m fwm S-WaJJ

L
 M@_ ~rthquo.ke Re~iJltant Design 01 Structures

27.6 STEP 4: DETERMINATION INCREASE IN AXIAL

LOAD DUE TO OVERTIJRNING
Total overturning moment due to lateral force acting on the building is,
M(Jv/ :;:;; Total shear (Vx ) x vertical distance between second floor level to critical plane of
weakness, assuming at the level of siD + applied overturning moment at second floor level
Seismic Assume the stiffness of second storey walls is the same as first storey. the total direct shear in
force' E-W direction of seismic load i.e. in x~directlon is djvided in North and South shear wall in
the proportion to their stiffness (see Table 27.3)
Direct Shear in North wall (VNX) = 153.85 kN
Direct Shear in South wall (V",,) = 179.15 kN
Distribution of lateral force along the height of North and South wall is:

~i~C. lO:.I'inna l f0 rr.'e,\' are addiriw! on the north

wall and subtractive on the south wall as shown North shear waU
~" . ~(' vh~
codc,d,re('fS th.at n~gative tor,tional shear shall he nrg/f'<'fed, Hence the lotaf \'Iu;a;
aamg Oil Ihe .\outh )ralln ,nmp/.v direcr shear onfy.
Lateral force at roof level = V"", x ,
W,,,; = 107.78 kN
Distribution of the total shear to individual piers within the wall
1 W;hrf
:~:e ~~h.~~r cfarhri~d by the. north. ~nd south shear wall i~ now distributed to individuaJ piers On
;:::;
\,; vli51S (1 t err respective SlIffne.s~.
w~
North shear '\'.-'ofl Lateral force at second floor level = V"' x -.J--"'~ 46.07 1<."1
Piers Shear (kN)
Stiffness (R) Relative Shew
L W,h;'
I",j
sliffness force
56.70 Pier group J, 2, 3, 9 OA65 0.915 J7L80 kN South shear wall
2 56.70 Pier 4
., 0.043 0.085 15.96 kN
-' 56.70
Shear J 71.8 kN in pier group 1,2, 3, 9 is further divided in vertical
Lateral force at roof level V.sxx,Wrh; '15 56 kN
=1-.
PJe~s .1. 2, and 3 in ~oportion to their stiffness. TIle stiffness of pier
1~ -, and 3 are 0,2) each :'<0 the ~hear force carried by e~ch pier is
PWf 1, 2, and 3 {).25 each 0.33 56,70 in
.
....
'" Wk.'
"

t:uch pier w~
Lateral force at second floor level = V", x ~.- = 5359 kN
Stiflile.,s (Ii I Rela/ill'!' SJuwr
L W;h,'
i",l
srijlness jtlit c
Picr 5 0.25 ()225 4030 kN Increase in axial load in piers of North shear wall
0,6:5 0.55 9LD kN Overturning moment in North wail (M,w:) is
025 0,225 HUO kN
M"" = total shear at second fioor (V,,, 153,85 kN) X critical height (h,., = 1.5 + 1 = 2.5 m) Mow = 815.75 kN-m
+ lateral load at roof level Q, = 107,78 k)l;) x .torey height (h = 4,0 m) In= 7.0 m 4
M,w; = J53.85 x 2.5 + 107.78 X 4.0 = 815,75 kN-m
increase in axial !Dad in piers of South shear wall
Increase in axial load due to overturning moment
Overturning moment in South wall (M,1I'I) is,
Mow; torn1 shear at second floor (V",,; 179.15 kN) X critical height (h" = 1.5 + I = 2.5 m)
+ lateral load at roof level (Q, = 125.56 kN) x storey heIght (h 4,0 m) =
where,
liA; = Centroid of net section of wail is calculated as shown jn Table 21.4. M,,, = 179.15 x 2.5 + 125.56 x 4.0 = 950,12 kN"ffi
I,. = Moment of inertia of net section of wall is calculated as shown in Table 27 S Increase in axial load due to ovenuming moment

TABLE 27.4 Calculation of centroid of net section of wall

_
Pow - M()>!, 1
!A
Pier Area (A;) { (dislt),nce from left edge of wall 10 A,I
"
cenrroid of pierx) m where, "
I.A. = centroid of net section of wallIS calculated as shown 10 Table ...... ,
n 7
I x 0.25 = 0.25 O.5m 0.125 I 1~ = Moment of inertia of net section of wall is calculated as shown in Table 27.8.

2 I x 0.25 = 0,25 3.0m 0.750

3 I x 0.25 = 0.25 5.5 m 1.375 TABLE 27.7 Calculation of centroid of net section of wall
4 I x 0.25 = 0,25 7.5m 1.875 A.I (m')
Pier Area (A,) m2 1 (distance jrom lef! edge oj wall
I: = 1.0 I: = 4.125 to cenrroid of piers) m
0,125
Distance from left edge [0 centroid of net section of wall 4.125/1,0 = 4,125 m
5 =
1 x 0,25 0.25 0.50 m
2.00
6 2 X 0.25 = 0.50 4.0m
75m 1.875
7 1 X 0.25 = 0.25
TABLE 27.5 Calculation of moment of inertia of net section of wall
Pier
=1.0
I 0.25 3.625 0.906 3.285 0.25 X }3/12 0.02 3.305 Distance from Jeft edge to centroid 4,011.0 = 4.0 m
2 0.25 Ll25 0.281 0,316 025 x 13112 0.Q2 0.326
3 0,25 1,375 0.344 0.472 0,25 x 1'112 0.02 0,492 Calculation of moment of inertia of net section of wall
4 0,25 3.375 0.844 2.848 0.25 x 1'112 = 0.02 2,868
Pier (Ai)
I: = l.fi
........... __
I: ....
5 0.25 3.50 0,875 3.06
6 0.50 0,00 0 o
!ncrease in axial load in indjvidual piers of North wall is determined in Table 27.6. 0,875 3.06 0.25 X 1'/12 = 0.D2
7 0.25 ',50

~- .... ~.---
TABLE 27.6 Increase in axial load in the pier of North wall
.---------~---
-----_
I: = 1.0
..
- - - - - - - - ......... --~ ~- .. ......

Piu 8J5,75I;:Nm Jncrease in axial load in indivi(~ual piers of south shear wall is determined as in Table 27.9.
~ I
(J.906
O.2RI
105.58
32.75
:l :--n-+-r--:--
: 1: 2:!
~l-<-'
3, --'c---~4-r-,
",.
,
1
Mow -- 950 J2 kN-m, I" 6.20 m'

3 0.344 40.09 Ll25m;!,37:5ul :

4 0.844 QS.36 --~~---r--~----I
3.625 m 3.375 m

1
_pi. CI?arthquake Resistant De8ign oJ Structures
2. Weight of second storey
=4 x 0.25 x 20 = 20 kNlm
TABLE 27.9 Increase in axial load in the pier of South shear waU 3. Weight of floor.! lind storey level
--- = 112(0.12 x 15 x 25) = 22.5 kNlm
950,12 kN-m
(Assume North and South shear wall will take
Pier A, 1, (m') = (kN)
~ equal amount of load)
Po>'! MfI\1
, = 1/2(0.12 x 15 x 25) = 22.5 kNlm
5 ,,, ,i 6;,, t 4. Weight of roof
lota\ \\lad '" '1'1.5 \i..~(m
5 0.875 [34.08 , 7,
0 0 0.0 1 ,
7
- - -_.. 0.875 134.08 f-- 3.50 m ----1-_
, 3.50 rn - : ,
South wall: First storey
= 2.5 x 0.25 x 20 = 12.5 kN/m
I. Weight of first storey (from level of 1IO floor
27.7 STEP 5: DETERMINATION OF PIER LOADS, to sill level)
= 4 x 0.25 x 20 = 20 kN/m
2. Weight of second storey
MOMENTS AND SHEAR 3. Weight of floor at lind storey level
(Assume North and South shear wall will take = 112(0.12 x 15 x 25) = 22.5 ILNlm
:n~ :otal ax.ial load (due to dead load, live load and overturning), shear and moment in the
equal amount of load)
mdlVldual pIers of both the shear walls are calculated in Tables 27.10 and 27.11 as below: = 112(0.12 x 15 x 25) = 22.5 kN/m
4. Weight of roof = 77.5 kN/m
Total load
TABLE 27.10 Axial load, moment, shear in piers of North shear wall
Nult!: wall. Find 2. P ;;;;; effective loading width of pier x live load intensity in kN/m
L
Effective loading width of pier = width of pier + 112 of each adjacent opening of pier
Pier Effecfiv(' width (kN) PWl (k~) Shear VE for Momml (kN-rn)
of pier (m) moment X h/2
Live load intensity (per metre length of wall) calculated as

1.75 135.62 26.25 105.58 56.70 56.70 x 112 28.35 = North waU: First storey
2 2.5 193.75 37.50 32.75 5670 5670 x 112 = 28.35 2
3 2.2.) 174,37 33.75 40.09 56.70 56.70 x 112 28.35 1. Live load on floor (I kN/m )
= 7.5 kN/m
(Assume North and South shear wall will take = 112(1 x 15)
4 1.5 22.50 98.36 15.96 15.96 x 2.512 19.95
equal amount of load)
2. Live load on roof (I kl'Mm2) 7.5 k~/m
TABLE 27.11 Axial load, moment, shear in piers of South shear waU = 112(1 x 15)
(Assume North and South shear wall will take
S(luth wall: Firs! equal amount of load)
Total load = 15 kN/m
Pin Effective width (lu''l P", (kN) Shear VE for Moment (kN-rn)
___ ....__ ~ ..of pier (m) moment (kN) ;;; VE xh/2
5 2 155 '30 134.08 40.30 40.30 x li2 20.15
South waIl: First storey
2
b 4 310 flO 0.0 98.53 98.53 x 1/2 = 49.27 1. Ijve load on floor (I kN/m )
= 7.5 kN/m
= ]12(l x 15)
2 155 30 134.08 (Assume North and SQuth shear wall will take
equal amount of load)
~_ f!"d. effectl.ve loading width of pier x deal load intensity in kN/m 2. Live load on roof (I kN/m')
= 1/2(1 x 15) = 7.5 kN/m
~t1ec(rve l(~adlOg Width of pier"" width of pier + 112 of each adjacenl opening of lcr (ARSume North and South shear wall will lake
.)eaa lo~d l~
mtensity calculated as (per metre length of wall) . P !.!qual amount of load)
Total load = 15 k!ll/m
North wall: Fi"t storl")!
Weight of fin:! 5!Ofey (from level of Und tloor = 2.5 x 0.25 x 20 12.5 kN/m
in sill level)
 T e-- '~=-;:-:==-;.....--'--------ri.....;~------.- f
an!!:_ Tw .storyed M;;;;;n;-y Bttildings ) +"-
Mm_ ( Earthqu.ake Reet,gt6nt Design oj Strw;:htres Cha.pter-:;1 Sei,smic AnolllSlS estgn 0 Q -----

. I I combination with vertical reinforcement. it improves the strength.

27.8 STEP 6: DESIGN OF SHEAR WALLS FOR the mtegra actIon. ~., . o ' waHs Depending upon its iocatioJl in the
ductility and energy d1ssIpatton capac1:Y ofI mas ll!')il' th b~nd at lintel level. In case of flexi
AXIAL LOAD AND MOMENTS b 'ld"t be termed as roof Imte, an d pm
~1 mg 1 may . and
is re q uired however in case of rigid diaphragm, a band
dIaphragm, both. roof an~ Itntepl b th ba d is useful in sustaining differential settlements..
Determination of jamb steel at the pier boandary at lintel level 15 sufficIent. l In n . ,
particularly, when foundation soil is soft or ha.1i uneven propertIes,
North shear wall
N
Check Design of bond beam f--8 m
Pier Moment EffccJive Area of No. of
Total seismic shear in E-W direction = 333 kK +--E
(kNm) depth jamb steel

28.35
(mm')
900
A/(mm 2)
152.17
bars

2@ 104>
P(k.'1)
(total)
267.45 0.25 0.427 0.217 0.644 OK
Moment produced (!J)
= V x LIS = 333 x 1518
T1 I
Tension
~face
l
2 28.35 900 152.17 2@ 10<1> 264 0.25 0.422 0.217 0.639 OK = 624.37 kNm Total shear

l /1
E
3 28.35 900 152.17 2@ 1M> 248.21 0.25 0.397 0.217 0.614 OK T Mid = 624,37/8 = 78.04 kN - "333kN
4 19.95 900 107.08 2@ 10<1> 237.1I 0.25 0.379 0.153 0.532 OK
A, = Tlf, = 78,04 x 1000/230 :!:; Compression
South shear wall

Pier Moment Effective Area of No. of

Check for adequacy
,-
of piers
k.+ fb
Use 2 @
= 339,33 mm
16 <I> (= 402 mnl)
1

l I
:'
face
.
(!<Nm) depth Jamb steel bars P (kN) d t f,/F" IIF. 27.10 STEP 8: STRUCTURAL DETAILS
(nun') A; (mm 2) (tolal) (m) (m) F" F;,
:; 20,15 900 108.15 2@ 104> 309.08 0.25 0.494 0.154 OK0.648 Roof slab
6 49.27 1800 132.23 2@ 104> 370.00 2 0.25 0.296 0.094 OK0.390 Roof slab
7 20.1 5 900 108.15 2@ 10<1> 319.08 0.25 0.456 0.154 0.610 OK
);teel at the pier boundary is given by,
,, ,,
Lintel bands
M Lintel hands ,," (Details 35 per
A~ "'"
If X 0.9 x dt!ffi(1ive Vertical reint{jree- !: (Details as per IS 4326: t993)
ment as per IS 4326: 1993)
l- = O.5SFe "'" 0.55)( 415 = 230 Nfm.Tfi2 IS 4326: 199Q'3~ 1fH.--++--+"1-"!'"y,
d~ffn:"W' = d rvm ! - Cow:r .::..: Vertical reinforce~ "-~-""-"r'"-~'i1
I+-+r-"+~""'.i-'~~'I\ ment as per '"
.,.
"'"'Adequacy of individual piers under compression and moment is checked by interaction [onnu[a i.e.
,,, IS 4326: 1993
fa + lv <] 11
,, ,,
F;, FrJ ~ ._. ':
Sooth wull elcvatJ0n
f 'CC f'u,U/! i.e. (Pr- PI + PrlJ!d
Norlh wall elevation
)~ width of pie; (d) xt
fi,:. M/{td?/6)
F" "'" Permissihle compressive stres" "" 2.5 Nlmm1 {as per IS; 1905} SUMMARY
Pi, Permissible bending SIteS$. = 2.5 + 0.25 x 2.5 = 3.125 Nfmm2 {as per IS: I90S) . . . . nal 'sis and design of a masonry building has been
A state-of-the-art examp\e fOJ seIsmIC a Y 'b i1d' '1 ted in Zone IV has been analy~ed
.' At' storey masonrv u 109 $1 ua
presented III thIS chapter. wo-. . ~"d t b . considerlna earthquake only in one
. d 10 ' , ' analo"s has been came ou y . c
2:7.9 STEP 7; DESIGN OF SHEAR WALLS FOR SHEAR and deslgne, e sebInlC J. , , b 'd _' g direct and tors.Ional force."> due to
direction, The design force::; are deter~nm~d ;d~nSlto~:ad and live loads. The seismic design
:;;hcar ill bujjding !nay he resisle.d by providing the bands or bond beams, The bands represent lateral1oads. axial load due to_ ove~rmng to a J on, d penin!Js of shear wall for re::;is[ing
t horizontal framing system, which tram.fer the hori7...ontal shear induced by the earthquakes includes the determination of vertlc~l steel at corners an 0 C>

'rom the floor)) to shear (structural) wails. It aJso connect::; aU the structural wall;; to improve

1
4'. Qarthquail.:e Resistant Design of Structures

the compression and flexure forces and design of lintel band for reSisting the shear forces in
piers of shear walls.

REFERENCES
[l] Amrhein, J.E" Reinforced Masonry Engineering Handbook, Masonry Institute of
America. CRC Press. 1998.
12) Drysdale. RG., Hamid, A.H, and Baker. L.R .. Masonry Structure: Behaviour and
Design. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1994.
[3J Schneider, RR and Dickey, W.L., Reinforced Masonry Design, 3rd ed., Prentice Hall,
~ew Jersey, 1994.
14J Tally, N., Design of Reinforced Masonry Structures, McGraw-Hill, 2001.
f5] Tomazevic, M., Earthquake~Resistant Design of Masonry Buildings, Imperial C(lileges
Press. London. 2000.
r6] Williams, Alan, Seismic De'~ign of Buildings and Bridges, Oxford University Press,
2003.

Seismic Evaluation and

Retrofitting of Reinforced
Concrete and Masonry Buildings
T
I
!
I Chapter 28

I
j
Seismic Evaluation of
Reinforced Concrete
I Buildings: A Practical
Approach

28.1 INTRODUCTION
Mosr of the eXisting buildings, which do not fulfil the current seismic requirements, may suffer
extensive damage or even collapse if shaken by a severe ground motion. The aim of evaluation
is to assess the seismic capacity of earthquake vulnerable buildings or earthquake damaged
buildings for the future use. The evaluation may also prove helpful for degree of intervention
required in seismically deficlent suuctures. The methodologies available so far for the
evaluation of existing buHdings can be broadly divided jnto two categorie~: (i) qualitative
methods (ii) analytical methods. The qualitative methods are based on thc background
infonnation available'of the building and its construction site, which require some or few
documents like architectural and structural drawings, past performance of similar buildings
under severe earthquakes, visual inspection report. some non-destructive [est resuJts. The
methods under this category are FieM Evaluation Method, Rapid Visual Screening Method,
ATC-14 methodology etc, The analytical methods are based on the consideration of the capacity
and ductility of buildings on the basis of available drawings, The methods in this category are
CapacirylDemand (C/D) method, Screening method, Pushover analysis. Nonlinear inelastic
anaJysis etc. It is often seen that the drawings of buildings are generally not available due to
one or more reasons. Moreover, the evaluation of the capacity and ductility of a building is also
a cumbersome task, which is difficult for a field engineer and may not be practical in the present
Indian scenario. ]1 i<s important lo underline that the methods of evaluation procedure shoujd
be very simple and immediate baf>ed on synthetic information that can prove suitable for risk
evaluation on large populations. Therefore, qualitative evaluation of the buildings is generaHy
being carried out.
505
 The aim of these methods is to direct the evaluating engineer to identify the weak links
r=
c _ _,_",_==--cC"',,,-apt.er 28 Seismic Evaluation of R.einforced Concrt:U Buildings...

.i.
vulnerability parameters: number of stories, y~ar of construction, and total floor area
in the structure that couM precipitate the structural or component failure. Traditionally, a specifications. soil reports, and design cajcu)atlOns
qualitative evaluation of a structure is conducted by a visual examination of the structure $eismidty of the site
alongwith some testing of materials. Over the last decade or more, other valuable and practicaJ
non-destructive evaluation methods have been developed for relatively rapid inspection of Corrstmctioll data
dam.age and deterioration of structures. The objective of this chapter is to present a general
methodology for evaluation of buildings based on the condition assessment, visual inspection identifications of gravity load resisting system
and some non-destructive test. This methodology should be treated as a guide to that decision identifications of lateral load resisting system
making prucess and not as the ahsoJute method of evaluation. maintenance. addition, alteration. or modifications in structures
field surveys of the structure's eXIsting condition

28.2 COMPONENTS OF SEISMIC EVALUATION Structural data

METHODOLOGY materials
structumI concept verti<.:&l and horizontal irregularities. torsional eccentricity, pounding.
Tift naiuation of any building is a difficult task, which requires a wide knowledge about the short column and others
structures. cause and nature of damage in o;;tructures and its components, material strength etc. detailing concept: ductile detailing, special confmement reinforcement
The proposed methodology is divided into three components: foundations
j. Con.ditlon Assessment based on (1) data collection or information gathering of structures non-structural elements
from architectural and structural drawings (it) performance characteristies of similar type
of buHdings in past earthquakes, (iii) rapid evaiualjon of strength. drift, materials, structural Past perfonnance data
components and structural details. This component of methodology is primarily based on Past performance of similar type of structure during the eart~quake provides c~nsiderable
ATC~ 14 project and is used baskaUy for undamaged existing structures. amount of information for the buHrung, which is under evaluatIOn p:o~ess. Fol~owmg are the
2 Visual Inspection/Field Evaluation based on observed distress and damage in structures. areas of concerns, which are responsible for poor performance of bUlldmgs durmg earthquake
Visual inspection is more useful for damaged structures however it may also be conducted
for undamaged structures. Materials concerns
3. Non~De,<itr",ctiveEvaiuarton (NDE) is generally carried out for quick estimation of materials low grade on concrete
strength. determination of the extent of deterioration and to establish causes remain out of deterioration in concrete and reinforcement
reach from vi'mal inspection and defermination of reinforcement and its location. NDT may high cement-sand ratio
aL;;o be used for preparation of drawing in caore of non-availability. corrosion in reinforcement
use of recycled steel as reinforcement .'.
spalling of concrete by the corrosion of embedded remforcmg bars
28.2. J ConditiDn Assessment for Evaluation
corrosion related to insufficient concrete cover
The aim of {"ondition assessment of the structure is the eolle<.:tion of information about the poor concrete pl~cement and porous concrete
Slructure and its pa:-.! perform;;nGe charlicleristics to similar type of ..;tructure during past
eanhquakcs and the 4ualjlativ~: evaJualton of structure for decision-making purpose. More Structural concerns
information call be induded. if necessary as per requirement .. thc relatively low sl:iffnc'4s of the frames-cxcessive inter-;.:torey drifts. damage to non-
:'>i.ructural items
l)ata: w!lectim,/infoolliltion gathering ~ pounding--coJumn di:-'lress, possibly local coUap~c . <

COJ\ecLlt,n (If ~hc di:!ta is an il1.1porlant puriion for the seismic evaluation of /;Iny t?;xlsting building. IS>
, I bUJ'Id'n
unsymmetnca (T T LV) jn plan--1.uTSlonat effects and concentratIOn of damage
I gs 1..>,

;'11<: fnfonm)lj()" JU(lJjfl'~l lor the evaillalcd htliJding <.:<in be divided a-; follows: at the junctures (i.e . re-entrant comers) , '.
unsymmetrical buildings in elevation-abrupt change !n late:;u n:~l~tal~ce
!lui/ding dara vertical strength discontinuities---<::oncentrate damage m the BOn stones
$ short column
 ErN (Earthquo,ke Resi$tant peS"i"'gn"-'.:!..f..:S:.;'_"'=.c::'.=
..:
....cc'_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

DetaUing concerns 1 restriction of lap spjices . .

large tie spacing in columns lack of confinement of concrete core-shear faHures. development length requirements-for longttudinal b a r s . . .
insufficient column Iengths--concrete to spall. shear reinforcement requirements-stlrrup and tie hooks, tIe spacmg. bar spbces
locations of inadequate splices-brittle sheaI' failure.
Column.s
insufficienr column strength for full moment hinge capacity-brittle shear failure.
lack of continuous beam reinforcement-hinge fonnation during load reversaJs. Umjtation of sectional dimensions
inadequate reinforcing of beam column joints or location of beam bar splices at columns- longitudinal reinforcement requirement . . ]
joint faiJures. ,
transverse :remforcement 'ts-stirrup and tie hooks. column tie spacmg. co umn
reqUlremen
improper bent-up of longitudinal reinforcing in beams as shear reinforcement-shear faiJure bar splices
during load reversal spedal confining requirements
foundation dowels that are insufficient to develop the capacity of the column steel above-- Foundation.
local column distress.
column steel doweled into the foundation
Seismic eValuatiou data
Non-structural components
Seismic evaluation of data will provide a general idea about the building perfonnance during cornices. parapet, and appendages are anchored
an earthquake. The criteria of evaluation of building wi1l depend on materials, strength and exterior cladding and veneer are well anchored
ductility of structural components and detajling of reinforcement.
/VOLe: Structural detailing in the structural member should compiy with IS 13920: 1993
Materw.1s evaluation

buildings height > 3 Slories. minimum grade concrete M 20, desirable M 30 to M 40

particularly in columns of lower stories
maximum grade of steel should be Fe 4]5 due to adequate ductility
no significant deterioration in reinforcement
no evidence of corrosion or spalling of concrete

Structural components

~ evaluation of columns shear strength and drift--check for permissib1e limits

evaJuation of plan irregularities--check for torsional forces and concentration of forces
evaJuation of vertical irregularities--check for soft storey, mass or geometric discontinuities Procedure for visual inspection method
' evaluation of discontinuous 'load path-check for ground floor columns, projected cantilever The procedure for visuaJ inspection method and its limitations are described in the foUowing
beam and ductile detailing at beam-column joints sections (FEMA 306, 1999),
evalualion of beam-column joints-check for strong column-weak beams
evaluation of pounding--check for drift control or building separation Description
evaluatIon of interaction between frame and inf1ll--check for force distribution in frames
and overstressing of frames rform a walk through visual jnspection to bccome fami1iar with u:e struc~ure .
rather background documents and infonnation on the design. constructIOn, mamtenance, and
'truetural detailing operation of the structure
'lexural member, e plan the complete investigation . . 1 w~cracks s ails and

perform a detailed visual inspectlOn and observe type. of damage f ' _p" nt
lirnitarton of St::t'lionaJ dimensions de1aminations. permanent lateral displacement, and buckltng or fracture 0 remton;eme
limitation on minimum and maximum Hexural reinforcement-at least two continuous estimating of drift h b h during
reinforced bar;,. HI top and boltom of the memben; -
observe damage documented on sketches--interpreted to assess t e e aVlOur
earthquake
_"i. ( Eo.rthquake Remtant Design of Structure.ll )
/"'.-- "~;:;2ii..-mS;;:~E;;;ahuJ.tion of Reinf()rt:e~' Concrete Building:; .. )
' - - - - - - _...
Mode 1: Formation of plastic hinge a1 the base of ground level columns
WI.

perform any necessary sampling-basis for further testing

Equipments
optical magnification-aHows a detailed view of toeal areas of distress
stereomicmscope-that allow a three dimensional view of the surface. Investigator can
estimate the elevation difference in surface features by calibrating the focus adjustment
screw
fiberscopes and bore scopes-allow inspection of regions that are inaccessible to the naked
eye
e tllpe-to measure the dimension of structure, length of cracks
Oa!.hiighl-w aid in lighting the area to be in~pectcd, particularly in post-earthquake
evaluatiun. power failure
.. crack compardtor-tO measure the width of cracks at representative locations~ two types-
plastic cards and magnlfying len" comparators
penciJ--lO draw the sketch of cracks
., sketchpad-to prepare a representation of waH elevation, indicating the location of cracks.
spalling, Or other damage, records of significant features such as non-structural elemcnts
camera-for photographs or video tape of the observed cracking
Mechanism: The column, when subjected to seismic motion, its concrete begins to djsjntegnt~e
and the load canied by the concrete shift'> to longitudinal reinforcement of the column" Th~s
Execution
additional load causeS buckling of longitudinal reinforcement. As a result the column shortens
$ to identify the location of vertkal structural element.s-<:olumns or walls and loose!> its abiEly to carry even the gravity load (Kono and V/atanabe. 2000).
to sketch the elevation with sufficient details--dimensions, openings. observed damage such
Reasons: Insufficient confincment length and improper confinement in plastic hinge region due
as cracks, spalUng, and exposed reinforcing bars, width of cracks
to take photographs of cracks-use marker, paint or chalk to highlight the fine cracks or to smaller numhcrs of ties,
location of cracks in photographs Design Consideration: This type of damage is sensitive to lhe cyclic moments gc~e.raled during
observalion of the non~structuraJ elements-inter-storey displacement the ealthquake and axial load intensity. Con:::idcration is to be paid on plastic hmge length or
length of confinement"
Limitations
Mode 2: Diagonal shear cracking in mid span of cDlumns
applicable for surface damage thar can be visualised
" no identification of inner damage-health monitoring of bUilding, change of frequenc,Y and
mode shape~'

Identificalion of seismic damage in building components

~){)<;sibIe damages in building t:omponenL which are frequently observed after the earthquakes
i.\f<: as f{lllow,,:

Seismic Evalua(iun of RC1:nforced Concrete Columns

D~:maged n-Wlldy duc to lack of confinement. large tie spacing. insufficient splices length.
i;ladcquatc spiking al llJC )';ame section, hook configurations, poor concrete quahty.less than full
:'!I.:ig.hi ma-;onry in1~1l partitions, and;} combinations of many of the above compounded with
v(':1icaj ;:;nd geometrical irregularities, Failure of column ha1': catastrophic consequences for a
.,in:clU)"('" Til:' 11l()-;1 common mode . . of failure of column are as fbHows.
," A-"'chnm',m' holder reinrort'c(j concrete- bd!dmg f~Hmt'~\" column fililllres wc~n~ Iliore frequc~j
"". . ,,' . f I I ' Th s
!;illCe the strcn!?.lhuf bcam~ in Sudi cono.;:tructi,lO,) WB~; k(~Pl higher Iban that () [It co .umns. ,L
shear failure h;ings fori)l loss ofaxiall~)ad :::arrying -capacity of thf' column, ~s tht': ~Xtal capaClty
dimini~hcs, rhe- gravity load~ carried hy the. cnJUlrln :m:. Iranskrrcd to nClghh(lurmg clemeng

1
resu~[ing in m(tsl'ilve lnternaj redistribution of forces, which is also amplified by dvnamic effects
cau,lOg spectacular collapse of building (Moehle and Sezen, 2000). "
Reason: Wide spacing of transverse reinforcement.
De~ign. Considerations: To improve understanding of column shear strength, as well as to
uncerstand how the gravity loads will be supported after a column fails in shear
Mode 3.: Shear and splice failure of Jongitudinal reinforcement
'-~~~'hanism: Splices {~f column longitudinal reinforcement in older buildings were commonly
~es!gned for compres:aon only with relatively light transverse reinforcement endosing the lap.
~r ~xampIe . as per IS; 456-1978, li lap splice length of 20 or 24 longitudinal bar diameters with
~.~sver'se remforcemcnt should be equal to the least colnmn dimension or 16 10ngitudinal bar
~a~~r. Under ea~h{luak~ motlOn, the longitudinal rejnforcement may be subje....'1.ed to significant
ten..<.;Ile stress~", which reqUIre Jap Jeng.tbs ior tension substanthtllv exceedin" those for compression
As a resull slip Q(:CUTh alon~ the splite le!!gth with spalhng of co~crete (Wailace and MeJck, 200m:
Re"s(!~s.: Delie}Cnl !:Ip 'pli"c knglil of column longitudinal reinforcement with Iightlv spac:d
~I~~~,~~~~sc, leI010le(:mt~L p~"tJclllariy 11' Ihc splices ,iUf>t above the Hoor :-:Iab especiaJIy the
"I.' ICC:- JUf':l abQv<? the flOor o,!ah, whidl I:; very common in older construction.
~~e5ign Co~su:erati(Jn: Lap spl.lces ~hou Id be pro\' lded only in the' center half of the member
;_~_~~:g-~~ ~!;~;~~n:~~~.be propornona!c 10 !CIl';lnn ."pHcc. Spacing of transven;c reinforcemenl as
since the storey ;.;hear is distrihuted in proponion to lateral sliffnc;..;s of the stme floor If ti1e:,:t'
columns, reinforced with conventional longitudinal and transverse reinforcement. and s:lbjectcc
to relatively high axial loading. faj! by splitting of concrete aiong thelr diagonaJ~, if :he axial
loading level i~ low. the most probable mode of failure IS by shear ~liding i.:long fuli dcpi.h crack:-
at the member ends. M01'l!over, in the case of captive !:olumn by ac~joining l1()n~stn;(;~l;ral wall:-,
the confinement provided lo the lower part of the L:01UnlO Js so effective thal u.<;ua!ly damage
i~ shifted to {he short non-confined upper section of the column {Guevara and Garcia, 2005),
Reasons: Large shear stresses, when the structure is subjected to lateral forces are not accounled
for in the standard frame design procedure.
Design Consideration: The best solul1on for captive column or short column is to avoid the
situalion otherwjse use separation gap in between Ihc nonMstructural clements and vertical
structural element with appropriate measures against ou-of~planc stability of lhC' masonry wall.
Seismic Evaluation of Reinforced Concrete Beams
There is little t"vidence that the buildings have collapsed due 10 heam failure, Only ~ few
example:;; exist in which buildings huye exhibited plastic hinging in the bel:un. The probable
regions of hinging arc a\ and near their inLerscrtions with suppoliing column!>. An exception may
be where ~1 heavy concentral.ed loaD b carried l:d some inl.cnm:diaLc pojn~ ,1!1 the ~:p:m, The cause:.
of hinging ilrc ]act of v)O"oncmC!1l of concrete: rorc and support for lilt' longihldin:J; cmnnrc<:sivr
reiTlforcement aguinst ineiasli('. buckling. The shcar~f1(':xurc mc)(.1(' of fnilurc if: must cOl1lJn(lflly
ob;;ervcd during. the carlhqn;:ke;; ....vhich is descriheJ as rolJn~ ".
l'4echonism: 'J\\lO lypes of p!aslit: hinges l1l:JY ;orrn in tbe bc<tfl\f; 01 rnt>){~,s;(!jcycd fr.;;,mc0
cnm:.tfLIctlC'n depending upon lht:~ span or beams. ell! {:"iSt' of ..;;!Ort heam:-. <J! whe..~ f,l;.rvity loa(;
SllppOlied hy Ihe be?m i" low, pia:-lic hinge;.: ..de fprmed ;-11 the ~oJumn cods and damage OCCUfc,
in l11e form of opening of a crack at the ella or beam otherwIse there i~ the lOrll1UllOIl of plastic
hing:,::: ~;t ;:;nd nea:;- cnd region of hcam In Ih~: form of diagnfil:t! -;hcaf Clacking
 La.:]..: orJ0iJgiiudimd compressive re;nfof\,:Cm
IcO;;'SOll::,: .
:n ')Ju'"!ic l';n0e z()ne b d h . ent, l,nfreq uel1l transverse reinforcement undergoes different stress conditions (compression and lension} because of opposite sights 1f
I" "~I;;< , a ane oran-e 01 tbe Dotto .' f -
[be longitudinal beam rC'-lnfo;ceme~1 bottom '( oJ' lcm. ur~emenllO Lo the suppon Or slip of sclsmic hending moments resuHs in failure: of joint core (UNDP, 19R3).
n " , s ee lermmatJon at face of column.
u('s;gn C{Jmddcration: AdcyuHle flexural and ~hear s .~ , , ' , . Reasons; Inadequate unchorage of flexural steel in beam"!, i<:lck of transverse reinforcement.
hy design cu1cularion ,', e~"ellj',aJ Th .-.,,_ 'h ,L1Cfl;;)n must be provIded and verification
""'~ , e ~uS: S QuId not b t 'ff'
culumm
"
;,(l lila! the plasli,-' h,'n u ,'"" w'll
,'- '" I:"
'." e 00 stt with respect to adjacent
I Occur m tleam rather th I ~
Design considerations
pJastJc hin~cs zones in beal"s' have' j t d .. an co umn. 10 ensure that the
~ , , l:H equa c uctdJrY the foIl' " Exterior joint: The provision on anchorage stub for the beam reinforcement improves the
,-'om!dercd (BOOlil, ] <J94). ". owmg conslderatlOns must be
performance of external joints by prevcnling spaDing: of concrete cover on the outside face
, Lo~el: and upper limit" on
A Ilrm' ()n 'I .. j' j'
tllc: amount vi longitudinal flexuf' ) t
i:t ensmn stec
I resulting in loss of flexural strength of the column. Thi:: increases diagonal strut action as wen
t!w {vl'f on one side of the bean 1 ~
,on as reduces steel congestion as the beam bars can be anchored dear of the column bar~.
, - . " ,1<; J d
J\-hnWJUJI1 requirement': fOf the
0
1 0 .hat of on the other '{Ide
iqn~itndimd f(:!!ifnnxmc!1! sp.lung ami size of stuTUPS 10 restram buckhng of the Interior Join!: Reliable anchorage of the beam reinforccm.cnt in tbe joint!>,

Seismic Evaluation 01 Reinforced Concrete Slabs

Generally slab on beams performed well during earthquakes and are not dangerous but cmck!> in
slab creates serious aesthetlc and funct;onal problems.1t reduce~ thl:" available strength, stiffness
and energy dissipation capacity of building for future eanhquake, In flat slab construction.
punching shear is the p~mary cause of failure. The common modes of failure are:

Mode 7: Shear cr.icking in ;;Jabs

Mechanism: Damage to slab oflenly occurs due to inegull:'i! itiL:s such U~ large openings t'II
concentralion \)f earthquake force;;., d{l";: lG widely spacu! 'ilh:ar wan". ul the ::.talrcase nighl
landings.
RC4'i1rm.s: Existing micro rl":Jck<; which widen due to sllDking, djiT~rcnliCll ~eltJemenL

Design consiri.t'ratif}fl
;:;. l'sc secon;ic!ry rcinforcemeo! IJ1 111(' boll"I)"1 (J :Il; ; ~;j!)
4> Avoid !hc UN1' of fl:tl "'!UD in hi;h :';CI~::~li!' InlW:,. !,~f)\'idcd 11':', ;', I!()D(' lH cOlljl'nc1ioH win)
a sliff haeml loud rc~isi ing system

1
 .". C*!::!thq~kc R~(~i8tant Df:S.i:!L~l of Struct~-;'----------------;
j

Flexural/DiagonaJ tension Plcxural/Diagonal tension

,n,
l 'kxur" ",hear crncks

j1-fcchanism: Shear waH~: arc subjected 10 shear and fh::xl\r;\l Oebrl1JUliull u.:penu!ug upon tbt
Seismic Evaluation of Reinforced Concrete Shear Walls slenderness ratio. Therefore, the damage: in She.1f waJl;: may gencI'ally n..:cur~ due ttl inadequDk
Shear wall;. ~eJltrully pClfonr ~d ~'l" h snear and flexure capacity of wall. Slender walls are governed by tlwir flexural o;trength and
oeneralJ b~ d (p . Ie weI aunng t e earthquakes. Four types of failure mode are cracking OC{;ur~ in the form of )'kldlng of main flexure reinforcement in Lhe pias~k hjnge
to y 0 "serve enelu; and Kappos, J997).
reglon, nonnaJiy at the base of the wall. Squat waUs are governed by Iheir .shear strength and
Mode8: Fourlvpesoffailuremodeareo-e . jJ' b '. failure takes place due to diagonal tension or diagonal compression in the form of inclined
failure in the "-ornl' "j" h 'd. I;> neJa )- 0 served (1) DIagonal lension-compression
craeking, Coupling beams between shear w<llh; or piers m:1y also dumage duc 10 inadequate shear
I '" C10'>iH; ape shear cracking fi'} srJ' h f 'I
of new and old (;"D'" t (.:. f 1 ' ,1 ' 1 mg s ear al ure cracking at interface ami flexure: capacity, Sometimes damage occurs at the constn:('ti{)n joint.': in the form of slippage
(iv) DhoQ I ",. o..;le.e ,~l!) exure and compre$sion in bottom end regiun of wall and finaUv
and related drift.
I na lellSJOn lTI the form X shape-AJ cracking in coupling beams.
";0 "'
Reasons
Flexurailboundary compression failure-Inadequate lrans\tcr~e confining reinforcement to
the main flexurul reinforcement near the outer edge uf waH and in boundary element5
Flexure/Diagonal tension-Inadequate borizontal ~hear reinforcement
Sliding shear-Absen(;c of diagonal reinforcement across the potential sliding planes of the
plastic hinge zonc
Coupling beams-Inadequate stirrup reinforcement and no diagonal rcinfon::emcnl
Construction joint-Improper bonding between two surfaces

Design considera.tions
~ The concrete shear walls must have bou!"Jdary clements or t:-oJllmm, thicker thun WJlis, which
will can), the verlieaJ load after :'ihcar failure of wall.
0;;1),',01),:: ICn;;l(l/J-nlllljn,,;;si,tIl
~;!; III :'('
., f'\ proper connection between waH vs. diaphragm as wdl :1;;: w;:;Ji VS. klllndation In compldC'
the load path.
e Proper bonding al construction joint in the form of shea~' friction rcin:D}'c(,flJ':l!L
." Provision of diagonal slceJ in the cotlp!ing. heam
 Chapter 28 Seismic Eva'luation oj Reinforced Concrete Buikbngl!... ) MU-
I.Vechanism: Parapet walls are acceleration sensitive in the oUf-of-plane direction; the result is
that they may become disengaged and topple.
Reasons: Not properly braced.
Design Considerations: Analyzed for acceleration forces and braced and connected with roof
diaphragm.

28.2.3 Concrete Distress arul Deterioration Other tlw.n Earthquake

Table 28.1 summarizes the list of other causes or reasons of distres~ and deterioration observed
in buildings other than earthquake.

TABLE 28.1 Forms of concrete distress and deterioration other than earthquake
(Poston, 1997)
-~-- .. ~~~------------

CI.'3cking Plastic shrinkage. Drying shrinkage. Restraint. Sub~grade support

defidcncies, Vapour barrier, Expansion, Corrosion 0.1' reinforcing
steel. Thermal loading, Overloading, Aggregate reactio.n.
Scaling Inadequate air co.ntent, Finishing problems, Freeze-thaw cycling,
Chemical de-jeers,
Spalling Aggregate reaction, Corrosion, Freeze~thaw cycling, Construction
problems, Poor preparation of construction jo.ints, Early age
ioading,
Disintegration Frozen co.ncrete. Freeze-thaw cycling, Low strength. Chemica)
attack. Sulphate attack.
Disco.loration and straining Different cement production. Different warer-cement ratios, Co.r-
rosio.n, Aggregates. Use of calcium chloride, Curing, Finishing,
Non-uniform absorption o.f forms.
Honeycombing and surface Poor placement. Poor consolidation, Congested
voids reinforcement.

28.2.4 Non-destructive Testing (NDTJ

Visual inspection has the obvious limitation that only visible surface can be inspected. Internal
defects go unnoticed and no quantitative infonnation is obtained about the properties of the
concrete. For these reasons, a visual inspection is usuaJly supplemented by NDT methods. Other
detailed testing is then conducted to determine the extent of deterioration and to establish
causes.

NDT tests fur condition assessment of structnres

Some methods of field and laboratory testing (FEMA, J999; Nawy, 1997) that may asseS5 the
minimum concrete l;uength and condition and location of the reinforcement in order to
characterize the strength, safety, and integrity <lre described here.
_-JIM (Ea.rthquake. Resistant Design of Structure3
Rebound h.ammer!Swiss hammer
The rebound hammer is the most widely used non-destructive device for quick surveys to assess
the quality of concrete. In ]948, Ernest Schmidt, a Swiss engineer. developed a device for testing
concrete ba.~ed upon the rebound principal strength of in-place concrete; comparison of concrete
strength in different locations and provides relative difference in strength only.
Limitations
not give a precise value of compressive strength, provide estimate strength for comparison
sensitlve to the quality of concrete; carbonation increases the rebound number
more reproducible results from formed surface rather than finished surface; smooth hard-
towelled surface giving higher values than a rough-textured surface.
surface moisture and roughness also affect the reading; a dry surface results in a higher
rebound number
~ nut takc more than one reading at the same ~pot
Penetration Resistance Meth.od-Windsor Probe Test
Penetration resistance methods are used to detennine the quality and compressive strength of
in~situ concrete. It is based On the determination of the depth of penetration of probes (steel rods
or pins) into concrete by means of powder-actuated driver. This provides a measure of the
hardness or penetration resistance of the material that can be related to its strength.
Limitations
both probe penetration and rebound hammer test provide means of estimating the relative
quality of concrete not absolute value of strength of concrete
probe penetration results are more meaningful than the results of rebound hammer
because of greater penetration in concrete. the probe test results are influenced to a lesser
degree by surface moisture. texture~ and carbonation effect
probe test may be the cause of minor cracking in concrete
Rebar lot;ator!ronvert meter
[t is u~.ed to determine quantity, location, size and condition of reinforcing steel in concrete. It
:,$ also used for verifying the drawing and preparing as-built data, if no prevlous infonnation
~s available. These devices are based on interaction between the reinforcing bars and low
:requency electromagnetic fields. Commercial coverrneter can be divided into two classes: those
:>ased on the principal of magnetic reluctance and those based on eddy currents,
'-imitations
, diffkuit H; inlerpret at heavy congc$tion of reinforcement or when deptb of reinforcement
15 too great
embedded metals sometimes aftect the reading
used to dett:ct the reinforcing bars closest to the face
J
Ultrasonic pulse velm::ity
It is used for determining the elastic constants (modulus of elasticity and Poisson's ratio) and
the density. By conducting tests at various points on a structure. lower quallty concrete can be
identified by its lower pulse velocity. Pulse-velocity mea'iurements can detect th~ presence of
voids or discontinuities within a wall: however, these measurements cannot determme the depth
of the voids.
Limitations
Moisture content-an increase in moisture content increases the pulse velocity
Presence of reinforcement oriented parallel to the pulse propagation direction-the pulse
may propagate through the bars and result is an apparent pulse velocity that is higher than
that propagating through concrete .
Presence of cracks and voids-increa$es the length of the travel path and result m a longer
travel time
Impact echo
Impact echo is a method for detecting discontinuities wjthin the thickness. ~f.8 waH. An impact-
echo test system is composed of three components: an impact source. a receIVmg transducer, and
a waveform analyzer or a portable computer with a data acquis.itlon.
Limitations
accuracy of results highly dependent on the skill of the engineer and j~t~rpreting t~e results
The size. type, sens.itivity, and natural frequency of the transducer, abIlIty of FFl analyzer
also affect the results
Mainly used for concrete structures
Spectral Analysis of Surface Waves (SASW)
To assess the thickness and elastic stiffness of materia]. size and location of discontinuities within
the waH such as voids. large cracks, and delimitations.
limitations
interpretation of results is very complex .
mainly used on slab and other horizontal sunace, to det~nnine tbe stlff~ess pr~files of S?JJ
sites and of flexible and rigid pavement systems, measunng the changes In elastK propertIes
of concrete slab
Penetrating radar
It is used to detect the location of reinforcing bars, cracks. voidl\ or other material discontil1uilleS,
verify thickness of concrete.
Limitations
mainly used for detecting subsurface condition ~f slab-on-grade
e not useful for detecting the small ditlerence:. in materials
 Chapter ei Seismic Eua'f!:~tian of Reinforced Concrete BuiJ.dingEJ ... ) _ _

_ (lilhquake Re,<rlsiani Design of Structures

[12J Smith, B.S. and Carter, CO) "Hypothesis for shear ~ai1ure ~f Brick~o,rk'\ J~uma.l
not useful for detecting the size of bars, dosely spaced bars make difficult to detect features
of the StrucIUral Divsion. Proceedings of the Amencan Socrety of ezvll Engtneers.
below the layer of reinforcing steel April, 1971. fR' f ede
.
[13J lJ}''DI'/UNIDO Project RERI7910l5, "Repair and Strengthenmg 0 em. ore onerete,
Stone and Brick Masonry Buildings'" Building ConstruClwn Under SelSmlC Condltwns
SUMMARY in .he Balkan Regions. VoL 5., United Nations Industrial Development Programme,
Austria. 1983, , f R ' f d
There are many buildings that have primary structural system, which do not meet the current [141 UNDI'/UNIDO Project RERI79/015, "Repair and Strengthenmg 0 em orce.
:>cismlc requirements and suffer extensive damage during the earthquake. The methods for Concrete Stone and Brick Masonry Buildings". Building ConstruCh~n Under SetSmlC
seismic evaluation of existing seismically deficient or earthquake-damaged buildings are not yet Conditio'ns in the Balkan Regions, VoL 5, United Nations lndustnal Development
fully developed. The present chapter deals with the practical methodology for seismic evaluation Programme, Austria, 1983.
of existing buildings or earthquake damaged buildings on the basis of three-tier system which and 'kIck M, "Column Splies: Observed Earthquake Damage.
[15J WaIIace, J,W. lV S nd US
are condition assessment, field inspection report and non~destructive testing. Each system is Modeling Approaches, and the PEER/UCLA Research P,:,gr",;, ,The eco .-
independent in itself and evaluatlon process can be stopped at any stage depending upon the Japan Workshop on Performance Based Earthquake Engmeenng Methodology for
objective of evaluation process. Reitlforced Concrete Building Srructure,~, PEER 2000/tO. 2000.

REFERENCES
[11 ATe, "Evaluating the Seismic Resistance of Existing Buildings", ATC-14 Project.
Applied Technology Council, California, 1987.
f2J Booth, E., Concrete Struclures itt Earthquake Regions, Longman Scientific and
Technical. Longman Group UK Limited, 1994,
[3) Carino, NJ., "Non-destructive Test Method'\ Concrete Construction Engineering
Handbook. Edward G. Nawy, CRC Press, New York. 1997.
[4J FEMA-306, "Evaluation of Earthquake Damaged Conc-rete and Masonry Wall
BUildings". ATC-43 Project, Appljed Technology Council, California. 1999.
[5J Guevara, L.T. and Garcia. L.E_, "The Captive and Short Column Effect", Earthquake
Spectra, 21(1), 141-160,2005
16J IS: 13935, Ducrile Detailing of Reinforced Coneme Structures Subjected to Seismic
Forces, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, 1993.
(71 Kono, S. and Watanabe. E, "Damage EvallUltion of Reinforced Concrete Columns
under Multi~axial Cyclic Loadings", The Second US-Japan Workshop on Perfonnance
Based Earthquake Engineen'ng Methodology for Reinforced Con.crete Building
SlrllClures. PEER 2000110, 200(),
181 Malhotra, Y.M, and Carino. NJ., HandbookonNon~destructive Testing o/Concrete, CRe
Press, 199:'
191 Moehle. J,P., Wood, K.J, and Sezen, "Shear Failure and Axial Load O,llaps. of Existing
Reinforced Concrete Columns". The Second US-Japan Workshop on Performance
Ba.'ed Earthquak(' Engineering Methodology for Re;n.forced Concrete Building
Structures, PEER 2000/10, 2000.
!10i Nawy, Edwurd G., Concrete Construction Engineering Handbook, cnc Press,
New York. ] 997.
i ill PostO\l, W.R., 'Structural Concrete Repair: Generdl Prindples and a Case Study
(cn, 19).", COnNell' Cunstruction Engineering Handbook, Edward G. Nawy (Ed,-in-
Chief). Chapter 19, CRe Pn:~s.s. New York, J997,
 r ---r;;:::;:::-To,i::';;;;:,~"Retro.. _tn9
Chaptey 29 Scum,., nu" Stratilh'MPS
~-
of Reinforced C~'ncretc Buil~
- -.. ~ ..- - ..

I~
i;
;;
c
'~ ~
:v
~ '0
Chapter 29 '0 ~
~ ~
~

" ..i
~
.=
~
~
c
~
c
:E
~
0.
0

'0
0
~ .~
.a ~
>
"
,g
"" '3 ,S 2 0
'0 Q,
c
~
Seismic Retrofitting "' '0
ro .g c"" 1!'
~
ro

.~
c
k ~ 'il"
'" ~,. ;;i
'0
.;:
8 .;
u .;
"~ "con gu u '0"'
p,
;; c c
~
0

-
'~

Strategies of Reinforced
~ 0
e '2 ~

E '0 -5 "~
k
ro ,5 ~
E
'"
0 ~
:;; g 0 ~
,g Q,

Concrete Buildings .
eo
:: ~
" ;g
0:
0.
~
u
e
0
~
0 0
.~
,::; :8 e :;;
2 ~
0.
p,

0= u
...c ~ ;; g '",. ~

OS
...
.::.
~
~
0
~
0
0
0
'"g.
~

.c
~
0
0
~
1;;
'"
= 0
~
~
'"c
:;; is
~ '5
~ "" -:;
:;
c
ro
E
~

,~ " 0

~
c.
~
-; i C
iii0 -;;;
~
,;!l
0
""
.E "' """, J::: ""~, ~
0
'0
0

."
~
0.

~ '"
,; '~ e
0. .~ 30
on ;>,
a ~
C
;; "
'"1i'"i
0
,0
;>, ""
0 .c
E u
.~ .~
."9
~
.~ '; 0
a E il iii
" '"'" ]" '"
0
0 0
,0
g
29.1 INTRODUCTION
~
~ 0..
~
0 '0]
~
0
;;
'0 ";;
, ~ 0.
'"c " k
0

," '.=;0" .~'"

~ .~

'il" :i , 'a on
e
'" '0"~ ,5 "
~

~ 0c ~ u
;:: '0 -"
;;., ~ ~
... ~

~ .~
~ 0 '0 C

!le ~tJe
The aftennath of an earthquake manifests great devastation due to unpredicted seismic motion c c ';< :
~
.~ 'S,0 :
,"E '" .=
~

~ N 'S ~
~ " 0 'S ;
;;. Jl 0
-..
striking extensive damage to innumerable buildings of varying degree i.e. either fun or partial c 0
~
~ ~

" ;;; ~ 0 0
,0

'"
~ ,0 ,0
or slight. This damage to structures in its tum causes irreparable Joss of life with a large number j !i" ~ -5
~
:;; 0
... '"
of casualties. As a result frightened occupants may refuse to enter the building unless assured
..'" "" ., '"
.g
'""c '0'5'"
....
'0
of the s.afety of the building from future earthquakes. It has been observed that majority of such 0 ,5
"Q ~
0 80- .S k ;;
earthquake damaged buildings may be safely reused, if they are converted into seismically
resistant structures by employing a few retrofitting measures. This proves to be a better option
~
"il
~
:; 8 ~ ;'
c 0
:l,
ro
"II ~ 0 '" .=
~
u
c
on
:;;
~
,0
0
.~
'0;,
'
c

i:j e 'Ru
e '"u,. '" ~ "'~
0 ~
e
catering to the economic considerations and immediate shelter problems rather than replacement ~ 0
c 0 '"
" '";:: .Elis'"c '"
'0

.. .
C
of buildings. Moreover it has often been seen that retrofitting of buildings is generaJ1y more U ~
k
a c "
:5 .= ;::
15 e :;'0 0 ~ 0 0
economical as compared to demolition and reconstruction even in the case of severe s.tructural .= 0
c ~
a c

iii . "
Q,

'" <l .~ ,0 0 .g 0
0
d
;:
damuge. Therefore. seismic retrofitting of building structures I;; one of the most important ~ 8 '0 .!: '"
> 8 c
,5 '0
~ 8 u

~ ... '" :, ~ "

0
~
'0 E
~
-" w, ::g
0 '~
aspect" for mitigating seismic hazards especially in earthquake-prone countrie". Various terms 15 c
~ '" " iii... ;;, g i5. ic E 0E Q, 0
c
"
~ ;; ~ c : '5
<ire associated 10 retrofitting with a marginal difference like repair. strengthening, retrofttting~
I emouldmg. :1!habHitation, reconstructJon etc. but there is no consensus on them. The most
=
..: o:i -d
0
0
0
.~
0

0
',"
u
u
0
,;,
0
u
0 ~ '5 ~ '" ."".c '0 ,0
"
'"
,0

'v" " ,5 0

"" '""
0
;; u 0

"'
0

'"
'0
common definition of these !erms may be summarized in Table 29.1-
The need of sel$:mic rdrofitting of buildings arise$: under two circumstances: (i) earthquake-
), e e~ .~
E 0,
c
damaged bnHdings and (ij) eanhquake-vulnerable buildings that have not yet experienced severe
'" 15. :30. ti '"'"'"
~

'"
- '"c ::;'"
t: .~
earthquakes. Tt~ prohlems faced by a structuftlJ engineer in retrofitting earthGuake damaged e "- "u = ~
0.

" .S', .;;:;: "= ;::" '0

0

~0 .;;
0 0

;: "
-
~ ~
u
ht(iJding!> are: fa) lad uf standards for methods of retrofitting; (b) effectiveness of retrofitting ~0 ~ "0 '" '" c ;::
technique, since there is a considerable deanh of experience and data on retrofitted structures;
:c) ubs.cnce of con~,nsus on appropriate methods for the wjde range of parameters like type of '"
;:
0
.;:
'" " ';;;i '0 '" ~w
'" "-
~ .;; "
."~
~ '0 !J '"
~
ij '0"
.c e uc
";; .IiE ,S'" , , :;:, '" p,"" ~,<l 8;>, !l ~ ;l,= '"0. .~
1:
~
,0

-. ~
.P
'0
"""ro -'"-
"''"
'"
-
~
~
;:
,,-;lnlcfUrr.::~" condition of materials, type of damage, amount of damage, location of damage. ~
~
,
~ ~ '" ~
~
~
:;; :: ~ d E
t; ~ ~

" "'" Fa ~ J>: Fa "0- ;::" '0 ell Fa ~

.~
ro
sJgnificance of damage, condition under which a damaged element can be retrofilted etc.
rh>:.';.refore, a c;H~ilogue of aVllilabJe option~ regarding feasible and practlca' retrofitting.tnethod I
~ J>:
'~
~
d
~
C. ~.
'" "-

524
.M (__~.f!'rthfJU-ake Resistant De$ign of

'0
~
c
St~tures

v
>5 .;
"0 "c
L Chapter 29 Seismic Retrojittmg Strotegie8 of Remjorced Concrete Buildings) _ . .

v is needed by the structural engineer due to great variability of retrofitting requirements differing
:c""
"~ II
'" "III "'"
E c c .9 "
'"" .~

-=E '""~"
.9 u '" v > from building to buiJding, In addition, experimental and analyticaJ research is urgently needed
;; ~ ;;
."
~
-;;
,- E . h "" "
:I II ,~
U '"
U 'a .~
-" ~Q.
-5 .0
;;; ~ to strengthen different techniques of retrofitting,
;.; ,~ ;; II ~
" !-< E ::2
c The need of retrofitting of existing earthquake vulnerable buildings may arise due to one
<;
.,.."
Q
h
U
U .c
;:;
.5 U
,~
:" '"" '5 '"0 :c"
~

"" '=IIe ""

Q
U
or more than One of the following reasons i,e, (a) the buildings have been designed according
c .9 ;; "c
""
.
"'" c Q. Q .~ .EJ ",
E
~
"u~ to a seismic code, but the code has been upgraded in later years; (b) buildings designed to meet
9 ;0 "
.- u
," '" >- E Q
;; '"" -"c"" E
"' ,5'"" the modem seismic codes, but deficiencies exist in the design anellor construction~ (c) essential
~" """
."
c
h
0

13. .1; "c

'~ " a 'a'"
c
';;;'
~ .~
:E ,!<
0
u "
'"
c
:
'"" S :2
c h buildings must be strengthened like hospitals, historical monuments and architectural buildings;
~
'
~
~
Q. 0 "0 -~ (d) important buildings whose service is assumed to be essential even just after an earthquake~
:;:: ;:> "
-5 u c ';::
::i! e
-" '5 Q.
e "
;;
" " 0

" .0 !::
(eJ buildings, the use ofwhich has changed through the years; (I) buildings that are expanded,
renovated Or rebuilt. The problems faced by the structural engineer in case of earthquake
c
"c" 'u" ,S:
vulnerable buildings are to obtain sufficient records of buildings such as architectural and

.~ "" ~ "0
structural drawings. structural design calculations, material properties. details of foundation and
geo~technical repons. records of at least natural period of the bUildings in order to evaluate the
e ;;"". J3 increased stiffness of buildings since strengthening techniques most often stiffen the structure
.= .~ -"e" Q

reducing its natural period.

~
.~ ." Retrofitting of existing buildings and issues of their structural safety have not received
'"" ~ ;;
~
r..> -
= " -=" .~""
" .:i, "" ';;'
u " " ""c
-;;;
~
u
-~
adequate attention in India. There are at present no guidelines or codes of practice available in
the country for retrofitting. The methods of seismic assessment of existing buildings are not
adequately developed, In some developed countries research on repair and retrofitting has been
~ ~

"~ "" '5: undertaken during the last two decades. Various techniques of seismic retrofitting have been
1i ~
...
..:J
~ 1! c ~
.0
developed and used in practice, The basic concepts of these techniques of retrofitting are aimed
at (eEB, 1997): (a) upgradation of the lateral strength of the structure; (b) increase in the ductility
0= of structure~ (c) increase in strength and duct~lity. These three concepts are schematically
: ~ " v h
illustrated in Figure 29.1.
c ."-
"0

'"' ;;
0 "

e ,9 :"
~ -;;;
1k
~
"- ~
-~ "c
'"" ""
"0
u u
"" h
:;: c '" '5
.0 2::
c
'~ '"c .0
V
U

~ u
5 "" c B '"
~ Q.
~
S
:"
C
:
'" "" "uu
0
'ii ec'"
., .,.,0- . .0'5 1l,
" C
c 4-> Q
>
.g ,"
0 0 0

-'" "
.0 C '~
~ ,5
'" .5c " "E .s.c '"" :E ""
h
E u 1: 0
.~ 1:
0
u ;;" '"
" 1l,
"'" "" :c .;; -="v "
u
oi
u E
0
0
u
0

" "'"
c
c ,""
" ., 3 .9 ~ u

'" .s
U
" '" ."

'"
4->
0
4->
0

c
0
': Ayr"'/cnh~~~lenli1ll
~
::; 0 tilriliqmlkt>: r,;sprnlSC
X lJd0n11atJOIl c""Mily ~ An>'" ,;!fcugthclllng
S
\...-o.------x
i~ .c"
~
'"
.~
c
0

'"
.e"
~
:;"
'3
'"
~
u,

:rI - /.
~
1'\/ 5~rOl't1'i!rthglI1l:"U)~
~~O
S
_____ _ M _ _ _ _ _ _ ' _ M __ _

:r;
~M

u
,I,:;; I u
'" '" '" .'u;r;RE Z9J
(h)

Aims of sei,mic strenglhening (CEB, 1\197),

1
 The decision to repair and strengthen a structure depends not only on technical consider- 29.3.1 Structural Damage due to Discontinuous Load Path
ations as mentioned above but also on a costlbenefit analysis of the different possible altema-
ti\ie~. It is suggested that the cost of retrofitting of a structure should remain below 25% of the
Every structure must have two load resisting systems: (a) vertical load resisting system for
replaceme,nt as major justification of retrofitting (Nateghi and Shahbazian, 1992), The present transferring the vertical load to the ground and (b) horizontal load resisting system for trans-
chapter WiU diSCUSS dIfferent aspects of retrofitting scheme and their limitations. side effects ferring the horizontal load to the vertical load system, It is Imperative that the seismic forces
a~ well a.1i cost considerations. The information in this chapter is gathered from the available
should be properly COlle<:led by the horizontal framing system and properly transfened into
literature and is based on the experiences of individual authors and their studies. vertical lateral resisting system. Any discontinuity/irregularity in thj5 load path or load transfer
may cause one of the major contributions to structural damage during strong earthquakes. In
addition it must be ensured that each member both of horizontaJ or vertical load resisting system
29.2 CONSIDERATION IN RETROFITTING OF must be strong enough and not fail during an earthquake, Therefore, all the structural and non~
structural elements must have sufficient strength and ductility and should be well connected tc
STRUCTURES the structum1 system so tl)at the load path mu~t be complete and suffictcniJy ~1rong.
The rnet~od of retrofitting principaHy depends on the horizontal and vertica1 load resisting
sy<.;tem 01 the structure and the type of materials used for parent con;;;truction. It also relies on 29.3,2 Structnral Damage du ro Lack of Defonnatinn
the technology that is feasible and economicaL The understanding of mode of failure, struetural
The main problems in the structur.a1 members: of moment resisting frame building are the limited
beh1iviour and weak and strong design aspects as derived from the earthquake damage surveys
amount of ductility and the inability to redistribute load in order to safely withstand the
exercise conSIderable influenee on selection of retrofitting methods of buildings. Usually the
dcfonnations impcised upon in response to seismic loads, The most common regions of failure
retrofitting method is aimed at increasing the lateral resistance of the structure. The latera)
in an existing reinforeed concrete frame are shown in Figure 29.2. The regl0ns of failure
re1\istanee includes the lateral gtrength or stiffness and lateral displacement or ductility of the
may be in columns, beams, waHs and bearn-eolumn joints. It is important 10 consider the
structures. The lateral re..'{istance is often provided through modIfication or addition of
consequenees of member failure or structural performance. Inadequate strength and ductility of
retrofitting e}ements of an existing Structure in certain areas only. The remaIning elements in
the structural member can and will result in local or complete failure of the system. The
the Structure are usualJy not strengthened and are assumed to carry vertical load only. but jn an
different modes of fallure in various structural members are reviewed,
earthquake, aU components at each floor, retrofitted or not, will undergo essentiaUy the same
lateral dispJacements. While modified or added elements can be designed to sustain these lateral Global bebaviour of frames
deformation~, th~ remaining non-strengthened elements could still suffer substantial damage
(Flexure) (Shear)
u~less lateral dnfts are controlled. Therefore, caution must be taken to avoid an irregular
st~ffne5s dl~tribution in the strengthened structure, Thus the ability to predict initial and final
stIffness of the retrofitted structure need clarifieation and quantification. Consequently, it is
Buggested that the design of retrofitted schemes should be based on drift control rather than on
strength consjderatio~ alone. The use of three-dimensional analysjs is recommended to identify Nodal zo;1e
(exterior)
and Jocate tile potenna:l weakness of the retrofitted building.
Nodal zone
(interiQr)
29.3 SOURCE OF WEAKNESS IN RC FRAME BUILDING
Earlh;lH~ke rngine.r:rlng is not a pure :.icience; rather it has been developed through the
oh$erVa~IO;1 of faIlure of structure during eaJthquake (Otani, 2(04). Damage survey reports of
P:l::( (:'lnh~t;~ke,'{ reveal the following m.'1in s(mrces of weaknes:;. jll reinforced concrete moment
Je,\lt:flll,!2 1r;llllf" huildil1!7,s.
Foutir.g zone
(i) di"conLinuom load ptlthJinterrupted load path/irregular load path
(iii bd: of deformation compatjbility of structural memhcn: FiGURE 29.2 lP'oS5ible reason of faih.tl'c in moment resi..~dlll! fume (Cuficnza ,mel :vf,~nfTe(Ji,
(iii) qualily of workmanship and poor quality of materiaJs 1991}.
 [;.
~
~

"g o S 3
"g,,~6
r! t;:I
m
IT is
g
c-' ;,-
'. g. re
(';
g
o Q' .~
:;Vg
-:: ~
C"l
I"':
g;
il::t+-"
s
~ fT;' r"/I eI
~ c::: ;-...,
g ri S. ~.
(';>
'T)

l\,l 0
cr .......

~
b'
~::0 I
'''I t-.);O~O'
~;-1~f
!f~J:~3 "
~
~
:::.:..,
C a.
n
~
'"
'" " i i7"o \CJ ~~
N'
..,
-l ~ '"
I
u a ,.., :.:. 0 ~ '~ ,""," Q.
~,

:
;;;;;
r: ; ri
r
-;;::I

........ ;::'
-.
Q
:::r
~;:r M
()~ g >
n ,
:0'''
(b 3 8
5-~~ : ~ "" R' g'i I "0
o ....'"' ()
::I

l==j'
O'~

i~7///Lij
~ ! j til
[')<!??fg r r;n ? on g .... Al
2: n n
....
~ Sa ~ ('ll :::
0
~
8 n :=. ()
~
-
:r
~ ~
o ~~ .
n
~ '~. ~ ~' >:J
~
~ ~

I, E
:3 c
u c: s S
:;n -. :::t' "
Cl '
I [i" t :3 [
~ ~,----"~
8. " '" o nl ~

! ~III~
::3
::I
~
_ qQ:
5' r.
~
w
o
:::l o-:n ..,,, I::!
'< (j:!;l ~~~ ~
(/}()::::lca
Fo-o.-,'
J' ll! (';>
< c
" @
,)111 i il:: :::.: g .:Ii
'i!;i' ~
i
.::..oo..rr.(\) -~,
-- ~ t;;' q t!
;:!
n' ~
"
d 5.' ,~ (ii' -
.!l.
;.3i'r.lg~
gg~Qe:r
-,,-"
'" ,
,
<7
1:
~

a ~ ""I~
0. .....

>1;1 g. ,....
""\

""'~
0.. .....
..

~
0
~ ~
'"
n
('J
2..
""I

,="Q
~, ~.
I r-
~ ~
s .<,
gg E
~ ~
n 5- ~
'g.
f
g. 5- ! 0. ~;
_
I !j

~ ~3
'<
::::;: OQ ~
,,0
0
q,~:;.
a,3""1~ ~ F; n g
3 ~3~E. n ~
,;- 0. >< "
"'q'<'o-
s~ ~ g
-" Q.
::l.
~<o-:crgg ~ Vi'
- c n 3 '1' "s> ~ n

'"
~
o 2,[;-3
t~2 s ~;;
'"

L
C'
C:2: g"o
goog-(l a ~ ~5. !I
W' g 5'
-
3:
..'"I
::..>
:::!l
c:
S- ..... n
5 ~:: 0:'E. ...:, n
o 0"

!~
{"t)
E..;;_,
0.
e;"
"0. g"
'll ?f 5'-,~ ~. co"'"
~ 0
=, J) 0 :::. o It !I> :::::I
t.n
......
::;:::::n g ;. E t:i
~ t-~~l
0 ~ 0. fij
:::l ":::
~ 0 5 ...
:::r'
EI"" " n e; ~
ft!g.~
:o'" g,n-,
,.., -. (ll
cT n n o.~
g.
~
S, ~ 3 ~ g~ 0
1)
"
-
~ 3 P ~ 1;..;' if;; -
0. -. ~
" 0.

r----

':fABLE 29.2 Mode of failure of columns and remedial measures (Otani, 2004)
AClron crJllcem F(.lf/ure mode Description of failure Suggested remedial measures .,.Co
{l
AXlul force and Flexural cornpression compression failure of concrete lateral confining reinforcement can ,
;;

flexural buckling of longitudinal reinforcement delay the crushing failure of concrete !;l

failure takes place near the column deformation capacity 'Of column can if
ends be enhanced by providing the lateral i"
~.
hoop fracture reinforcement in the. region of plastic
deformation ~
Shear force Diagonal lension! cause <lJagonaJ tensile sLress in concrete ,. provided minimum amount of lateral
;4
Brittle shear these tensile stre,sses are transferred to
the lateral reinforcemt:nt afler cracking
reinforcement (size, spacing and
s.trength 'Of shear reinforcement)
J
Shear force Diagonal compression
in concrete
failure of concrete after the yielding of
lateral reinforcement
not brittle as the diagonal tension fuilure
Ihis failure occurs when minimum
amount uf lateral reinforcement ifi
there but it is not adequate as per
f
~
~
or brittle shear failure requirement
deformation capru;ilY of coiumn is
limited
provides adequale lateral reinforce-
ment as per requil'ement 't
Shear fdree Diagonal compression compression railure of concrete takes lhis failure occurs when there is exces- ~
place prior to the yielding of lateral sive amount of lateral reinforcement ~,
~
reinfoc<!cment only up to a Hmit the amount of
vertkal load carrying capacity of the lateral reinforcement is effective fOf ll'
colunln is lost, leading to the coUapse shear resistance
provides lateral reinforcement as per I
requirements

Con/d. I
 ,
I

Vertical
load

Moment
~

~
1::'
.JS
'"i
.~

~ '"e '""
~
::; ';: ~

i~ '"
~ Q,
"
C
Seismic
I~
I
.~ 0c 'S
l
load

I
,E
:;; ;:
,2
'B
-
.,;

U ~ "
~
'"
"S ;:"'"
e
~
FIGURE 29.4 Behaviuur of beams for vertical and seismic loading (Edoaroo Cosenza and
Gaetano Manfredi, 1997).

~ 0
~
~ ~ .1! e
~
Slab
"''"i1
'" ~ '"
c
Q,
~
A shear failure has been observed in the case that the slab is resting directly on column capital
"
.c
~

"~'"'
~
<Q without having any beam. The critical part of the flat pJate slab system is the vertical shear
:< ,,,. '
transfer between the slab and column.
.... ""'" "
';:: ~

Cl
b
~
"
~
0
,~
" "0 .c
u
0;::
""
~

c .c 29.3.3 Quality of Worknumship and Materials

There are numerous instances where faulty construction practices and Jack of quality control
have contributed to the damage. The faulty construction practices may be hke, lack of amount
~ and detailing of reinforcement as per requirement of code particularly when the end of lateral
reinforcement is not bent by J35 degrees as the code specified. Many buiJdings have been
~
0
;.
c damaged due to poor quality control of design material strength as specified, spaJling of concrete
'"~ ,1; 'w0 ~
E' """ by the corrosion of embedded reinforcing bars, porous concrete, age of concrete, proper
~ '5 ~

~ maintenance etc,
.=0. " .8"
0 ~

S"
~
i 0-',1

i ,e 0 ~
"0

'" '" s: "e

0
I
'" 29.4 CLASSIFICATION OF RETROFITTING TECHNIQUES
There are two ways ro enhance the seismic capacity of existing structures. The first is a
"'~
~
structural-level approach of retrofitting which invoJves global modifications to the structurai
~
~
system, The second is a member level approach of relrofltting or local retrofitting which deals
'0 with an jncrease of the ductility of components with adequate capacilicr- to satisfy their specific

limit states. Based on the above concept the available tecbniques of retrofitting of reinforced
'" concrete buildings may be classified as in Fjgure 29 5.
 r===' Chapter 29 Seismic Retro/itt.!'n9 Stra1.egjes of Rei,~forc,ed Concrete Buildings J
Retrofitting techniques is found to be efficient for seismic protection of historical buj1dings where superstructure has
a limited seismic resistance and intervention is required only at foundation level. The suppJemental
damping devices such as addition of VISCous damper, visco-elastic damper, frictional damper in
diagonals of bays of frame substantially reduces the earthquake response by dissipation of energy.
Local retrofittings are typically used either when the retrofit objectives are limited or
direct treatment of the vulnerable components is needed, The most popular and frequently used
Jacketing of beams method 1n ~ocal retrofitting is jacketing or confinement by the jackets of reinforced concrete~
steel, fibre reinforced polymer (FRP), carllon fibre etc, Jacketing around the existing members
Jacketing of columns; increases lateral load capacity of the structure in a unifonnJy distributed way with a minimal
increase in 10ading on any singJe foundation and with no alternative in the basic geometry of
Jacketing ofbeam-- the building,
coJumojoints

29.S RETROFITTING STRATEGIES FOR RC BUILDINGS

The need for retrofitting or strengthening of earthquake-damaged or earthquake-vulnerable
buildings in India have been tremendously increased during recent years after the devastating
Bhuj earthquake with an alarming awakening for sufficient preparedness in anticipation to face
future earthquakes. Many professional engineers are accustomed to the designing of new
buildings but they may find themselves not fully equipped to face the challenges posed at the
time of strengthening the existing buildings with a view to improve their seismic performance.
This section presents the most common devices for retrofitting of reinforced concrete buildings
FIGURE 29.5 Global and local retrofitting methods.
with technical details. constructional details and limitations.

reslsti~;ns~:~~ ~~~~U:~dl~~e~er~t~fi,ttjngScare appHed when the entire structural lateral load

29.5.1 Stnu;tural Level (or Global) Retrofit MetJwds
. e lClent. ommon approaches in this regard are 1 ed
Increase stiffness and strength with limited ductilit A h' . d'. . emp oy to
additional stiffening and strengthening is tbe art of y, . c .levmg e::1:red rabo between the Two approaches are used for structure-level retrofitting: (i) conventional methods based on
modifkations include the addition of structural waIIs,S:~::l~=~~:~~f'w:~ ~ost
Or supplemental energy dissipation devices. "
:o7
mon
ase 180 ators
increasing the seismic resistance of existing structure. and (ti) oon~oonventiona1 metbods based
on reduction of seismic demands"

~h;~a~:~~E~:~ (~f!~::i:~t~~:r~:: c'::;:~::n;h:~:t:~t~r~h~r~~:~~t~~~r~~:~~:dd::;: Conventional methods

eccentric bracinl!' ~che~es :aeyS ~re U~:d ~o mthake the existing bUildings stiffen. Concentric or Conventional methods of retrofitting are used to enhance the seismic resistance of existing
" e us~, in e selected bays of an RC frame t 'b ' structures by eliminating or reducing the adverse effects of design or construction. The methods
mcrcasc thc latera1 resistance of the structure, InfilI waH rna b con n utmg, to include adding of shear waH, infill wall, and steel braces,
or.re~nforced concrete bUildings, whkh has been effectiv . y e employed for strengthemng
lJUJldmgs that may be extended up to five I ' Th 1 e III the casc of one to three storey
j)C' increased b 'd" . sones. e ateraJ strength of existing columns can Adding new shear walls
. . ya dmg wmg waHs (sJdc walls) or buttresses similar to infilling These t hoi
arc IWt ~() popular hecausc- it mnV require u vacant site around th b 'Id' . ec. ques One of the most common methods to increase the later.u strength of the reinforced concrete
r '() .J .r d'" e ill 109 and enough reSlslance buildings is to make a provision for additional shear walls (Figure 29,6). The technique of
,1. m pI es or iOtm attOn of the buttress. (CEB ]997) At ' ',. ,
in achieve lhe rctrofiUing objectives by means ~r JOb~) m:~~e Occ~slons It ~lght b~ possIble infiJling/adding new shear walls is often taken as the best and simplc solution for improving
~::'c\~mpjished by .r~!n()vaJ of upper ~t()ries, heavy cfadding, pa~lj:;:~~:' $~~ ;:~dct;on can. be seismic performance. Therefore, it is frequently used for retrofitting of non-ductile reinforced
concrete frame buildings. The added elements can be either cast-in~place or pre-caSl concrete
"~ ;;tTc~gth Or ;.,lJU ness oi structural members such as siab . d h . . ~crea$mg
HHckemng. of mcmhcrs. The concept of seismic base isOJatio: ~~ ,s ear waH Can ~ achIeved by elements, New elements preferably be placed at the exterior of the building, however it may
hy introdur:in'~ low horizontal stifi'n .. , b . be' L based On decouplmg of structure cause alteratjQn in the appearance and window 1ayout~. Placing of shear walls in the interior of
t ' " c~s earmg tween the structure and the foundation. This the structure is not preferred in order to avoid interior moulding!;.
 " .... , .... , f Reinf~ed Concrete B';ildiJiiD MiM
~--"'Gk;c,C:p~"=r-;,;o9 Seismic Re~rofittm!) Strotegt~ 0 _ ....- - - - -..
. . (Earthqualce Rcsioto.nt Design. of Structure.s

Mding steel bracings . .

. . the use of steel bracing. which also has slmllar advantages.
Another method of strengthemng is b . and column are shown in Figure 29,7"
1 detail of connection between raclOg
The ~true(ur~ S . ers can be an effective solution when large openings are
The mstallatJOn of sreel bracmg memb l b ' h a potentia] advantage over other schemes
required. This scheme of the use of stee racmg as ~
Added
shear wall for the following reasons:
hjgher strength and stiffness can be prov~,
0 nin for natural light can be made easlly, . . .
a:oun~ of work is less since foundation cost may ~ ~mlmlzed,
dd h less weight to the eXJstmg structure,
the bracing system.a. smuck b rfonned with prefabricated elements and
eo most of the retroflttmg wor can e?~ .
(.) (b) disturbance to the occupants may be mmuruzed
FIGURE 29.6 Increasing strength with sheor walls: (.) Adding techniques (b) Infilling tech
niqu" (CEl!. 1997).

Technical considerations: The addition of new shear walls to existing frame has many technical
considerations which may be summarized as (a) determining the adequacy of existing floor and
roof slab, to carry the seismic forces; (b) transfer of diaphragm shear into the new shear walls
with dowels; (c) adding new collector and drag members to the diaphragm; (d) inerease in the
weight and concentration of shear by the addition of wall which may affect the foundation,.
Constructional considerations: The first consideration during construction is to find locations
where walls can be added and well located which may align to the full height of the building 1. Added steel truss
2. Existing structure
to minimize torsion (Wylle, J 996). It is often desirable to locate walls adjacent to the beam . d -~. bunding retrofitted ''''ith steel bracing (UNDP, 1983).
between columns so that only minimum slab demolition is required with connections made FIGURE 29.7 Retnforce CODCn::",
to beam at the sides of columns, The design of the shear wall may be similar to new construction. , '.. I bracin system can be used for steel structures as well. as
The longitudinal reinforcement must be placed at the ends of the wall running continuously TechnIcal consrderatwns. The stee h g ned successful results while using steel bracmg
through the entire height. In order ro realize this end, the reinforcement has to pass through concrete structures; severa1.res:archer~f:::;:ed concrete structures. It has performed well-
holes in slabs and around the beams to avoid interference. To achieve both conditions, boundary to upgrade the strength and stIffness . h d' ode force The effective slenderness ratio
elements can be used. Although it wou1d also be convenient to have continuous shear .. . bob" even up to tWlee t e eSlgn c - . II
exhIbIted hnear a\'lOur. 0 that braces are effective in compressIOn as we as
reinforcement but in its absence. the walls must be adequately connected to the beams, slabs and of brace should be kept relallvely low S I Collector's members are recommended
. 80 to 60 or even ower. .
columns ensuring proper shear transfer through shear connectors. Wall thlckness also varies tension, suggestcd IIr ratIo are f d bracing svsteffi. Careful consideratIOn of
from 15 to 25 ern (6 to 10 inch) and is normally placed externally. This retrofitting system is for transferring forces ~tween the ra~e a~ tin structu;cs and to the foundations have to
g
only adequate for concrete structures. which bring forth a big increase in the lateral capacity connections of strengthenmg elements to the eXIS sf Column shear failure is not specificaHy
and stiffness. A reasonable ,tmetuml ductility may be achieved if the waH is properly designed . dS' d to sure proper s ear tran er.
be conscIously e lgne en. st be iven to limit drifts of the strengthened frame,
with a good detailing, The connection to the existing structure has to be carefully designed to prevented: therefore close attentIOn m~be ~ d to bear the increased load generated on them,
guarantee shear transfer. Local reinforcement to the columns may ~ee e't effective in connecting the bracing system
The epoxies threaded rods have proved to e qlll e
Limiuuions: The main hmitations of this method are: (1) increase in lateral resistance but . nsferring the forees.
[0 the concrete frame an d 10 tra .
!t is Xlncentruted ~t ,a few places, (i1) increased overturning moment at foundation caures very . ". e 8\'aiiable dead load of structure has to be conSidered. to
hign uplifting tnat needs either new foundations or strengthening of the existing foundation" ConstructwnaJ conszderatwns. Th . h t can be mobilized to reSIst overturnmg
(iii) increased dead load of the structure, (iv) eXL--essive destruction at. each floor level results
be of bay' of bractng t a
determine the amount or num. r , . ba s usually require vertical columns at ends
in functional disability of the building, (v) possibilities of adequate attachment between the new upHft, as steel bracing is relallvely light. ~rueiling Y'h ds of a cantilever truSS are arranged
'eo t work vertlca y, as c or
Walls and the existing structure, (vi) closing of formerly open spaces can have major negative to resist overturmng .orees 0 . t d to the horil.ontal diaphragms by collectors
impact on the inte,ior of the building or exterior appearance. horizontally at each floor level. It lS to be connec e

1
or an opposite system of diagonals can be added to complete the truss network. Tension in braces
should be avoided except in the case of light, simple buildings. Braces should have relatively
low slenderness ratios so thaf they can function effectively during compression. Members are
10 be selected to provide acceptable slenderness ratio and to make simple connection, which in
turn develops the strength of the member.
... I
Limitations: Some inconveniences may be experienced with steel bracing. e.g. lack of
infonnatjon about the seismic behaviour of the added bracing; undesirable changes take place
regarding the original architectural feature of the building. Moreover lack of cost efficiency and
field expelience may also causes inconvenience. ~n additjon to this, steel bracing system may
be sensitive to construction errors or omissions. which cause reduction in member capacity at
~ section. Section failure can impact the overall performance of the system. A moderate to hjgh
- - - .. - - " - - ----,f--.--.J
level of skilled labour is necessary for construction, due to the need for member fit-up
adjustment and welding. Close quality control particularly with respect to welding is essential. f-
Mding infill walls
Strengthening of existing reinforced moment resisting frames often involves addition of infiH
Infill
walls. I! i::: an effective and economical method for improving strength and reducing drift of
existing frames (Figure 29.8a), But a relatively strong masonry infi1l may result in a failure of
the column:::. of exisring frame (Figure 29,8b), By proper selection of the infill ma'\onry strength
along with prevention of its premature separation from the columns, a more desirable failure
mode can be achieved. Anchorage of the masonry to the frame is a critical factor in determining
an overall perfonnance. With proper anchoretge, it should be possible to force failure in the
masonry and prevent a premature shear/flexure column failure.
Technical consideration: A review of the literature bas brought to light the high sensitivity of
frame performance to relative values of infill strength, column strength and stiffness and beam (b)
~trength. Thi!> exhibits three basic failure modes for masonry infilled frames as quantified by FlGURE 29 S (a) Adding inlill waDs in reinforeed concrete frame (UNDP, 1983, (b) CoJwnn lap
are: (El-Dakhakhni et a1., 2(03). . b" ed to 1_ _ axial forc. due to frame wall action (Valluvan, Kreger and J ...... 1993).
spll<:t'S su ~ecl -- e.;"
ldode 1: Corner Cru~hing of the infill at least one of its loaded corners-associated with strong
infill surrounded hy a strong frame There are two approaches for strengthening of column splices (Valluvan, Kre~er and Jirsa.
199 7 ) The first consists of making spliced bars continuous so that forces could h.e transferred
~~fode2: Diagonal shear cracking in the form of a crack connecting the two loaded comefS-
. _. "th I ' the bond strength between spliced bars and surrounding concrete.
associated WIth strong infill surrounded by a weak frame or a frame with weak joints and strong drrectlv WI out re yIng on . . f
The other is to involve the region to improve bond along ~pliced b&r.s. External rem orcement
members
around the splice region significantly improves confineme~t and splIce strength, The ext~~aJ
MtJde 3: Frame Failure in the fonn of ph:lstic hinges in the columns or the beam column . f . t t be grouted 1'0 order to permit 11 to effectlVelv confine the concrete, Addmon
rem orcemen mus th' 1
of internal ties 10 the splice region ha~ not been an eft~tive method for streng emng cO u:nn
v

connection--"also assocl31cV with slmng infill hurrounded by a weak frdme or frame with weak
joints and strong mcmbe.r;.;. concrete reduce.'\ the effectlVenes~ of concret.e cover and the sphce
~p ti ces. be caw; e removal of .
~~ons!m!.-';i:}:1c!1 ('.:m,,idcrati()tl\,' The infill wall capacity is us.ually governed by dead. load strength more than additional lies improve It.
c(,lumn to rc,j:-'lovciiurning uplift Nl;)nhcr of 1nfilJ wall depend:. on the building seismic loads . . /' Tile benefit of retrofitunc bv inrill walls is often limited by failure of splices in
e;Jungw;th ',he~Jr and upliftmel)i jj'om single bay full height. Determination of number of bays
1.Iml.ta wns:
.. I h' h l as boundary~elements" , A I 1 n'
for new 10flil walls. s a resu t. some co urn .
eXIsting co umn~, w lC ac . . f I mn
;jf infill \val! is needed 1{. Do(h Jircctions [0 prevent uplift and loctlle waHs in appropriate bays. in the frame are subjected to large axiallen<;iJe forces: which may cx('~d the_ capacJty.o co II _
Moreover tic$ign furce:;., <ln~ transferred to new infill panelF, using shear friction. If columns have ~ lices that have original1y been designed both for 1Jttle 0.1' no flexur~ and .tmlY for .~It~er com
('ompl'Gssion sphce& thai ",rc weak ill lcnsion. strengthening of column splices wHl be necessary. p. . I TIl', code or only for llravily loads WIthout. con:>tdcratton of ~lsmlC loads.
0
pres.~lOn pn(lf 0 sebl , 1::>

1
 Chapter i!. _Sei8mic Jletrofitting Stra1.egies oj ReinJo1"('.ed Conc~te Buiiding.l'l)
AUM ( Earthqul1ke ,R.e,!;istant De.rign oj St~=c::.:t:::u"re::.:,,-_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _~ L
Non-wnvenlional methods
In recent years, several alternative approaches are being used in the retrofitting of structures,
Among them. seismic base isolation and addition of supplemental device techniques are the
most popular. These techniques proceed with quite a different philosophy in that sense that it
Cut off 'I Set isolator base:
is fundamentally conceived to reduce the horizontal seismic forces. The applications of these
lNe'o'V foundation I control pile ~ groul I: InstalllsQlalo~ an~
techniques in retrofittJng are also in infancy state; hence, the technical literature related to their
application, future performance, advantage and problems have not been thoroughly investigated, ~
FIGURE 29.10 Process
or sc,.-'- retrofitting by base isolation in building resting on pile
~m'
However, a brief discussion about these techniques has been made here, (Kawamura, 20(0).

Seismic base isola non Supplemental damping devices

. I Id ill'g may be an effective method to resist seismic force. The most
Base isolation proceeds WitJI quite a different philosophy in the sense tbat this concept is Use of supp ementa amp . 11' f ..
fundamentally concerned to reduce the horizontal seismic forces (Delfosse and Delfosse. 1992). commonly used approaches to add supplemental dampers to a .st~cture are lOsta mg 0 v l~~~
It is a powerful and relatively cheaper method of seismic rehabilitation of hulldings. Its main damper or visco-elastic damper, frictional damper, and hysteretic dampers as componen s
advantages are: (a) better protection against earthquake due to the decreasing of shears, braced frames (Figure 29.11).
(b) superstructure wjIJ need no reinforcement, (c) foundation system wHi not need any
reinforce-ment to resist the overturning moments. which are much smaller than those of initial
design, (d) least interrupting the building activities, since the work is carried out in the basement
with no loss of income during rehabilitation programme~ (e) least temporary work is required.
A typical hase isolation system is evolved by the use of rubber bearing located at the base
of the buiJding; most often just below the first floor, under columns or shear walls. Rubber
be(;lring consists of laminated layers of rubber and steel plates strongly bound together during
the vulcanizing process of rubber. They are designed with a vertical stiffness, which is usually
300 to 1000 times higher than the horizontal stiffness. Such a system increases the first natural
period in both the horizontal directions in between the range of 1 to 2.5 seconds and the response
acceleration decreases accordingly (except for building on soft soils for which natural period
should be increased up to 3 sec or more). Damping usually comprised between 5% and 10%
critical, but can jump to as high as 20% with the addition of damper. Base isolation techniques
have created considerable interest among architects and engineers in developed nations like
France, USA, Japan etc. A building filled with well designed base isolation behaves like one
qegree of freedom system.
Figures 29.9 and 29,10 show the step-byws;tep process of base isolation retrofit of building
supported by columns and pile respectively.

21_
" 'S~lcasc by Iwl-f.
FIGURE 29.11
(~d<le, 2000).
damrd'r fin first aDd second stories
Building retrofitted witb visco-elasbc r-

-------------; \ \U\10 s\eel p\'te 5 ",~ ...

29. uemlJer
' Level (or Local) Retrofit Methods
Remove nnh:hlng ,
. -._~ ____ ,~" __ ::.J :_:!~l concrele " h' t gl<ide the stren"th O'f the members,
The meniber-level retrofit or local retrofIt approac. it> 0 up ff t' ~ compared to the
f Th' roach IS more cost e ec lye as
~"GURE 2!.!'.9 /P'Jrt;;ce;:s of sei;;:mrc fet.~Q!1tting by base isoJation in mid-storey isolation which are scismica])}' de lClent. IS app 'h' h' dividual member strength
:KaW!lmUfa, 2tm~). structurdllcvel retrofiL The most common method of en ancmg t e m
 +i8 ~q'fJ,a}ct:. lletJistant Design of Structures Chapter 29 Seism.ic Retrojitti'f).g Strategies oj Reinforced Concrete Building$) +,N
is jacketing, It includes the addition of concrete, sreel, or fibre reinforced polymer (FRP) , k of reinforced concrete beams with slabs is difficult yielding good confinement because slab
for' f' '< Jacets Causes hindrance in the jacket. In structures with waffle slab. the increase jn stiffness obtained
" US~ In CO~ lnm.g remJ~rced concrete columns. beams, joints and foundation. A brief
dIscussIOn of J3ckenng and Its appljcation on various members are discussed below. by jacketing columns and some of the ribs, have improved {he efficiency of structures. In some
cases. foundation grids are strengthened and stiffened by jacketing their beams. An increase in
Jacketing/confinement strength, stiffness and ductility or a combInation of them can be obtained. There may be several
options for the jacketing of members as shown in Figure 29.13, Usually the existing member
Jacketing is the most popularly used methods for strengthening of building columns, The 1S wrapped with a jacket of concrete reinforced with longitudina) steel and ties or with welded
most common t~pe~ of Ja~kets are. ste~) jacket, reinforced COncrete jacket, fibre reinforced wire fibre. steel plate, similar to other strengthening schemes. the design of Jackets should also
pojyme~ compos1te Jac~,et. Ja~ket Wlth,hlgh ,tension materials like carbon fibre. glass fibre etc. include the probable redistribution of loads in the structure. A change in the dynamic properties
T~e mam purposcs ~f Jacketm~ tire: (1) to Increase concrete confinement by transverse fibre! of the structure may lead to a change in the lateral forces induced by an earthquake, Jacketing
~emforcement, ~speCla.ll~ for circular cross-sectional columns. (ii) to increase shear strength serves to improve the lateral strength and ductility by confinement of compression COncrete. It
y transverse flbre/remforcemenf., (Un to increase flexural strength h i ' d' I fih
re f 'ded h Y ongnu Ina 1 ref should be noted that retrofitting of a few members with jacketing or some other enclosing
,l~ orce~1~enl prOVJ t ~y a~ well anchored at critical sections, Transverse fibre should be techniques might not be effective enough to improve the overall behaviour of the structure. if
wrapped a.d around the entIre clrcumference of the members possessing close] . ffi' I ' thc remaining members are not ductile.
overlapped or \),1 Ided i d . c oops su lClent y
- _ e_ - ~n or er 10 Increase concrete confinement and shear strength. This is how
members ~lJth cIrcular cross-section will get better confinement than member w'th t I Jacketing

i
cross-sectlOn Whe' . , I ree angu ar mortaI
Fining
. " " I e square or rectangular cross-sections are to be jacketed, circular/ovalf mortar
clhpttcatJackets are most of[e~Jy used ~nd the space between the jacket and column is filled with fabric
Steel strips ~
c~ncr~te. Such types of .multl-~haped Jackets provide a high degree of confinement by virtue
of theIr shape to th~ splice regJOn proving to be more effective. Rectangular jackets typican
~~ck t~e ~exural stItfn~$ needed to fuJ1y confine the COncrete, However, circular and ov?t Existing Existing
GaP-:d!:=:::I!.. Existing I
Jackets may be le~,s deSIrable due:o (i) need, of large space in the building potential difficulties column column column
of fittmg :m rl,l,e Jackets With ex!stmg partItion walls, exterior cladding, and non-structural Concrete jacketing Steel jacketing Strap jacketing
~lements and (u) v.:here ~o oval or elliptical jacket has sufficient stiffness to confinc the concrete FIGURE 29.13 Types of jacketing of columns (Sugano, 1981)
~long the ,long dImenSIOn of the, cr~ss-section is open to question (Figure 29.12), The
ongltudmal fibres SImIlar ro longnudmal reinforcement can be ef'cct' -. ,
fl I l' IVC In mcreasmg thc
Jacketing of columns
e~u:a strength of member although they cannot effectively increase the flexural capacit of
bUlldmg.rra~es because the .critical moments: are located at beam-coJumn ends wherc mo;' of Jacketing of columns consists of added concrete with longitudinal and transverse reinforcement
the longItudinal fibres: are difficult 10 pierce through to get sufficient anchorage, around the exjsting columns, This type of strengthening improves the axial and shear strength
Steel jacket of columns while the flexural strength of column and strength of the beam-column joints remain
the same. It is also observed that the jacketing of columns is not successful for improving the
ductility, A major adv1U1tage of column jacketing is that it improves the lateral load capacity of
the building in a reasonably uniform and distributed way and hence avoiding the concentration
of stiffness as in the case of shear walls, This is how major strengthening of foundation.~ may
be avoided, In addition the original function of the building can be maintained, as there are no
J<l{'.ke!cd CIrcular- C0nHnin?, action Jacketed re:tangut" 'I '
1 c ... ,ac (cleo rectangular major changes in the original geometry of the building with this technique, The jacketing of
cO.l1m;: d[j~ckel le:;i column J"
ro umn m pracllcc columns is generally carried oul by two methods; (il reinforced concrete jacketing and (ii) steel
FH~iJRE 19.12 V;:)r\01!S SnUlpes of ...-etrofitting jackets (As('hbeim, 1(97). jacketing.
!V{}/.c: Sh:1dinf show,~ ;;r,,<):; of reduced confinemem effecLiveness
Reinforced concrete iacketing
Reinforced concrete jacketing can be employed as a repair or strengthening scheme. Damaged
"ne rm:!lJ of~i\.'L'1 i,-c of jadelin1! j~- to increase the Sel"'ffi'JC "al,acl'tv 01' the . , regions: of the existing members should be reIfiljred prior to their jacketing. There are two main
f , '., .,,",.,. .., '"' moment resl.,tmo-
,r(lmcu Slmctures, 1n <:.!mosl even case l~rc cojumn~ as well 'I<' be'IT I'll '.' 0 purposes of jacketing of columns: (i) increase in the shear capacity of columns in order to
-~ , . '.> :""" ' '" , , " ".., a 15 (} Ie eXIsting structure
Uhf, hi'A.-O Ii{ Id:If~(L hl cO~'Ilf1ansnn 1n ihe jaclwting uf reinforced C(;ncrcfc columns, jacketing

1
 ( Chapter 29 Seiltmic Retrofitting Strat~8 of Reinforced ConcretE' Buildings

accomplish a strong column-weak beam design and (ii) to improve the column's flexural local strengthening as sbown in Fignre 29.17. Table 29.3 furnished the details for reinforced
strength by the longitudinal steel of the jacket made continuous through tbe slab system and concrete jacketing extracted from the UNDPIUNIDO, 1983.
anchored with [he foundation. It is achieved by passing the new longitudinal reinforcement
through holes drilled in tbe slab and by placing new concrete in the beam column joints as is
illustrated in Figure 29.14. Added
Beam longitudinal
reinforcement
1=
f- LC
S1 b JaCket~

~ 1lJ: i:l 'r_~is\jng ~

:
t H..~eam
Added
f- ties
B ~, B
~ column Added ties
f=
: ~ Existing
--- column
f:::
f-
Jackel
FIGURE 2~t17 Loeal strengthening of reinforced concrete columns: (Rodriguez and Park,
1991).
!=
f- TABLE 29.3 Details for reinforced concrete jacketing (UNDPlUNlDO, 1983)

t u t ------:-:--:--------.-:-:-M~tch with' the concrete of the existing structure

Properties of jackets
, Compressive strength greater than that of the existing strUC~
tures by 5 N/mml (50 kglcm1 ). or a1 least equal to that of the
FIGURE 29.14 Construction techniques fot column jacketing (Rodriguez and Park, 1991). existing structure
Minimum. width of jacket 10 em for concrete cast-iTl-place and 4 em for shotcrete
Rehabilitated sections are designed in tbis way so that the flexural strengtb of columns If possible. four~sided jackel should be u~ed
should be greater than that of the beams. Transverse steel above and below the joint has been A monolithic behaviour of the composite column should be
provided with details, wbicb consists of two L-shaped ties that overlap diagonally in opposite assured
corners. The longitudinal reinforcement usually is concentrated in the column corners because Narrow gap should be provided to prevent any possibJe
of the existence of the beams where bar bundles have been used as shown in Figure 29.15. It increase in flexural capacity
z
is recommended that not more than 3 bars be bundled together. Windows are usuany bored Minimum area of longitudinal 3A11"J' where, A is the area of contact in cm and f'J is in
through the slab to allow the steel to ~o through as well as to enab1e the concrete casting process. reinforcement kg/cm 1
.
Figure 29,16 shows the options for the detailing of the longitudinal reinforcement to avoid the Spacing should nor exceed six times of the width of the new
exce~sive uo,;e of bundles, In some cases jacketing has been applied only within the storey as a elements (rhe jacket in the case) up to the limit of 6Q em.
percentage of steel in the jacket with respect to the jackel
area sho!!ld be limited between 0.015 and 0,04
At least, a 12 mID bar should be used at every comer for a
four sided jacket
Minimum area of ttansverse Designed and spaced as per earthquake design practice
It Minimum bar diameter used for ties is nOl tess than 10 mm or
reinforcement
1/3 of the diameter of the biggest longitudinal bar.
The ties should have 135degree hooks WIth 10 bar diameter
FIG. 29.15 FIG. 29.16 anchorage.
FIGURES 29.1~ and 29.16 Details for provision of longitudinal reinforcement (Teran and Due to the difficulty of manufacturing 135-degree hooks on
Ruiz, 1992). the field, ties made up of multiple pieces, ~.~J?~~ed- .. _
---~---~-~ .. -------=~= .. -~ ....-.--- Contd.
i
!
1

TABLE 29.3 Contd.
Shear stress in the inter;::l'a~c~c---::--P;;:=':;d::-::;d==::--:-:::--:--:::----:---:------
rOV1 e a equate shear transfer mechanism to assured
monolithic behaviour
A relative movement between both concrete interfaces
(between the jacket and the existing element) shouid be
prevented.
Chipping the concrete cover of the original member and
roughening its surface may improve the bond between the
old and the new concrete.
For fOllT-sided jacket, the ties should be used to confine and
for shear reinforcement to the composite element
F~I' 1. 2, 3 side jackets, as shown i.n Figures 29.18. special.
reinforcement should be provided to enhance a monolithic
behaviour.
Conneclor:; Connectors should be anchored in both the concrete such
that it may develop at least 80% of their yielding stress.
Distributed uniformly around lhe interface, avoiding con-
centralion in specific locations.
It is better to use reinforced bars (rebar) anchored with
_ _ _ _ _ .. _ _ _ _ ...... _ _ _....:.e!:.p~.xy resins of ~roUls as shown in Figure 29.18(a}.
<b)
I,E:ml"'f: cQhmm; 2.Jack<::t; :E"/il~llng ",mfon-o:m<:t\\
4Addcd h.>ngrtl.ldWil remfun::crncnl, .sAddcd tiC1<
&-Wc\din&: i,lio.:nt bars
FIGURE 29.18 Different methods oC column jackeling (UNDP, 1983).
Steel jacketing
~ocal s~engl~ening t)C eolu~nns h~s: b~n frcquently accompHshed by jacketing with steel plates.
, gene] al feature of steel Jacketmg IS mentioned in Table 29.4.
J'A !!LE__2'lA ~_~~~.f~_cc
Del',
~~ ___ ' I.lack ding (Aboutaha, Engelhardt, Jirsa and Kreger, 1996)
;,jC'cJ plntC thidncs~ AI least 6 111m
j-iClghi of jnckc:! C' 1 2 to 1.5 times splice length HI ca~e of Hexural columni
e> full hClghl of coiumn in case of hhear columns
.. _---_.._---
CJ;(l.pter 29 Seismic Retrofitting Strategies af Reinforced Concrete B~i~ 8,.
TABLE 29.4 Contd.
Rectangular jacketing. prefabricated two L-shaped panels
Shape of jackets
The uSC' of recrangkiar jackets has proved to be successjkl in
case oj small size columns up w 36 inch width that ha\Je been
succes:;fully rem~fiHed with w" thick steel jackets combined with
adhesive anchor bolt. bur has been 1e.'>" successful on larger
recumgular columns. On larger columns. rectangular jackets
appear w be incapable to provide adequate confinement.
Welded tbroughout the height of jackel, size of weld lAW
Free ends of jackets
38 mm (1.5 inch). steel jacket may be terminated above the top
Bottom clearance
of footing to avoid any possible bearing of the steel jacket
against the footing. 10 avoid local damage to the jacket undlor
an undesirable or unintended increase in flexural capacity
25 mm (l inch) fill wHh cementations grout
Gap between steel jacket
and concrete column
25 mm (1 inch) in diameter and 300 mm (12") long embedded
Size of anchor bolt
in 200 rom (8") jnto concrete column
Bolts were installed through pre~driHed holes on the steel
jacket using an epoxy adhesive
Two anchor bolts are intended to stiffen the steel jackef and
~umber of anchor bolts
improve confinement of the splice
FRP jacketing
Several researchers have investigated the possibility and feasibility of fibre reinforced polymer
composite jackets for seismic strengthening of columns winding them with high strength carbon
fibres around column surrace to add spiral hoops (Figure 29.19). The merits of this method are:
(el
(i) carbon flbre is flexible and can he made to contact the surrace tightly for a high degree of
conflnement: (ii) confinement is of high degree because carbon f.bres is of high strength and
high modules of elasticity are used: (iii) the carbon flbre has light weight and rusting does not
occur (Katsumata et al.. 1988).
Carbon fibre/strap
dipped into epoxy re!;ifl
COflfd,
FIGURE 29.19 Carbon fibre winding (Kalsum.ta and Kobatake. 1996).
1
Wi. ( Earthqu.ake Resistant Design of Strueture8
T Chapkr 29 Seismic Retrcfitti,,!9 StNtegie8 O/...!!:::inff;)f"Cf:l.l Concrete BuUding-0 A'U-
1
i TABLE 29_5 Reinforcement details of beam jackets (UNDPIUNIDO, 1983)
Limitations: There are some disadvantages associated with the column jacketing technique
as well. (i) in some cases the presence of beams may require majority of new longitudinal bars ern concrete cast in place or 4 em for shorcrete
Minimum width for jacket
to be bundled into the comers of lhe jacket; (Ji) with the presence of the existing column it is Percentage of steel on the jacket should be limited to 50 of
Longitudinal reinforcement
difficult to provide cross ties for new ]ongitudinal bars which are not at the corners of the the total area of the composite section
jackets; (iii) jacketing is based mostly on engineering judgment as there is a dearth of guideline,. Ignore the effect of existing shear reinforcement
Shear reinforcement
New reinforcement should have 135 hooks 3?d .al each
Beam jacketing comer of the tie there must be at least one JongHudmal bar.
The har used for the tie should have a1 least 8 mm diameter
Jacketing of beams is recommended for several purposes as it gives continuity to the columns and
increases the strength and stiffness of \he structure. While jacketing a beam~ its flexural resistance Multiple piece ttCS can be U!'ied, as discussed before for
must be carefully computed to avoid the creation of a strong beam-weak column system. In the columns
retrofitted structure. there is a :;trong possibility of change of mode of failure and redistribution Depth of jacke'ted beam Span/depth ratio
of forces as a result of jacketing of column, which may consequently causes beam hinging. The Storey height
location of the beam critical section and the participation of the existing reinforcement should Ductile behaviour
be taken into consideration. Jacketing ofbearn may be carried out under different ways (Teran and Al h gh these guidelines cart give a rational basts Jor practical design, rese~rch :ifill, nee~
Ruiz, 1992), the most common are one-sided jackets or 3- and 4-sided jackets (Figure 29.20). r 0:' .. I spec!s;" the behaviour of jackIcd elem':n!s. 1'/te change m benavwur m
to tluuress crmca a .... . ... nr1y red uce,d flue
'"v their
h span/depth ratios are ,ngmJlca
jackeled elements, w hose sear
needs to be

Beam-column joint jacketing

A 'oint rna be defined as the part of the column that is located through the depth of the beams,
~ h' h ktersect that column, This critical reglOn should have enpugh confrnement and, shear
~:pa:it~~ However~ due to lack of space in the joint region it is difficult enough to provlde an
Threesided jacketing Foursided jacketing
adeguate confinement. Alcocer (1992) has assessed
FIGURE 29.20 Different ways of beam jacketing (Teran and Ruiz, 1992). experimentally the behaviour of several beam col-
umnS sub~assemblages. where the joint is confined
At several occasions~ the slab has been perforated to allow the ties to go through and to
with a steel cage as is shown in Figure 29.22. Test
enable the casting of concrete. The beam should be jacketed through its whole length. The
results have indicated that jacketing has been effec-
reinforcement has also been added to increase beam flexural capacity moderately and to produce
tive in rehabilitating the joint, with improving the
high joint shear stresses. Top bars crossing the orthogonal beams are put through holes and the
strength. stiffness and energy diss.ipatio n .character-
bottom bars have been placed under the soffit of the existing beams, at each siOe of the existing
istics of the existing joint. ]n these spec]JTIens~ the
column. Beam transverse sleel consists of sets of U-shaped ties fixed to the top jacket bars and /t;;;;::!::::;~t't Steel straps
dissipation of energy has been m~inly concenU"at~d Steel angle 1 x 1/2 in.
of inverted U-shaped ties placed through perforations in the slab, closely spaced ties have beell
at the beam's ends. 1t is also very Important to pOInt 2,5 x 3/8 in.
placed near the joint region where beam hinging is expected to occur (Figure 29.21). The main
out the need to have a very strong column as com- FIGURE 29.22 Sled cage assembled in
features uf reinforcement details of beam jacketing are given in Table 29.5.
pared to the beam to avoid driving o~ the column or the joint (Alcocer, 1992).
.
~--- joint into significant inelas.tic behavIOUr.
{--,' :
,, "
,,
"
,. Slab column connection
, .. J' f tructural damage is the slab column connection which resuhs in the
The m.os.t cntlca t~pe 0 S ansfer of unbalanced moments. The retrofitting of slab
I punchlllg shear ,fall~rebeduefj:O"al~~rt~eprevention of punching shear failures. A considerable
Longiiudin;.ol st;;e! column connection 1$ ne IC 99' F be t al 1993-
amounl 0f h carr,'ed ont in this regard (Tuo and Dunin1, 1 4, ar y e . ,
researc
'
 ~ri.hquake REsistant D~sign <:f Structures - - Ch(lpter 29 SdBmtc Retrofittin.g Strategies of B.einf~ ConcT'ete Buildings) . " .
~~~----------------~
Martinez et aI., 1994) has reponed that adding concrete capitals or steel plates on both sides of Q
slab can prevent punching shear failures (Bai, 2003). -r;:::::;::;:1 Monolithi<: Q
Infilled concrete
LLJJ~ -0
Foundations
The repair and retrofitting of foundations is principal1y required due to two types of probJems:
1.0Q.
0.60-1.00 Qw ! wall

-------..:
(i) the change of loads on the foundation by strengthening the structure and (ii) the failure of C<
foundation itself. In the first ease, the most common practiee has been the reinforced concrete ~
jacketing of basement beams and the addition of new piles. Generally segmemed concrete piJes -2
have been used for retrofitting (Iglesias, 1986). jon 05Qw

29.6 COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF METHODS OF

RETROFITTING
A large number of existing reinforced concrete buildings retrofitted by various seismic retro-
JIlting schemes in Japan are shown in Figure 29.23. This data are collected by JOPlIn Concrete
Institute on practices of seismic retrofitting of 157 existing buHdings constructed between 1933 Displacement (x 10-:1 radian)
and 1975 in Japan (Endo et a1., 1984). More than one methods were adopted simultaneously FIGURE 29.24 TYpical load-dispJacement relationship for different strengthening tecbnique$
in many cases. The most frequently used methods of retrofitting have been addition of shear (Sugano, 1981).
wans jn 82% cases, column jacketing used in 33% case.<;, while adding of steel bracing has been
adopted only in 2% cases, mainly because of the difficulty of connecting the braces to the only a qualitative indication. Table 29.6 presents a comparison of different aspects involved in
existing concrete frame. Repairing work with epoxy resin has been carried out in 20% cases, retrofitting. It is based on the author's experimental study of one-bay, one-storey simple frame,
which was strengthened by different techniques.
100 150
I
~umber of

wi q+jYiW,il 130 techniques

u,ed
TABLE 29.6 Feasibility study of strengthened one-storey frame (Gates et aI., 1992)
Strengthened Construction Cost Structural
schemes Workability WeighT Sliffnesl' Strength Ductility
Infilled Much work Heavy Cheap High High Low
Reinforcement of foundation concrefe wall (1.00) (1.00) ( 1.00) ( l.00) ( 1.00)
Reinforeement of piles lnfilled Easy w:,rk Heavy Slightly Low Low Low
Curting silt between walJ and COlumnf 4 concrete (l.00) expensive (0.30) (0.30) (1.13)
Adding steel bmee 3
block wall 0.61)
Reinforcc:llcnt of slab ' 2
Compression Simple connec- Ught Slightly ex- Low Low High
Reinforcement of lQotins, Qeal1l : 2
brace tion, easy work (0.39) pensive(l,47) (0.27) (0.63 ) (1.70)
Removing pcnthou.~e b-I' Tension brace Easy work but Light Expensive Low Low High
t:hanging roof s{nj(:t~I'C ~
needed (2.93) (0.24) (0.67) (1.70)

i'ft;GKK 2g.13 Repair and strengthening techniques: used for 157 buildings in Japan (Endo
~,tat, 1984'}.
Typi~al l:ilcral !oad-dibplacement relatjonships of different strengthening techniques are
~)rc"cnted 10 figure 29.24. lL may be observed thal the ,strengthening technique.,;; significantly
lfwreasr the laler~d s{;ength nnd stiffneSB in comparison to un~trengthened frdme, however it is
Table 29.7 iHustrates the qualitative comparison of t]1e four alternative retrofitting
schemes: (a) base isolation plus exterior diagonal bracing; (b) conventJonal diagonal braced
frames on the exterior; (e) exterior shear waUs in the perimeter frame; and (d) jacketing of
the non-ductile concrete beams and columns (Gates, Ne,ter and Whitby, 1992). Figure 29.25
iHustrates the quantifiable losses associated with earthquake under each of the retrofit solutions

1
. . ( Earthquake Resistant DelJign of Structures ('h<t1!it"l":2.1) Seismic Retrofittin9 Strategies of Reinforced Concrete Buildin9s _

TABLE 29.7 Comparison of alternative retrofit schemes (Gates et.aI., 1992) as well as the do-nothing alternative. Superimposed on this figure is the estimated retrofitting
cost for each scheme.
Partial list of Ba~ie Braced External Jacketing Do
retrofit schemes isolation frames shear walls nothing
Seismic Risks @ MCE SUMMARY
Life safety-injury Minor Moderate Moderate Moderate Extensive
Life loss Not Not Not Not Some Retrofitting of seismically-deficient buildings or earthquake-damaged building is one of the
expected expected expected expected most challenging tasks, which structural engineers face in the aftermath of an earthquake. There
Equipment damage Minor Moderate Moderate Moderate Extensive are at present no guidclines or code of practice available in the country for seismic retrofiuing.
Business interruption hours~ weeks weeks weeks- months or The chapter presents a state-of-the-art documentation on the methods available for seismic
days months relocation retrofitting and their pros and cons. The methods of retrofitting arc divided into Lwo categories,
Construction namcly, structural retrofitting and member retrofitting. The methods for structural retrofitting
are adding shear walls, adding steel bracing, adding infill walls, seismic base isolation and
Business impact Low Medium Medium High
supplemental damping devices. Thc most common method or enhancing the individual mcmber
Architectural impact Low- Low- High Low
strength is jacketing. It includes the addition of concrete, steel, or fibre rcinforced polymer
Moderate Moderate
(FRP) jackets for use in confining rcinforced concrete columns, beams, joints and foundation.
Schedule (Ycar.~) 3 1.75 2 1.5
A comparative analysis has also been made for diffcrent methods of retrofitting depending on
Project cost (Ratios) 2.2 1.0 1.2 1.0
~mpaci. of Engineering Uneertainties effectiveness and cost.
Ground motion High Medium Medium Low
Design and analysis Low Low
Constructibilily
Low Low REFERENCES
Medium Low Low Medium
History of Performance in Earthquakes [1] Aboutaha, R.S., Engelhardt, MD., Jirsa, J.O. and Kreger, M.E, "Retrofit of Concrete
Some Moderate Extensive Some Extensive Column with Inadequate Lap Splices by the Use of Rectangular Stccl Jackets",
Earthquake Spectra, Volume 12, No.4, November, 1996.
100% [2] Alcocer, S.M., "Rehabilitation of RC Frame Connections Using Jacketing", Tellth
100 World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Madrid, Spain, ] 9-24 July, 1992.
[3] Aschheim, M., "Seismic Vulnerability, Evaluation, Retrofit, and Ncw Design of
90
California Bridges-An Overview", D.P. Abrams and G.M. Calvi (Ed,.). US-Italian
80 rlJ Estimated loss Workshop on Seismic Evaluation and Retrofit, NCEER-97-0003, 1997.
.s"" 70 II Estimated retrofit cost [4] Bai, J.W., "Seismic Retrofit for Reinforced Concrete Building Strucmres", Conse-
~ quences-Based Engineering (CBE) InstitUTe Final Report, Texas A&M Univcrsity,
e 60 Mid-America Earthquake Ccnter (from Internet), 2003.
0 50 (5] Buckle, l.G., "Passive Control or Structures for Seismic Loads". TWf/jth World
u
~ Conference Oil Earthquake Engineering, Paper No. 2825, 2000.

"."E
" 40 [6] CEB, Fastenings for Seismic Retrofitting-Stale-of-the Art-Report, Thomas Telrord,
0
30 1997.
Z f71 Delfosse, G.c. and Delfosse, P.G., "Seismic Rehabilitation of a Shcar Wall Building
20 by means of Base Isolation", Ten.Th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering,
10 Madrid, Spain, 19-24 July, 1992.
[8} Edoardo, Coscnza and Gaetano, Manfredi, "Some Remarks 011 (he EvaluaLion and
0 Strengthening oj" Under-designed R.C. Frame Buildings", U.S.-Italian Worbhop on
Base Shear Braced Jacketing Do
isolation walls Seismic Evaluation and RetrofiT, D.P. Abrams and G.M. Calvi (Eds.), NCEER-97-
frames nothing
Total loss and investment 0003, 1997.
Risk .asse~smclI)t summary in 1cI"ms of quantifiable cosls (Gates ei at~ 1992).
 )
(9) El-Dakhakhni, W.W. Elgaaly, M., and Hamid, A.A., "Three-Strut Model for Concrete [24J Sugano, S "Seismic Strengthening of Existing Reinforced Concrete Buildings in
Masonry-Infille<! Steel Frames", Journal of Structural Engineering, Vol. 129, No.2, Japan", Bulletin of 'he New Zealand National Society for Earthquake Engineering.
2003. Vol. 14, No.4, December, 1981.
[10] Bndo, T, et. aI., "Practices of Seismic Retrofit of Existing Concrete Structures in [25J Teran, A. and Ruiz, J., "Reinforced Concrete Jacketing of Existing Structures", Tenth
Japan", E(ghth World Conference On &rthquake Engineering, San Francisco, 1984. World Conference on Earthquake Engineertng, Madrid, Spain, 1992.
[II] Gates: WE., Nester, MR, and Whitby, T.R.. "Managing Seismic Risk: A Case HisTOry
[26J UNDPIUNIDO Project RERJ79/O 15. "Repair and Strengtherung of Reinforced Concrete,
of ~elsn;:e Retrofit for a Non-ductile Reinforce<! Concrete Frame High Rise Office Stone and Brick Masonry BuiJdlngs". Building Construction Under Seismic Conditions
Buddmg Tenth World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Madrid, Spain. 19-24 in the Balkan Regions, Vol. 5, United Nations Industrial Development Programme.
July, 1992. Austria. 1983.
[12) ~glesias, J" Repa~ring ~d Strengthenin..,g of Reinforced Concrete Buildings Damaged
[27J UN Economic and Social Council. Committee on Housing, Building and Planning.
Ifl the 1985 MexICO City Earthquake. The Mexico Earthquakes-1985-Factors "Re<!esign, Repair and Strengthening of Buildings in Seismic Regions", ECEIHBP143,
lnvolved and Lessons Learned, Michael A. Cassaro and Enrique Martinez Romero 1982.
(Eds,). Proceedings of the international Conference, Mexico City, Mexico. ASCE [28J Valluvan, R., Kreger, M.E., and Jirsa, J.D., "Strengthening of Column Splices for
Publication, September 19-21, 1986. Seismic Retrofit of Non-ductile Reinforced Concrete Frames", ACI Structural Jouma,
il3] IS : 3935. RqJOir and Seismic Strengthening of Buildings-Guidelines, Bureau of Vol. 90, No.4, July-Aug., 1993.
IndIan Standards, New Delhi. 1993. 29J Valluvan, R .. Kreger, M.E . and Jirsa, J.O., "Strengthening of Column Spliees in
1l4J Jara, M" Hernandez, c., Garcia. R., and Robles, E, "The Mexico Earthquake of Infilled Shear Wall". Tenth World Conference On Earthquake Engineering, Madrid,
September 19, I 985-Typical cases of Repair and Strengthening of Concrete Spain, 19-24 July, 1992.
Buildings", Earthquake Spectra, Vol. 5, No. I. 1989. [30J Wyllie, L.A. "Strengthening Strategies for ImproVe<! Seismic Perfonnance". Eleventh
[IS] '''Guideiine for Seismic Evaluation of Existing Reinforced Concrete Bui1dings~', (in World Conference on Earthquake Engineering. Paper No. 1424, 1996.
Japanese), Japan Building Disaster Prevention Association (JBDPA) Akas"'" Tokyo
1990. ' ....., ,
[16] Katsumata, H. and Kobatake, Y., "Seismic Retrofit with Carbon Fibres for Reinforced
Concrete Columns", Eleventh World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Paper
No. 293. 1996.
[l7J Katsumala. H.. Kob.take, Y. and Tanaka, T. "A Study on Strengthening with Carbon
F,bre for Earthquake Resistant Capacity of Erlstiog Reinforced Concrete Columns"
Ninth World Conference On Earthquake Engineering, Vol. 7, pp. 517-522. 1988. '
[18] .~aw~ura, S., Sugisaki, R" Ogura, K., Maezawa, S., Tanaka, S., and Yajima, A.,
SeISmIC IsolatIOn Retrofit in Japan", Twelfth World Conference on Earthquake
Engineering. Paper No. 2523, 2000.
[191 Lynn, A.C., Moehle, J.P., Mahin, S.A . and Holmes, W.T., "Seismic' Evaluation of
Existing Reinforced Concrete Building Columns", Earthquake Spectra. Vol. 12,
No.4. 1996.
Nalcghi, F alld Shahbazian. B .. "Seismic Evaluation, Upgrading and Retrofitting of
';;;!mcturell.; Recent Experiences in Iran", Tenth World Conference On Earthquake
Engineering, Madrid, Spain, 19-24 July, 1992.
'')<11
'" '> ~,Je\\'man> Alexander, Structura,J Renovation of Buildings-.".1ethrub\ Details. and
f)psigl? P-mmplr, Mr:Graw-HiIl, lJSA, 2001.
:~ta.nj, ,~. '.'Earrhquak.e Resi~tanl Design of Reinforced Concrete Buildings-Past and
hufl'rc , j(lumal Qf A.dl)aTu:ed ConcrNe Technology, VoL 2. No. I, 3-24. Japan
('oDcrete Institute, 2004.
~odriguel, M. and Park R., "Repair and Strengthening ofReinfurced Concrete Buildings
br Sei~lTJic Resislaoce"~ Earthquake 5pectra, VoL 7, No, 3. 1991.

1
 30.2 METHODOLOGY FOR SEISMIC RETROFITTING
OF RC BUILDINGS
A brief outline procedure followed for seismic assessment and retrofit works for a reinforced
Chapter 30 concrete building has been described here, This procedure has been adopted by the inspection
team for retrofitting of reinforced concrete buildings in Turkey after the Adana-Ceyhan

Seismic Retrofitting of earthquake in Southern Turkey on June 27, J998 (Sucuogl u , Gur and Gulkan, 2(00). The survey
team recommended 120 moderately damaged reinforced concrete residential apartment
buildings in Ceyhan. The procedure of the method employed for 3-9-storey building ,tock may
Reinforced Concrete be followed as:
Visit to the actual site with aU documentation of buildings should be made and all strucrural

Buildings-Case Studies dimensions and details should be verified. If necessary~ reinforcement has to be checked on
selected elements by rebar locator with some non-destructive testing (NDT) and by stripping
concrete cover. Foundations should be inspected by excavating trenches at one or two
exterior footings,
An intense investigation has to be made regarding the existing concrete quality by taking
1-3 core specimens from each building and taking rcbound hammer readings on a large
number of structural elements calibrated with the core test results.
Inspection of each structural and architectural element for damage should be done and thc
30.1 INTRODUCTION observed damage grade (none. light, moderate or heavy) on the strUctural and architectural
plans should be accordingly marked.
;:~~f~~::te~c~:~:.sWith a few case st~dies in which the applications of the most common Three~dimensional linear elastic model of the existing building should be prepared and
subjected to code specified vertical and lateral loads, The modulus of elasticity on concrete
seismiCalJ; deficient ~:I:::~~~Y~~ .~~. Improve ththe effiklCienc y and proficiency of either the
mixed d 1 .. mgs or ear qua e damaged buildings. In view of the
1 is to be reduced in accordance with materia) test results.
constru~io~~~io:;!~~m~~ r:=:~s of ~e~fi~ted, structures, heterogeneous nature of different The method for temporary shoring of damaged elements in bUlldings should be recom-
bri . .. epen en e asbe properties of various materials hamper t mended, The damaged strUctures should be shored for vertical loads and braced for 25% of
f ng a complete Jusuficauon of the application of analytical studies. A sound qualitative bast the estimated lateral loads and taking into account the live loads that will exist during con-
o eXin~ental stud.es or the experience of retrofitted structures during future earthquake 'I; struction. The most commonly used elements have been timber elements, steel elements. and
~;::tp~~ll2.: anddreveal,the success of retrofitted structures. Since we have a considerable d~ tubular scaffolding (Iglesias, 1989),
".~ an expenmental data on the bcha '
case studies. presented here are based on th v~our andb n:sponse of retrofitted structures, the The buckling of longitudinal reinforcement. rupture of ties and crushing of concrete is often
major earthquakes of March 14 and Se ':ee~nence 0 tame.d by the others, Incidentally, two observed in columns of damaged building. In that case, the original geometry of columns
concrete buildings in Mexico Some ofth p r J 9, 1979 hJt a Jarge Dumber of reinforced is recovered by the use of hydraulic jacks.
" . em were retrofitted whose efficacy cam t be all Co The seismic retrofit strategy for the building after considering all aspects should be
Judged by the reoccurrence of an earthquake in the same region in 1985 S' 'I e o . actu y
been ulltlaHy obtained from Turkey earthq uake 1988 in w' " . . .m. ar expenence has recommended.
damaged and retrofitted Th's p ed be , , h.eh a large number ofburJdmgs were e The upgraded building is analyzed under code specified loading and its compliance wilh the
a good learnmg 0
ppO~Unttr a ut the behaviour of
, I. rov to 'be
the retrofitted structures. A few available case st d' code is verified,
instanc f 'be . , U les presented m thIS chapter serve as good
For selected buildings, capacity spectrum method is employed to assesS the seismic
referred !1de ar~ based 'On advance te h I ' t d '. sc ~rnes. Some of the studies
:es or a tter understandmg of conventional retrofitted h . $

_
'Th' f _ C no oglca eVlces like base Isolation and supplemental performance of the retrofitted building,
f;X pel'"~
dam - n,regard'mg sUlta
.... : t Ie tn ormatlO . b'j'
1 tty. effectiveness, test results of the analytical or
r .penmen tl recommendatIons arc ba<.;ed on the studies Imd e ' . -
livthors klf-: expressed in the publlshed work. ' .. xpenence ubtamed by mdividual

556 I
j
 . . t Eartlu;uake Resistant DClJign of Structtt1'eB
) rCh~pt~t so Seismic Ri!trojitting oj ReinJorced Concrete Buildings Ca,sc. Studies) 4'P-
30.3 CASE STUDY I: SEISMIC RETROFITTING
Features of Damages in Mexico EartluJ.nake, 1979
OF RC BUILDING WITH JACKETING AND
SHEAR WALLS Minor cracks in beams and columns

Source Retrofitting Techniques Employed after Mexico Earthquake, 1979

~~c~~:j~:~:~;Uake of September J9, 1985-Typical Cases of Repair and Strengthening of Addition of concrete shear wan in axis 2 and A
Addition of masonry wall in axis 5
M. Jara, C. Hernandez, R. Garcia. and F. Robles
Earthquake Spectra, Vol. 5. No. 1, 1989 Behaviour of Retrofitted Building in Mexico EartluJ.uake, 1985
.. Severe damage such as spalling of the concrete cover and budded bar at the interface of the
1jJpical Features of the Buil.ding walts and beam-colul1ln jUlnls
Main reinforcement in the columns located at the ground floor buckled and crushing of the
Number f)f Stories---eight stories with basement
Year of conslruction-1966 concrete core occurred
Most damaged columns. were the columns ~djacent to the added walls
tI Lateral Joad resisting system-reinforced Concrete frames
Floor system-twa-way slab with beam Damage attributed to the inadequate connection between the addtXI walls and original fnlme
connection and the poor quality of the concrete
Fou~dation-grjd foundation with retaining walls around the perimeter
TypIcal floor plan and elevation are shown in Figure 30.1.
Retrofitting Techniques Employed after Mexico Earthquake, 1985
Minor cracks-Repaired by injecting epoxy resins
Buckled longitudinal reinforcemen~ broken ties" and crushed concrete-Replacement
of new reinforcement welded with the existing bars and new additionally dosed ties were
placed. concrete with low shrinkage properties were placed
483.0 Severely damaged columns adjacent to added walls-Retrofitted with encasing in
concrete with appropriate longitudinal and transverse reinforcement, existing surface should
726.1
be Chipped and cleaned of all Joose materials. The surface was mohtened before the new
concrete was placed
It Other columns---Retrofitted wi th wire mesh and a cover of 50 rom of shotcrete
725.0 Damaged concrete wall added after 1979 earthquake-Demolished and repJaced with
.. o .... ,d. new concrete walls with 200 mm in thickness
: ' Wall with slight damage-repaired by injecting epoxy resins and by increasing their
,COllGr~ie : 723(!
1 wah I thickness to 200 mm
.. ~. .~
Added new walls along the axis 2, 5, 6, E and A
It Foundation-The foundation grid was encased to permit the anchorage to the new
longitudinal reinforcement. Additionally. the grid was connecfed to the retainlng waHs
U;Uf:,.G)I
locuted around the perimeter to cnsure monolithic behaviour,
(;D
-~ Expected Performance
!~I.an: and c~c'fatinJl of tbe buiJdi:ng (Jara et al.~ 1983). 0:1., Stalk and dynamic analysis was performed on the original undamaged building, match to
the. di~tributjon of the damage obo:;erved accordingly

I
1
 -3'. ( Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures
Retrofitted building has been analyzed with the assumption of monolithic behaviour
betvleen old and new material
Results indicate no additional piles to the foundation

30.4 CASE STUDY Z: SEISMIC RETROFITTING

OF RC BUILDING WITH BRACING AND
SHEAR WALL
Source
Seismic Retrofit of an RC Building: A Case Study
Enrique DEL VALLE CALDERON, DougJas A FOUTCH, Keith D, HJELMSTAD, Eduardo
FIGUEROA-GUTIERREZ and Arturo TENA-COLUNGA
Added concrete
Proceedings of Ninth World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Tokyo-Kyoto, Japan waUs
(VoL VII), 1988

Typical Features of the BuUdin.g !-4.775+-7.125 ---1

Units, m
Number of stories~twelve, acting as Hotel building
Year of construction-I 927
Lateral load resisting systems-non-ductile reinforced concrete frames
Floor system--cast~in~place concrete joist beam construction with 2.5-inch concrete
slab
Foundation system-mat foundation (2.4 ro thick) on concrete friction piles
Typical floor plan and elevation shown in Figure 30,2 The columns of the frames and diagonal bracing at the firs/level were fabricmed f\leel boxes.
The other bracing members were made from 2 channels placed toe~to-loe wilh gusset plafe
betvv'een them. New footing and piles were placed under the columns of the new frames and
Features of Damages in. Mexico Earthquake, 1979
were attached to the originai foundation to ensure monolithic action
Extensive damage to first four stories in transverse direction Insertion of new intdl reinforced concrete. shear walls in N~S direction,
The spandrel beams and columns in Frame 1 and 5 experienced diagonal cracking OVer much The walls have been placed in the /-2 and 4-5 bays offromes A and C for the full heiglu
of their length in the first floor. In addition. the beam-columnjoims of these frames suffered of the building. Nails were insened inw the existing masonry walls
severe craeking and spalling
The medium column in the fourth storey of Frdme 3 suffered cracking and crushing Expected Performance
The foundation performed well
A three-dimensional response spectrum analysis ha~ been conducted on the structure using
Retrofitting Techniques Employed the ground motion measured in Mexico City. Results indicate tha11he sleel braced f~dJfles
attached to the building strengthened it. and they stiffened the structure, moving its natural

Cracked beams and columns-Repaired with epoxy injection

The columns of Frames t and S--Encased in steel through the fourth storey level t'>
period away from the predominant ground period 0: 2.0 sec .
The retrofitted building perfonned well and suffered no damage dunng the ~c~J:.':o
'

.. Frame I and s~- -BrClccd steel fnnoes were attached on the outslde of the building in earthquake 1985. cven though it was located in the vicinity of sevcml collapsed b~lld1figs
E~W direclion and was located in the pUTr of the city that experienced the sl.rongest ground $hakmg

J
 Chaptf'r :W Seismic Retrofitting of Reinforced. Con~rete Buildings Ca$~ Studi.es ) MM-
30.5 CASE STUDY 3: SEISMIC RETROFITTING OF
RC BUILDING WITH STEEL BRACING I
I
Features of lJanuiges in Mexico Earthquake, 1979
The building suffered extensive damage at the fourth storey columns due to pound-
ing against an adjacent four-storey building located approximately 5 em north of this
Source I building
Forced Vibration Studies of an RC Building Retrofit with Steel Bracing
i The building also experienced large inter-storey deformations of its frame; reSUlting in
damage to the exterior walls (both longitudinal and transverse). In addition. the longitudinal
Keith D. HJELMSTAD, Douglas A. FOUTCH, Enrique DEL VALLE, Ruth E DOWNS and transverse partitjon walls were badJy cracked at several levels
Proceedings of Ninth World Conference on Ea th k E . !\Io indications of the foundation failure were observed.
;VoL Vll), 1988 'r qua e ngmcering, Tokyo-Kyoto, Japan
Retrofitting Techniques Employed
Typical Features of the Building Diagonal steel bracing was added to the central bay of frames I, 2 and 3 in the transverse
~ mh direction

~.u'ld.cr 0 f fa~TleS~12~slOrey
.
reinforced r.:oncrete condominium apartment building
.. ..d.n mg detaIls-plan sIze 10 8 x 17 45 dL. h . The cross-braces were fabricated hy continuously welding of ru'o angles together toe-to-toe
. I d' ~ , ". ,. m an uelg t IS 28.2 m above the foundu(lOn Jevel to form a structural box. The columns of lhe Jhree braced bays were encased in a steellartice
!r.c u mg penthouse '
s ~~teraj load reSisting s.ystems-moment resisting RC frames composed of angles at the romers and diagonal flat plates. This encasement provided the
1-'JOor sY,.stem-racticular waffle slab 5 ern thick with 35 em deep ribs
additional strength necessary to carry the incr'eased axial forces anticipated in the columns
FoundatlOn system-mat f d' (15 . of the braced bays. These forces result from the additional ovenuming moment attracted to
hl:<tms (140 c~ x 40 Oun atmn - em thIck) underlain by deep, slender stiffening the braced bays, Special sleel collars were fabricated and placed at the lap and boltom of
Th .t'ff; . b em N-S and 140 em x 30 ern E--W) located aJong the column lines. each column to facilitate the attachment of the steel cross~braces. These collars were grouted
, e . .'u cnmg cam.~ arc ~upported on concrete friction piles
~ypreaJ floor plan and elevation shown in Figure 303. and bolted 10 both the original concrete columns and the adjoining slab to smooth out the
transfer offorces between stories
Insertion of new reinforced concrete infLiI walls of 4 em thickness. to aU bays of the
exterior longitudinal frames
The reinforcement ratio of these walls was about 0.64% in both horizontal and vertical
directions. The steel braces and reinforced concrete walls increased the weight afthe building
approximately by 3%. No additional piles or other foundation modificaIions were required
largely because the weight of the structure was essentially unchanged, Besides, failure of
foundation was flot observed following the 1979 earthquake.

28.2
Expeeted Performance
The retrofitted bui1ding perfOJmed well and it suffered only minor structural damage during
the 1985 Mexico earthquake, even though the intensity of shakjng was much greater than
in 1979
Forced vjbratl0n studies of the building was carried out, the rest result indicates that the
steel~bracing scheme used to retrofit the building was an important factor in its better
structural behaviour during the 1985 earthquake
Free vibration test results show an increase jn average stiffness in N-S direction by
approximately 50%, which is also verified by the shape of the response 5pectrum. Lateral
CIWC'1:I,. piles - - J1 'jl ;J. .
displacements were controlled and pounding against adjacent building waR reduced.
~'I 3AS1 3ASl
Pian .md eJi\'~tion of tht' building (Hjelmstad et al.~ 1988).

1
 &It (EarthqtUlkc Reeiet(l.~~.fUS""';;:;;c;;;';;"re;;;,-----------___
30.6 CASE STUDY 4: SEISMIC RETROFITTING OF'
RC BDILDING BY JACKETING OF FRAMES
30.6.1 Source
The Mexico EaI1hquake of September 19 1985
of Concrete Buildings
M. Jara, C. Hernandez, R. Garcia, and F. Robles
EaI1hqu.ke Spectra. Vol. 5, No. 1, 1989
Retrofitting Thchniques Employed
Concrete Jacketing-Both beams and columns
. Expected Performance
, -TypJcaJ Cases of Repairs and Strengthening
Static analYSis was performed taking into account the torsiunal effects
Retrofitted building was ana1yz,ed with the assumption ofmonoJithic behaviour between the
old and the new material

1)pical Features of the Building 30.7 CASE STUDY 5: SEISMIC RETROFITTING

a Number of stories~-fQur stories with basemen (j OF RC BUILDING WITH SHEAR WALLS
a warehouse t, bl'Oond floor and three upper floors act as
Typical featores--comer building
AND JACKETING
" Year of construction-1959
Lateral load res'1$ti ng system-reinforced eoncrete frame~
Fl
Source
<>or system--two-way slab with beam ' The Adana-Ceyhan Earthquake of June 27. 1998-Seismic Retrofit of 120 RC Buildings
: Fou?dation_mat foundation with retaining walls around the 'meter Haluk SUCUOGLU. Threl GUR and Polat GULKl,N
Typlcal floor plan and eJevation as shown in Figure 30A pen Twelfth World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, 2000

Tjlpieal Features of the Building

Number of stories-Right-storey reinforced concrete apartment buildjng
Building dimensions-floor area 245 m2 and storey height is 3.0 m above the foundation
level t including penthouse
_.:L-2 Design and construction-1984
it.! Lateral load resisting systems-moment resisting RC frames. A structural waH around the
elevator
l,lJ~
'O~.md

Fioor system--concrete slabs in the first six storics and joist slabs in the top two storie~
Foun?-ation system-strip foundation in both the orthogonal directions

FIGURE 3G,4 PI d Features of Damages in Atlana-Ceyhan (Thrkey) Earthqooke, 1998

an an elevation 01' the building (Jura et IJI.~ 1989}
.. Building under moderate damage category
F'ea.tv:res f D
() amages in Mexico Earthquake, 1985 Extensive damage was observed in beams e.<;pecially between the first and fifth floot:'
: ~~~ve~: dama~e at i',f'..(:ond /lOOT I(w{"J columns
, 'J' U~~bC" ~(mSlst,S of ~.rdcks more than 1 mm in width. J f Retrofitting Techniques Employed
," hL. iacade wallS );uhered exte.nsive crackin tt 05S {} maferial and buckled bare,
,-,hurl column ellt:cl I::>
" Infilling of appropriate frame bays by in-situ t"(>jnforced concrete shear walls with proper
anchorage to the existing frame designed for these s.hear walls {Figure 30.5)
:.;pljdn,il (II '11'-' I, n d' I
'>
'" ) ghU HM rcinfufe<:menl 3;t the some :o,ection " Damaged columns or coJumns lacking required vertical load carrymg capacity are jacketed,
Where feasible, use of composite reinforced polymer fabric i~ recommended
 Mia. CE:-ar-'t:;h-'f"-a--;k~;-.Jin;;;e,:,i:,';;a;;;,.:i"Dne::s;;'gn-;;:;;-;oJ,C"s'",::ruc=''''u=re:::':------------ --~) CAaptrr SO Seismic Retmfitting oj Reinf&reed C~ncrete Buildin9s
---------j Case Studies)
D,
,,
c, B, A
,
, 30.8 CASE STUDY 6: SEISMIC RETROFITTING OF
:! ,, RC BUILDING BY ADDING FRAMES
~--'--~--~~~~-4~~~~~c~c-~-'F'-~--~--~"4'~~~~~~~--~--~--~--~-~,
i, : Source
f:"
The Mexico Earthquake of September 19, 1985-Typical Cases of Repair and Strengthening 01
Ii Concrete Buildings
I"
I:: M, Jara, C Hernandez, R. Garcia, and F. Robles
"
Earthquake Spectra, VoL 5, No, I, 1989

'Ijlpfcal Features of the Building

Number of stories--eight stories consisting of ground floor with seven upper floors that aCl
a;;; a housing bullding
.. Typical features-soft storey, mix.ed construction masonry with reinforced concrete
Year of construction-1979
Lateral load resisting systems-masonry bearing walls except at the ground floor. Column!
are only at the ground floor
Floor system-waffle slab at the frrst level and beam-block slab at the other levels
Foundation sysrem-grid and slab with friction piles located under each column
Typical floor plan and elevation shown in Figure 30,6

In the :)c"le{1i(~n.ofseismic It:!rrifif scheme, closing exterior window openings, intervention with
the ex/sIms pIpmg s.\wtem and bmiting architectural junctions are avoided as much as possible

Expected Perfornumce -ro' :,,

~
L-7
N

c L-6
Fr~e ~'ibratjon teM results indicate the lowest mode vibration periods of the origjnal (as built)
~

.. N

bUlldmg are c~cul.ated as 0.85 s (torsion), 0.68 s (translation in the short direction) and (jl
M
: L-S
0.65 , (trans!'lJo." !S long directlOn). In the damaged st.te, these periods become 1.09,0.87
and O"~4 respe.ctlv~ly" After addmg the shear walls, periods arc reduced lo 0.65 ~ (torsion),
Ii fA

O.){1s nransl.:Hlon m jhe long dirccti"m) and 0.43 !=; (translation in short direction) (jl
?\'atllfuJl:i:,lhe redu(..'tton in naturaJ vihration p~riods after ~ei&mi(' retrofil j<,; due to'increase
N

;;
_ .-.. ---- ..... _,--
L3

:.11 111,-:'. i:H~.j\l<>l'S 01, b:lildl.ngs, The ;;;(1.Idy indicates that the mean increa.t;p in lateral stiffncs& ~
N
L-2
li)l n':\l"Ohiled bmldmg IS n.1ughly
"
~
N , L-l
c
~, :Ground
~ , i floor
=. =
Uniu..cm
!,'/ - :'lifi"llt";', ;:otlCl" P~iro!lltifin
';t::ine~:~ l"Jeiorc rC[rofiU~Jf'
Ii ::: Trmc period afier rClrufitt(!lg
r Til;l( perin,) ll,-fol"(, j,.frr,fiuiflfc J?IGURE 30.6 Plan and elevation of tbe building (Jara .t ai, 1989).

i
Ed (Earthq'tud:e Resistant ri~8ign. of Structure8
,~~~~~--------~ T
1
JYpical Features of the Building
FetltI1res of Damnges in MexicD EartIupu11re, 1985
Number of stories-six stories consisting of a basement, ground level with five upper floors
Severe damage occurred in masonry walls
Foundation of the columns at the flnt level suffered no damage that act as an office building
Principal failure direction was east-west due to irregularities in plan and insufficient area Year of construction-1974
of walls in east-west direction Lateral load resisting systems--reinforced concrete frames
'\. Floor system-waffle slab - '"1
Foundation system-mat foundation with retaining wails around the pen meter, fnct!on pi es
Retrofitting Thchniques Employed
were placed under the mat foundation . ,
Adding of reinforced concrete frames over the existing column in the ground floor along Typical floor plan and elevation shown 10 F'gure 30,7
axis 1,3,4 and 6
Adding two concrete shear walls from first level to the upper storey were placed in axis
3 and 4
The existing masonry wans were retrofitted using wire mesh and 30 nun of mortar
The cover of the existing columns was removed to permit the continuity of the new
longitudinaj reinforcement. The dimensions of the existing columns were increased
The monolithic behaviour between the new frames and the floor system was provided by 592 L-7~-~

eliminating part of the floor system so that the new reinforcement of the frame was cast
togetber with slab -c1)- 6- -_._ --- ~! ---Q--
Foundation-The foundation grid was encased to permit the anchorage to the new longitudinal 545 , ' ,
reinforcement
0--- 9--- +- -9---+-
: I ! j

Expected Per(ormtl.1lce 550

Four new concrete frames with concrete waIls were analyzed by taking into account the
torsional effects
0---+-- ---<>---p -0-'

RetnJfitted building was analyzed with the assumption of monolithic behaviour between old 750
and new material

~tT- -t---4:
The results indicate that the bearing capacity of the existing foundation was considered
sufficient to resist the forces induced by the new structure

~'7;]ji ;
30.9 CASE STUDY 7: SEISMIC RETROFITTING OF . --6--- -o---v--'-<!>---
RC BUH.DING BY STEEL BRACING AND ! ;
IA~' - 9- --6-- - y---<;>--
INFILL WALLS 310 i ' ~ !

0'~
Source . I I 419 426 \ 432 I Units, em

The Mexico Earthquake of September 19, 1985-TypicaJ Cases of Repairs and Strengthening FIGURE 30.7 Plan and elevation with strengtbening schemes o( the building (Jara et at, 1989).
of Concrete Buildings
M. lara, C. Hernandez, R. Garcia, and F. Robles
P""thqunke Spectra, Vol. 5, No. I, 1989
Features of Damages in Mexico Earth.qlUl.ke, ) 985
. or damage to non-;uuctural walls
GO No significant damage during the earthquake . O!
n Y mm .
Foundation performed well
 Chapter ao Seismi~ Retrojitti.ug of ReinlOf"Ced CO'IlCmte Buildings Case Stu41es } . . .
Retrofitting Techniques Employed
x 4 bays@6.5meach p"
- -
fi I
4bays@6.5meach
.
I I -IIij
Although there is no significant damage but the OWner of the building decided to retrofit
it for future events and to eHminate the damage in nonstructural elements x
SteeJ hracing in tran:;versc direction, Bracing consist;;; of angie sections welded together i
fonning a box section I

Infilled masonry walls were reinforced to stiffen the structure in the longitudinal direction. I
Wire mesh and shotcrete Were llSed to strengthen the walls
;.-1 -+j--1-----1-1-i11i
Expected Perfonnance I I

Static anaIysis was performed to verify thar the upgrdded structure couid resist the code FIGURE 30.8 Two diITeren. retrofitting scbemes by 'heor wall (Thakkar et aI., 2002).
loads
The bracing frames were designed in such a way that they would carry all the lateral loads Expected Perfonna:n.ce
while the existing structure was considered to carry all the vertical loads
Provision of shear walls in external frames are more effective than the shear wall provide,
in internal frame however it is more effective for reducing base shear
30.10 CASE STUDY 8: SEISMIC RETROFITTING OF Storey drifts can be significantly decreased by addition of shear waU
RC BUILDING WITH SHEAR WALLS
Source 30.11 CASE STUDY 9: SEISMIC RETROFITTING OF
RC BmLDING BY SEISMIC BASE ISOLATION
Effect of Shear Wall Location on Response of Retrofitted Multi-Storied Building
S.K. Thakkar. Pankaj Agarwal and Deb.si, Sinha Source
12'h Symposium on Earthquake Engineering, lIT Roorke<:, 2002
Passive Control of Structures for Seismk Loads
Ian G. Buckle
1jJpicm Featnres of the Building 12'" World Conference on Earthquake Engineering. 2000
Number of s[Orie.s-fourteen stories {G + 13} in Zone IV Latest Advances in Seismic Isolation
Building details--five blocks. central block retrofitted. William H. Robinson
Eleventh World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, 1996
Lateral load resisting system-Ordinary Moment Reinforced Concrete Frames
Floor syslcm-RC beam slab construction thickness of slab 20 em Retrofitting of Historical Building by Seismic Base Isolations
Sarvesh Kr. lain and S.K. Thakkar
j
.
Foundation system----Considered fixed at base above the raft foundation
Workshop on Earthquake Disaster Preparedness. Roorkee, 1997
Seism.ic Evaluation Of Building
1)1pical Features of the BuiMings
Threc~dimensjonal Imear dynamic analysis of building indicates that the capacity demand
((,JD) ratio of majority of the elements (beams and COlumns) are Jess than J Name of buildings-New Zealand Parliament House and Ubrary. both are historic
buildings
Year of construction-I 899 and 1922 respectively
Retrofitting Techniques Employed Lateral load resisting systems-seismica1ly vulnerable un-reinforced masonry
Addition of concrete shear wall
Two allCmaLivi;'; IOLations of ~hear walls considered Retrofitting Techniques Employed
AddWOfl of shear wall in external frame and in internal frame as shown in Figure 30.8
Seismic isolation chosen over conventional strengthening teChniques to maintain the histor
fabric of the building

1.
 ""

'iiJ.I
'-.. - ( 80... -"'V......
n ....... _. . R e8i8tant
. Design of Siruct<ure.8

The. isolation system comprises 145 lea _ ' .

beanngs and 42 sliders drubber beanngs. 230 hIgh-damping rubber
30.12 CASE STUDY 10: SEISMIC RETROFITTING OF
Installation of the isolators required Stren th
provision of floor diaphragms
<

g ernng of basement walls and columns. and the
The retrofit involves re-piling the buHding w' ,
the 'Supports, as well as cuttin a seismic Itt:
Jead rubber beanngs and rubber bearing in
Figure 30.9 shows the streng':enin f gap l~ the 500 mm thick concrete wall
location of isolators g 0 foundatIOn walls below NZ parliament House and
RC BUILDING BY VISCOUS DAMPER
Source
Seismic Rehabilitation of a Non-Ductile Soft-Storey Concrete StructUre Using Viscous Damper
H. Kit Miyamoto and Roger E. Scholl
Eleventh World Conference on Earthquake Engineering. 19%

SlructuJal --+ Existing

1 - - - - granite facade 'Ijlpica1 Features of the Bulltling
concrete skin
New beam Number of stories-four~storey building consisting of ground floor with three upper floors
- - supponlng
I structure above Typical features-historical building. soft/weak storey structure in E-W direction, ground
floor is used as commercial/rerail space, and the 2nd floor and above is single occupancy
Ground floor
r Isolator pad apartment..:;
New concrete Year of construction-l 927
20 nun borizontal 'sandwloh' beam Lateral load resisting systems-no lateral resisting elements in Nonn and South elevation
gap separating - - - I - connected through of the building at the ground floor, except for 16" square light RC frame, Non-ductile soft!
upper building
from basement ~~~l~-~-~-~"';~~~-!post-tensioned
"" oJd foundationtieusing
bollS
weak storey structure in the East-West direction, Non-ductile reinforced concrete frames at
the first level, and conventional shear walls or braces at levels 2, 3, and 4
floor system-cast-in-pJace concrete joist beam construction with 2.5-inch concrete slab,

Features of Possible Damages

Tbree..<fimensional time history analysis of the original building was performed and the
result indicates that the concrete columns at the ground floor level were overstressed in
bending and shears due to excessive deflection and the lack of ductility detailing and
Strength. This type of adverse behaviour could cause total collapse of the superstructure
At present. there is no significant damage in the structure.
FIGURE 30.9 Strengthening of foUlldation .
isolators (Buck~ 2(00). walls below NZ Parliament House and location of Ret:rofittiIlg Techniques Employed
Since the building is a National Registered building, only limited options for retrofitting >ere
Expected Performance considered so that they should not affect the appearance of the landmark hotel, maximizing the
relai~/commerdal area at the ground floo" avoiding dislurbance to tenants living in aparrment
The effect of tlle isolation is calculated as in . on the upper floors and of course should be cost effective. The finally selected retrofittin.g
of 0,4.5 second to 2.5 second, creasmg the fundamental period from a value schemes are:
Duri S
ng an earthquake the building will be able "
plane up to the distance of 300 to mOve m any direction on a hOrizontal Steel moment frames with nuid viscous dampers (VDs) at the ground floor. The steel
.Tbtl mm moment frames were designed to provide stiffness, strength, and redundancy to the existing
e Ota cost for the restoration and " "
male1y llS$90 million seIsmIC retrofit of tbe..<:;e two bUildings was approxi- lightly reinforced concrete columns. VDs were provided to control drift at the fir;;t floor and
to keep steel moment frames in the elastic range. VDs were attached to the top of the steel
Chevron Braces and Were strategically located to meet the above requirements
 Wi,- lEarthquake R.e$i6t~nt De$ign of Structures
Expected PerfOF71Ul.ll.e
Dynamjc analysis was performed on two different mathematical models of the retrofitted
building. One was a simple two~dimensional stick model and the other was a complex three-
dimensional finite element modeL The analysis revealed that installing VDs and moment
frames at the fIrst level, reduces drift at .11 levels to the desired performance, In addition.
using VDs is cost effective and also maintain the historical appearance and commercia]
utilization requirement of the building.
( Chapter 90 Seismic R.etrofitting of Reinforced Concrete Buildings Case Studiee } IIiIII
are presented with their appHcation. suitability and effectiveness. A few avaiJable case studie
presented in this chapter serve as good instances for a bener understanding of conventionf
relrofitted schemes such as addition of shear wall, bracing. infill wall, jacketing and a combi
nation of them, Some of the studies referred here are based on advanced technOlogical device
like base isolation and supplemental dampers. As there is a scarcity of data on the retrofittin
of building in India. the case studies presented in lhis chapler are extracted from the availabl
literature.

REFERENCES
r (E) cone. Bm
[lJ Buckle. LG .. "Passive Control of Structures for Seismic Loads". Twelfth Worl
Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Auckland. New Zealand, 2000.
[21 Calderon, Valle, ED . et oJ.. "Seismic Retrofit of an RC Building: A Case Study'
PrO'eedings of Nimh World Conference on Earthquake Engineering. Tokyo-Kyo"
W8guide Vol. VII, Japan. 1988.
W30Bm beam
[3J Iglesias, J., "Repairing and Strengthening of Reinforced Concrete Buildings Damaged i
0 0
the J 985 Mexico City Earthquake", The Mexico Earthquakes 1985-Factors Involve
an4 Lessons Learned. Cassaro and Romero (Eds.), Proceedings of the lntemntioru;
~
!!
(j
u t (j
v ~
~
Conference, Mexico City, Mexico, September 19-21. ASCE PubEcation. 1986.
0
u '"
E< '"a;; "0
v [4J Jain, Sarvesh K. and Thakkar, S.K.. "Retrofitting of Historical Building by Scismi
~ 2; ~
d
c
0
Base Isolations". Worlwhop on Earthquake Disaster Preparedness, Roorkee. 1997.
0 ~ ~ [5J Jara, M., et a1., 'The Mexico Earthquake of September 19. 1985--Typical Cases c
: E< "
'" Repair and Strengthening of Concrete Buildings'. Earthquake Spectra. Vol. 5. No.1
1989.
[6J Keith Hjelmstad D., et al.. "Forced Vibration Studies of an RC Building Retrofit wit
Steel Bracing". Proceedings of Ninth World Confe,..nce on Earthquake Engineerin!
(Vol. VII), Tokyo-Kyoto, Japan 1988.
(7] Miyamoto, H.K. and Scholl, R.E., "Seismic Rehabilitation of a Non-ductile SOff
storey Concrete Structure Using Viscous Damper", Eleventh World Conference (j
earthquake Engineering, Acapulco, Mexico, I996.
[8J Robinson, W.H .. "Latest Advances in Seismic Isolation", Eleventh World Conferenc
on Earthquake Engineering, Acapulco. Mexico. 1996.

L --1-"-4 [91 Sucuoglu. H, Gur. T. and Gulkan. P, "The ADANA--CEYHAN Earthquake of Jun
27. 1998: Seismic Retrofit of 120 RC Buildings", Twelfth World Conference 0
Earthquake Engineering. Auckland. New Zealand. 2000.
[lOI Thakkar, S.K., Agarwal, P.. and Sinha. Debas;,. "Fffect of Shear Wall Location 0
Response of Retrofitted Multi-storied Building", Twelfth Symposium on Earthquak
l!'lGllRE 30.10 l'ypiCllt visco damper nssembly elevation (Miyamoto and SchoU, 1996). Engineering. liT Roorkee, 2002.

SUMMARY
The chapter deal::; with the practicai application of retrofittJng techniques in reinforced conc:rCle
buildings in the form of case ~tudies, Conventional and non-conventional schemes of retrofitlin~

1

Chapter 31
Seismic Provisions for
Improving the Performance
of Non-engineered Masonry
Construction with
Experimental Verifications
31.1 INTRODUCTION
Masoruy is one of the most traditional, oldest materials and widely accepted medium for housing
cc:nstruction in India. This construction system is usually made spontaneously and infonnaHY
WIth the ~elp of local masons without any Or only a little intervention by professional experts.
~erefore Jt IS termed as non~engineered construction. Nonengineered construction in Indja
IS generally made with fieldstone, fired brick, concrete blocks, adobe or rammed earth wood
or a combin~tion of locally available traditional materials, The long history of earthquakes and
age-o~d tradlUon ~f construction should have lead to the reasoning. logic and assumption that
sufficlent precauuonary measures are to be incorporated in these constructions to withstand the
earthquake forces. But, on the contrary~ this is not the case. Past experience has shown that
collapse of non-engineered construction is the single largest factor contributing to the huoe
losses and casualties during earthquakes till now. Unfortunately, however, the subject ~f
eanhquake resistant construction of such buildings has not receh'ed the attention it deserves and
the c"nstruction practices continue to ignore the warning issued by nature time and again. There
mal' be two possibilities for this situation, either people are unaware and do not know abolll the
earthquake resi~tant measure of masonry constnlction or they doubt the efficiency, proficiency
and ~~ficacy oj these measures. l11c present chapter will deal with the earthquake resistant
pro~lslons in non-:engineered construction in general and brick and stone masonry buildings in
partIcular aJongwlt1! experimentaJ verification to build confidence among the people.
E7S
ChapteT 31 SeiMnic ~r:ovi8ions for. Im~tJing. the Performa.nce ...
31.2 CRITERIA FOR EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT
PROVISIONS
The past earthquakes have revealed that masonry construction remains susceptible to earthquake
forces because of (1) lack of integral action, (ii) Jack of strong and ductile connections between
walls, roof elements and found.tion, (iii) inadequate strength for out-of-plane forces, (iv) low
tensile and shear strength of mortar, (v) high in-plane stiffness of wall, (vi) low ductility and
deformability capacity and (vii) heavy mass. In view of the continuous use of such buildings.
it is felt necess31j' to increase the seismic resistance of masonry construction by providing some
additional features known as earthquake resistant (ER) measures, The earthquake resistant
measures intended to increase the seismic resistance in terms of strength and ductility. These
earthquake resistant features alongwith the general guidelines are given in IS: 4326 and IS;
13928, Actually, the major features of these codes are extracted from the Monograph on "Basic
Concepts of Seismic Codes" prepared by "The International Association for Earthquake
Engineering lAEE in 1980, IS 4326: 1993 deals with the selection of materials, special features
of design and construction for earthqUake resistant buildings including masonry construction
using rectangular masonry units, timber construction and building with prefabricated flooring!
roofing elements. Guidelines for construction of earthquake resistant buildings using masonry
of low strength particularly brick and stone masonry are covered in IS 13828: 1993 and for
earthen buildings are covered in separate code in IS 13927: 1993. The basic aim for providing
the earthquake resistant features as recommended in the codes is based on following concepts:
(0 need of jnlegra1 action~ (ii) strong and ductile connections between walls, roof elements and
foundation. (iii) improvement in strength for out~of-plane bending. (iv) strengthening of
weaker sections by steel, timber or reinforced concrete, and (v) improving the strength of
mortar, quality of construction and insertion of bonding elements. However, to develOp a better
understanding of the efficacy~ reliability and acceptability of these measures, an experimental
verifICation is necessary (Agarwal, 2002),
31.3 SALIENT FEATURES OF EARTHQUAKE
RESISTANT PROVISIONS
The genera! features for improving the perfonnance of nonAengineered masonry construction
recommended in IS 4326: 1993 and IS 13828: 1993 are summarized in Table 31.1.
31.4 SEISMIC STRENGTHENING FEATURES
The non-engineered building coostruct.ion system should be strengthened by horizontal bands
or bond beams at LTIticallevels and vertical reinforcing bars at comers and junctions of waUs.
The bands form a horizontal framjng system that transfer the horizontal shear induced by the
earthquakes from the floors to structural walls, It also connects ail the structural waHs to
improve the integral action. Depending upon its location in the building it may be tenned as
roof, lintel, sill, and plinth band. The reinforcing details of these bands are avaiJable elsewhere
 TABLI, 31.1
Features
Salient features of earthqnake re.istant provisions recommended in IS 4326, 1993 and IS 13928: 1993
h.'c1rtnquake Resislallt Design and Construction of
General
Buildings-Code of Practice (1S 4326: 1993)
* Building Should be light in weighl. particularly roof
pdncipJe and upper stories
1(0 Integrity and conlinuity in construction such that it
forms a continuous Joad path hefween the foundatjon
to ali diaphragm levels, and tying aU portions of
buikling togelher
" P"rojectionlsuspenaed ceiling should be avoided,
otherwise reinforced and firmJy attached wirh main
structure
e Building plan and elevation should he symmetrical
with respect to mass and stiffness, otherwise use
separation joints
- Avojd close proximHy (pounding), use separation
Use separated staircase, otherwise enclosed with
rigid walls, if it is not possible use sUding joint
Sloping roof syslem should be adequately braced in
hoth orthogonal direction (horizontal tie member and
cross bracing) and should be adequately anchored
into lhe RC band,
e Foundation of building should be firm and uniform.
otherwise separate the building in units. In case of
loose soil, improve the soil condition
Improvill.g EMIl/quake Resistance of Law .'':ilrength
I
Masollry Buildings-Guidelines (IS 13928: 1993)
r
f
Building should be light in weight, particularly roof
and upper stories
Integrity and continuity in construction such lilal Jt
forms a contjnuou~ load path between the foundation
to all diaphragm levels. and tying all portions of
building togelher
Projectionlsuspended ceUing should he avoided,
r
:i'
otherwise reinforced. and firmly aUached with main
structure
i
~
Building plan and elevatjon should be synlmetrical
with respect to mass and stiffness. otherwise use f
separafion jOints
Use separated staircase, otherwise enclosed with
~
rigid walls. if it is not possible use sliding joint
Sloping roof system should be adequately braced in
both orthogonal direction (horizontaI tie member and
cross bracing) and should be adequately anchored
into the RC band.
_ Gables ends of unrejnforced masonry walls are
anchored to aU diaphragm levels
Foundation of building shOUld be firm and uniform,
otherwise separate the bUilding in units. Tn case of
loose soH, improve the soil condition

COfltd.

TABLE 31.1 Contd.

Fealures Earthquake Resistant Design and Ccmslruction G f Improving Earthquake ResiSlance of Low Strength
Buildings-Code of Practice OS 4326: i993) Masonry BuildingJ -Guidelines (is 13928: 1993)
Masonry unit WeB burnt bricks or soUd concrete blocks having Brick work in weak mortars
a crushing strength.> 35 MPa _ Fired bricks having a compressive strength .> 3.5 tyfPa
Squared stone masonry, stone block masonry or Stone masonry n
hoHow concrete block masonry, as specified in Stolle masonry of random rubbJe or dressed I'l:tone .ij
IS: 1597 (Part 2): 1992 or adequate strengln type as IS 1597: 1967 q
,~
Mortar Calegory A: M2 (ccment~sand 1:6) or M3 (nme~ Brick work in weak mortars
cinder 1:3) or even richer
M2 (cement-lime-sand 1:2:9 or cement~sand 1:6)
or richer
- Lime saud (1:3) or clay mud of good quality for
brick work
Stone masonry
r
in"
- Hz (cement~sand 1:4) or M, (cement-Hme-sand
1: 1:6) or richer
WaH dimension Not greater thun 15 m subject to a maximum of four
Cement sand (1:6), lime sand (1:3) or clay mud of
good quality in slone masonry
Brickwork In weak mortar
tg
and number of storIes, with strengthening arrangements Minimum wall thickness-one brick (230 mm) in i'
aa
stories Straight and symmetrical in both the directions single storeyed, one brick in lop storey and 1.5 bricks
Checked in flexure as a plate or as vertical strip (350 mm) in bottom storey of up to three stories
Storey height < 3.0 m. number of stories for category ~.
A. B. and C-3 stories, and category D-2 stories
Stone masonry lr
Wall thickness < 450 mm preferably 350 mm, :l'
.:;,
height < 3.0 m, length < 5.0 m if exceed provide
b\lttress, course height < 600 mm, inner and outer
width should be interlocked with bond stone,
Ir
maximum number of stories 2.
Con/d.

I
Features
TABLE 31.1 Contd.
EartilqLl(1ke Resistant Design and Construction of
Buildjllgs""~Code Practice (IS 4326: 1993)
Improving Earthquake ResisJance of Low Strength
Masonry Buildings--Guideline,{ (IS 13928: 1993)
I
IV!asonry
bond
II Usual bond but vertical joints should be broken
propedy from COUrse to course
Make a slopping joint by making the corner first
to' a height of 600 rum and then bulging the wall
Brickwork in weak mortar
Usual joinls but vertical jOints should be broken
properly from course to course
Make a slopping joint by making the corner first 10
I
il'
in between them
'" A toothed joint perpendicular walls, alternatively
in hfts of about 450 mm
a height of 600 mm and then bulging the wall in
between them
A toothed joint perpendicular walls. alternatively in
I
Ii?
lifts of about 450 mm
Stone masonry
!i
.;:,
Use bond or through sLone of full~lenglh (or a pair
of about 3A walt thickness) in every 600 mm lift but
< J" 2 m horhontally. Other alternatives of bond
stones arc sleel bars 8 to to mm diameter bent to S-
shape or wood bars of 38 rnm x 38 mm or concrete
f

bars of 50 mm x 50 10m with an 8 rum diameter rod
placed centrally.
Openings Door and window should be as smaJl as possible Door and window should be as sma11 as possible and
and placed cenlrally as recommended placed centrally as recommended
Top level of openings should be the same, covered Top level of openings should be the same, covered
with lintel band with lintel band
If do not comply with code, strengthened by RC If do not comply with code, strengthened by RC
lining with 2 HYSD 01 8~ lining with 2 HYSD of B~
Avoid arches over the opening otherwise use steel Avoid arches over the openJng otherwise use steel
ties ties
Conrd.

.... ~

TABLE 31.1 Contd.

n
improvilIg r:arthql~ake Resistance of Low Strength
Features EarJhquake Resistallt Design and Constructioll of
Buildlngs-Corie of Practice (IS 4326: 1993)
Masonry BuildinR,f-GuideUnes (IS 13928: 1993) g
Seismic ----a. Masonry mortar Brickwork and stone masonry ~
1~
b. Lintel band
strengthening b. Untel band
c. Roof band and gable band
arrangements c, Roof band and gable band
d. Vertical steel at corners and junctions of walls
e, Vertica~ steel at jambs
d. Vert.tcai steel at corners and junctions of walls
e, Bracing in plan at tie level of roof
I. Plinth band
r
."
f. Bracing in pian at tie level of roof
g. Plinth band i
I"g
h. Dowel bars
I~
Category A (up to 2 stories) use c and f
Category A (up to 3 stories) use only a
Category A (up to 3 stories} use h. c. f. g I,...,
Category A (up to 4 stories) use a. b. and c
Category B (up to 3 stories) use a, b, f and g
Category B (up to 4 stories) use a, h, c, d. f and g
Category B (up to 2 stories) use b, c. f, g
Category B (up to 3 stories) use b. c. d, f and g
Category C (up to 1 stories) use b, c, f and g
Ii\s,
Category C (up to 2 stories) use a, h, c, f and g
Category C (up to 3 storie..~) use h, c. d. f and g ;t.Q \

Category C (up to 4 stories) use a to g 1&'

Category D (up to 2 stories) use a to g
Category 0 (up to 2 stories) use b, c, d, f and g 1'1
Category D (up to 4 stories) use a to h
1~'1
'0
Category E (up to 3 stories) use a to h
!~
Note: The categories of construction are defjned in Clause 1.1 of IS 4326: 1993 depending upon the design seismic coefficient (ah) 1"1
(Category, A (0.04 < < 0.05). B (0.05 < a, < 0.06), C (0.06 < r.r" < 0.08), D (0.08 < Clh < 0.12) and E (0.12 ~
1fJ
I
 r--------;C;;;,,::,,::pt~n~. 8J $eiB'miC Protlisions for ImprotJing the Performance ... ) . .
. . (!Farthquake lle.nstant Design of Stf"Ucture8 )
TABLE 31,2 Scheme of models testing for evaluation of earthquake resistant provisioD!
(IS 4326, 13927. lAEE etc). In combination with vertical reinforcement, it improves the
strength, ductility and energy dissipation capacity of masonry walls. Levels of strengthening Earthquake resistanJ measures Mortar
Model no.
arrangements may vary with the type of construction and seismic zones. 'The descriptions of each Unstrengtbened (no strengthening measures) Mud
strengthening measure with its individual function are as follows: \.
Wooden lintel and gable band Mud
2.
Plinth bam/: This band is provided at the plinth level of wails on the top of the foundation,
3. sm. lintel. gable band with corner strengthening Mud
which is useful in sustaining differential settlements particularly when foundation soil is soft or Unstrengthened (no strengthening measures) Cement sand (1 :6)
4.
has uneven properties. Cement sand (l :6)
5. Lintel band
Cement sand (1 :6)
Gable band: Gable band is provided at the top of gable masonry below the purlins. This band 6. Lintel band wilh comer and jamb sleel
shall be made continuous with the roof band at the eave level. It restricts the out-of-plane failure
of gable wall. which is susceptible to earthquake forces.
31.5.1 Features of Model
Roof bam/: Roof band i. similar to lintel band but it is provided below the roof or floors. It
improves the in-plane rigidlty of horizontal floor diaphragms. Such band need not be provided The characteristics of real type of constructions as built in hilly and rural parts of In~l
in case of rigjd diaphragm. . ted in the construction of models. The model is ~ingle-storeyed one rOom of 5lZ
are l O c o r p o r a d. d bbl &lon
,., 9 x 26m x 2.7 m having a thickness of walls of 40 cm constructe In ran om ru e,
lintel band: This hand is provided at Hntel level on aU internal and external longitudinal as -" m
masoru)'.
Th'
e roo 0
f f the model )!I, crable type
' o
An
the six models have identical layout and ar
dd . ad
well as cross walls except partition walls. It provides integrity to the structure and re."istance to .. h hear keys on shock table. The walls with windows an oor openmgs are m
out-of-piane waH bending. The lintel band if provided in partition wails will also enhance their connected v..u $I "' he . . h'
, th e d' ection of motion wherea~ walls without opemng are orthogonal to t motIOn so t ~
stability. The purpose of lintel and roof band is to prevent the collapse of rooL '"h k ITt' . peJormed ,'n weaker directions The openings in the walls are centrally locate(
s oc tes 109 IS .lJ' ' . 311(b)
Sill hand: This band is similar to lintel band bu. it is provided at sill leveL This band reduces The layou. plan and eJevatlOn of the model is given in F.gure 31.1(a) and . .'
the effective hejght of masonry piers beNieen openings. This is expected 1.0 reduce shear
400 675 750 675 400
cracking in piers. It has not been recommended so far in codes. 1
Vertical steel: The vertical steel is provided at comers and junclions of walls and around jambs
of doors and windows. The vertical steel in walls shall be embedded in plinth masonry of
foundation, roof slab or band so as to develop its tens.ile strength in bond. It shoUld pass through
the Hntel bands and floor slabs in all slories.It is either a steel bar of 10 mm to 12 mm diameter
or a bamboo. For providing vertical steel in stone masonry a casing pipe is recommended around
which masonry be built upto a height of 600 mm. The pipe is raised and the cavity is filled by
1:2;4 grade of concrete mix in ease of steel bar.

31.5 EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICATION OF CODAL

PROVISIONS
An experimental study is undertaken to carry out shock table testing of full-scale models of one
storeyed stone masonry houses employing different earthquake resistant provisions under
j)mgrcs:l.fvely increasing intc-.nsity of "hode Six stone masonry models in random rubble are
rested on shock tank lO study !he effectiveness of codal provisions for earthquake resistance
measures, 001 of them {Inc model is buUt in a traditional way without any earthquake resistant
meam.!le:j while the other models with gradually increasing slrengthening arrangements like Door 750 x 1500
1"00;-, linteL and sill bands alongwith comer reinforcement. The scheme of model testing is Window 750 x 750
g.iven in Table 31,2 and the details of model with strengthening features are described
~'IG\]RE 31.1(0) Layoul plan of the madel.
snh"(~quenlly.
 details of horizontal band at the level of roof, lintel and sill. Figure 31.2(b) uemonstrales the
Batten 40 )( 40 Ridge board 100 x 50 detaiis of providing the vertical reinforcement in stone ma,>;onry_

Phtnk25 nun T 31.6 SHOCK TABLE TEST ON STRUCTURAL MODELS

'\ thick.
~~ 750 KeightIy (1977) developed shock table facility for conducting shock table teSl:. on Stnlcturuj
~~~~~~l-_'Wlill plate models at a considerably low cost The fucility consists of following components: (i) track or
(" 100 x t;O permanent way; (ii) shock table; (iii) dead load wagons or striking w:;tgons; (iv) winch mechanism
Eaw board 750 4S()J to pun wagons, The general arrangement of the shock table and its signature of ~h()ck are gIven
j,
150 25 20 nun diu. 1~'----+' I
,,,(hod,,,11 -----1-- in Figure 3L3a and 3L3b. The mode15 constructed on the, l\hock table are subjected to {wo 10
I ! Ihrec shocks from line or from the opposite direction,", "w.:h a:.' -22, E23, E-24, W-!9, W-20
I
I

i
11750
.i
-~~-J -\
750 I
,
:;tnd W21. The models may be fCsled upw the t~i!tlfl.' ;.;wgc. The ktten, B ,m..J W ,k;;ign:l:c
impact from east and west direction n:~spe{;[iveJy, ihc number de~jg,natcs i~'!'!(:('j ptl:<i!ioll of
loading wagon. In t::Hch ..hnclc the ubsolule peak ut:!..:cJcJ3tions at the wp ~\J10 h,)lfom of the

!
models a;.; well as al the base of tahle are measured. The acceleration 1l1ne 1)1StO")C'<; aTC n:corut~~
by unidirectional Force Balance Accelerometers (fnA~ll) mounted In thr, direction of
750
loading. The peak acceleration data obtained during the shock test of models subjected to SllOCk

-, ...
2100
Section at A- A
-+----H
400 50 !
FIGURE 31.1(b) Sectional elevation of the model. , ......
!
J
31.5.2 Seismic Strengthening Arrangements
:'~. s.t;efJ~thenj?g
measures comprise horiwntal bands or bond beams al critical levels and I---'!-
8.25 ni 19.5 m
I --I
8.25 m
e lea remforcmg bar;.; at comers and junctions of walls the modeL Figure 31.2(a) shows the
Shock table test set~up j
;,,--- ---'-~-"';"'; "I

I -'~~--~- j
I

("1
,"'lGtJRE 31.3 (a) Shock {able facility (Raikwil:Y w:ilgon i2Ci~i{y) :JII iJE:Q, niR. RoorI~et
(b) Signature I)f mail! anG rebound shock in shod, hlbh~ {cst.
table excitations for each phase of the testing is summarized jn Table 31.3. The acceleration
pattern along the heIght of the model generally shows that prior 10 cmcking the acceleration at
the top of the model is higher than that at the base but after cracking the acceleration at the top
of model IS smaller than that at the base of model. It is also observed that after cracking of the
model the ratio of roof to base acceleration decreases in successive shocks for the same model.
This indicates that the damaged lower portion of the model functions as a kind of base isolator
that prevents transmission of energy inw upper portion.

TABLE 31.3 Peak aceeleration for different intensity of shocks

Shock no, Wheel Peal base accelerations
00 00
E-22 0,68 g (a) Model 1 (unstrenglheued) under sbock test (b) Complete collapse of model 1
2 E-2l Loo g FIGURE 31.4
at sbock E-23.
E-22 0,70 g
2 E-23 1,20 g _. ge in model') is sharply reduced in comparison to model I at th(
band, The '"tenSity of daThma '1 mod; of model 2 is that of partial collapse oflongitudina
) I E-ll 0,76 g same level of excnatlOn. e f a1 ure
2 E-23 130 g walls below lintel level (Figure 3L5. and 3 LSb),
3 E-24 U5 g
4 J W-19 L45 g
5 W~19 1.32 g
2 W-20 L60 g
W-19 1.47 g
2 W-20 1.76 g
"
W-21 2,31 g

31.6.1 Behaviour of Models in Shock Thsts

The behaviour of each model with respect to pattern of cracking. identification of weak zones
with the progressively increasing intensity of shocks is s.tudied. The main observations regarding (al
(a) Model 2 under ,bock test (b) Partial conap"" belo.. lintel band at shock El
the seismic behaviour of the models are as foHows: FIGURE 31.5
Modell: The model is subjected to two shocks E-22 and E-23. During the test run E-22. the , odel is subjected to Ihree shocks E-22. E-23 and E24, In test run E-22 :
dL~g()naH)' orienled shear cracks develop in the shear walls in the direction of seismic motion. Model 3. The m ,: nd has not exhibited any major crack. Dlagonal cracks"
In the transverse walls. a continuous erack occurs around the roof level. In the second lest run model has behaved monohthlCal: Y~I and'sill bands of shear wall during the test run E-23, T
E-23, the model tends to faU apaJ1. The stone begins to fall and wan is separated into several propagated m the pO,rtJOn of the ~n da e while the croSS walls do not demonstrate a
parts. The consequence:- of the Jack of connection between the walls have become obvious. The portion below the SIll band mamfe~s ma~. between lintel and sill level is significan
failure mode or model I is lhal of complele collapse (Figures 3L4a and 3L4b), prominent crack. It w.a~ observ.ed at crac l:~ncreased intensity of shock test run E-24. 1
t
Model 2: The model is subjected to two shocks E~22 and E-21 Integn\J behaviour of model
reduced wilh the Pl"OV1SIon of
th model
';Jl
IS
band, Ad thM t of the cracks have developed below the ,
mcrease. os' .
extent of da~)age t 0 e ' between lintel and sill JeveL The vertical strengthe~!
level and mlllor damage has ~c~urred . n of the model and damage at the corners. The falh
is ob:.erved during [he first test run at E-22. The extent of damage in the model is increased
when the :,hock E- 2~ is applied. The mechanism of positive action of lintel band is dearty at corne~ has prevented the dlsmtegrd1lo. F 31 6' and 31 6b).
observed. The devcJormcnt of crack.~ above the hntel und the .sepamtion of walh, (Ire prevented. " '1" that of cracking below !l.l11 levels (lgure . a .
modeof me od I ... ,,,
Also lilt' :-.hetu' and flexure cmcks that develop in the model arc not z:msscd through the lintel W 19] spite of the use of cement sand mOl
.~odeI4: The model is subjected to one shoek ~', ~ . . onal walls and
lhe mode! manifests poor performance. The separatl011 of the orthog
 (h)
(a) (b)
W r
FIGURE 31.6 (a) Model 3 under shock test (b) Cracking below sill level at E~24. d-' shock tes'
FIGt:RE :t!J~ (a} ModeI 5 un...
j; ...."
strengthened with lintel band (h) Crack pattern ()
'Model 5 at shvck W ~2G, cracking below hntel le,'u!t.
out-or-plane JaiJure of the waJJs have been observed. The mere use of rich mortar \Vithout any
intact yet it is cracked com.,iderably. The cracking is mainly
oiher earthquake resistunt feature is not adequate to prevent collapse of the structure, The faiJure thouo:'fh the model has remained
mode of model 4 is also that of complete collapse (Figure 31.ia and 3 Lib). conc~nlrated between lintel and ~illlevel (Figure 3L9a and 31.9b).

(bi
00 . odJ~
(,) (b) F'IGURE 31.9 (a) Moot'.l 6 under shock test (b) Crack pattern of M t'
F!GlJRE 31.1 {aJ Mode! 4 unde.T shock test (b) om~of",plane faihtre of Model 4.

Madel 5: The .model is sl..Ibjected to lwo ~hocks W-J9 and \V~20. In test run W~19, lhe 31.6.2 Recommendations
b "n arri\ed at from the study of shock rc"pOJ)"r ~lr
monolithic behaviour of the structure is observed. As a consequence of the second test run
W20 {he mode! manifests considerable crack!', The upper nort11 east comer of ille northward
,
Some important recommendatwns .
h'
av:
IX
slone masonry modcl~ which are hlghllghted below,
.
_
,"i.hcar waH i:. Jamagcd severely ;::nd the: join15 ;.;pIit oul. The ea:;tward ctosS wall i;; quilt damaged . . b d r t I level i~ the minimum requirement to P1CVc.;;11
~dw~:;n llw lint,:) and ~jll kvcl while the westward ero:;:s 'Wan shows mmor c ..aek!'. The damage The provision uf sellmUC an at In e 'd rt. The mere usc of rich r~lorl:1.r
.h 'de in mud or cement san roo aJ. . -
Lt, 1l1C- shear wall i,i limjled Ilpl(j the lintd level but the damage has occurred ut the (.:orners (iJl1a~se 01 ouse ma . " nof 'Idequale to p;eVC?1i CO!JHPSC "I
'e>' _

(i"':gun'. ~ Uh,. mH: J L3b}. wiihout any other earthquake re!>lsLance measUl<..:- Je; .'

!~'-ructurcs. , , , ' the dama 'C mainly above Ihc.lintc1lcvcl

M(jdeI6~ The mode! is les:te-d fOT three shocks. W-J9, W-20 and W-2L The model ha~ :;,hown
(l

2. The codal pr(1vi~jons are effectIve In ~lul... mt' Th' c~acking in ')Ien;. can oe reduced
m\cgnJ! hehaviotn duriltg the flt"sr shock W~ 19, Not even a "'ngle crack j~; ohserv<;:d in the cmire The oritl!c shear failure in wail piers sO ('!cc\Jr~, I;.; I '
:w,r!t\!. 1)!ll'mj: d1!id<: 2 (W 20) !f1(" mMI.'l nwnitcsts ,1 fc\\' cr<lch. Under the third "hock W.. 2J
 .i". C EarthqtJ..~1re Re~i$ta!!L Desi.gn ..~--.---
of Sif"'U.ctures
==~-------
.. ~
J

by providing the additional horizontal band, preferably at sill level. The vertical
~mforcemem at the corner of model. In combinatjon with horizontal bands jncrea
t e strength of model as well as reduces the cracking at corners. ses
Chapter 32
SUMMARY
Masonry is wjdely used for housing constructio ' I d'
past earthquakes that have occurred jn lndi; m n 1a ~nd many countries of the world. The Retrofitting of
devastatlon is the conapse of non en~i ed subcontment revea) that the root CaUSe of
mcrease , the seh;mic
"~ ,
re"l"ance o
- eeo neer
f '
masonry constructio H
non~engmeered maso
..
n. .ence, It IS necessary
;tUdl,tional feature>:;, The presem chapter presents the SUm nry ~onstructlOn ~Y PT?V1dmg some
. . to Masonry Buildings
lor llDprovmo- the seismic performa f ,mary of earthquake reSistant features
nee 0 non-en&meered ma'o b Id
. I. b~I'
/;;>'
develop a better understandine of the effi s nry UI mgs. In order to
"<'> ,..,,, ... ' .. ' ." Jcacy, re la 1 Ity and acceptability f th .
...... ...."pl..nmcn.aJ vcnficatlOn IS also present T h ' 0 ese measures,
stock fable testing of fulJ~s~ale' models ~f o:eeXienm~nta] study is undertaken to C:lJTy out
different strengthenino measures under p'rog ,slor~ye st.one. masonry houses employing
e , reSSlve y mcreasmg llltens:ity of shock.

32.1 INTRODUCTION
REFERENCES
Masonry buildings are the most common type of construction used for housing purpose 2
[IJ }"garwaJ P and Thakkar S K "S' . E around the world. In India masonry construction is employed in the rural, urban and hil
M ' .' , .., eisnllC valuatIon of Strengthening and Ret.r fi . '"
easures 10 Stone Masonry House;; under Shock Lo' d' " 0 1tt:ne regions upto its optimum, since it is flexible enough to accommodate itself according to tl
qf Structures, liT Roorkee, Oct. 2003, a mg , Workshop on Retrofitung prevailing environmental conditions. That is why more than 90% population of the count
[2) Agarwal, p, and Thakkar S K "A E ' prefers to live in such houses. Although this type of construction is most oftenly preferred at
Strengthening and Retrofittin~ Me:su;~:~:~~~~eS~~;o~E:~l~~ene~s ~f
Seismic most frequently employed yet it is not completely perfect with regard to seismic effiCiency,
European Earthquake Engineering, pp. 48-.64, 2002. 1 lOgs, oll-rnal oj has likewise some flaws. The recent earthquakes in lndia reveal that its low seismic resistan
13) Agarwal. P. and Thakkar S K "Stud fAd has proved to be one of the principal causes of extensive damage, as compared to other mod
RetrofItting Measures of'S~ ., M y o . equacy of Earthquake Resistance and
of construction like reinforced concrete and steel. In addition improper seismic design
Systems Science DST S ,t~ I '2sonry , B~lId~n~s~. Research Highlights in Earth masonry building emerges as a sister cause of such devastation. It is evidently clear that
. ' pecm, o. , on SelSllllCl'y' pp 327-335 0 P V. (Ed
Indian Geological Congress, August 2001. . , .. enna .), proper adherence to recommended earthquake resistant measures as per IS code may avoid su
!4j Agarwal. P. and Thakkar, S.K., "Seismic Evaluation of S . . a heavy loss of life and property. But the already constructed, in use buildings facing the t.hn
Stone Masonry House"" El""e th S _ , trengthenmg Measures III of further damage in future seismic activity turn out to be a challenge to earthquake engineeri
. ", ~ ~ n vmVOSfum on Earthq ak E ' . ,
of Roorkec, Roorkee, December 17-1'9 1998 ll- e ngmeermg, Umverslty community which is making ceaseless perennial efforts in finding out ways to minimize t
51 ]S 3 0 ' .
j. '- ,1 ,,~R, lmpmvltlg EarthquakR Res/stante of Lnw Stren. tit " . damage. In this regard retrofitting of existing buildings may emerge as a probable possibil
GUldeirn.e') Bureau of Indian Sf d d N f! Mason'} BwldmKs~
i(.] '''' n2( . '.. ' an ar s, , ew Delhi, 1993. which implies incorporation of earthquake resistant measure in either seismicaIJy deficit
,,) - , l, Earthquake Resistant Design and Construe i - i f '. or earthquake damaged parent constructions_ TIlls is a difficult bur essential task becal
/~"~:.:i(::~, B~rc;.:u of lndhm Standards, New Delhi, 1993~ (HI () Bur/dings-Code ('I-j firstly there is a majority of seisrrrically deficient buildings and secondly due to econon
f 'i 1 L ,Eh, Ba/de Concep~" oj' Seismic Codes.~ Vol r Th . . considerations and immediate shelter requirements earthquake damaged buildings cannot
!;';~"!hqU1/..(' Eflgineeritrg. Tokyo, Japan, '1980,' , e IntenW1WIUt/ As:wnation jor replaced or rebui1t in the event of an earthquake. Hence it is the need of the hour to retrofit"
flO !<cl'l hticy W r) R J d in time the seismically deficient or seismicalIy damaged buildings as per current codes so t
.- ~ , ~. .,., epOr1 0.7 If {J~US Subcommlf"'i~m 0 E f. .
Df'j'IIrlnh:m of' Earthquake En ine . g U' . " ': n (,.,'J(alu!]l and CUl:!U.TI!,
they may be safely reused in future.
it,} "~'l' kk' <; K ~ g enn/:>, ntver~uty 01 Roorkee Roorkec ]977
.~.~<t ~r" ,-, ,and Agarwal, P., "Seismic Evaluation of Earth' uak R '._ . The past experience of retrofitted buildings has not been very convincing and promisi
KdJ 01 !ltmg Mea~ures Of Ston M' H" q c eSlst.1nt and But the recent studies show that proper retrofitting may very well upgrade the sejsmic resistal
r . . " e ,asonry ou,e,. Paper No Il() 12th WeEE
'coru<lry :::000. Allck!;lTld, New Zeaiand, 1999.' " , M;
bringing it at par with the newly constructed earthquake resistant design construction, Innumera
conventional and non-conventional techniques have been applied and employed for retrofitt
591
 '"
of eXisting masonry buildings along with their advantages and disadvantages. Such retrofitting
schemes depend upon the number of factors such as material of parent construction, type of F< "lure
masonry, location and amount of damage etc. Some of the methods have already been 32.2.2 In-plane a1 t re due to excessive bending or shear
e failures of walls in un-reinforced mas.onry stru~)ush::'r crdeking. This cracking pattern
recommended in the IS 13935: 1993 and !AEE guidelines. The present chapter focuses on Ute
Conventional methods of retrofitting schemes with special reference to brick and stone masonry
construction along with their proper u~e and limitations,
~~t~a;:stcommon as is evident from doublet:~:~~;~l;nes
of principal [ensile stress in the \Vall~
frequently found in cyclic loadmg IndIC:;oad reversals leading to total coJ/apse. As the g~~:t
~n ,~Ig;:;':~me
g
remain incapable of Withstandlnd repet' the walls are subjected to only one or two
32.2 FAILURE MODE OF MASONRY BUILDINGS
. ak
trev:~!lsC
la c for a short ura 1
Fortuna~e:all
b the time the shear cracl'.J>

~r::~~:~;::~t~;=;:;a:~: ~::~~; ;:7~~~~;~f.i\~:e::! ~~~~::e;~7~~e:~: ~;:Ie~;~e

moucn and do not coIlap'" totally. ts not jeopardized. Diagonal tension

An appropriate selection of suitablc retrofitting schemes depends entirely upon the failure mode
of individual masonry construction. There are innumerable mode.s of failure of Walls as observed t,e.
cracks h appen to be worse at Jower storey. n*p t\ne , >

by the reeonnai".nce team and documented in various published papers and reports. Although
1 VeniWt! eta..::\(:;: \)1, optmng>. . J - ")0r~ ant~
~
the type of cOnstruction. site of consUllction, structural typology of masonry buildings vanes
in different regions but tbe damage caused by seismic activity may be identified unifonn/y. 111.
'"o~!
/
(1
----~~--:_:~~y(. --:-J. -
A 2., DiagonaJ "lwar erae k& on !
window lintels
opem~gs
3. Oiagontll
' ; , an
rYJ-J")i.!(C;

. tl le
sheaf Cr'J.cK,; 10 "
!11 u.
m~ -onry piers be!wt!en
~ 0 X
two mOSt common mndes of masonry failure may be called out-of.plane failure and in.plane
comcr~ 0
j ._'.-",' :.- " jl " fwallstlue{oexce%-oJ
lailnre. The structural walls perpendicular to seismic motion are subjected to out.of.plane I 4. Lrw;hmJ:!, OJ
hending results in out-of-plane fai/ure f""tUring vertical croelLs at the comers and in the middle C' L\:
. ':'1:'LJ-,~- - ", 3
~ . I
5.H~)lizl'11ta!f1cxIJH;(;racksonjop>ln(110J.,,;;
compression ""''' ., b,,' or

l' -.: ....
~
of the walls. The structural walls parallel to seismic motion are subjected to in-plane forces ",.
X
',t

bending and shear causes hOrizontal and diagonal cracks in the wall respectively. The other types
of masonry failure are diaphragm fallure, pounding. connection failure and failure of non.
struCtural components. A brief diSCUssion of each mode of masonry failure is described as under. O
"- -
):
i " "S
r----r.;-
.'<;.-:1 15 . rlM\"!'
:~
.
. 7,Passinglhf{)tlgh~cr,J
'I1
. .,.,."3..".V ii:
roa,onry piers

8. Spaltingofrr:atcnalall.hc
..'
e~,",o~tJOn
t;;CctJ(ms
6. Vo,""J ''"'k,,' w,J;:', -ks" wa'i inlem",ion,
.. orooorbcam

32.2.1 Oat-of-plane Failure "6-7~~':'--- .,! : -t,I _ 9.Scparationandexpu~lOno

1:44.- d U e to poundmg I' (the inlerso;:ctlon z,me of
- two cornel walls

FIGURE 32.2 In-plane.,'ailure characterization (p.asq uale and Orsmi, 1999).
Tnadjuate anchorage of the wall into the roof diaphragm and limited [ensile strength of
masonry and mortar unitedly causes out-of-plane failure of wall in un-reinforced masonry
bUildings, which are the most vulnerable. The resulting flexural Stress apparenUy exceeds the
~.....
fllnnhragm Failure . D
tensile s!rength of masonry leading to rupture fOllowed by collapse. Moreover long span
diaphragms causes excessive horizontal flexure. Out-of-plane wall movement has been
characterized as shOwn in Figure 32. L 'The
32,2.3
. h;ag..
failure of the dlap m is a rare vitv
phenomenon In
load carrying .
capacity. ush of a.o.
. the event of seismic mollOn. amage
L ck f tension anchonng

a~::: r~~atioo th~ :::'::~~~e~s

the diaphragm never ImpaIrs Its gra., the base of the wall resulting from the p f
:rodu<:es a non-bending cantilever of the diaphragms ends and
diaphragm against the Vl>all. The mop ms and reaction walls account for damage: flexibility.

~
ood shear transfer between diaphrag. suhin from exceSSlve dlaphraem
ag all Figure 12.3 iUu5trates a wall faIlure d bgldin('<:,; and IS very rare in anchored
of the w. . . t' strengthenc u, J'oe of the
This probJem remains non-e.xl~ten 1~
o
1. Vertic.:t1 crack;; in the comer nnWay T W21i::: (on remains worse at or ncar the centre I
2. Horizontal cracks along the facade buildings. In strengthened bUIJdmgs, separa 1
3. Panml col1apse of an exterior waH diaphragm.
4. Wythe cparnlion
5. Cracks at Hotel and top of slcndcJ ricr;,
Ii Cracks at the level of tlIe roof
"}. Masonry ejection 32.2,4 Failure of Connection r'l 1 uHdio" are delivered to hori70o"tl
SeismIC inertial forces that ong,~a[e IO tions. The d,aphragms distribute rhest'. r~rcc~dequa!e
. . all elements 0 tie ) f; s among t'

FIGURE 32.1 Outof-ple failure cltaraderizatton (Zucearo and Papa, 1999).

diaphragms through'h:r~c:~r~~r~o:~:;fer
the forces to the vertical r()U:d~ti'~mhr!~e;~Ct~ at~e
I'ertical clements." . f the inplane shear stress hom t e p . essential between
connection capable trans er 0 out-of-plane forceR on thex elements l~ ,
t?
element" and to proVide support t
 ~.-~---~.-.

_ _ C~.__
Erthquolce .Resistant D cstgn
. of Structures L------,.---

~)~
NQ shear
__~~~;"il ~""",,"- ~--:---
transfer connection
Addition of shear
bolts needed bore

L _Shear failwe of
masonry wall

(b)
ta )
FIGURE 32.5 Failme of non.structural components tal "arapet failure. FEMA 31)6. 1999 (l
Otlt~of~plane failure of a parapet, EElU. 1996.
(aJ
FIGURE 32.3 Failure Qf diapbr _ (b)
from diaphragm flexibility in I~o::S~ae~_Shearthfailure~
i.U ear
FEMA 306. 1999 (b) Failure result!
quake, 1989. . ng 32.2.6 Pvunding
When adjacenr roof levels of two buildings and vertical brick work faces flush with one anoth.
, d;aphragms and the vertIcal
the ' elements Th" , the pounding action causes strUctural distress due to out-ofplane vibralions, Such a failure
dIsposed
Th' on both the walls' ed ges c.u,mg lagonaI cracks
" I S type off.,lure is characterized byd'
separati d
IS phenomenon magnifies due to inad on an collapse of comer zones (Figure 32 4) characterized as shown tn Figure 32.6.
and by floors insufficiently connected roeQthuatelY strengthened openings near the walls' edg'es'
e external walls.

Direction of
~/""- inertial forces

--,

e Vertical cracks in toe adjacent wans

~ Diagonal cracks due to different levels in the strUctures (h)
(al
(a) FIGURE 32.6 Pounding failure (a) Characterization or failure (b) Minor pounding dan
;''JGl'RE 32.4 Failure uf wnnedion or wall bot" eon buildings or different heights, EERI, 1993.
,b} Collapse or wrncr zone (Dolce-, .Mast' an ds(~a) C~araeterization 3O~Ut
(h)
of failurt::, FEMA 1999
,.oreffi. 1999).
32.3 METHODS FOR RETROFITTING OF MASONRY
i2.2,S Nan-slru.ctllJ"ut Components
BUILDINGS
' m masohry build' l
w<ti~r tank~" canopies, projections
Til('c;
, flon-smlcrural components'
:',':Tl,'de~e~s
if they remain
.j 12r01"IU molln
-,'
unrestraj~;~a~~~s:r:tc'b~hese
' '. lOgS are parapet walls, partition waHs

su ~ected
n Luf;cominE', pmnc 10 fn 11 ures (Figure
non-structural eieme,nts
to greater amp I'f'
32.5).
beh~~:~~~
I JcatJOn as compared
The choice of a suitable method of reuofitting basically depend' upon the strUctural schem
the employed building material in the parent Cn",truction alongwith a feasible and econOl
 ene/pier 5'2 Retrofitting of Mas(I'f'f.1"'1J Buil~ C-
C m._~~~~~-~~ .:' , . . rf between a masonry unit and adjacent
"t, mortar JOlnt IDte ace .. B "des
rface and into a masonry um '. d djacent construction element, es)
technology, Moreover an under~tanding of failure mode, structural behaviour with the weak and su ~>r J'oint. or into the joint between masonry an an a '''a',n induced bv imposition of loads
mOJI.Ao' ' k' 'smovementorsu ., k'
strong aspects of design as derived from the earthquake damage surveys also influence the seismic vibration. the cause of cr~c 'lng 1 r materials. Nothing can help to prevent s~cho craC S,
selection of retrofittIng scheme.>;. Numerous techniques, used to retrofit seismical1y deficient or or by restraint of volume changes 10 masodn i the case of load bearing masonry bmldmg, the
damaged masonry buildings, may be broadly classified into three categolies on the basis of their but at least they may be ac~omn:~t~a~~ ~ra~ for which repairing process n~ds t~ be ~e~n~
effect bn structural performance namely. (1) improving the existing masonry strength and seismic damage depends on e W1 . ' and Spence (1992) regardtng damage eN
defonnability. not related to any specific objective which is similar to the repairing process accordingly. A well-established defin!lJO n by Cob~:handled upto a maximum damage level of
of masonry strucLUres; (ii) improving the in-plane strength of the wall or any weak zone of the is oiven in Table 32. L A repamng process can
section akin to local/member retrofitting and (iii) improving the structural integrity of the d~=~ _
whole structure in terms of in-plane and out-of-plane strength or only against out-of-plane ~ Defj.nitim,. of damage grades (Davenport. Burton and Nail 1 )
forces very much like the gJohallstructur..u retrofitting. Various techniques under each scheme TABLE 32.1 ~.
.. " load bearing masonry
are described as: Definrnon )or _._~-'---
Damage lee1 ~'-'-
--~~:~::.....:::.....::.:..-~---~ No visible damage
32.3.1 Repair GO Undamaged
Hairline cracks
01 Slight damage
Cracks 5-20 mm ,
It is z proccJ.;I( to prcHcrvc HIt; Hlt;l:hanicaJ efficiency of a masonry fitructurc and 10 increase shear Moderate damage on mm or wail materia\ dlslodge
G2 Crac'S
k iN .
resistance of walls having large internal voids. The commonly employed repairing techniques Heavy
G3 Complete coUapse of individual wall matenal or
of masonry are (i) cement or epoxy injection (ii) reinforced injection (iii) grouting wjth cement Partial destruction
G4 individual roof support
or epoxy (iv) insertion of stoneS (v) re-pointing of mortar.
More tha.n one waH collapsed or more than half of
G5 CoUapse roof
32.3.2 Local/Member Retrofitting
It enhances tbe shear resistance of un-reinforced masonry components especially against m-
plane forces. Fe.al'ible retrofitting techniques are; (i) surface coatings (ii) shotcrete overlays or Repairing techniques . '. d naged mason'" structures
. s of existlflg or al 'J
adhered fabric with wire mesh or FRP materials (iii) use of RC and steel frames in openings. The approach for adopting a repalr proces The LAEE 1980 and 1JNDP 1983 serve as
, ki
th basis of level of crac ng.
principally rehes on. e . . din detailS of techniques.
32.3.3 Structural/Global Retrofitting the basic source of mformatmn regar g
Improving the response of existing un-reinforced masonry buildings to both gravity and seismiC
loads it provides them '''box type" behaviour and increases the flexural strength of un-reinforced Repair of GO arul Gl grade cracks .' f n of cement grout containing
.dth of 5 mm. pressure iDJec 10 J width
walls and pjers. The most common techniques are (i) addition of reinforcement (ii) extemal In order to repair cracks upto a WJ ~ ended For fine cracks of upto !TIm
binding or jacketing (hi) prestressing, (iv) confinements with RC element and steel sections (v) admixtures against shrinkage or epoJ{Yd's re~~mh~wn i,"Figure 32.7 (1S 13935: ]993) and the
. f ed The proce ure u; s
strengthening of walllnlerf'ectiOTIs and (vi) strengthening of connection between walls and floor. epoxy injection 1S pre err .
1 steps are as foHows:
genera ' the nonstructura\ materials
.. Clean the external surface of the waH ~rom of crack~ on both sides of the member and a~
32.4 REPAlRING TECHNIQUES OF MASONRY ace
Place the plastic \.njection alo~g ~e sur rt 1110 centre-to-centre spacing of these port may
oil' 1 th fast bliJdin n rno ar.
Repalr!nt of cracks ~H repLi(:cmcnt of damaged waH Sectjt)DS lS an essential feature of repair secure in piace Wlt 1 e . b' f the element
pr(l,-~C:s~, J[ i" a g.eneraJ <IS};Ulllplion Ihat repairing only helps to retain the original shape of the bC approximatdy equal to ~e. thlck.l1\ess~;l'Scosi'Y cnoxy resin/or cement grout into one PdQ!:'
~_I h' cured lTIject a ow " ." 1" .' f "lor at one en 01
;,!n"lct;;re -)'.'(~lJO!H ;\jC{(.~;-;jlJg i,;> ;>tH'ngih. The Hillin two problems sOlved during the repairing ~ After the Sv;:u3nt as " of the crack, in ca~ H 15 vcr Ie.,.,
pmr;rsl' "!fe' G) n!"'$pury er:Kid,J;; ~Jld (Ii) masonry dctelioration. at a time beginning .at the lowest part
the crack, in case it is horizontal. ' d until th.e epoXY retiin/or eemc.nt. gr?Ul
. . f n are to be c.()ntmue l' n - omd InJectlOn
The proce-sses 0f IflJec to . h Id be closed al t)1::> Rt!:l_pe
32.4, 1 l\..fast:JFtn' Cr:tdci.~g 6\ to cracks The injectiOn port 5 ou
penetrates m .
.
eqUlpmen t next port and so on.
Accoruillg tu Grimm, 1995. a c!llck may be defined as a "break, split, fracture, fissllrc, separation,
OJ" clon~alc:d n;mnw opl:ning visible to the normal human eye Dnd eXlending from tilt'
c]eav<.ige,
 CJu.pter fit Retrofitting of MG8Qnry BUildings) Ell
In case of much Jarger cracks units become loose, and the repairing process has to be mO'
extensive than injection. In that case defined process is, UNDP, 1983, (a) remove cTacke
B units (b) insert new units in rich mortar or the use of steel bars/stitching dogs (c) fill d

=
-4
void
Same proeedure can be repeated on the opposite side of the wall if necessary

===
====0;: JU
Repairing of G3 grade cracks
Cracks due to loss of connection among the multi-wythe masonry walls may be categorized
Piaster remoVed. 2. Cracks sealed after crackin 3 G G3 grade cracking. Multi-wythe wall construction practice is frequent in the rural and hi]
4. V~groove joints, 5. Cement mortar and flat $to;~ Chi~outs ports,
(a) regions of India with stone masonry houses built in poor monars. Such wall constructio
(h) happen to be more susceptible to out-of-plane forces resulting in collapse of the outer leaf
Ji'jgurc 32.7: Repair of GO/Gl ur<>d ki
(b) Cern 1 -~ e crac ng (a) Grout or mUltiple leaves stone masonry wall~, There may be two possibilities of damage (i) peIIDa.n{
en mortar and fl.t cbips in wide cracks (IS 13935: 1993). eJIDxy injection in crack..;; distortion of wall on both me sides as shown in Figure 32,9(.) and (ii) distortion or humpi
only on one side as shown in Figure 32,9(b). In the first case only the distressed portion of I
Repair of G2 grade cracks wall may be removed and reconstructed since repairing is not feasible. In the second case to
In G2 gnuie cracks the repairing process remains h.' . reconstruction may be avoided by removing only the humped side. rebuilding the wall a
an exception to insert reinforcemenl in e . , ~uc !Hmllar to the prevIOUS technique with filling of voids with concrete or cement grout. Insertion of through stones and bond stones
of cracks is as follows: Figure 32.8 (l;~j:~~c;~~;le. The step to be followed for repairing regular intervals, Figure 32.9(c), may provide a good connection between the reconstructed '"
and the existing wall, The details of repairing process are as follows.

Wall is rebuilt and

the void fined with
to concrete or cement
grout

3
(a) (h) (e)
7 W h Detail
. 'He mes on front face g Clamps 9 W esh FIGURE 32.9 Repair of G3 grade cracking (a) Humping both sides of the waH (UNDI'; 1983)
1(j Ccrnent pla~icr, 11. Cnl,d:s in wall' . lre rn on back face.
Humping ODe side of walls~ .rewnstruction posslliJe (UNDP, 1983) (c) Reconstruction of a buJ
FIGURE 32.8 Repa;" of G2 grade . ki ~'tone-masonry wall (Toma7..evic~ 1999).
(IS 13935: 19'13.). Cr-3C ng* cement mortar and wire mesh in cracks

Through stones/bond stones

~. Remove the loose material and replace with 'th
mortar el er epoxy sand mortar or quick setting cement In the event of an earthquake delamination and bUlging of walls, vertical separation of tnte
f' Providc a.dditionaJ remforcemcnt, jf necessary and COVer cth and external wythe through middJe of the waH thickness generally occur in stone mas(
1" 1n ca'>" {f d 1 ' WI mortar constructions. Reconstruction may be preferred if one of the layers is stable enough to be t
, ,ow j <image to wa Js and floor diaphragms steel mesh c Id be '
<;uriace ;11',,01 nuilen or holtect 10 the 'lj Th '. ,OU provIded On the OUier as framework. 'Through" stones of full-length equal to waH thickness may be lnsened a
concrete > wa. en It may be C d ' h 1
overe Wil paMer or micro interval of 0.6 m jn vertical djf'ectJon at J.2 m in horizontal direction. In the non-availab
offulJ-length stones, stones in pairs each of about % of the wall thickness may be used prov ),
an overlap between them (Figure 32.10). The technique includes preparation of space in
Edt_ ( Earthquake ,nesie~nt Design. ()f Structures c
t j. 450 32.4.2 Masonry Deterioranon .
. n IS somewhat unrelated to earthquakes but its repaIr
.
The phenomenon of masonry detenoratlo, f kO f walls The most common types 0. f
alon()'with the repaIr 0 crac mg 0 . d
is required to be d one b tration and freeze thaw cycles an 10
masonry deterioration are in Units due to water pene ~
3-c---" Mortar due to poor quality.
5-==
4-"---'
Repairing techniques
Units
<It All damaged units are replaced by new units
4 of same appearance and matedal property.
1. Th.rougb slooe, 2. Pal, of overlapping stone, 3. S-sbape tie,
4. Hooked tie, 5. Wood plank, 6. Floor level
Mortar
li'IGURE 32.10 Insertion of "ThroughJ~ stones or "Bond'~ dements (IS 13828; 1993).
There is evidence that a weak or deteriorated
waU~ insertion of stones of equal SIze to the thickne:;s of the wan and fixing of stones with mortar is the cause of failure (in-p~an,e as
cement sand mortar. Other alternatives of through stones are use of ~S" shape elements of steel well as out-of-plane) of masonry bUlld1fi~s.
bars 8 to 10 'P or a hooked link with a cover of 25 mrn from each face of the wall or wooden Fi ure 32.11. It is suggested that before takmg FIGURE 32.11 Weak mortar led to extensivt>
bars of size 38 mm x 38 mm cross section or equivalent. uPg the retrofitting of ?uildin g , improvement shear cracking in tbe building (EERl, 1996)~
in strength of mortar IS necessary. b
Cement grouting ,,' 'ed out when the quality of the mortar happens to e
Re~pointirtg: Re-potntl.ng.1S often c~. This involves removal of the existing mortar up
Grouts are most frequently used to repair and strengthen of masonry walls baving large voids poor but the units remam ill good condltlOn, th . 'nts on one or both sides of the wall,
to 1/3 of the walls thickness or alleast % inches from e jO~' air brush or ste~m of water and
or to fllJ the space between adjacent portions of masonry. There may be different types of grout
but the most commonly used are the epoxy and cement grouts. Grout injection binds the inner
and outer wytbei'/ together establishing a composite action between them far an improved out-
followed by proper cleaning of the surfa~es by
1y
,com::
poor the removal i5 needed up to
insertion of new mortar. If the mortar con lt~on IS e1x d in bed J" oints to improve the ductility
. f cent is sometrmes pace ,
of-plane moment capacity. The selecljon of grout depends on the desired strength, bonding a 1arger depth. SteeI rem or em Th . 'nts are then re~pointed WIth cement
propertjes and on the size of the crack network or void system. Fine grout can fiJI cracks as and energy dissipation capacity of the strUcture. . e J?l d the procedure of re-pointing is
. ffi' t tre gth of the mortar IS attame , , "
sm(';]J as 0.0005 inch, while coar~ grouts are useful for filling wide collar joints between the mortar, After su Jelen s n . 3" 12 hows various steps involved in re-pomHng.
wythes. Aecordjng to Newman 2001, cement grout consisting of 1 part of portland cement. ~ repeated on the other side of the wall. FIgure.... s ,_ ~ ,
. '3 j.J ~ D3
part type S hydrated lime. Y2 part lype fly a,11 may be used for repairing eurthquake damaged ,13 /13 " , 1 1 1 t
un-reinforced masonry buHding. 1'13 1 2/3',' 1 1 .. 1 1 ~
Grout injection is a powerful rehabilitation technique. if it is handled carefully. The most -,... l' improved
evident problem arises frou: the lateral pressure exerted by the grout, if the wan wythe~ are Improve~ II mortal
poorly tnlerconnected, the wall being grouted can split apart and collapse. Low lifting grouting Removed
mortar
II mortar
'\
;1' preferred as it redu('e1' the. hydrosta[Tc pre"~nrc, which prevents the outward thrul't of the fluid \
grout from displacing one of the wythe:;;. Grouting begins from the bottom of tbe wall and li II Removed
proceeds up to lhe top. If i:-' hcJicved that the strength of groU! does not influence the latera) r Existing
l.,- mor<.nr
Ir mortar
resistance of dn;', groulcu w<lH:-;, This can be explained a~ per Tomazevic (1999): "the potential
I II llL
Existing,
vertical (tillj laLetal re~lsLalll.:t.: of til\; wall i~ determined by the strength of the original mortar, ,~ mortar
which lramJer 'the extemaj loads acting on the: waH from unit to unit. As confirmed by visu;.t! ll~
V
lnspectiQJ) of the CJ1Juhcd wilH~: after thc tcst~, the grout doc;; not penetrate into original mortar. r II
Con~cquently.~ the strength of tht: original mortar is not improved and hence the potential ., . f
"4\'
b'" masonry waU (l'omaz""'i(:. 1999).
resisiance or ihe wall does nni change, l;IIthough the voids have been tined with :-;tronger IIIGJ:!m 32.12 Re~po1Dtlnl!: () a riC,., ,
maler}Hl)"
 ( Chapter 32 Retrofittifl9 of MG4oflf''tJ Buildin.98) i31S_
32.5 MEMBER RETROFITTING
Due to high shrinkage characteristics of shotcrete. ir IS always necessary to provide adequate
32.5.1 Retrofitting Techniques reinforcement to prevent cracks and proper curing (Turner. 2004),
Reinforcement should be plaCed at mid-depth with a mat of small size 8 to )0<1> bar and ;,
Shotcrele cut into the wall at regular intervals, usually 2 to 3 m,
~n ,the case of weak ma<;onl'Y and absence of enou h '. '" Aproper bonding with the existing walls can be achleved b;.r jlroviding venical s\\otcrctc Ii\)\
IS IdeaiJy Suitab'e for un~reinforced' b .fdi
:;ohd pIers to reSIst selsmlC loads, shotcrete in between the floors, reinforced as columns with vertical bars and dose]y spaced ties. Fm
of load bearIng and architectural u m~s~nry dUI ngs ("VYlIie, 1996). A considerable number pJacement practically. the width of ribs should be at Jeast 1.5 times their depth. a.;; ShOWI
" . n-remloree masonry walls have b
SelsmlC mOUon by applying it Jayer of sh t een strengthened against in Figure 32.13b (Newman. 2001).
Shoterete js a conCrete mix pneum f ~ cretetlther to the outside or inside surface of the wan
two types of shotcrete usually empl:;~~ ::i led :0 a. solid surface (Figure 32.13a). There .,..;
and dry mix or gunite for lesser volume' th ~ y we, .mx for Jarg: volumes and massive <:;ection

Vertical re.inforcement of vertical ribs must be anchored to floors or slab and bottom of th(
existing foundations with dowels
Shotcrete may be applied either internally or externally. Caution may be taken to preserv(
be achieved in handling dry mix shot :' In sectlOm and confmed spaces. Better control can the appearance of the building.
material flow (Sanders 1934) M'ore cre edas.compared 10 the wet mix due to good control of Shotcrete can be used in accessible footing, footing walls, slabs, walls, columns, beams
, .. . over eSign of concrete l' x l '
;;tOO skiIled workman!>hlp are {'<;sent'al V' ff . n J se ecHon of correct process stairs. filling of largc voids etc.
'. ' J lor e ectIVc use of shotcrete.

Equipment
A pressure gun. an air compressor, material hose. air and water hoses, nozz1es, and sometime
a water pump (UNDPfUNIDO. 1983).

(8)
FIGURE 32.13 Strengthening existin l11a
concrete (shottrete) added to existin g
shotcrete rib {Newman 200]). g unremforced masonry (TUrner, 2(04) (b) Plan or lbe
j
Results
Experimental tests have revealed the effectiveness of reinforced :)hotcrete, Some of tJ:
important findings are:
Reinforced shotcrete in unreinforced masonry wall has proved to be an effective method ,
it greatly increases the in-plane diagonal strength and inelastic deflection capacity (Kahl
1984).
FuH composite behaviour may be observed between the new shotcrete and the old masoru
(0) and the new reinforcement when properly applied on prepared surface (UNDPfUNlD(
.
.sonry walls With shotc:rete (8) New reinforced 1983).
Strength characteristics of shotcrete are higher due to the high compaction energy and a 10

water cement ratio.

Design mix
Structural overlay/adhered fabric
'" ShO(CflHe mix mav be .a combin:atj ) f
~
volume (Kahn, 1(84) i n () one part portland cement
. an d th ree parts sand by
Fibre Reinforced Plastic (FRP) has drawn considerable attention for repair and retrofitth
of civil engineering structures due to their unique properties like high strength to weight rat:
~, Shot,cre!e musl hr.yc comp~~tiblc stiffness values to th ,. . stiffness to weight ratio~ corrosion and fatigue resistance as against conventional materi<
;~ oiler. ~;On~di.!nL ' e masonry walJ~. A 4 to ') Inch shotcJ'ere
of heavy mass with limited efficiency. FRP consisting of stiff and strong reinforcing fit
1,nplications (primarily carbon and glass), held together. Table 32.2 lists of major materia) properties
CFRP. GPRF as compared to conventional materials of retrofitting .
.,
J rcpafC surface bv dt:<lnJo" ',mtT ''-ID"" There are various examples where the FRP has been successfully m,ed for retrofitti
" " " '" ' 'v vlng aIt t oose (lvgreo-atc and gI .
( of surface Whether dry
undlll()f1 ~1 '::;',e mUt 1enmg of [he surface. of RC structures. Use of adhered fabric materials like Carbon Fibre Reinforced Plastic (CPR
a .<';il~ur<.!ted brick wetled <.;u,.fac'" ~c or epoxy coated does not affect significantly afthough sheets and GJas!\ Fibre Reinforced Polymer (GFRP) sheet~ ure the latest devc[opments as n
, {. J!,: recommended. .
dium of retrofitting of RC structures. There are several examples in which FRP has been SJ
 """

GIll (Earthquake R~eisttlnt De.sign at Strudu;::r,,":.'_ _ ,

. -- - -~- ~-.-~
replacement of the wans, Its construction is simple, hence can be used to retrofit seismically
TABLE 32.2 Major material properties 0 f FRP mattlnais
. as compared to conventional
materials damaged structures or historical buildings.

l'ype 01 srrengrhening material:, Ultimate tensile Young's modulu,<;, - Ul1i~u;lJe tensile RC and steel frame
in N/rnm2 E in N/mm2 strain, in %
The in-plane strength of masonry wails reduced due to openings" it may be increased by
Carbon-Fibre 1700S 2300 152,000 1.50 employing the technique which consists of making an RC or steel frame inside the opening. The
GFRP Sbeets, CW 130-1000 98.4 12.200 0.94 weakness of the wan caused by the opening can be effectively counteracted by the frame. For
(low strength, bj-directional) better results better interaction conditions are ensured between the waD and the frame as shown
GFRP Sheet" EGFW430 2040 93,100 2.4 in Figure 32,15a. Another alternative is to place vertical jamb steel at the edge:t of opening,
(high strength. uDlwdirectionaJ) while the horil,ontal edges of the opening are reinforced with reinforcement bar spanning
GFRP Sh{!et~, Sika Wtap-300GOl90 2400 70,000 3.0 between the jamb reinforcement as shown in Figure 32,15b. Jamb reinforcement can be inserted
from a side and be anchored to foundation pad and slab or lintel band/Un tel if available. The
Steel 235 210.000 >5%
horizontal bars may be hooked at the ends or may extend past the openings edges up to an
Shotcrete (cornpresslvc strength 3.45 26,000
adequate distance, The jast option for increa:-;jng the in-plane shear capacity is 10 fiB with the
345 ~.4P;:)
Epoxy reslYi for injection
malerial having similar properties (FEMA 172, 1992),
2300
{compre:o:sive strength 65 MPa)
Epoxy mortar for flUio"" 29 7300 0.39 provide acid' L fulJ-hcigili
(compressive strength ~~~pa~ __~..... , H , j3.'11b ba."'S equal in area

::f:I \ L:x3i2 ~1 t{) 112 ofverL rcinf.

intenuptoo by O:pCning

~
cessfully used m masonry structures wh' . , :)<?>Iji 12
(Weng et aI., 2004; Elcrawady 2004' S' h lch m turn has also been experimentally tested ,A

the use of higher stteng"th or h'lgh ' de Iweyler and Kelterborn, 1996), It is also be noted that ...I.
(." er mo u us fibres
.parllcuJarly carbon fibres) results in substantJally ~ ",.12
.
- 2-#5 bars hooked
New m,asonfY
--lel-""-=';:;;'-l'l-I= opCEing for;-;
~
';l
mgher level of performance, but these fib 1 res are at
present very costly to use III lOutine clvll mfra-
CFRP sbeel
....,", ~i .:::~~~~~~~::rc6geS W1concre;e
i, ,
structure applications (Karbhari 2002) 0 T
TIle . ' = " T
method of strengthenmg an un-reinforced "
D."'-L L.J. JfJ.
, _ Ll);q_ ~
;;;onry wall with FRP is quite simple and rapid Hanlene<l

are
surface should be roughened by gn' d'
then cle ed 'th. n mg~ an
'1 an W1 hIgh air pressure and tne holes
d' ,. . . concrete slab
~'-
.~
----. ., '"'-
EXISt. masonry wall
. h1IJedw'U I 1 epoxy mortar. Small holes are filled
,. ~
,
W1I. epoxy re.':>in. The FRP sheets are fixed t tit
surfa~
,. ....e 01" masC1flfy substrate by epoxy resin. cross-
0 e
(b)

\\ lSC on one or bOlh sides of the wall S'''el plat FIGt:RE 32.14 Strengthening existing FlGURE 32.15 Strengthening tcchniques of en opening in unrcinforc.ed masonry wall COl) Use of
ureukd ....... cs masonry walls with FRP (Schwegler and a reinfon:ed concrete f ....lme (Modena, 1994) (b) Added reinforcinl,! bars at tilt' edges of an
,e to ensure nOD-occurrence of h
fa~Jure b ' anc orage Kelteroorn, 1996),
. '. y anchonng the FRP 10 the slab and foun- opening (Newman, 2(01).
,1ntton pad (Figure 32.14).
. Al1churiH~ \n :;lab~ avoidh ~lreBS concentration i . " ,
10 the RC s1ub cuns," !-its (,I' ste 'I J" n masonry Wang, 111e anchm"mg 01 sheets 32.6 STRUCTURAL LEVEL RETROFITTING METHODS
l!ppif atil111 of FRP sheets to the e v ' ,to I' d n ~ e en s of the sheets by means of boll", The
. ' ,. , L : P ale pressed 0 t th d
c
J S atem! resj~tance and dU~:iilil s )ear waII"
't'I' ,...IS mg oa beanng masonry'I'
It h a ' . S slgmficantly im.:TC<itiCS The object of structural level retrofitting is to improve the stnll.:tunll integ;'ity of the whole
y. ppens to be cbeaper than the reinforced shotcrete or the
structufe. Retrofitting teclmjques in this category arc as follows.
 _dlt. ~:trthquak,e Re$_~8t~t
="-~~~---==j
Design oj Structures

32.6.1 Retrofitting TechniqllJ!!s

In ioeations where vertical columns are to be constructed. the wall bricks are removed or:
COnfinements with RC elements by one so that contact zone between the wall and the new concrete is cogged.
The concrete of the horizontal band should be removed and only the reinforcement shoul
TI:e techniques tend to make the existing masonry acras a "confIDed ~, .
remforced concrete elements have been i . masonry, In the sense that be left.
long wall. allowing the entire wall 0 'ts nsened surrOundlOg the wall panel or middle of the A pan of the wall on the upper floor also needs to be opened so Ihal the reinforcement \
inclined strip of unreinforced mas~ r 1 pr:o
nlon
to act as a truss element, where the struts are the column can continue and be anchored in the waH above. Special attention should be gjV{
becomes more ductile and its load
confinement of the rei f; d
n
7(
Igure 32,J6), In this way brittle and non-duetile wall
arrymg capacIty JS increased several times with added
to ensure that the vertical columns are adequateJy anchored through the basement and to tl
foundation structure including local strengthening of foundation if necessary,
n orCe concrete elements It is 0 . bI f
upl0 One- to three-storey height with monolith. " . ~ m re Sulta e Or smaner ~ujJding i.e.
1C Confinements with steel elements
Over the load bearing wans at the lintel Ieve1. rem arced concrete slab and honwntal band
Confinements with steel sections may prove to be best solution when immediate and urge

."
EXisting RiC tied beam rerrofitting is reqUired slnce the steel sections can be quickly installed and are easHy availat
as compared to other equipment like shotcrete. This scheme happens to be more useful 1
increasing out-of plane strength of walL
~ Strengthening schemes consist of two steel sections (channel section or angle sectic
~ il'"1l'>'-'I;!J,;:J
having full wall height placed on both the sides of the existing wall and attached to the"
or floor diaphragms, Steel sections are interconnected with each other in between by drill
'"
.!
anchors through masonry at regular intervals such as 50 cm as shown in Figure 32,17.

I CC.J
-~-
, !

FIGUR.E 32.16 Strengthening of existing

elements (U!\lDP, (983). unreinrorced masonry by confinement witb RC
[ I
DO
I Bored hole

Steel profiles
Following points shouJd be 'd '
L i I
, conSI ered III the design procedure (UNDP, 1983):
B
COI~mn should be thicker [han wall and should n . . ,

C1=l
vertJcalloads and should be d,' d 'th. ot take part m the rra,USmlSSJOn of the
'. e rgne Wi remforcement to ' t lh "J
momenr and shear of the wall paneJ. reSlS e tens! e forces due ro !I steel tie
~' L~r~er percentage of reinforcement should be avoid
mtn.lI~um reinforcement must be there, cd and mOre columns however wirh
FIGURE 32.17 Strengthelling of existing unreinforced masonry by confinement with s
l' POSitIOn of the added column in the waH such section, (L"NDP, 1983).
w~l1 panel should nol be larger [han 2-1 that itS length to height ratio of the framed
If the hOrizontal bantA lS there, il should'k re aimd . ~, . The same attachment may be repeated along the length of the wall such that the horizo
Otherwise horizontal hand (iver the i d be p. partlCulady af doors and wmdow levci)), span is shorter than the veltical i.e. floor to floor, Cracks and such other distress in masonry
. oa anng waUs should be provided.
may be fepajred by other technique!' as described earlier. The ~teel sections may be pu.ime
ollowmg arc the poinL';, \Vhieh shoutd be considered d, .','n" t '
WI ' cons ructIOn covered with cement pla~ter in order to provide corrosion protection. If the exposed ,:;teel fra
o r) t l ' ,
~,-( .ns 'ucfwn 01 the coJumn should begin from the 1 ' are visuaily undesirable, they may be p)aced within [he waH.
<lm; UIliiJ the work is compl{"t~d Owest storey and proceed Upto upward
 Chap!.er .12 Retrofittiny of Ma.sonry B~~~~ _mUe
Adding reinforcement to masonry walls
Insertion of relnforcement into the masonry wall may increase its flexural and shear capacities
for whkh several methods ex.iSL Reinforcement may be inserted from the side or centrally or
placed externally.
'_~,"I Reinforced
Reinforcement from side may be provided by cutting ve11ical slots at the desired intervals concrcte
(4 ft clc, for exampJe) in the walls either from inner or outer face depending upon easiabHity, grouted cores
feasibility, workabiHty, operatability and aesthetic considerations. After insertion of remforcement Dowel, epoxy
slots are filled with grout (Newman. 200]). grouted m driHed
Insertion of reinforcement from the centre ofthe wall may take place by providing vertica! noleh
cores, which may be tenned as centre coring. The coring of a vertical hole should be from the
top continuou:;;!y through the waH into the existing footing or basement walL The spacing of "infill" , Masonry w~J!
the cores is determined anaJytically, and is typically 4 to 5 ft in the centre. The core should be
grouted with regular non-shrink grout as shown in Figure 32.1Sa. The advantage of centre core
system is to minimise site/interior disturbance and non-disfiguring of the internal or external
face of the waHs. Sometimes the cutting of slot or cores weaken the masonry, because the added
grout in the cores does not participate in resisting the loads that are already present. Therefore, Wall elevation
the waH should he relieved of the existing ioading to the great extent po,s~ibJe before this
~trengthenjng takes place,
In some cases, adding reinforcement from the innerside of the wall is insufficient, to I'
Steel :.I L Grouted core
improve its. out-of-p1ane flexural and shear capacities or some times it may not be possible to reinforcement
provide lhe slots or cores in the waiL At this situation, the reinforcement is provided from the :Nan :;.ection {b)
inside or out!';tde face of the wall with a pneumatically appJied (i.e. shotcrete) reinforced {a} . ' added rcinforcement (3) Centre core techniques
concrete (Figure 32,18b), The main challenge in this operation is to assure that the shotcrete
bonds to the existing wall. To that effect, the shotcrete can be keyed into the waH at regulill'
flGURE 32.1S Strengthening of ,,'1;
With loy (shotcretel (FEMA. 172. 1992).
(Breiholz, 2000) (b) Reinforced conere e over
intervals, typicalJy from 6 to 8 ft as discussed in previous. section,
2
Connection between intersecting walls
Stitching of Wall Comas.' Corners and wall intersection zones are always susceptible to
heavy damage during earthquakes. The damaged corner and wall intersection zones may not
only be repaired by sealing the cracks with grouting,. but should also be strengthened by
stitching. This technique iR more frequently used in repair of the damaged waH corners, In such
case:;, hoJes are drilled in orthogonal wall of the structure at a regular interval of 0.5 m. After
cleaning of h()le~ with water, steel rods of about 12 mm diameter are inserted jnto bolh
imersectintt waHs so i.hat hoth walls are connected and tbe holes arc filled with cement grout
"Figure 32. 19ft). Other ajrcmative of steel rod is to place long stone across the crack. Adjacent

j
1, Transven;e wall
bricks or stones are removed, installing a new brick or stone, common to both walls as shown 2. Longitudinal wall
in (Figure 32.J9b}. This new stitching stone should he embedded in rich cement grout, rlt about 1. Sewing element
70 em :-;padne, The gap formed h~lw(,A:.n rh(', two Wtlll:;; is to be filled with n rich cernenl grout. ($leel rod 10 ~
A wire fnim~wllrk is fastened to both rhe internal and external surfaces, and they are plastered
'* ,ttl ~:cme,nL
H 1 > 21
1
1
OJ long slone)

i<--"--+I (b)
.~n case oj ,'-,epar1'ltcd wall scctiOfll: a~ shown in Figure 32.20a, they are tied up with Sleel (<1) . ' (' walls -with inclined
pJate (i.e. 4(} x 4 in cro<.;s section}, rJrjbe.dded in rich cement groet in between two brick Qr stone ~ Stren thening of wall intersectlOn (a) Sewmg transvers.
Jaye!"f; ~tnGf :,onw_ hricks or slone;. have been removed. Stleh plates Gal! he very effective in HGtJRE ~:'315~
bars: (18 ].:n'
<w'3) ,~) U"". of stitching stones (I1NDP. 1983).
.1:77. ~
 Chapter 82 . Retrofitting of M('ulOnry Buil.4ings ) . , .

~c~~forcing the comer but they canno; brin~ the walls back to verticaJ position. The gap is then Connection between walls and floors
.'iea ed and the surfac~ be covered with wue trellies and plaster as mentioned above. The connection between the masonry walls and floor or roof is a vital link on which the
. .~nother aI,ternallve of.steeJ plate is to drHl horizontal holes in the masonry through verticaj djstribution of earthquake forces depends. Moreover, an adequate irnerconneclion between the
cr<ick and grolltmg or epoxmg steel rods in the holes. In both these procedures lh . ,
cracks i>hould be filled with cement ma' 11 '" . , e remamlOg walls and floor or roof also ensures a monolithic and integrated behaviQur of structure III lesist
instaUed on hoth Rides of the waHs, can~' us:~~~;:r~~;.io~,atlOn pnor to repair. lie rods, the earthquake forces in a unified way. A poor connection between the floors and walls is
responsible for the independent behaviour of waH and transverse walls may collapse due to out-
of~phme forces.
Metal;ic plate for bonding Metallic plate for
up the waH bonding up the wall In most existing buildings., the floor and roofing joints have only gr4vity connection with
the walls-typicaUy, direct bearing with sparse anchorage. These gravity connections are neady
useless in resisting out--of~plane seismic force. Therefore, the roof has to be properly connected
10 the walls through appropriate keys, Figure 32,22

I
,
-'T~"

I I i
"
I
rifl ,~ II , J<
4

~t
!

'ui+i-'i
I "

,,
I I ,~

6~
i" 2 :'
, ',l{ 1525
SeL"1ion A-A

A
'-
,
- .
!
I
I If
, In case of {.o~1 collapse ,.)1' COfncr region, which is generally uncommon, stren {henin IS t.l; -, !?
requ:red, bY"r:hUlI?lDg of the corners. with proper bond of the rebuilt part and the W~I Onto ~he
-
6 :~) 1
eO!H<ict surface (Figure 32.212:). '" horizontal k~l' l'k "b d '
. f _ 'l~ 1 e a selsmH:: an of thJckness 15 to 20 em B
rem orccmcm 4 @ 16 ~ and slirrups 6 mm at 20 em should be added ' e" d '
corner c I J d . ~ .."'" r TnJorce concrete
_ ? umn proper y tJe mto the intersecting walls could be added to strengthen the waH J. Existing wall, 2. New floor, 3. Slab lopping with reintOrcement. 4. Prefab slab units,
5. RC band, 6. Key connccting new Door to existing wall @ 3 m. 7. Grooves cut in wall
IllterscelJon. Such column shouid have minimum reinforcement of 4 @ 16 d'
6tP mm at 20 em, (Figure 32~2Jb). mm an sturups
FIGUnE 32.22 Substitution or slab (IAEE, 1986),

There are two methods for stiffening an existing wooden floor connecting it tQ the
surrounding: walls. The first one is based on the use of traditional materials Le. wood and steel
The floor is infact stiffened by naiHng onc or more layers of wood planks to the existing girders.
Steel ties are then nailed directly to the girders or to the wood slab and anchored to the external
face of the waH with stecl fasteners, The second solution Implies the creation of a composite
structure formed by the wood structure and by a reinforced concrete thin slab. However it
requires more complicated operations and the use of special materials, usually resins or special
scrcv.'S, to ensure the coopemrion between the reinforced concrete slab and the wood girders.
These schemes are schematicalJy indicated in Figure 32.233 and b.

!.) ~
FIGURE 32,21
Strcnglh(:.,jng of ,'oUa~c wall intersef."tion (a) Rebuilding (b) U!;C of RC column
(flNI)-P, 198:'\).
 J
11 L SleCl rods fOf
prcstrcssmg
2. An.:hor pln.es

FIGURE 32.24 Strengthening of walls b)" prcstrcNsing (IS 13935: 1993),

External binding or jacketing

I. -3.0m In the case of seriously damaged masonry wuJl~, or where there is a need 10 strengthen the
t---.i,,--~-~~' exi;.;ting structure, the application of reinforced cement coating forming a jacket on cnc or both

~~~:~=?~I-I
i'jdes of the wall is used to improve the laterol re.~istancc, This method of retrofitting is easy
to apply and very efficient. hence it is widely used. The other aliemative of reinforcing steel
is fCTf'owcement or wire fabric like FRP materials that are more efficiently used. In retrofitting
by jacketing, plaster is first removed from the damaged portion of the wall and jojnts between
the bricks are cleaned from the mortar. The cracks and joint'> of the waH are first filled with
cement sand (1:1) mortar. A welded wire meshes or wire fabric is placed around the entire
damaged region. Steel ties are inserted at regular intervals of 0.5 m to 0.6 m in order to tie the
mesh with the waH. The entire operation is followed by concreting or shotcrete of about 3 to
4 em for simple brick work. UplO 8 cm or greater thickness for h~vy masonry on the welded
mesh, In smaller /itructures where continuous jackets are not desired, it is possible to .add local
reinforced concrete jackets only at waH corners, edges of openings and occasionally a\ midpoints
of walls. Figure 32.25a shows the details of reinforced concrete jackets as per UNDP, 1983.
FlGUR (b) Alternate system of reinforcing the jackeL" can also be used. Figure 32.25b illuslrate~ a
E 32.23 Strengthening q{ slab (3) Use . system whereby bricks or stones are removed at regular intervals and a reinforcement cage is
floors and masonry walls (b) U f . ' of steel connections between stiffened timber
tl placed in the chase or void created and concrete or shotcrcte is then plaCed within the chase
connecting tbem to masOR1"'V n se(M remforced ConCrete for stiffening timber floors and
. ., wa s , odena. 1994). (UNDP, 1983), This system is best utilil.ed where only {Jne side .jacketing is provided and
exposed anchQr are objectionable or where heavy ~t()ne masonry makes driIHng impracticaL One
Pre-stressing caution with this approach is that the addition thickness of concrete may add sufficient weight
To increase the lateral ~lrellgth 'l' b T . and overturning forces such that UJC foundation wiJl require strengthening f()j' inl-TCased bearing
prestrc~sing i) verv effect' 'Sd<l 1" Hy and lfltegrated behaviour of load beuring waU~
<J. ate-a. 11' onJy isolated wails are jacketed. extremely high suess concentration and overturning
, ,I I've an Viable method of rel rtf I " forces may result, requiring special Jesign attention, DesigneIR arc J.Jso caulioned that jacketing
:wo steel rod,) ~n: pht,:ed on Ihe two ,. , . ~o i mg. n pre1-,lJ'essing of wall,
In Flgvrt: '12.24, sldeli of lilt: wall and tlghlcnct! by tumhucklcs as <"howr: grearly increases the stiffness of the masonry waHs ant! care mus! be tukcn not to introduce
tuniional mOIT!('nts into the structure.
 - - - - - - - _..------., C--------------,c7i.h;;;,;;,,;;,,;;:,-;sii2(RRee'tTojitting of Masonry BUildingi!' ) . .
..~.~.~. _ _ ....J

Inserting new .walls

New walls could be inserted in the existing buildings for increasing s.treng.th a?d for correct~ng
+40 deficiency caused due to asymmetry. The main problem in such modification IS the connechon
of new wall with old wall. The link to the old walls is maintained by means of a number of
ke's made in old walls (IS 13935: 1993). Figure 32.27. and b shows tWO examples of
co~nection of new walls to existing ones. The first case refers to a T..junction. the second case
to comer junction (IAEE. 1986).
->-
tIS
"Chase"' I
T

BGret! i:"k
Cll>-".lHie
;/Jr.lHm

Rdl1(ortemcnl "cage'

w ~
HGllRE 32.25 Methods for jacketing (a) Use of wire mesh {b) Use of reinforcemellt cage
(UNDP, 1983).
Sectional elevation 1, Existing wall
2, New wall
Splint and bandage technique 3, Dooropen1tiS
4. Horizontal rcinlorcenwn!
The jacke1ing with steel mesh with micro- (example oftrus~ system)
concrete may be used only on the outside surface
waHs and may be uneconomical also because of
covering the entire perimeter of the building.
The splint and bandage is another approach to
strengthen the wall~ as wen as bind them together
economically. Figure 32.26 shows a scheme of ,.
strengthening by splint and bandage technique.
The horizontal bands are caUed bandage while
vertical sleel arc called splints. The welded mesh
Iype of steel is to he provided on both outer and
mner snrfaces at critical sections. The welded 1, Wire mesh with width> 400 mm
mesh should be nailed to thc masonry :,md then l?lGURE 32,.26 Strengthening by splin1 and J Existmg old wall
2. New wall
he covered with m.icro~concrete. As a minimum bandage mhnique (IS )3935: 1993). 3. ConCfl:lc column for rn,ndmg
provi.'lion these muM be provided Oil ail-external or
4. Connec1ing t,es sleel, every
'NaH." along with i..~ros:;-tie bars a(;[Oss the building in both directions and embedded in external 4'" course

hand,.." The- cros:-Hic han; are necessary to ensure integral action of bearing wall." like a craie
(~'h{lkk<;r" ,~002)
 g

. . ( Eartlu;uake ResiJJtant"rD;;e:"~'gn~o::;1;-B;;:tru;;:;:<::t;;:u=re::,:----------------

These buttresses must have sufficient capacity against overturning forces and uplift forces
therefore it requires an additional foundation, It should bave proper connection with the existing
walls through dowel so that the forces are transferred from the existing building to the new

~
(j), ~" external vertical resisting elements. This technique has limitations in case of buildings
constructed at the property lines or not having much space,
L=. I, J50
g <I
- -,
,
External buttresses may also be used in case of long longitudinal walls as in the case of
long barrack type buildings (Figure 32,29),
I
~\J $

A
FIGURE 32.27 Inserting new walls (a) C()nn~tion of new and old brick wall and connection of
new brick wall with existing stone wall at T-jUJlction (b) Connection of new and old walls at
corner junctions (IAEE, 1986). , 7 '

Exterior supplemental elements

Provision of additional shear walls at the perimeter of the building or external buttresses are the
exampl~ of exterior supplemental devises to increase in~p}ane strength of the existing masonry
walls. FIgure 32.28 shows the appl!cation of external buttresses to an existing masonry bUilding.
/;:
eN) Collector
A
FIGURE 32.29 Strengtlleniug of long wall. by buttress (IAEE, 1980).
Strengthening of parapets
Retrofitting of unreinforced masonry parapets above public access area is a considerably
effective method of minimizing hazard. The basic element of seismic retrofitting of these
VUlnerable parapets involves bracing parapets roofs and connecting floor diaphtagms to walls
through anchor as shown in Figure 32,30. Some engineers consider parapets wiih height to
thickness ratios of less than 2.5 to be stable and in no nee<! of strengthening,

Parapet anchor
:::JODI
Parapet bra<;ing
DOD

,,.
~r /J/
<,-' ..... !./-"::~;::/
"/;;~ N)
~':::r:.;:"'~ :~ l:
(E) Reinforced .concrete or
unretnforced masonry wall

~l:s:~ti:i~~
ofbutttess
{ Concrete,ma...oruy
~ Roof diaphragm

9
J : ;

::::
,il~
! :' :,
!:::
or steci buttress wall
Roof anchor
\
j j :: - (, N ' or caissons
) Ptles
~L if required FlGt;RE 32.30 Detail' of parapel bracing (TcIford, 1995).
YIGLJRE 32.28 Strc:ngthclling of walls with external buttresses (FEMA 172. 1992).
_5. Q~~~~~~~~~~~f1~~~~==============J
32.7 SEISMIC EVALUATION OF RETROFITTING
Chc.pter Sf! Il.e.trojitting of Ma<6'Oll"1l Buildings) . .

MEASURES IN STONE MASONRY MODELS

In lhe previous chapter, model' 5 and 6 have been tested for earthquake resistant measures on
shock table. After damage under shock loading. models were retrofitted by two different
schemes. and tested for evaluating the effectiveness of rerrofiuing techniques. ModelS has been
retrofitted with cement grouting, strengthening with wire mesh, and stitching of walls while
model 6 has been retrofitted with through stones, external binding and prestreSSing at sill level,
designated as Model RI and Model R2 re,peetively. The Indian Standard Code IS 13935: 1993,
"Repair and Seismic Strengthen.ing a/Buildings-Guidelines" furnishes the detailed specifications
'Jf lechniques used for retrofitting. However, brief details of retrofItting techniques used in
models have been described as (Agalwal and Thakkar, 2002):
(a) (b)
Grouting: A grout mix consi.sting of Portland cement and water in the ratio of 1:J is injected FIGURE 3232 Retrofitting technique., employed in model RI (a) Repair with wire me
;nto the wans through nozzles, jf the cracks are fine; or with cement sand mortar (1:1). if the (b) Wire mesh with eement plaster.
cracks are wide. A number of holes, preferably 2 to 4 holes in each square metre area of waH,
arc drilled between the stones to a depth of atleast half the thickness of walls. and injection Through stones: Through stones are inserted at an interval of 0.5 m in horizonta1 direction a
nozzles are put into the holes. 1 m in vertical direction. The technique indudes preparation of space in the wall. insertion
Stitching afwall comers: In this teChnique, holes are drilled in orthogonal wan of the structure stones of size equal to the thickness of the wail and fIxing the stones with the cement-sa
at a regular interval of 0.5 m. After the cJeaning of holes with water, steel rods of about 12 mm mortar.
diameter arc imerted into both intersecting walls so that both walls are connected and the holes Tying of walls with steel ties: Holes are drilled in the wall in order to insert steel bars at be
are fiHed with cement grout (Figure 32.31). the inner and the outer sides of the model. Usually! the bars are placed symmetrically on be
sides of the wall. These bars are bolted with steel plates of 3 mm thickness at the ends. The inr
and outer bars are bolted simultaneously which enable the model to remain intact. As
consequence of bolting. tension in the bars applies prestress to the walls, This enhances c,<lpac
of Ibe wall to withstand horizontal loads (Figure 3233).

FIG1]RE 32.31 Stitching of damaged corner.

SJH'fI}!ilieniflJ: ()( wail wifh wire mesh: This COnSl$;l!i of reinforced welded wire mesh of size
(a) (b)
'iO mm x )0 111m of 3 nun dj,ameter forming a vertical plate bounded 10 the wall. The me~b j
:Ul(;)1of(d Wlih (he waH hy sted ties 31 spacing of anout 30 cm to 40 em and plastered by cement nGURE 32.33 Retrofitting techniques employed in model Rl (a) PI.dog of steel ties (l~ m
'.111'.1 IlJ();"i'-!l or 20 Dlin to 40 !Urn lllidneS"s on the outer !\urrace (Figure 32.32).
at sill level (b) Tensioning of steel ties by bolting with anchor plate..

External jacketing: In retrofitting by jacketing. plaster is first removed from the damag
portion of the wall and joints between the stones are cleaned from lhe mortar. The cracks a
 M'. { Earthquake Reaistuni-D;;'=':-;ig=n=-=.C;1'";S;;',...=.:::,.=re='------"-----
joint> of the wall are flnt filled by cement-sand (1; I) mortar. A welded wire mesh of size 50
mm x 50 mm with 3 mm diameter is placed around the model externally including the entire
damaged region. Steel ties are inserted at regular intervals in order to tie the mesh with the wall.
An overlap of the mesh of 0.25 m is maintained at the comers so that the continuity of the wire
mesh is obtained. The entire operation is followed by a thick plaster 2 em thick on the welded
mesh (Figure 32.34),
('l (D)
FIGtRE 32.34 Retrofitting techniques employed in model R2 (a) Placing of wire mesh around
model covering the damaged region (b) Cement-sand plastered on wire mesh.
32.7.1 Belw.viour of Retrofitted Models
Model RJ: The retrofitted model is tested with a schedule of three test runs of increasing
intensity of 'hock W-19, W,20 and W,21. In the first shock W-19. almost no crack is noticed
in the entire model. DUrJng tbe second shock W-20. the retrofitted model shows marked
Improvement in performance with a total absence of cracks and while in some regions of wall
only minor cracks have occurred. On the other hand, stitching of walls has proved to be
extremely useful since 'the stitched portion has not at an damaged. This fact underlines the
efficiency of repairing techniques (Figure 32.35). As a result of the third shock W-21. the model
has considerably cracked.
(b)
FIGURJ.."; 32.35 Behaviour of r-etrofitted model Rl (a) Model under shock test (b) Cracks
vattern <)( Mooe! R .
c
Model R2: The retrofitted model is tested with a schedule of three test runs of increasing
intensity of shock W-19, W-20 and W-21. In the first shock W-19 the model has behaved
integrally and only a few cracks have developed at those portion. which have not undergone
retrofitting, During shock W-20 cracking in the model has occurred mainly below sill level. But
the retrofitted region of [he model does not show any cracking. In shock W~21. the retrofitted
portion of the model has remained entirety undamaged, yet a few minor cracks occur at the
joints of wire meshes, This pattern of cracks suggests the need of a little more overlapping of
the wire mesh. It is observed that the shear resistance of the retrofitted s[ructure has significantly
improved, and suffers lesser damage as compared to parent structure even subjected to a bigger
shock (Figure 32.36),
(al (b)
FIGURE 32.36 Bebavlour or retrolltted model R2 (a) Model under sbock test (h) Cracks
pattern or mode uodor shock W-21.
32_7.2 Findings
1. The injection of cementitious grout on localized damaged areas can restore the original
strength and stifffiess. which is relied from free vibration test. The schenle of repair
for stitching of corners of walls avoids delamination of walls during shock test
2. The external binding (jacketing) scheme of retrofitting 1S effective for increasing the
strength even more than the original system. as the cracks in the retrofitted models
OCCur in a new position instead of the regions of the previous cracks. 'The introduction
of external horizontal tic bar js helpful for reducing funher cracking because of the ties
of the walls behave similarly as a band and capable for resisting bending moment due
to out-of-plane vibration of the wall, Moreover, external binding with welded wire
mesh in damaged region not only increases the lateral resistance of the wail but also
prevents shcar and flexure failure of the models.
SUMMARY
The recent earthquakes 1n Jndia have caused extensive damage to hundreds of masonry
building:::. Sut:h devastation after earthquake has underlined the need of retrofitting. The aim
of this chapter lS to summarize the retrofitting techniques of mason!)' buildings that are feasible
and economic-a I. Numerous techniques that are used to retrofit seismically deficient or damaged

L Ciul.ptrr Sf!
masonry buildings are classified on the basis of their effect on structural perfonnance. Some
of the common techniques described in this chapter are cement or epoxy injection, reinforced
injection, grouting with cement or epoxy, insertion of through stones and re-pointing of mortar,
~urface coatings, sbotcrete overlays or adhered fabric with wire mesh or FRP materials. use of
RC and steel frames in openings, external binding or jaCketing. prestressing, confineme~ts with
RC eJe~ent and steel sections, strengthening of wall intersections and strengthening of
connectxon between wails and floor. Some of the experimental verification of these retrofitting
techniques mentioned in IS 13935: 1993 is also presented.
REFERENCES
[l j Agarwal. P. "~;xpeIimental Study of Seismic Strengthening and Retrofitting Measures
in Masonry Buildings", PhD. Thesis.., Department of Earthquake Engineering. lIT
Roorkee. 1999.
[2] Agarwai, P. and Thakkar, S.K., "Study of Adequacy of Earthquake Resistance and
Retrofitting Measures of Stone Masonry Buildings", Research Highlight.~ in Earth
Systems Science, DST Special Vol. 2 on 'Seismicity' pp. 327-335, O.P. Verma (Ed.),
Indian Geologica) Congress, August, 2001.
(3) Agarwal, p, and Thakkar, S.K., "An Experimental Study of Effectiveness of Seismic
Strengthening and Retrofitting Measures in Stone Masonry Buildings". Journal of
European Earthquake Engineering, pp. 48-64, 2002.
[41 Agarwal, P. and Thakkar, S.K.. "Seismic Evaluation of Strengthening and RetrOfitting
Measures in Stone Masonry Houses under Shock Loading", Workshop on. Retrofitting
01 Structures, lIT Roorkee. 2003. . [21J Munoz, A. Quiun. D., and Ttnman. M. "Repair and Seismic Retrofitting of Hosj
[5] Alcocer, S.M" et al., "Retrofitting of Confined Masonry Walls with Welded Wire
Mesh'" Eleventh World Conference on Earlhqunke Engineering, Acopulco, Mexico.
1996.
(61 Breibolz, D.C., "Centre Core Strengthening System for Seismic Hazard Reduction
of Unreinforced Masonry Bearing Viall BuHdings~'. Twelfth World Conference on
Earthquake Engineering, New Zeland. 2000.
l7J Davenport. C, BUl1on:P., and Neill. 5.0., "A GIS-based Earthquake Damage Scenario
and the 28 December 1989 Earthquake of Newcastle, Australia", Intematlonai
Wnrkshop on Measures of Seismic Damage 10 MfL'IOnry Buildings, Alberto Bernardini
(Ed, i, MOJlsclicclParlova!ltaly 2526 June 1998, AA BalkemaiRotrerdamlBrookfield,
1999.
;~n Dolce, M., Masi, A., and GorettJ, A., "Damage to Buildings due to 1997 Umbria~
Marche Earthquake", Intcrnat;onar Workshop on Measures of Seismic Damoge fo
Masonry Buildmg.", Albeno Bernardini (Ed.), MonseliceIPadoval1tealy 25~26 June':
1998, AA. BalkernaJRouerdarruBrookiield, 1999.
itJj EERL "N0!1hridgc Earthquake Reconnaissance Repolt, VoL 2", wrthquake Spedra.,
$uppJemeni C In Vol. I L J 996.
nWi EERl, "Er7inc3n, Turkey Earthquake Reconnaissance Repan", Earthquake Sper.lra,
Supplement lo Vol. 9, 1993.
Bu~idi~
Retrolitt1ng of MMl)nry ..
[11) Elgawady. M., Lestuzzi. P., and Badoux, M . "'Dynamic versus Static Cyclic Te~
MasonryWaUs before and after Retrofitting with GFRP", Thirteenth World Coni"
on Earthquake Engineering. Vancouver, B.C., Canada, 2004.
[12) FEMA 112, NEHRP Handbook for Seismic Rehabilitation of Existing Build
Building Seismic Safety Council, Washington, 1992.
[13] Grimn, C.T., "Masonry Cracks: A Review of the Literature", Masonry: Matel
DeSign. Construclion, and Maintenance. pp. 257-280, HA Harris, (Ed.). ASTM
992, American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, 1988,
[14J IAEE, "Basic Concepts of Seismic Codes-Vol, I", The international Associalio,
Em1hquake Engineering. Tokyo, Japan. 1980.
[lSJ IAEE~ Guidelines for Earthquake Resiswnt N()n-en~ineered Construction., ACe Lim
Thane, 2001.
[l6] IS 13935, Repat"r and Seismic Strengthening oj Buildings-Guidelines. Burea
Indian Standards. New DeihL 1993.
[17J Kahn, L.W., "Shotcrete Retrofit for Unreinforced Brick Masonry", Eighth ~
Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Vol. l~ San Francisco, 1984.
[18] Karbhari, v'M., "Use of FRP Composite ~ateriaJs in the Renewal of Civil Infrastru\
in Seismic Region", Second MCEER Workshop on Mitigation Of EarthquakR Dis!
by Advanced Technologies (MEDAT-2). Technical Report MCEEROJ-0002, 201
[l9J Kehoe, B.E., "Pertormance of Retrofitted Unreinforced Masonry Buildings". Elev
World Conference on Earthquake Engineering. Acopulco, Mexico. 1996.
[:W] ~fodena. C., "Repair and Upgrading Techniques of Unreinforced Masonry Struct
Utilized after Fruli and CompaniafBasBicata Earthquakes", Earthquake Spe(
Vol. 10, No.1, 1994.
and School Buildings in Peru", Thirteenth World Conference on Earthq:
Engineering, Vancouver, B.C., Canada, 2004,
[22] Nasini, U. et aJ.. "'Evaluation and Design Criteria for Restoring and Retrofit
Damaged Masonry Buildings'>, Twelfth World Conference on Earthquake Engineer
New Zealand. 2000.
[23] Newman. Alexander, Structural Renovation of Buildings-Methods, Details,
Design Example, McGraw-Hili, USA. 2001.
f24] Sanders, H.P, "A Case History-Retrofit Seismic S!rengthening of John Marshall t
School with Historic Restoration Objectives'" Eighth World Conference on EarthqL
Engineering, VoL 1, San Francisco, 1984.
[25] Scbwegler, G. and Kelterborn, p" "Earthquake Resi::;r.ance of Masonry strucn
Strengthen with Fibre Composite::;", Eleventh World Conference on Earlhqt.
Engineering, Acopulco, :\1exico, 1996.
[26J Spencer, RJ .S., et aI., "'The Perfonnance of Strengthened Mawnry Bui[dingr.; in Ret
European Earthquakes"< Twelfth World Conference on Earthquake Engineer.
New Zealand, 2000.
127J Thakkar, S.K. and Agarwal, P., "Seismic Evaluatiun of Earthquake Resistant
Retrofitting Measures of Stone Masonry Houses'" Paper No. Ito, nrdfth itt
Conference on Earthquake Engineering. New Zealand, 2000.
MM- CEarthqtuU:e Resil.ft.ani Design of StM.u:tures
[:281 Fasrening for Seismic Rerrofitting-Stare of rhe Art Report, Camire Euro-International
Du BelOn, Thomas Telford, UK, J995.
[29] Tomazevic, M., Earthquake Resistant Design of Masonry Buildings, Imperial College
Pre.", London, J999,
[3Oj Turner, F., "Retrofit Provisions in the International Existing Building Code", 13th
World Conference On Earthquake Engineering, Vancouver, B.C" Canada, 2004.
[31] UNDP. "Reparr and Strengthening of Reinforced Concrete, Stone and Brick-Masonry
Index
Buildings-Volume 5", UNDPIUNJDO Project RER/19/OJ5, Vienna., J983.
[32] Weng, D., el .1., "Experimental Study on Seismic Retrofitting of Masonry Walls Using
GI'RP", Thirteenth World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Vancouver, B.C.,
Canada., 2004.
f32] Wyllie, L.A., "Strengthening StnIlegies for Improved Seismic Performance". Elel'enth
World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Acapulco, Mexico, 1996.
135'" hook, 356 Architectural planning, 239
2d pJane frame model. 327 Artificial
3d space frame model. 327. 331 "'mping. 143
earthquake motions, 66
A~l ratio, 472
Absolute Asthenosphere. 6. 30
acceleration spectra. 77. 150 ATC14 metho401ogy, 505
response spectra. 151 Attenuation
spectral response. 7& law. 93. 98
sum method. l72 relationships. 93, 94
AbsorlJer mass, 161 AuxiHarytsecondary ma:s&. 160
Absorblngltransmitting boundaries, 182 Average response acceleration coefficient. 255
Acceleration. 245 Axlal,530
Displacement Response Spectrum (ADRS),
79, 154
Accelerogram, 70, 71 Bandage. 614
Accelerometer. 134 Bonds,577
Acceptable risk. 57 Base. 200
Aeeidenlal eccentricilY. 475 isolators. 534
Accuracy. 141 shear. J97
Active, 199 Basics vectors. 164
faulting, 97 Basin
Ad/v',92 edges. 63
Adding reinforcement. 608 effects. 63
Addition of structuIaI walls. 534 B:.ltering. 234
Adhered fabric. 603 Bayesian analysis, 9&
Algorithmic damping, 142. 143 Beam
Alternate load path, 245 column joinl, 530
Amplification factor, 64, 101, 417 elemenls, 334
Amplitude mechanism. 414
parameters. 73 Bearing wall system. 240
spcctrum, 74, 145 Bed rock motion. 63
Approach Behaviour factor, 255
direct. 182 of masonry assemblage. 452
substructure, 182 Bhuj earthquake. 207
Arthing action, 283 Bihar-Nepal earthquake. 51

625
iiPldll ~~~Ind~..
~____________________________________________________________--, Inde.).
Bilareral tension. 452 Concrete Diagonal steel bracing. 563 imensity, 84
Blind fault, 97 capitals, 550 Diagonal strut. 336 potential in a region, 90
Body Wave Magnitude (MB). 21. 89 jacketing. 565 Diagona!iud modal mass matrix. 312 protection system. 199
reflections, 63 shear wan. 559 Diaphragms. 227. 469 resistant (ER) measures. 577
waves, 10 Condition assessment. 506 discontinuity I 237 Effect of inenia. n I
Bond. 530 Confinement. 535 failure. 592 Effect of the duration of application of exciu
beam. 501 steel sections. 607 Digital accelerographs., 135 123
strength, 450 with RC elements. 606 Direct shear forces. 475 Effeaive peak accelemion (EPA), 85, 92
strength of mortar, 450 Connection failure. 592 Direction Eigenvalue, 264
Boundary element, 366. 397. 401 Conrad discontinuity. 31 of fault rupture, 61 problem. 163
Braced sleel frames, 560 Construction joint, 247 one of the principal axis, 83 Eigenvector/modal. 262
Brittle, 192 Continental drift theory. 6 Elastic half space. 336
to the fault-slip zone. 83
shear failure, 530 ConventionaJ methods. 535 EJasticity nrne history method, 196
Discontinued shear walls. 368
Building Convergent boundaries. 7 Discontinuities/irregularities in the load path. 227 Elevators. 222
foundation. 243 Convolution integral, 125 Embedment ratio, 185
Discominu(IUs load, 528
frame system, 240 Correlalion between MMI and roV. 92 Discontinuous shear wall, 227. 368-
Energy
separalion. 234 Coupled shear walls. 330. 367 approach. {99
Displacement diM:lpating capacity, 347
BVll!Cs:..es, 534 Coupling beam, 367 ductility, 345
Crack, 596 released. 60
method, 192
Critical damping, 117. 194 Epicentres. 4
pickup, l32
Cantilevered wall. 47 J Critically damped. 117 EPV.92
ratio. 347 Equation of motion. 112. 115
C'.apacity Cumulative effective modal mass. 175 Dissipation of seismic energy due to material damp.
hased design. 421 Cumulative tilting. 234 Equivalent
63 diagonal strut. 285
demand (OD). 505 Curtains. 398 Distributed parameter model. t 14
design, 199. 404 Curvature ductHity. 344 harmonic wave, 73
Divergent boundaries, 7 lateral force procedure. 253
diagram, 79, 154 Curvature ratio. 343 Doppler's effect. 60
Captiv(! column, 219 modal damping. 334
Cm-outs, 227 Drift control. 234 number of yield cycles. 85
Carbon fibre, 542. 547. 604 Drift related damage. 246 shear wall-frame model. 330
Cement concrete block construction, 440 Dry mi 602 static analysis. 196
grotI[ing, 600 D'alembert's principle. 116, 260 Dual system. 240, 391 static procedure:. 253
Centre coring. 60S Damage potential. 84 Ductile. 192 viscous damping. 199
of mass, 475. 492 of a ground motion. 73 coupling beams, 367 Evaluate the dynamic response, 137
of rigidity. 475. 476. 492 of earthquakes. 81 Duetiii!),. 193. 198.243.244.342.344 Evaluation. 50S
Chamali earthquake. 1999, 431 Damageability, i9S based design. 199 ExcitaIion
Characteristic of strong molion. 91 Damped circular natural frequency. 118 factor, 342. 347 by multiple components.. 175
Charac{erislic value. I63 Damping. 192. 194. 243 ratio. 342, 343 fundion, 314
Charac(cristicswaying mode, 232 coefti clem. 194 Duhamel integral. 125 Expected ground motion. 60 ,
Characteristi<.-s of earthquake ground motions,. 60 force, 116, 192: 194 Duration magnitude (MD), 89 Experimental determination of dynanuc d
Characterization matrix. 158 of shaking. 60 teristics. 119
of accelerogram, 11 Deep focus earthquakes. 88 Exterior supplemental devices. 616
scale. 21
of design ground motl()U, 61 Deflection due to flexural bending, 471 Exterior walls, 219
Dynamic. 191
Chord modulus, 454 Defleclion fO shear, 471 analysis procedure. 253 External binding, 621
Classical damping, no Degrees-of-freedom. 194 component, 180 buttresses, 616
Close-coupled system, 328 Design degrees of freedom. 1 J3 jacketing. 619
Cohercney function, 81 base shear. 253 eqUilibrium. 192
~uhmu, b~searthquake,252
range. 132
<;p\ir;:c<;, ')?N criteria, 96 Factor, 344
mechamsm, 404, 414-
swtij< earthquake (DB E). 96 Failure of non-sUUClural components, 592
Commumty huilding~:, 254 ground mottons, 65 Barthcn building. 440 Far-coupled system, 328
Complclr fj'ladmllC cnmbimltiO!l (CQC). 271 lateral force. 253, 270 Earthquake Fault
CompressIOnal waves, 10 response spectrum. 10 I average power, 84 p3!a1Ie1 direction, 60
Compressive strength. 449, 450, 452 spectrum. WI, 154 destructiveness potential. 85 rupture area, 60
of mortar. 4';; 1 DetermtniSLic 7..Oning method, 56 ground motion, S9. 60 rupture paramelers, 90
 iiNQi+ ,,;A;.;--------------------------------------------------------------;
Faulty conStruction, 2' t I
Ferro--cemenl, 613
Generalised
c ______ __ ___
Increase in axJal load, 496
~~ ~

Lehmann discontinuity, 31
UoeM
- - ' -Inde~J
-'- -s-
coordinates" 158 Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee, 65
Fibre polymer composite jacket. 542 eigenvalue problem. 165 Industrial building. l59 dynamic analysis, 1%
Fibre reinforced plastic (FRP). 603 mass, 178 IneJastic deformation, 404 interaCtion diagram, 483
Field evaluation, 506 Geometric attenuation. 62. 63 Inelastic time history analysis, 197 static analysis. 196
method. 505 Gla...s fibre. 542 Inertia force, J 16, 192 Lintel, 501
Finite element, 334 Global mass reduction, 534 Inertia matrix, 158 band. 582
Aexible Globallstructural retrofiuing, 596 Inertial illleraction. 181. 334 Liquefaction, 247
base parameters, 186 Grillage InfilJ walls, 534 Lithosphere, 6, 30
capacities of the beams. 410 elements, 334 Infilled masonry walls. 570 I..ood
diaphrngm. 469 model. 336 Influence coefficient matrix. 180 combinalions. 409
noar diaphragms, 332 Ground motion pararneteT, 64. 65 Inplane failure, 445 ground response, 63
strength of mortar, 450 Grout, 449. 451. 600 Intensity. 89 lmember retrofitting. 596
tensile. 450 injection. 600 attenuation, 49 path, 212. 468
wall. 483 Grouting, 618 scale, 13 resisting system, 239
flexural walls. 464 Gunite, 602 Intennediate focus earthquakes, 88 retrofitting. 533
Flexure. 530 Gutenberg seismic discontinuity, 32 Im.erplate .5 (richter) magnitude (m!). 89
beam model. 328 earthquakes, 88 site effects, 60
tensile strength. 455 lntervention, 505 Logarithmic decrement. 119
tension normat to bed joints. 455 HN ratio. 64 Intraplate, .5 Long duration pulse, 61
tension parallel to bed joint, 455 Hammering, 215 earthquakes, 88 Long natural period, 244
Fling step, 61 Hanging waJl effect, 62 Inundation, 37 Loss of resistance, 246
Floating Harmonic excitation, 120 IrreguJar, 226 Losses. 45
box, 227 Hazard maps.. 56 buildings, 259 Love waves, 11
box t )'pe. 209 Holonomic constraints, 157 shaped pians. 241 Low lifting grouting. 600
columns. 212 Hori2X}flW Isolated fOOling. 334 Lumped
column concept, 227 bands or bond be.aros. 577 Isolation, 200 mas, model. 195
earthquakes, 98 construction joint, 369 lsoseismal, 18 parameter model. 114
Awr space index, 212 framing system, 577 system. 329
Force balance accelerometer (FBA), 135 irregularities, 226
flow. 227 resisting dements, 227 Jacker with high tension materials, 542
Forced vibration, 123 seismic coefficient. 465 Jacketed. 565
of an MOOF system, 169 Hybrid. 199 Jacketing. 535, 542 Magnification factor, 414
of MDOF system. I7l syslems., 201 Jamb reinforcement, 605 Magnitude, 89
Fou.ndation beams or lies. 246 Hypematjc, 246 Jamb steel, 498 Masonry
Foundation input motion, 183 Hyperstatictty, 246 assemblage, 452
Fourier Hysteresis behaviour. 342 buildings. 463
no
series, Hysteretic damping. 199 Kangra earthquake, 5'1. 55 aacking. 596
spectra, 144 Kilian (Jatur) earthquake, 56 deterioration, 596, 60 I
spectrum, 74 Kinematic interaction effects, 181 infill walls, 219
Fragmentation, 398 lDNDR.59 Kinematics, 335 infills, 282
!:'ree vibration, li7, J62 Impact echo, 521 Koyna earthqUake, 52, 56 parape15. 617
:;requency COntent, 74 Impedance functions. f 83 Kutch earthquake, 51, 207 unit,449
of a time history, 75 Importance factor. 254, 466 walL 559
of ground mO{ion, 14,4 lmportant service, 254 Mass
~ncllonal damper, 535 In-plane (shear) Lack of deformation compatibility, 528 and sriffness matrices, 261
;RP jacketing, 5~7 failure, 593 land~use planning, 66 irregularities, 21 L 232-
1111damemal. 193 orthonormal mode shape, J63
forces, 464- Lap splices. 35 J
mode, i 65 moment 479 Large openings, 227 reduction, 534
naturtJ p;!riod, 155, 486 shear, 479 Laleral renormaJlzation. 163
Inclined beam member. 336 force procedure, 253 MaSler, 333
Inclined truss member, 336 resiStance, 528 Mathematical model, 194
,able band, 562 Incoherence effect, 80 strength design, 199 Mathematical modellmg. J 12
 4lijih" <=ind~e~.~------------------------------------------------------------ __
Maximum Natural
absolute response, 272 Penetration resis.tance methods. 520 RC or steel frame, 605
mode shapes, 163, 255
considered earthquake, 252 Perfectly-plastic, 347 Re-entrant. 236
period. 193, 243
considered magnitude, 56 time period, 262 Pclformance-based engineering. 79 corner, 227. 233
credible eanhquake (MCE), 96 Period elongation, t43 Rc~pointing, 601
Neat-field,60
interaction effect, 410 strong motion data, 60 of !he dominant pulse, 62 Rebar looatorlconven meIer, 52(1
interaction rano, 381 Newton's second law of motion. 115 Permanent ground d-isplacement. 61 Rebound hammer. 520
strain energy input. 78 Non-destructive evaluation, 506. 509 Phase spectrum. 74, 145 Reciprocating machine. 159
MooF system, 151 Non~engineered construction, 576 Physical coordinates, 316 Reconstruction. 524
Mean square acceleration, 84 Non~bncar dynamic analysis, 197 Piecewlse-bnea.r interpolation, 315 Recurrence
Measure of severity. 11, 83 Non-linear inelastic analysis. 505 Piers. 470 relation for constant average acce1era1or. 1
Meas.ure of the severity of ground shaking. 81 Non-linear stalic analysis, 196 Pile, 335 relation for duhamel integral, 138
Mechanical dissipaters, 200 Non~reference sile approach, 64 Pitched roofs, 432 Redueed 3d mndel, 328. 331
Medvedev~Spoonheuer-karnjk (MSK), 13 NOn~Stalionary characteristics, 74 Plane frame idealization, 328- eigenvalue problem. 178
Member Jcv<:1 a;:>pmach, 533 Non-structural damage, 245 Plane frame models, 328 Redundancy, 245
Member/locaL 203 Non-structural elements. 243 Plastic hinges, 395, 404 Reference site, 63
Mercalli mtensity scale, 13 Nonholonomic, 157 Plinth band. 501, 582 Regression analysis, 64
Mesosphere, 30 Number of significant hwf-eydes of motion 62 Poisson process, 99 RegUlar, 226
Micro-earthquake, 89 N~riad ' Poisson's ratiQ, 449 building, 259
Microtremor data. 64 algorithm, 142 Poor quality of material, 211. 528 configurati'Ons, 226
Mindlin ?late eiement, 335 integration, 141 Pounding, 233, 507. 592 shapes. 241
Minimax property of Rayleigh quotiem. 165 failure, 215 RehabHiiati'On. 524
Missing mass correction. 177,270 Power spttt1Um. 75 Reinforced concrete
Modal Occurrence of an eanhquake, 99 Predominant period. 63 beams. 530
analysis procedure, 253 Oceanic ridges. 6 Premature deterioration. 398 construction. 208
combination rules, 171 Orthogonal strength ratio, 455 Prestressing, 612 frames, 568
damping matrix, 312 Orthogonality 'Of mode~shapes, J64 Primary loss, 45 infiU walls, 563
expansion rheorem, 164- Out-of-plane, 220 Principal axis, 83 jacket, 542
mass. 170, 269 bending, 464 Prism. 451 jackeling, 543
participation factors. 171,270,315 buckling, 397 Probabilistic estimations of ground mtllion, 98- masonry. 451
stiffness, 170 failure, 445. 592 Propagation delay, 81 shear Walls, 565
stiffness matrix, 312 forces. 483 Proportional damping, 170 Reinforcement. 449
shapes, 163. 243. 262 Over strength, 347. 417 Pseudo relative velocity response spectrum, 76, 148 Reinforcing steel. 45 I
superposition method, J96 facr'Or,415 Pseudodynamic test, 204, 205 Relation between MMI and PGA. 91
truncation, 175 Overdamped. 117 Punching shear failure, 549 Relative
Modified mercalli (MM!) scale. &9 Overturning moment, 480, 495 Push ovcr analysis, 197. 345. 505 displacement response spectra. 76
Modu!us Push Over curve. 79. 154 displacement response spectrum. 148
of elasticity, 453, 470 rigidity, 253
of rigidify. 470 P-a effects, 21 j, 231 velocity spect.rum, 77
of rupture, 455 Parapets, 220 Qualitative methods. 505 Remoulding. 524
MOHO,31 Partial resonance. 193 Quality factor, 25 Repairing. 524. 596
MohorovICIc di~conlinuiry, 31 Partial safety factor, 417 of workmanship. 528 Representative ground frequency, 153
\1oment.22 Passive, 199
Quasi RESA, 65
l"J.l:gnlfication factor. Q 14,424- and active control systems, 201 resonance, 193 Resonance, 25
mJgl'li~ude, 22, 90
contro! !iysrem, 200 Restoring force, 192
static component, 180
Palh effect, 60
Mortar. 446, 449. 60) -static lest. 204, 205 Retrofllting, 202. 524
Movable- jOinl, 219 !interrupted load. 528-
Return period. 56. 99
{MS1Q il'llensity scale, R9 !irregular load path, 528 Richter magnitude scale. J9
Peak ground
:V1111ti-dcgrel;>oF freedom. 197 Raft foundation, 335 Rigids
acceleration (PGA}. 91
rYltllllplc~support I"Xcilalwn by differentll.lJ qrouno Random rubble r.tone masonry, 440 and flexible {liaphtagm, 467
179 ,. , horizontal acceleration. 73
Rapid visual screening method. 505 bars. 393
hori7.ontal velocilY, 62
Mntually OIt.Oogonal. 163 Rayleigh (LR), J J diaphragm, 332, 469
shear force. 271
MU;1'.affal':lhad earthquake, 446 dissipation function, 158 link. 329, 393
velocity (PGV). 92
quotient, J65 Rigidny, 198
 R~ma (Assam) eartnquake. 51
Rmg of fl"" 6
friction, 369
wall. 464. 470. 534
Steady-state magnification facior, 121 .
Steady-state response, I2J
Survivability, 198
Sweeping malrix.. J67. 168
..
Ritt base v~ors>'I17 waves, 10 Ste</
Synchronous motion. 162
Roof. 5\)1 ShinoRg earthquake.. 51 braces. 534
band, 582 Shock Ulble. 585 bracing. 570
diaphragms. 469 testing. 582 jacket.. 542 Tectonic earthquakes, 88
Rotal~on angle ductility ratio, 343 Short moment frames with fluid viscous dampers. Tectonic map, 51
Rotauonai 'uam.y factor, 343 Theory of elasticity, 285
column. 219, 505 573
RunwoUp.37 Three~dimensional model, )94
duration pul.se, 61 Stiffness. 192
Rupture directivity effect. 60, 61 natura) period, 244 matrices. 1n Time
Shotcrete, 602 resistance. 192 history melhod, 3 I 1
Sill barul. 582 Stitchmg of wall COmeB. 608, 618 marching schemes, 141
Safe1)' level, 57 Single dei_offreedom. 194 Stodola method, 165 period of the building, 466
Screening method. 503 SJaves. 3'33 TOPI. 209. 217
Stones
SDOF system. J15 Sliding joints. 222 bond. 599 Torsion, 235
Seismic, 200 Soft, 211 through, 599, 619 irregularity. 234
Seismic or weak Yori es. 209 Srrain hardening effects. 417, 423 Torsional
base isolation, 540 storey. 231, 404, 414 Strength. 198 eccentricity, 493
base shear force. 465 storey problem, 421 Strengthening, 524 effects. 224
dem.md diagram. 79 stones. 211. 501 of wall with wire mesh. 618 moment, 493
design code of practice. 60 Soil Stress concenu-ations, 227 shear forces. 475
evaluation. 202, 508 damping, 334 Stressstrain curve, 449. 453 Transducers, 129
hazard map, 45 springs, 183 Transfer function of the soil eolumn at the
Strong column
hazard zone map 46 structure interaction, 181, 182. 195.334 motion dala. 64 site. 63
isoJaiion. 57] , Soorce effed. 60 motion duration., 493 Transform boundaries. 7
moment.. 9() Spatial variation of motion studies, 60 Transform fault boundary, 9
pickups, 129 earthquake ground motion. 179 -weak beam. 530 Triaxial compression. 452
regionlisation map. 50 -weak beam structure by, 404 Truncation of the modal summation. 176
ground motion. 80
retrofitting, 524 strong ground motion, 62
Tsunami earthquake. 36
Structural
separation. 233 Special confming reinforcement. 389 damping. 244
Tuned mass dampers, 200
wave propagation. 60 Specification of MCE,. 97 dynamics, 112 Tuning ratio.. 121. 130
waves, 10 TwoMdimensional plane frame model. 195. 393
SJ!<C,ral /global. 203
weigb~ 2SS ampliflcaiion. 63
Tying of walls with Sleei ties, 619
integrity. 444
2.on~ map of indIa. 253 :maly~s of surface waves (SASW), 52) level approach, 533
zomng.45 tntensJty. 85 level retrofittings.. 534
. Z?ning map, 45. 48, 49, 50 radius, 142 masonry, 449 _UlIimate displacement, 343
Se:S~~Jy deficient Structure$. 505 shapes, 131 models. 194- Ultimate limit Slale, 198
SelSmtC1ty data. 60 Unoorrelated components of the ground motion, 82
Splicing, 369 overJay. 603
Se~smo-tectonic selUp of india. 53 Splinls. 614 Structure ductility, 345 Undamped
Se~smo.teetonic unilS, 53 circular natura] frequency, 117
and bandage, 614 Strut aclion, 219
Se;smogenic rupture zone, 94 Splitting tension, 450 Supplemental free vibration. 262
SelSrnology. 3 Spring force. 116 damping, 541 system, 260
SeiMnometers, 132 Square-rool-of-the.squares.272 dampjng devices, 535 t;nder-damped, ) 11
Seis~~istant capacity. 239 SRR. 65 device, 540 UNESCO. 59
Semtacttve, J99 SRSS rule, 172 energy dissipation devices" 534 UniaxIal compressIOn. 452
Serviceability. 198 SS} analysis, 181 Support motions. 171 Unit, 446, 60)
Se"..a<:ce!eromeler,135 impulse response functIon, 114
Slability, 141 Surface
Seve~ity (If ground motion, 96 apparent velocity of propagation, 81 Unity equation, 481, 482
Stack pattern. 452
Shaking Ulble, 204 University of Roorkee. 65
Standard eigenvalue problem. 165 ground motion, 63
Shallow focus earthquakes 8& Starting transient, J22 topography. 63 Uttarkashi. 438
Shear, 530 ' Static, 191 wave (s-wavc) magnitude. 21, 89
beam model. 329 equilibrium, 192 wave generation. 63
huilding 1Tl.;df:L 113 Statically indeterminaIe, 245 VIA ratio, 73, 92
waves, 10
Im!DI (~l~n=de=x_______________________________________________~

Vec'"or purificalionldeflation, 167 Wiler tank. 220

Velocity pickup, 132 Wave propagation effect, 80
Vertical in elastic medium, J81
acceieraHon.252 Weak,211
discontinuity, 212 motions. 64
irregularities, 223, 226 storey, 230
reinforcing. 577 Web reinforcement, 369
setback, 233 Wide column, 393
steel, 582 Wing walls (side walls), 534
strength disContinuities, 507 Winkler model. 336
Vibration, 1 J j Wire fabric, 613
isolation, 127 Wire mesh. SOS
isolators, 128
spectra, 131
VutuaJ eccemridty. 483
Visco-elastic damper, 535 Yield
Viscous condition, 194
damper, 535, 573 displacement, 343
<iamping, t 92 load. 343
forces. 192 penetration. 359
Visual Inspection, 506, 509

Wall as Strip footing, 334 Zero period acceleration (ZPA), 101

fpier fixed, 471 Zone factor. 253, 466