Antwoorden-Fourier and Laplace Transform (Solutions) PDF

Answers to selected exercises for chapter 1
1.1 Apply cos( + ) = cos cos sin sin , then

f1 (t) + f2 (t)
= A1 cos t cos 1 A1 sin t sin 1 + A2 cos t cos 2 A2 sin t sin 2
= (A1 cos 1 + A2 cos 2 ) cos t (A1 sin 1 + A2 sin 2 ) sin t
= C1 cos t C2 sin t,
where
p C1 = A1 cos 1 + A2 cos 2 and C2 = A1 sin 1 + A2 sin 2 . Put A =
C12 + C22 and take such that cos = C1 /A and sin = C2 /A (this is
possible since (C1 /A)2 +(C2 /A)2 = 1). Now f1 (t)+f2 (t) = A(cos t cos
sin t sin ) = A cos(t + ).
1.2 Put c1 = A1 ei1 and c2 = A2 ei2 , then f1 (t) + f2 (t) = (c1 + c2 )eit . Let
c = c1 + c2 , then f1 (t) + f2 (t) = ceit . The signal f1 (t) + f2 (t) is again a
time-harmonic signal with amplitude | c | and initial phase arg c.
1.5 The power P is given by
Z /
A2 /
Z

P = A2 cos2 (t + 0 ) dt = (1 + cos(2t + 20 )) dt
2 / 4 /
A2
= .
2
R
1.6 The energy-content is E = 0
e2t dt = 12 .
1.7 The power P is given by
3
1X
P = | cos(n/2) |2 = 12 .
4 n=0
P
1.8 The energy-content is E = n=0 e2n , which is a geometric series with
sum 1/(1 e2 ).
1.9 a If u(t) is real, then the integral, and so y(t), is also real.
b Since
Z Z

u( ) d | u( ) | d,

it follows from the boundedness of u(t), so | u( ) | K for some constant

K, that y(t) is also bounded.
c The linearity follows immediately from the linearity of integration. The
Rtime-invariance follows from the substitution = t0 in the integral
t
t1
u( t 0 ) d representing the response to u(t t0 ).
Rt
d Calculating t1 cos( ) d gives the following response: (sin(t)
sin(t ))/ = R t2 sin(/2) cos(t /2)/.
e Calculating t1 sin( ) d gives the following response: ( cos(t) +
cos(t ))/ = 2 sin(/2) sin(t /2)/.
f From the response to cos(t) in d it follows that the amplitude response
is | 2 sin(/2)/ |.
g From the response to cos(t) in d it follows that the phase response
is /2 if 2 sin(/2)/ 0 and /2 + if 2 sin(/2)/ < 0. From
1
2 Answers to selected exercises for chapter 1
phase and amplitude response the frequency response follows: H() =

2 sin(/2)ei/2 /.
1.11 a The frequency response of the cascade system is H1 ()H2 (), since the
reponse to eit is first H1 ()eit and then H1 ()H2 ()eit .
b The amplitude response is | H1 ()H2 () | = A1 ()A2 ().
c The phase response is arg(H1 ()H2 ()) = 1 () + 2 ().

a The amplitude response is | 1 + i | e2i = 2.

1.12
b The input u[n] = 1 has frequency = 0, initial phase 0 and amplitude
1. Since ein 7 H(ei )ein , the response is H(e0 )1 = 1 + i for all n.
c Since u[n] = (ein + ein )/2 we can use ein 7 H(ei )ein to obtain
that y[n] = (H(ei )ein + H(ei )ein )/2, so y[n] = (1 + i) cos((n 2)).
d Since u[n] = (1 + cos 4n)/2, we can use the same method as in b and
c to obtain y[n] = (1 + i)(1 + cos(4(n 2)))/2.
1.13 a The power is the integral of f 2 (t) over [/ | | , / | |], times | | /2.
Now cos2 (t + 0 ) integrated over [/ | | , / | |] equals / | | and
cos(t) cos(t + 0 ) integrated over [/ | | , / | |] is (/ | |) cos 0 .
2 2
Hence, the power equals (A R 1 + 2AB cos(0 ) + B )/2.
b The energy-content is 0 sin2 (t) dt = 1/2.
1.14 The power is the integral of | f (t) |2 over [/ | | , / | |], times | | /2,
which in this case equals | c |2 .
1.16 a The amplitude response is | H() | = 1/(1 + 2 ). The phase response
is arg H() = .
b The input has frequency = 1, so it follows from eit 7 H()eit that
the response is H(1)ieit = iei(t+1) /2.
1.17 a The signal is not periodic since sin(2N ) 6= 0 for all integer N .
i
b The frequency response H(ei ) equals A(ei )eie , hence, we obtain
that H(e ) = e /(1 + ). The response to u[n] = (e2in e2in )/2i is
i i 2
then y[n] = (e2i(n+1) e2i(n+1) )/(10i), so y[n] = (sin(2n + 2))/5. The

amplitude is thus 1/5 and the initial phase 2 /2.
1.18 a If u(t) = 0 for t < 0, then the integral occurring in y(t) is equal to 0 for
t < 0. For t0 0 the expression u(t t0 ) is also causal. Hence, the system
is causal for t0 0.
b It follows from the boundedness of u(t), so | u( ) | K for some con-
stant K, that y(t) is also bounded (use the triangle inequality and the
inequality from exercise 1.9b). Hence, the system is stable.
c If u(t) is real, then the integral is real and so y(t) is real. Hence, the
system is real.
d The response is
Z t
y(t) = sin((t t0 )) + sin( ) d = sin((t t0 )) 2(cos t)/.
t1
1.19 a If u[n] = 0 for n < 0, then y[n] is also equal to 0 for n < 0 whenever
n0 0. Hence, the system is causal for n0 0.
b It follows from the boundedness of u[n], so | u[n] | K for some constant
K and all n, that y[n] is also bounded (use the triangle inequality):

n
X n
X Xn
| y[n] | | u[n n0 ] | + u[l] K + | u[l] | K + K,

l=n2 l=n2 l=n2
Answers to selected exercises for chapter 1 3
which equals 4K. Hence, the system is stable.

c If u[n] is real, then u[n n0 ] is real and also the sum in the expression
for y[n] is real, hence, y[n] is real. This means that the system is real.
d The response to u[n] = cos n = (1)n is
n
X
y[n] = (1)nn0 + (1)l = (1)nn0 + (1)n (1 1 + 1)
l=n2
= (1)n (1 + (1)n0 ).
p
2.1 a The absolute values follow from x2 + y 2 and are given by 2, 2, 3, 2
respectively. The arguments follow from standard angles and are given by
3/4, /2, , 4/3 respectively.
b Calculating modulus and argument gives 2 + 2i = 2 2ei/4 , 3 + i =
5i/6 3i/2
2e and 3i = 3e .
2.2 In the proof of theorem 2.1 it was shown that | Re z | | z |, which implies
that | z | | Re z | | z |. Hence,
| z w |2 = (z w)(z w) = zz zw wz + ww
= | z |2 2Re(zw) + | w |2
| z |2 2 | z | | w | + | w |2 = (| z | | w |)2 .
This shows that | z w |2 (| z | | w |)2 .

2.4 We have | z1 | = 4 2, | z 2 | = 4 and arg z1 = 7/4, arg z2 = 2/3. Hence,
| z1 /z2 | = |
z1 | / | z2 | = 2 and arg(z1 /z2 ) = arg(z1 ) arg(z2 ) = 13/12,
so z1 /z2 = 2e13i/12 . Similarly we obtain z12 z23 = 2048e3i/2 and z12 /z23 =
1 3i/2
2
e .
2.5 The solutions are given in a separate figure on the website.
2.6 a The four solutions 1 i are obtained by using the standard technique
to solve this binomial equation (as in example 2.3).
b As part a; we now obtain the six solutions 6 2(cos(/9 + k/3) +
i sin(/9 + k/3)) where k = 0, 1 . . . , 5.
c By completing the square as in example 2.4 we obtain the two solutions
1/5 7i/5.
2.7 Write z 5 4 4 4
z + z 1 as (z 1)(z + 1) and then solve z = 1 to find
the roots 2(1 i)/2. Combining linear factors with complex conjugate
roots we obtain z 5 z 4 + z 1 = (z 1)(z 2 + 2z + 1)(z 2 2z + 1).
2.8 Since 2i = 2ei/2 the solutions are z = ln 2 + i(/2 + 2k), where k Z.
2.9 Split F (z) as A/(z 21 ) + B/(z 2) and multiply by the denominator of
F (z) to obtain the values A = 1/3 and B = 4/3 (as in example 2.6).
2.11 a Split F (z) as A/(z + 1) + B/(z + 1)2 + C/(z + 3) and multiply by
the denominator of F (z) to obtain the values C = 9/4, B = 1/2 and, by
comparing the coefficient of z 2 , A = 5/4 (as in example 2.8).
2.12 Trying the first few integers we find the zero z = 1 of the denominator. A
long division gives as denominator (z 1)(z 2 2z + 5). We then split F (z)
as A/(z 1) + (Bz + C)/(z 2 2z + 5). Multiplying by the denominator
of F (z) and comparing the coefficients of z 0 = 1, z and z 2 we obtain that
A = 2, B = 0 and C = 1.
2.13 a Using the chain rule we obtain f 0 (t) = i(1 + it)2 .
2.14 Use integration by parts twice and the fact that a primitive of ei0 t is
ei0 t /i0 . The given integral then equals 4(1 i)/03 , since e2i = 1.

2.15 Since 1/(2 eit ) = 1/ 2 eit and 2 eit 2 eit = 1, the result
R1 R1
follows from 0 u(t) dt 0 | u(t) | dt.
1

a Use that | an | = 1/ n6 + 1 1/n3 and the fact that 3
P
2.16 n=1 1/n con-
verges (example 2.17).
b Use that | an | 1/n2 and the fact that 2
P
n=1 1/n converges.
n ni n n
c
P Use that | an | = 1/ ne e = 1/(ne ) 1/e and the fact that
n
n=1 1/e converges since it is a geometric series with ratio 1/e.
2.17 a Use the ratio test to conclude that the series is convergent:

n! 1
lim = lim = 0.
n (n + 1)! n n + 1
b The series is convergent; proceed as in part a:

2n+1 + 1 3n + n 2 + 1/2n 1 + n/3n

2
lim n+1 n
= lim = .
n 3 +n+1 2 +1 n 3 + (n + 1)/3 1 + 1/2n
n 3
2.19 Determine the radius of convergence as follows:

n+1 2n+2 2
1 + 1/n2

2 z n + 1
= lim 2 z 2 = 2 z2 .

lim

2 n 2n
n (n + 1) + 1 2 z n 1 + 2/n + 2/n2

This is less than 1 if z 2 < 1/2, that is, if | z | < 2/2. Hence, the radius

of convergence is 2/2.
2.20 This is a geometric series with ratio z i and so it converges for | z i | < 1;
the sum is (1/(1 i))(1/(1 (z i))), so 1/(2 z(1 i)).
2.23 b First solving w2 = 1 leads to z 2 = 0 or z 2 = 2i. The equation
z 2 = 2i has solutions 1 + i and 1 i and z 2 = 0 has solution 0 (with
multiplicity 2).
c One has P (z) = z(z 4 + 8z 2 + 16) = z(z 2 + 4)2 = z(z 2i)2 (z + 2i)2 , so
0 is a simple zero and 2i are two zeroes of multiplicity 2.
2.25 Split F (z) as (Az + B)/(z 2 4z + 5) + (Cz + D)/(z 2 4z + 5)2 and multiply
by the denominator of F (z). Comparing the coefficient of z 0 , z 1 , z 2 and z 3
leads to the values A = 0, B = 1, C = 2 and D = 2.
R 2
2.26 Replace cos t by (eit + eit )/2, then we have to calculate 0 (e2it + 1)/2 dt,
which is .

2.27 a Using the ratio test we obtain as limit 5/3. This is less than 1 and so
the series converges.
b Since (n + in )/n2 = (1/n) + (in /n2 ) and the series
P
n=1 1/n diverges,
this series is divergent.
The series

cn (z 2 )n converges for all z with z 2 < R, so it has radius
P
2.29

n=0
of convergence R.
2.30 a Determine the radius of convergence as follows:
(1 + i)2n+2 z n+1

n+1 = lim | z | n + 1 (1 + i)2 = 2 | z | .

lim
n n+2 (1 + i)2n z n n n+2
This is less than 1 if | z | < 1/2, so the radius of convergence is 1/2.
b Calculate f 0 (z) by termwise differentiation of the series and multiply
this by z. It then follows that

X
X
zf 0 (z) + f (z) = (1 + i)2n z n = (2iz)n .
n=0 n=0
This is a geometric series with ratio 2iz and so it has sum 1/(1 2iz).
a b c
3 2 4 5
d e f
3
2
1 + 2i
1 0 3 2 2
1 2 3
2 12
3.2 A trigonometric polynomial can be written as

k
a0 X
f (t) = + (am cos(m0 t) + bm sin(m0 t)).
2 m=1
Now substitute this for f (t) in the right-hand side of (3.4) and use the
fact that all the integrals in the resulting expression are zero, except for
R T /2
the integral T /2 sin(m0 t) sin(n0 t) dt with m = n, which equals T /2.
Hence, one obtains bn .
3.4 The function g(t) = f (t) cos(n0 t) has period T , so
Z T Z T Z T /2
g(t)dt = g(t)dt + g(t)dt
0 T /2 0
Z T Z T /2 Z 0 Z T /2
= g(t T )dt + g(t)dt = g( )d + g(t)dt
T /2 0 T /2 0
Z T /2
= g(t)dt.
T /2
Multiplying by 2/T gives an .

3.6 From a sketch of the periodic function with period 2 given by f (t) = | t |
for t (, ) we obtain
Z 0 Z
1 1
cn = (t)eint dt + teint dt.
2 2 0
As in example 3.2 these integrals can be calculated using integration by
parts for n 6= 0. Calculating c0 separately (again as in example 3.2) we
obtain
(1)n 1
c0 = , cn =
2 n2
Substituting these values of cn in (3.10) we obtain the Fourier series. One
can also write this as a Fourier cosine series:

4 X cos((2k + 1)t)
.
2 (2k + 1)2
k=0
3.7 From the description of the function we obtain that

1 1 (1+in)t
Z
cn = e dt.
2 0
This integral can be evaluated immediately and leads to
in 1 `
(1)n e1 1 .

cn =
2(n2 2 + 1)
The Fourier series follows from (3.10) by substituting cn .
3.9 The Fourier coefficients are calculated by splitting the integrals into a real
and an imaginary part. For c0 this becomes:
3
Z 1 Z 1
1 i 1
c0 = t2 dt + t dt = .
2 1 2 1 3
For n 6= 0 we have that
1 1 2 int i 1 int
Z Z
cn = t e dt + te dt.
2 1 2 1
The second integral can be calculated using integration by parts. To cal-
culate the first integral we apply integration by parts twice. Adding the
results and simplifying somewhat we obtain the Fourier coefficients (and
thus the Fourier series):
(1)n (2 n)
cn = .
n2 2
3.10 From the values of the coefficients cn calculated earlier in exercises 3.6, 3.7
and 3.9, one can immediately obtain the amplitude spectrum | cn | and the
phase spectrum arg cn (note e.g. that arg cn = if cn > 0, arg cn = if
cn < 0, arg cn = /2 if cn = iy with y > 0 and arg cn = /2 if cn = iy
with y < 0). This results in three figures that are given separately on the
website.
3.11 a By substituting a = T /4 in (3.14) it follows that
sin(n/4) 1
cn = for n 6= 0, c0 = .
n 4
b As in a, but now a = T and we obtain
c0 = 1, cn = 0 for n 6= 0.
Hence, the Fourier series is 1 (!). This is no surprise, since the function is
1 for all t.
3.12 By substituting a = T /2 in (3.15) it follows that
1 2
c0 = , cn = 0 for n 6= 0 even, cn = for n odd.
2 n2 2
3.14 We have that f (t) = 2p2,4 (t) q1,4 (t) and so the Fourier coefficients follow
by linearity from table 1:
c0 = 3/4, cn = (2n sin(n/2) 4 sin2 (n/4))/(n2 2 ) for n 6= 0.
3.15 Note that f (t) can be obtained from the sawtooth z(t) by multiplying the
shifted version z(t T /2) by the factor T /2 and then adding T /2, that
is, f (t) = T2 z(t T2 ) + T2 . Now use the Fourier coefficients of z(t) (table 1
e.g.) and the properties from table 2 to obtain that
T iT
c0 = , cn = for all n 6= 0.
2 2n
3.17 Shifts over a period T (use the shift property and the fact that e2in = 1
for all n).
3.19 In order to determine the Fourier sine series we extend the function to an
odd function of period 8. We calculate the coefficients bn as follows (the
an are 0):
1 2 1 2
Z Z
bn = (2 sin(nt/4)) dt + t sin(nt/4) dt
4 4 4 2
Z 4
1
+ 2 sin(nt/4) dt.
4 2
The second integral can be calculated by an integration by parts and one

then obtains that
8 4
bn = 2 2 sin(n/2) cos(n),
n n
which gives the Fourier sine series. For the Fourier cosine series we extend
the function to an even function of period 8. As above one can calculate
the coefficients an and a0 (the bn are 0). The result is
8
a0 = 3, an = (cos(n/2) 1) for all n 6= 0.
n2 2
3.21 In order to determine the Fourier cosine series we extend the function to
an even function of period 8. We calculate the coefficients an and a0 as
follows (the bn are 0):
1 4 2
Z
16
a0 = (x 4x) dx = ,
2 0 3
while for n 1 we have
1 0 2 1 4 2
Z Z
an = (x + 4x) cos(nx/4) dx + (x 4x) cos(nx/4) dx
4 4 4 0
Z 4 Z 4
1
= x2 cos(nx/4) dx 2 x cos(nx/4) dx.
2 0 0
The first integral can be calculated by applying integration by parts twice;

the second integral can be calculated by integration by parts. Combining
the results one then obtains that
64(1)n 32((1)n 1) 32((1)n + 1)
an = 2 2
2 2
= ,
n n n2 2
which also gives the Fourier cosine series. One can write this series as

8 16 X 1
+ 2 cos(nx/2).
3 n=1 n2
For the Fourier sine series we extend the function to an odd function of
period 8. As above one can calculate the coefficients bn (the an are 0). The
result is
64((1)n 1)
bn = for all n 1.
n3 3
3.24 If f is real and the cn are real, then it follows from (3.13) that bn =
0. A function whose Fourier coefficients bn are all 0 has a Fourier series
containing cosine functions only. Hence, the Fourier series will be even. If,
on the other hand, f is real and the cn are purely imaginary, then (3.13)
shows that an = 0. The Fourier series then contains sine functions only
and is thus odd.
3.25 Since sin(0 t) = (ei0 t ei0 t )/2i we have
Z T /2 Z T /2
1 1
cn = ei(1n)0 t dt ei(1+n)0 t dt.
2iT 0 2iT 0
The first integral equals T /2 for n = 1 while for n 6= 1 it equals i((1)n +

1)/((1 n)0 ). The second integral equals T /2 for n = 1 while for
n 6= 1 it equals i((1)n+1 1)/((1 + n)0 ). The Fourier coefficients are
thus c1 = 1/(4i), c1 = 1/(4i) and ((1)n +1)/(2(1n2 )) for n 6= 1, 1;
the Fourier series follows immediately from this.
3.27 b The even extension has period 2a, but it has period a as well. We can
thus calculate the coefficients an and a0 as follows (the bn are 0):
2 a/2 2 0
Z Z
a0 = 2bt/a dt 2bt/a dt = b.
a 0 a a/2
while for n 0 we obtain from an integration by parts that
2 a/2 2 0
Z Z
an = (2bt/a) cos(2nt/a) dt (2bt/a) cos(2nt/a) dt
a 0 a a/2
n
2b((1) 1)
= ,
n2 2
which gives the Fourier cosine series. It can also be determined using the
result of exercise 3.6 by applying a multiplication and a scaling.
The odd extension has period 2a and the coefficients bn are given by (the
an are 0):
1 a/2 2bt 1 a/2 2bt

Z Z
bn = ( 2b) sin(nt/a) dt + sin(nt/a) dt
a a a a a/2 a
Z a
1 2bt
+ ( + 2b) sin(nt/a) dt
a a/2 a
8b
= 2 2 sin(n/2),
n
where we used integration by parts.
a b
/2
4 2 0 2 4 n 4 2 0 2 4 n
a b
1
2
2
4 2 0 2 4 n 4 2 0 2 4 n

2
a b
1

2
4 2 0 2 4 n 4 2 0 2 4 n
4.1 a The periodic block function from section 3.4.1 is a continuous function
on [T /2, T /2], except at t = a/2. At these points f (t+) and f (t) exist.
Also f 0 (t) = 0 for t 6= a/2, while f 0 (t+) = 0 for t = a/2 and t = T /2
and f 0 (t) = 0 for t = a/2 and t = T /2. Hence f 0 is piecewise continuous
and so the periodic block function is piecewise smooth. Existence of the
Fourier coefficients has already been shown in section 3.4.1. The periodic
triangle function is treated analogously.
b For the periodic block function we have

X a2 8 X 1
| cn |2 2
+ 2 2
n=
T T 0 n=1 n2
since sin2 (n0 a/2) 1. The series

P 1
P 2
n=1 n2 converges, so n= | cn |
converges. The periodic triangle function is treated analogously.
4.2 This follows immediately from (3.11) (for part a) and (3.8) (for part b).
4.4 Take t = T /2 in the Fourier series of the sawtooth from example 4.2 and
use that sin(n0 T /2) = sin(n) = 0 for all n. Since (f (t+) + f (t))/2 = 0,
this agrees with the fundamental theorem.
4.6 a If we sketch the function, then we see that it is a shifted block function.
Using the shift property we obtain
1 i
c0 = , cn = 0 even n 6= 0, cn = odd n.
2 n
The Fourier series follows by substituting the cn . One can write the series
with sines only (split the sum in two pieces: one from n = 1 to and
another from n = 1 to ; change from n to n in the latter):

1 2 X sin(2k + 1)t
+ .
2 2k + 1
k=0
b The function is piecewise smooth and it thus satisfies the conditions of

the fundamental theorem. At t = /2 the function f is continuous, so the
series converges to f (/2) = 1. Since sin((2k + 1)/2) = (1)k , formula
(4.11) follows:

X (1)k
= .
2k + 1 4
k=0
R
4.7 a We have that c0 = (2)1 0 t dt = /4, while the Fourier coefficients
for n 6= 0 follow from an integration by parts:
Z
1 (1)n i (1)n 1
cn = teint dt = + .
2 0 2n 2n2
The Fourier series follows by substituting these cn :

(1)n i (1)n 1

1 X
+ + eint .
4 2 n n2
n=,n6=0
12
b From the fundamental theorem it follows that the series will converge
to 12 (f (+) + f ()) = /2 at t = (note that at there is a jump). If
we substitute t = into the Fourier series, take 4 to the other side of the
=-sign, then multiply by 2, and finally split the sum into a sum from n = 1
to and a sum from n = 1 to , then it follows that

X (1)n 1
=2 2
(1)n
2 n=1
n
(the terms with (1)n i/n cancel each other). For even n we have (1)n
1 = 0 while for odd n this will equal 2, so (4.10) results:

2 X 1
= .
8 (2k 1)2
k=1
4.9 a From f (0+) = 0 = f (0) and f (1) = 0 = f ((1)+) it follows that f

is continuous. We have that f 0 (t) = 2t+1 for 1 < t < 0 and f 0 (t) = 2t+1
for 0 < t < 1. Calculating the defining limits for f 0 from below and from
above at t = 0 we see that f 0 (0) = 1 and since f 0 (0+) = 1 = f 0 (0)
it follows that f 0 is continuous at t = 0. Similarly it follows that f 0 is
continuous at t = 1. Since f 00 (t) = 2 for 1 < t < 0 and f 00 (t) = 2 for
0 < t < 1 we see that f 00 is discontinuous.
b The function f is the sum of g and h with period 2 defined for 1 < t
1 by g(t) = t and h(t) = t2 for 1 < t 0 and h(t) = t2 for 0 < t 1.
Since g is a sawtooth, the Fourier coefficients are cn = (1)n i/n (see
section 3.4.3). The function h is the odd extension of t2 on (0, 1] and
its Fourier coefficients have been determined in the first example of section
3.6. By linearity one obtains the Fourier coefficients of f . In terms of the
an and bn they become an = 0 and bn = 4(1 (1)n )/ 3 n3 . Hence, they
decrease as 1/n3 .
c Use e.g. the fundamental theorem for odd functions to obtain

8 X sin(2k + 1)t
f (t) = .
3 (2k + 1)3
k=0
Now substitute t = 1/2 and use that f (1/2) = 1/4 and sin((2k + 1)/2) =
(1)n to obtain the required result.
Use (3.8) to write the right-hand side of (4.14) as a20 /4 + 21 2 2
P
4.10 n=1 (an + bn ).
4.12 a The Fourier coefficients of f and g are (see table 1 or section 3.4.1),
respectively, fn = (sin na)/n for n 6= 0 and f0 = a/ and gn = (sin nb)/n
for n 6= 0 and g0 = b/. Substitute into Parseval (4.13) and calculate the
R a/2
integral (1/) a/2 1 dt (note that a b). Take all constants together and
then again (as in exercise 4.7) split the sum into a sum from n = 1 to
and a sum from n = 1 to . The required result then follows.
b Use that sin2 (n/2) = 1 for n odd and 0 for n even, then (4.10) follows.
4.13 a The Fourier coefficients are (see table 1 or section 3.4.2 and use that
sin2 (n/2) = 1 for n odd and 0 for n even): cn = 2/n2 2 for n odd, 0 for
n 6= 0 even and c0 = 1/2. From Parseval for f = g, so from (4.14), it then
follows that (calculate the integral occurring in this formula):

1 1 8 X 1
= + 2
3 4 (2k 1)4
k=1
(again we split the sum in a part from n = 1 to and from n = 1 to

). Take all constants together and multiply by 2 /8, then the required
result follows.
b Since

X 1 X 1 X 1
S= 4
= 4
+ ,
n=1
n (2k) (2k + 1)4
k=1 k=0
it follows from part a that

1 X 1 4 1 4
S= 4
+ = S+ .
16 k 96 16 96
k=1
4
Solving for S we obtain 1
P
n=1 n4 = 90 .
Rb Rb Ra
4.15 Since a f (t) dt = T /2 f (t) dt T /2 f (t) dt, we can apply theorem 4.9
twice. Two of the infinite sums cancel out (the ones representing h0 in
theorem 4.9), the other two can be taken together and lead to the desired
result.
4.16 This follows from exercise 4.15 by using (3.8), so cn = (an ibn )/2 and
cn = (an + ibn )/2 (n N).
4.17 a The Fourier series is given by

4 X sin(2n + 1)t
.
n=0
2n + 1
b Since
Z t
cos(2n + 1)t 1
sin(2n + 1) d = ,
2n + 1 2n +1
the integrated series becomes

4X 1 4 X cos(2n + 1)t
.
n=0 (2n + 1)2 n=0 (2n + 1)2
From (4.10) we see that the constant in this seriesR t equals /2.
c The series in part b represents the function f ( ) d (theorem 4.9 or
better still, exercise 4.16). Calculating this integral we obtain the function
g(t) with period 2 given for < t by g(t) = | t | .
d Subtracting from the Fourier series of | t | in exercise 3.6 we obtain a
Fourier series for g(t) which is in accordance with the result from part b.
4.19 This again follows as in exercise 4.16 from (3.8).
4.20 Since f 0 is piecewise smooth, f 00 is piecewise continuous and so the Fourier
coefficients c00n of f 00 exist. Since f 0 is continuous, we can apply integration
by parts, as in the proof of theorem 4.10. It then follows that c00n = in0 c0n ,
where c0n are the Fourier coefficients of f 0 . But c0n = in0 cn by theorem
4.10, so c00n = n2 02 cn . Now apply the Riemann-Lebesgue lemma to c00n ,
then it follows that limn n2 cn = 0.
4.22 a The Fourier coefficients have been determined in exercise 3.25: c1 =
1/(4i), c1 = 1/(4i) and ((1)n + 1)/(2(1 n2 )) for n 6= 1, 1. Tak-
ing positive and negative n in the series together, we obtain the following
Fourier series:

1 1 2X 1
sin t + + cos 2kt.
2 1 4k2
k=1
b The derivative f 0 exists for all t 6= n (n Z) and is piecewise smooth.

According to theorem 4.10 we may thus differentiate f by differentiating
its Fourier series for t 6= n:

1 4X k
f 0 (t) = cos t sin 2kt.
2 1 4k2
k=1
At t = n the differentiated series converges to (f 0 (t+) + f 0 (t))/2, which

equals 1/2 for t = 0, while it equals 1/2 for t = . Hence, the differen-
tiated series is a periodic function with period 2 which is given by 0 for
< t < 0, 21 for t = 0, cos t for 0 < t < , 12 for t = .
4.25 Write down the expression for Si(x) and change from the variable t to
t, then it follows that Si(x) = Si(x).
4.26 a From the definition of Si(x) it follows that Si0 (x) = sin x/x. So Si0 (x) =
0 if sin x/x = 0. For x > 0 we thus have Si0 (x) = 0 for x = k with k N.
A candidate for the first maximum is thus x = . Since sin x/x > 0 for
0 < x < and sin x/x < 0 for < x < 2, it follows that Si(x) indeed has
its first maximum at x = .
b The value at the first maximum is Si(). Since Si() = 1.852 . . . and
/2 = 1.570 . . ., the overshoot is 0.281 . . .. The jump of f at x = 0 is
= 3.141 . . ., so the overshoot is 8.95 . . .%, so about 9%.
4.28 a The function f is continuous for t 6= (2k + 1) (k Z) and it then
converges to f (t), which is 2t/ for 0 | t | < /2, 1 for /2 t < and 1
for < t /2. For t = (2k+1) it converges to (f (t+)+f (t))/2 = 0.
b Since f is odd we have an = 0 for all n. The bn can be found using an
integration by parts:
Z /2
2 2(1)n
Z
4 4
bn = 2 t sin nt dt + sin nt dt = 2 2 sin(n/2) .
0 /2 n n
Since sin(n/2) = 0 if n even and (1)k if n = 2k + 1, the Fourier series is

2 X (1)n 4 X (1)n
sin nt + 2 sin(2n + 1)t.
n=1 n n=0 (2n + 1)2
Substituting t = 0 and t = it is easy to verify the fundamental theorem

for these values.
c We cannot differentiate the series; the resulting series is divergent be-
cause limn (1)n cos nt 6= 0. Note that theorem 4.10 doesnt apply since
f is not continuous.
d We can integrate the series
R t since theorem 4.9 can be applied (note that
c0 = 0). If we put g(t) = f ( ) d , then g is even, periodic with period
2 and given by (t2 /)(3/4) for 0 t < /2 and by t for /2 t .
4.29 Use table 1 to obtain the Fourier coefficients and then apply Parseval, that
is, (4.13). Calculating the integral in Parsevals identity will then give the
first result; choosing a = /2 gives the second result.
4.30 a The Fourier series has been determined in the last example of section
3.6. Since f is continuous (and piecewise smooth), the Fourier series con-
verges to f (t) for all t R:

2 4X 1
f (t) = cos 2nt.
n=1 4n2 1
b First substitute t = 0 in the Fourier series; since f (0) = 0 and cos 2nt =
1 for all n, the first result follows. Next substitute t = /2 in the Fourier
series; since f (/2) = 1 and cos 2nt = (1)n for all n, the second result
follows.
c One should recognize the squares of the Fourier coefficients here. Hence
we have to apply Parsevals identity (4.14), or the alternative form given
in exercise 4.10. This leads to
Z
1 4 1 X 16
sin2 t dt = 2 + .
2 2 n=1 (4n2 1)2
2
R
Since sin2 t dt = , the result follows.
4.31 a Since f1 is odd it follows that
1 T /2
Z
(f1 f2 )(t) = f1 (t + )f2 ( ) d.
T T /2
Now change the variable from to and use that f2 is odd, then it
follows that (f1 f2 )(t) = (f1 f2 )(t).
b The convolution product equals
1 1
Z
(f f )(t) = f (t ) d.
2 1
Since f is odd, part a implies that f f is even. It is also periodic with
period 2, so it is sufficient to calculate (f f )(t) for 0 t 1. First note
that f is given by f (t) = t 2 for 1 < t 2. Since 1 1 and
0 t 1 we see that t 1 t t + 1. From 0 t 1 it follows
that 1 t 1 0, and so close to = 1 the function f (t ) is given
by t . Since 1 t + 1 2, the function f (t ) is given by t 2
close to = 1. Hence, we have to split the integral precisely at the point
where t gets larger than 1, because precisely then the function changes
from t to t 2. But t 1 precisely when t 1, and so we
have to split the integral at t 1:
1 t1 1 1
Z Z
(f f )(t) = (t 2) d + (t ) d.
2 1 2 t1
It is now straightforward to calculate the convolution product. The result
is (f f )(t) = t2 /2 + t 1/3.
c From section 3.4.3 or table 1 we obtain the Fourier coefficients cn of
the sawtooth f and applying the convolution theorem gives the Fourier
coefficients of (f f )(t), namely c20 = 0 and c2n = 1/ 2 n2 (n 6= 0).
d Take t = 0 R 1in part c; since f is odd and real-valued we can write
(f f )(0) = 12 1 | f ( ) |2 d , and so we indeed obtain (4.13).
e For 1 < t < 0 we have (f f )0 (t) = t 1, while for 0 < t < 1
we have (f f )0 (t) = t + 1. Since f f is given by t2 /2 + t 1/3 for
0 < t < 2, (f f )0 (t) is continuous at t = 1. Only at t = 0 we have that
f f is not differentiable. So theorem 4.10 implies that the differentiated
series represents the function (f f )0 (t) on [1, 1], except at t = 0. At
t = 0 the differentiated series converges to ((f f )0 (0+) + (f f )0 (0))/2 =
(1 1)/2 = 0.
f The zeroth Fourier coefficient of f f is given by
Z 1 Z 1
1
(f f )(t) dt = (t2 /2 + t 1/3) dt = 0.
2 1 0
This is in agreement with the result in part c since c20 = 0. Since this
coefficient is 0, we can apply theorem 4.9. The functionR t represented by the
integrated series is given by the (periodic) function 1 (f f )( ) d . It is
also odd, since f is even and for 0 t 1 it equals
Z 0 Z t
( 2 /2 1/3) d + ( 2 /2 + 1/3) d = t(t 1)(t 2)/6.
1 0
5.1 For a stable LTC-system the real parts of the zeroes of the characteristic
polynomial are negative. Fundamental solutions of the homogeneous equa-
tions are of the form x(t) = tl est , where s is such a zero and l 0
some integer. Since tl est = | t |l e(Re s)t and Re s < 0 we have that
limt x(t) = 0. Any homogeneous solution is a linear combination of
the fundamental solutions.
5.2 The Fourier coefficients of u are
1 (1)k
u0 = , u2k = 0, u2k+1 =
2 (2k + 1)
(u = p,2 , so use table 1 and the fact that sin(n/2) = (1)k for n = 2k+1
odd and 0 for n even). Since H() = 1/(i + 1) and yn = H(n0 )un =
H(n)un it then follows that
1 (1)k
y0 = , y2k = 0, y2k+1 = .
2 (1 + (2k + 1)i)(2k + 1)
5.3 a The frequency response is not a rational function, so the system cannot
be described by a differential equation (5.3).
b Since H(n0 ) = H(n) = 0 for | n | 4 (because 4 > ), we only need to
P coefficients of y with | n | 3. From Parseval it then
consider the Fourier
follows that P = 3n=3 | yn |2 with yn as calculated in exercise 5.2. This
sum is equal to P = 14 + 9
20
2.
5.4 Note that u has period and that the integral to be calculated is thus the
zeroth Fourier coefficient of y. Since y0 = H(00 )u0 = H(0)u0 Rand H(0) =

1 (see example 5.6 for H()), it follows that y0 = u0 = 1 0 u(t) dt =
2
.
5.5 a According to (5.4) the frequency response is given by
2 + 1
H() = .
2 + 4 + 2i
Since H() = 0 for = 1, the frequencies blocked by the system are
= 1.
b Write u(t) = e4it /4 eit /2i + 1/2 + eit /2i + e4it /4. It thus follows
that the Fourier coefficients unequal to 0 are given by u4 = u4 = 1/4,
u1 = 1/2i, u1 = 1/2i and u0 = 1/2. Since yn = H(n0 )un = H(n)un
and H(1) = H(1) = 0 we thus obtain that
y(t) = y4 e4it + y1 eit + y0 + y1 eit + y4 e4it
15 1 1 1 15 1
= e4it + + e4it .
12 + 8i 4 4 2 12 8i 4
It is a good exercise to write this with real terms only:
45 30 1
y(t) = cos 4t + sin 4t + .
104 104 8
5.6 We have that
1
H() = .
2 + 02
18
Since | 0 | is not an integer, there are no homogeneous solutions having

period 2, while u does have period 2. There is thus a uniquely determined
periodic solution y corresponding to u. Since u(t) = q,2 (t) the Fourier
coefficients of u follow immediately from table 1:
2
u0 = , u2k = 0(k 6= 0), u2k+1 = .
2 (2k + 1)2 2
1
Since yn = H(n0 )un = H(n)un = 2 un ,
n2 +0
the line spectrum of y
follows.
5.7 For the thin rod the heat equation (5.8) holds on (0, L), with initial condi-
tion (5.9). This leads to the fundamental solutions (5.15), from which the
superposition (5.16) is build. The initial condition leads to a Fourier series
with coefficients
2 L/2 2 L
Z Z
An = x sin(nx/L) dx + (L x) sin(nx/L) dx,
L 0 L L/2
which can be calculated using an integration by parts. The result is: An =
(4L/n2 2 ) sin(n/2) (which is 0 for n even). We thus obtain the (formal)
solution

4L X (1)n (2n+1)2 2 kt/L2
u(x, t) = e sin((2n + 1)x/L).
n=0 (2n + 1)2
2
5.9 a The heat equation and initial conditions are as follows:

ut = kuxx for 0 < x < L, t > 0,
ux (0, t) = 0, u(L, t) = 0 for t 0,
u(x, 0) = 7 cos(5x/2L) for 0 x L.
b Separation of variables leads to (5.12) and (5.13). The function X(x)
should satisfy X 00 (x) cX(x) = 0 for 0 < x < L, X 0 (0) = 0 and X(L) = 0.
For c = 0 we obtain the trivial solution. For c 6= 0 the characteristic
equation s2 c = 0 has two distinct roots s1 . The general solution is
then X(x) = es1 x + es1 x , so X 0 (x) = s1 es1 x s1 es1 x . The first
boundary condition X 0 (0) = 0 gives s1 ( ) = 0, so = . Next
we obtain from the second boundary condition X(L) = 0 the equation
(es1 L + es1 L ) = 0. For = 0 we get the trivial solution. So we must
have es1 L + es1 L = 0, implying that e2s1 L = 1. From this it follows
that s1 = i(2n + 1)/2L. This gives us eigenfunctions Xn (x) = cos((2n +
1)x/2L) (n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .). Since Tn (t) remains as in the textbook (for
other parameters), we have thus found the fundamental solutions
2
2 kt/4L2
un (x, t) = e(2n+1) cos((2n + 1)x/2L).
Superposition gives

2
2 kt/4L2
X
u(x, t) = An e(2n+1) cos((2n + 1)x/2L).
n=0
Substituting t = 0 (and using the remaining initial condition) leads to

X
u(x, 0) = An cos((2n + 1)x/2L) = 7 cos(5x/2L).
n=0
Since the right-hand side consists of one harmonic only, it follows that
A2 = 7 and An = 0 for all n 6= 2. The solution is thus u(x, t) =
2 2
7e25 kt/4L cos(5x/2L).
5.11 a The equations are
ut = kuxx for 0 < x < L, t > 0,
u(0, t) = 0, ux (L, t) = 0 for t 0,
u(x, 0) = f (x) for 0 x L.
b Going through the steps one obtains the same fundamental solutions as
in exercise 5.9. The coefficients An cannot be determined explicitly here,
since f (x) is not given explicitly.
5.12 The equations are given by (5.17) - (5.20), where we only need to substitute
the given initial condition in (5.19), so u(x, 0) = 0.05 sin(4x/L) for 0
x L. All steps to be taken are the same as in section 5.2.2 of the textbook
and lead to the solution

X
u(x, t) = An cos(nat/L) sin(nx/L).
n=1
Substituting t = 0 (and using the remaining initial condition) gives

X
u(x, 0) = An sin(nx/L) = 0.05 sin(4x/L).
n=1
Since the right-hand side consists of one harmonic only, it follows that
A4 = 0.05 and An = 0 for all n 6= 4. The solution is thus u(x, t) =
0.05 cos(4at/L) sin(4x/L).
5.15 Separation of variables leads to X 00 (x) cX(x) = 0 for 0 < x < , X 0 (0) =
X 0 () = 0. For c = 0 we obtain the constant solution, so c = 0 is an
eigenvalue with eigenfunction X(x) = 1. For c 6= 0 the characteristic
equation s2 c = 0 has two distinct roots s1 . The general solution
is then X(x) = es1 x + es1 x , so X 0 (x) = s1 es1 x s1 es1 x . The
boundary condition X 0 (0) = 0 gives s1 ( ) = 0, so = . From
the boundary condition X 0 () = 0 we obtain s1 (es1 es1 ) = 0. For
= 0 we get the trivial solution. So we must have es1 es1 = 0,
implying that e2s1 = 1. From this it follows that s1 = ni. This gives us
eigenfunctions Xn (x) = cos(nx) (n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .). For T (t) we get the
equation T 00 (t) + n2 a2 T (t) = 0. From the initial condition ut (x, 0) = 0
we obtain T 0 (0) = 0. The non-trivial solution are Tn (t) = cos(nat) (n =
0, 1, 2, 3, . . .) and we have thus found the fundamental solutions
un (x, t) = cos(nat) cos(nx).
Superposition gives

X
u(x, t) = An cos(nat) cos(nx).
n=0
Substituting t = 0 (and using the remaining initial condition) leads to

X
u(x, 0) = An cos(nx) = kx for 0 < x < .
n=0
R R
We have A0 = (2/) 0 kx dx = k and An = (2/) 0 kx cos(nx) dx for
n 6= 0, which can be calculated by an integration by parts: An = 0 for n
even (n 6= 0) and An = 4k/n2 for n odd. The solution is thus

k 4k X 1
u(x, t) = cos((2n + 1)at) cos((2n + 1)x).
2 n=0 (2n + 1)2
5.16 a From H() = H() and yn = H(n0 )un follows that the response
y(t) to a real signal u(t) is real: since un = un we also have yn = yn .
b Since we can write sin 0 t = (ei0 t ei0 t )/2i, the response is equal
to (H(0 )ei0 t H(0 )ei0 t )/2i, which is ((1 e2i0 )2 ei0 t (1
e2i0 )2 ei0 t )/2i. This can be rewritten as sin 0 t 2 sin(0 (t 2)) +
sin(0 (t 4)).
c A signal with period 1 has Fourier series of the form 2int
P
P n= un e .
2int
The response is n= H(2n)un e , which is 0 since H(2n) = 0 for
all n.
5.18 a The characteristic equation is s3 + s2 + 4s + 4 = (s2 + 4)(s + 1) = 0
and has zeroes s = 1 and s = 2i. The zeroes on the imaginary axis
correspond to periodic eigenfrequencies with period and so the response
to a periodic signal is not always uniquely determined. But see part b!
b Since here the input has period 2/3, we do have a unique response.
From Parseval and the relation yn = H(n0 )un we obtain that the power
is given by
Z 2/3
3 X X
P = | y(t) |2 dt = | yn |2 = | H(n0 )un |2 .
2 0 n= n=
We have that
1 + i
H() = .
4 2 + i(4 2 )
1
Now use that only u3 = u3 = 2
and that all other un are 0, then it follows
that P = 1/50.
5.19 For the rod we have equations (5.8) - (5.10), where we have to take f (x) =
u0 in (5.10). The solution is thus given by (5.16), where now the An are the
Fourier coefficients of the function u0 on [0, L]. These are easy te determine
(either by hand or using tables 1 and 2): An = 0 for n even, An = 4u0 /n
for n odd. This gives

4u0 X 1 2 2 2
u(x, t) = 2
e(2n+1) kt/L sin((2n + 1)x/L).
n=0 (2n + 1)
Substituting x = L/2 in the x-derivative and using the fact that cos((2n +
1)/2) = 0 for all n leads to ux (L/2, t) = 0.
5.20 a As in the previous exercise the solution is given by (5.16). The An are
R L/2
given by (2/L) 0 a sin(nx/L) dx = 2a(1 cos(n/2))/n, which gives
the (formal) solution

2a X 1 2 2 2
u(x, t) = (1 cos(n/2))en kt/L sin(nx/L).
n=1 n
b The two rods together form one rod and so part a can be applied with
L = 40, k = 0.15 and a = 100. Substituting t = 600 in u(x, t) from part
a then gives the temperature distribution. On the boundary between the
rods we have x = 20, so we have to calculate u(20, 600); using only the
contibution from the terms n = 1, 2, 3, 4 we obtain u(20, 600) 36.4.
c Take k = 0.005, a = 100, L = 40, substitute x = 20 in u(x, t) from
part a, and now use only the first two terms of the series to obtain the
equation u(20, t) 63.662e0.0000308t = 36 (terms of the series tend to 0
very rapidly, so two terms suffice). We then obtain 18509 seconds, which
is approximately 5 hours.
R
6.1 We have to calculate (the improper integral) eit dt. Proceed as in
eaxample 6.1, but we now have to determine limB eiB . This limit
does not exist.
R
6.2 a We have to calculate G() = 0 e(a+i)t dt, which can be done pre-
cisely as in section 6.3.3 if we write a = + i and use that e(a+i)R =
eR ei(+)R . If we let R then this tends to 0 since > 0.
b The imaginary R part of G() is /(a2 + 2 ) and applying the substitu-
tion rule gives /(a + 2 ) d = 21 ln(a2 + 2 ), so this improper integral,
2
which is the Fourier integral for t = 0, does not exits (limA ln(a2 + A2 )
does not exist e.g.).
c We have lima0 g(t) = lima0 (t)eat = (t), while for 6= 0 we have
that lima0 G() = i/.
6.4 To calculate the spectrum we split the integral at t = 0:
Z 1 Z 0
G() = teit dt teit dt.
0 1
Changing Rfrom the variable t to t in the second integral we obtain that

1
G() = 2 0 t cos t dt, which can be calculated for 6= 0 using an integ-
ration by parts. The result is:
2 sin 2(cos 1)
G() = + .
2
R1
For = 0 we have that G(0) = 2 0 t dt = 1. Since lim0 sin / = 1 and
lim0 (cos 1)/ 2 = 21 (use e.g. De lHopitals rule), we obtain that
lim0 G() = G(0), so G is continuous.
6.5 a Calculating the integral we have that
cos(a/2) 1
F () = 2i for 6= 0, F (0) = 0.

b Using Taylor or De lHopital it follows that lim0 F () = 0 = F (0),
so F is continuous.
6.7 From the linearity and table 3 it follows that
12 sin2 (a/2)
F () = 2
+ 8i .
4+ a 2
6.8 Use (6.17) and table 3 for the spectrum of e7| t | , then
7 7
F () = + .
49 + ( )2 49 + ( + )2
6.9 a From the shift property in the frequency domain (and linearity) it fol-
lows that the spectrum of f (t) sin at is F ( a)/2i F ( + a)/2i.
b Write f (t) = p2 (t) sin t, obtain the spectrum of p2 (t) from table 3 and
apply part a (and use the fact that sin( ) = sin()), then
2i sin()
F () = .
2 1
23
6.10 Use section 6.3.3 (or exercise 6.2) and the modulation theorem 6.17, and
write the result as one fraction, then
a + i
(F (t)eat cos bt)() = .
(a + i)2 + b2
Similarly it follows from section 6.3.3 (or exercise 6.2) and exercise 6.9a
that
b
(F (t)eat sin bt)() = .
(a + i)2 + b2
6.12 Write
Z Z 0
F () = f (t)eit dt + f (t)eit dt
0
and Rchange from t to t in the second integral, then it follows that F () =

2i 0 f (t) sin t dt.
6.13 a We have F () = F () and F () is even, so F () = F (), and thus

F () is real.
b We have F () = F () (by part a) and since | F () | = (F ()F ())1/2 ,
it follows that | F () | = | F () |.
6.14 Calculate the spectrum in a direct way using exactly the same techniques
as in example 6.3.3 (or use (6.20) and twice an integration by parts):
2i
F () = .
1 + 2
R a/2
6.16 The spectrum is given by a/2 teit dt, which can be calculated using an
integration by parts. The result is indeed equal to the formula given in
example 6.3.
6.17 a From the differentiation rule (and differentiating the Fourier transform
2
of the Gauss function, of course) it follows that i e /4a /(2a a) is
the spectrum of tf (t).
b If we divide the Fourier transform of f 0 (t) by 2a, then we indeed
obtain the same result as in part a.
6.18 Two examples are the constant function f (t) = 0 (k arbitrary), and the
2
Gauss function et /2 with k = 2. Using exercise 6.17a we obtain the
2
function tet /2 with k = i 2.
6.19 Use table 3 for (t)eat and then apply the differentiation rule in the fre-
quency domain, then the result follows: (a+i)2 . (Differentiate (a+i)1
just as one would differentiate a real function.)
6.20 The function ea| t | is not differentiable at t = 0. The function t3 (1 + t2 )1
e.g. is not bounded.
6.21 Use the fact that limx xa ex = 0 for all a R and change to the variable
2
x = at2 in tk /eat (separate the cases t 0 and t < 0). Then part a follows
and, hence, part b also follows since we have a finite sum of these terms.
6.22 Apply the product rule repeatedly to get an expression in terms of the de-
rivatives of f and g (this involves the binomial coefficients and is sometimes
called Leibniz rule). Since f and g belong to S, tn (f (t)g(t))(m) will be a
sum of terms belonging to S, and so the result follows.
R
6.23 We have that ( )(t) = 0 (t ) d . Now treat the cases t > 0 and
t 0 separately, then it follows that ( )(t) = (t)t. (If t 0, then
t < 0 for > 0 and R t so (t ) = 0; if t > 0 then (t ) = 0 for
> t and the integral 0 1 d = t remains.) Since (t)t is not absolutely
integrable, the function ( )(t) is not absolutely integrable.
R
6.25 From the causality of f it follows that (f g)(t) = 0 f ( )g(t ) d . For
Rt
t < 0 this is 0. For t 0 it equals 0 f ( )g(t ) d .
6.26 a We use the definition of convolution and then split the integral at = 0:
Z Z 0
(e| v | e| v | )(t) = e e| t | d + e e| t | d.
0
First we take t 0. Then | t | = t for < 0. Furthermore we have

for > t that | t | = t and for 0 < t that | t | = t.
Hence,
Z t Z Z 0
(e| v | e| v | )(t) = et d + et2 d + e2 t d.
0 t
A straightforward calculation of these integrals gives (1 + t)et .

Next we take t < 0. Then | t | = t for > 0. Furthermore we have
for < t that | t | = t and for t < 0 that | t | = t .
Hence,
Z Z 0 Z t
(e| v | e| v | )(t) = et2 d + et d + e2 t d.
0 t
A straightforward calculation of these integrals gives (1 t)et .

b Use the result from section 6.3.3 and the convolution theorem to obtain
the spectrum (2(1 + 2 )1 )2 = 4/(1 + 2 )2 .
c Since (1 + | t |)e| t | = e| t | + | t | e| t | and the spectrum of e| t | is
2(1 + 2 )1 , we only need to determine the spectrum of f (t) = | t | e| t | .
But f (t) = tg(t) with g(t) the function from exercise 6.14, whose spec-
trum weve already determined: G() = 2i(1 + 2 )1 . Apply theorem
6.8 (differentiation rule in the frequency domain): the spectrum of f (t)
is G0 ()/i. Calculating this and taking the results together we obtain
4/(1 + 2 )2 , in agreement with part b.
6.28 a From the differentiation rule in the frequency domain we obtain that
2
the spectrum of tg(t) is iG0 () = i 2e /2 . Since (F tg(t))(0) = 0,
2
we may apply the integration rule to obtain that F1 () = 2e /2 .
b Apply the differentiation rule in the frequency domain with n = 2, then
2
F2 () = 2(1 2 )e /2 .
c Since f3 (t) = f2 (t 1), it follows from the shift property that F3 () =
ei F2 ().
2
d From part a and exercise 6.9 it follows that F4 () = ( 2e(4) /2 +
2
2e(+4) /2 )/2i.
e Use the scaling property from table 4 with c = 4, then F5 () =
G(/4)/4.
6.29 b Since p1 ( ) = 0 for | | > 21 and 1 for | | < 21 , we have
Z 1/2
(p1 p3 )(t) = p3 (t ) d.
1/2
Here p3 (t ) 6= 0 only if t 3/2 t + 3/2. Moreover, we have

that 1/2 1/2, and so we have to separate the cases as indicated
in the textbook: if t > 2, then (p1 p3 )(t) = 0; if t < 2, then also
R 1/2
(p1 p3 )(t) = 0; if 1 t 1, then (p1 p3 )(t) = 1/2 1 d = 1; if
R 1/2
1 < t 2, then (p1 p3 )(t) = t3/2 1 d = 2 t; finally, if 2 t < 1,
R t+3/2
then (p1 p3 )(t) = 1/2 1 d = 2 + t.
c Apply the convolution theorem to T (t) = (p1 p3 )(t), then the spectrum
of T (t) follows: 4 sin(/2) sin(3/2)/ 2 .
7.1 From the spectra calculated in exerices 6.2 to 6.5 it follows immediately
that the limits for are indeed 0: they are all fractions with a
bounded numerator and a denominator that tends to . As an example
we have from exercise 6.2 that lim 1/(a + i) = 0.
7.2 Use table 3 with a = 2A and substitute = s t.
7.3 Take C > 0, then it follows by first changing from the variable Au to v and
then applying (7.3) that
Z C Z AC
sin Au sin v
lim du = lim dv = .
A 0 u A 0 v 2
7.4 Split 1/(a+i) into the real part 1/(1+ 2 ) and the imaginary part /(1+
2 ). The limit of A of the integrals over [A, A] of these parts gives
limA 2 arctan A = for the real part and limA (ln(1 + A2 ) ln(1 +
(A)2 )) = 0 for the imaginary part.
2
7.6 a In exercise 6.9b it was shown that F () R = 2i sin()/( R 1). The
function f (t) is absolutely integrable since | f (t) | dt = | sin t | dt <
. Moreover, f (t) is piecewise smooth, so all conditions of the fundamental
theorem are satisfied. We now show that the improper integral of F ()
exists. First, F () is continuous on R according to theorem R 6.10, so it
is integrable over e.g. [2, 2]. Secondly, the integrals 2 F () d and
R 2

F () d both exist. For the former integral this can be shown as
follows (the other integral can be treated similarly):
Z Z

2
F () d d

2

2 2 1
since | 2i sin() | 2 (and 2 1 > 0 for > 2). The integral in the
right-hand side is convergent.
b Apply the fundamental theorem, then
Z
1 2i sin() it
f (t) = e d
2 2 1
for all t R (f is continuous). Now use that F () is an odd function and
that 2 sin sin t = cos( t) cos( + t), then
1 cos( t) cos( + t)
Z
f (t) = d.
0 1 2
7.8 a In exercise 6.15b it was shown that Fs () = (1 cos a)/. This
exercise used the odd extension to R. So f (t) is odd and using (7.12) we
thus obtain
2 1 cos a
Z
1
sin t d = (f (t+) + f (t)).
0 2
Since f (t) is continuous for t > 0 and t 6= a we have for these values that
2 1 cos a
Z
f (t) = sin t d.
0
27
b At t = a the function is discontinuous, so we have convergence to

1
2
(f (a+) + f (a)) = 12 .
7.10 If we take g(t) = 0 in theorem 7.4, then G() = 0 and so we get the
statement: if F () = 0 on R, then f (t) = 0 at all points where f (t) is
continuous. We now prove the converse. Take f (t) and g(t) as in theorem
7.4 with spectra F () and G() and assume that F () = G() on R.
Because of the linearity of the Fourier transform, (F G)() is the spectrum
of (f g)(t); but (F G)() = F () G() = 0. From our assumption it
now follows that (f g)(t) = 0 at all points where (f g)(t) is continuous.
Hence f (t) = g(t) at all points where f (t) and g(t) are continuous, which
is indeed theorem 7.4.
7.11 The spectrum of pa (t) is 2 sin(a/2)/ (table 3). From duality it then
follows that the spectrum of sin(at/2)/t is pa () at the points where
pa (t) is continuous; at = a/2 we should take the value /2. (We can
apply duality since the Fourier integral exists as improper integral; this is
exercise 7.5b).
7.12 The spectrum of qa (t) is F () = 4 sin2 (a/2)/(a 2 ) (see table 3). From du-
ality it then follows that the spectrum of sin2 (at/2)/t2 is (a/2)qa (). (We
can apply duality since qa is continuous, piecewise smooth, and absolutely
integrable and since its Fourier integral exists as improper integral; this
latter fact follows immediately if we use that F () is even and continuous
and that e.g. F () 1/ 2 for 1).
7.14 The function 1/(a + i) is not integrable on R (see exercise 6.2), so duality
cannot be applied.
7.15 These results follow immediately from duality (and calculating the right
2 2
constants). For example: /aet /4a 2ea , now divide by 2.
p
7.16 This is an important exercise: it teaches to recognize useful properties.

a Complete the square, then one can apply a shift in time: f (t) = 1/(1 +
(t 1)2 ). Since the spectrum of 1/(1 + t2 ) is e| | , the result follows:
ei e| | .
b Here we have a shift from t to t 3; from the spectrum of sin 2t/t the
result follows: e3i p4 () with value 21 at = 2.
c We now have 1/(t2 4t + 7), multiplied by a sine function. The sine
function is easy to deal with using exercise 6.9 (a variant of the modulation
theorem). As in a we completethe square and note that 1/(3 + (t 2)2 )

has spectrum F () = e2i e 3| | / 3. Hence, the result is now (F (
4) F ( + 4))/2i.
d We use that 3q6 () is the spectrum of sin2 (3t)/t2 and apply a shift in
time from t to t 1, then the result is 3ei q6 ().
7.17 Again, this is an important exercise: it teaches to recognize useful proper-
ties for the inverse transform.
a We immediately use table 3 to obtain that 1/(4 + 2 ) is the spectrum
of f (t) = e2| t | /4.
b Apply a shift in the frequency domain to the spectrum p2a () of
sin(at)/t, then it follows that f (t) = (ei0 t + ei0 t ) sin(at)/(t), so f (t) =
2 cos(0 t) sin(at)/(t).
c As in part b it follows that f (t) = 3e9it /((t2 + 9)).
7.19 From the convolution theorem it follows that F (Pa Pb )() = (F Pa )()
(F Pb )() = e(a+b)| | , where we also used table 3. But also (F Pa+b )() =
e(a+b)| | , and since F is one-to-one (theorem 7.4) it then follows that
Pa+b = Pa Pb .
7.21 a Use the result of exercise 6.14 (G() = 2i/(1+ 2 )), the fundamental
R R
theorem and the fact that the spectrum is odd to change from to 0 .
It then follows that (use x instead of )
Z
x sin xt
2
dt = et .
0 1 + x 2
Since g is not continuous at t = 0, this result is not correct at t = 0. Here
one should take the average of the jump, which is 0. R
b We apply Parseval (formula (7.19)) and calculate | g(t) |2 dt =
R0
e2t dt + 0 e2t dt, which is 1. In | G() |2 d we can use the
R R

fact that the integrand is even. Writing x instead of , the result follows.
7.22 RUse Parseval (7.18)R with f (t) = ea| t | and g(t) = eb| t | and calculate

f (t)g(t) dt = 2 0 e(a+b)t dt = 2/(a + b). The spectra of f and g are
2a/(a + ) and 2b/(b2 + 2 ) (table 3).
2 2
7.23 a Since sin4 t/t4 is the square of sin2 t/t2 and (F sin2 t/t2 )() = q2 ()
(table 3), it follows from the convolution theorem in the frequency domain
that (F sin4 t/t4 )()
R = (/2)(q2 q2 )().
b The integral sin4 t/t4 dt is the Fourier transform of sin4 x/x4 cal-
R
culated at = 0, hence sin4 x/x4 dx = (/2)(q2 q2 )(0). Using that
q2 is an even function we obtain that
Z Z 2
(q2 q2 )(0) = q2 (t)q2 (t) dt = 2 (1 t/2)2 dt.
0
R
This integral equals 4/3 and so
sin4 x/x4 dx = 2/3.
7.24 From table 3 we know that e| t | /2 1/(1 + 2 ). By the convolution

theorem we then know that the spectrum of f (t) = (e| v | /2e| v | /2)(t) is
1/(1 + 2 )2 . Calculating this convolution product at t = 0 gives f (0) = 1/4
(or use exercise 6.26a, where it was shown that f (t) = (1 + | t |)e| t | /4).
Now apply the fundamental theorem (formula (7.9)) at t = 0 and use that
the integrand is even. We then obtain
1
Z
1 1
d = f (0) = ,
0 (1 + 2 )2 4
which is indeed the case a = b = 1 from exercise 7.22.
2

7.26 The Gauss function f (t) = eat belongs to S and so we can apply Poissons
2
summation formula. Since F () = /ae /4a (see table 3), it follows
p
from (7.23) with T = 1 that

X 2 X 2 2
ean = e n /a .
p
/a
n= n=
Replacing a by x the result follows.

7.27 Take f (t) = a/(a2 +t2 ), then F () = ea| | (see table 3); we can then use
(7.22) with T = 1 (in example 7.8 the conditions were verified) to obtain

!
X a X 2n(a+it)
X 2n(ait)
= 1+ e + e .
n=
a2 + (t + n)2 n=1 n=1
Here we have also split a sum in terms with n = 0, n > 1 and n < 1, and
then changed from n to n in the sum with n < 1. The sums in the right-
hand side are geometric series with ratio r = e2(a+it) and r = e2(ait)
respectively. Note that | r | < 1 since a > 0. Using the formula for the
sum of an infinite geometric series (example 2.16), then writing the result
with a common denominator, and finally multiplying everything out and
simplifying, it follows that

a X 1 1 e4a
= 4a
.
2
n= a + (t + n)2 1+e e2a (e2it + e2it )
Multiplying numerator and denominator by e2a the result follows.

7.28 a To determine the spectrum we write sin t = (eit eit )/2 and calculate
the integral defining F () in a direct way:
Z Z
1 i(1)t i(1+)t
F () = e dt e dt .
2i 0 0
Writing the result with a common denominator and using the fact that
ei = ei = 1 gives F () = (1 + ei )/(1 2 ). From theorem 6.10
we know that F () is continuous, so we do not have to calculate F () at
the exceptional points = 1.
b Apply the fundamental theorem, so (7.9), noting that f (t) is continuous
on R. We then obtain
Z
1 1 + ei it
f (t) = e d.
2 1 2
Split the integral at t = 0 and change from to in the integral over
(, 0]. Then
Z it
1 e + eit + ei(t) + ei(t)
f (t) = d,
2 0 1 2
which leads to the required result.
c Take t = /2 in part b and use that f (/2) = 1, thenRthe result follows.

d Apply Parsevals identity (7.19) to f and use that 0 sin2 t dt = /2,
then it follows that
Z
1
| F () |2 d = .
2 2
i/2
Since F () can
be rewritten as 2e cos(/2)/(1 2 ) and we have
i/2 2
that e = 1, it follows that | F () | = 4 cos2 (/2)/(1 2 )2 . This
integrand being even, the result follows.
7.29 a We know from table 3 that p2a (t) 2 sin a/ and e| t | 2/( 2 + 1).
From the convolution theorem it then follows that p2a (v)e| v | 4f () =
G().
b We now determine g explicitly by calculating the convolution product
(use the definition of p2a ):
Z a Z t+a
(p2a (v) e| v | )(t) = e| t | d = e| u | du
a ta
where we changed to the variable u = t . Now if a t a, then

t a 0 t + a and so
Z 0 Z t+a
| v |
(p2a (v) e )(t) = u
e du + eu du = 2 2ea cosh t.
ta 0
If t > a, then t a > 0 and so

Z t+a
(p2a (v) e| v | )(t) = eu du = 2et sinh a.
ta
Finally, if t < a, then t + a < 0 and so

Z t+a
(p2a (v) e| v | )(t) = eu du = 2et sinh a.
ta
c The function g from part b is continuous at t = a since limta g(t) =

2ea sinh a = ea (ea ea ) = 1 e2a and g(a) = limta g(t) = 2
2ea cosh a = 2 ea (ea + ea ) = 1 e2a . In the same way it follows that
g(t) is continuous at t = a. So g(t) is a piecewise smooth function which
moreover is continuous. Also, g(t) is certainly absolutely integrable since
e| t | is absolutely integrable over | t | > a. Finally, the Fourier integral ex-
ists as improper Riemann integral since G() is even absolutely integrable:
| G() | 4/ (1 + 2 ) . We can now apply the duality rule (theorem
7.5) and it then follows that G(t) 2g(), so f (t) g()/2. Since
f (t) = f (t) we thus see that F () = ea cosh for | | a and
F () = e| | sinh a for | | > a.
8.1 b For t 6= 0 we have that lim R a0 Pa (t) = 0, while for t = 0 we have

that lima0 Pa (t) = . Since Pa (t) dt = 1, we see that Pa (t) fits the
description of the delta function.
c From table 3 it follows that Pa (t) ea| | and lima0 ea| | = 1.
Combining this with part b shows that it is reasonable to expect that the
spectrum of (t) is 1.
8.2 a Since (a) C for all S, it follows from (8.10) that (t a) is a
mapping from S to C. For c C and S we have that
h(t a), ci = (c)(a) = c h(t a), i ,
and for 1 , 2 S we have
h(t a), 1 + 2 i = (1 + 2 )(a) = h(t a), 1 i + h(t a), 2 i .
So (t a) is a linear mapping from S to C, hence a distribution.
b Taking the limit inside the integral in (8.1) gives
Z
1 2 sin a
lim f (t ) d = f (t)
2 a
for any absolutely integrable and piecewise smooth function f (t) on R that
is continuous at t. Using (8.3) this can symbolically be written as (take
t = a)
Z
()f (a ) d = f (a)

and by changing from to a t we then obtain

Z
(a t)f (t) dt = f (a).

Using (a t) = (t a), which by (8.3) is reasonable to expect (see section

8.4 for a proof), this indeed leads to (8.11).
R
8.4 Since h1, i = (t) dt C for all S, it follows that 1 is a mapping
from S to C. The linearity of this mapping follows from the linearity of
integration: for c C and S we have that
Z Z
h1, ci = (c)(t) dt = c (t) dt = c h1, i ,

and for 1 , 2 S we have

Z Z Z
h1, 1 + 2 i = (1 + 2 )(t) dt = 1 (t) dt + 2 (t) dt,

so h1, 1 + 2 i = h1, 1 i + h1, 2 i. This proves that 1 is a linear mapping

from S to C, hence a distribution.
8.5 For S there exists a constant M > 0 such that (e.g.) (1+t2 ) | (t) | M
for all t R. Hence,
Z Z Z

1
(t) dt | (t) | dt M dt <

0

0 0 1 + t2
32
R
(the latter integral equals [arctan] 0 = /2). The integral 0 (t) dt thus
exists and one can now show that is indeed a distribution precisely as in
exercise 8.4 (linearity of integration).
R
8.7 In example 8.4 it was already motivated why the integral | t | (t) dt
exists: there exists a constant M > 0 such that (e.g.) (1 + t2 ) | t(t) | M
for all t R. Hence,
Z Z Z
1
| t | (t) dt | t(t) | dt M 2
dt < .
1 + t

So h| t | , i exists and one can now show that | t | is indeed a distribution

precisely as in exercise 8.4 (linearity of integration).
8.9 a For the integral over [1, 1] we have
Z 1 Z 1
| t |1/2 dt = 2 t1/2 dt = [4t1/2 ]10 = 4,
1 0
1/2 R
hence, | t | is integrable over [1, 1]. Since 0 t1/2 dt = 2 limR R
does not exist, | t |1/2 is not integrable over R.
R
b We first show that | t |1/2 (t) dt exists for S. To do so, we
split the integral in an integral over [1, 1] and over | t | 1. For the first
integral we note that | (t) | M1 for some constant M1 > 0. From part a
we then get
Z 1 Z 1 Z 1
1/2 1/2
| t |1/2 dt < .

| t | (t) dt
| t | | (t) | dt M1
1 1 1
1/2
For the second integral we use that | t | 1 for | t | 1. Hence,
Z Z Z

| t |1/2 (t) dt | (t) | dt | (t) | dt.

| t |1 | t |1
In example
D 8.1 itEhas been shown that the latter integral exists. This shows
1/2
that | t | , exists and one can now show that | t |1/2 is indeed a
distribution (linearity of integration; see e.g. exercise 8.4).
8.10 a For S there exists a constant M > 0 such that (e.g.) (1 +
t2 ) | t(t) | M for all t R. Hence,
Z Z Z
1
t(t) dt | t(t) | dt M dt < .

1 + t2
As in exercise 8.3 this shows that t defines a distribution.
8.12 a From the linearity for distributions itRfollows immediately that the com-

plex number 2(0) + i 30 (0) + (1 + i) 0 (((t) (t))dt is assigned.
b This defines a distribution if 1, t and t2 are distributions. The first
one is known from example 8.1, the other two from exercise 8.10. From
definition 8.15 it thus follows that f (t) defines a distribution as well.
8.14 a From (8.17) it follows that the complex number (3) (0) is assigned.
b This number (3) (0) is meaningfull for all functions that are 3 times
continuously differentiable.
8.15 a First apply example 8.3, then definition 8.4, and finally integration by
parts, then
Z
(sgn t)0 , = (0 (t) 0 (t)) dt = [(t)]0 [(t)]

0 = 2(0),
0
hence, (sgn t)0 = 2(t).

b Since sgn t = 2(t) 1 (verify this), it follows from the linearity of
differentiation that (sgn t)0 = 20 (t) = 2(t). Here we used that 10 = 0 and
that 0 (t) = (t) (see (8.18)).
c Since | t |0 = sgn t it follows from part a that | t |00 = (sgn t)0 = 2(t).
8.16 Since the function | t | from example 8.9 is continuously differentiable out-
side t = 0, it follows from the jump formula that | t |0 = sgn t (at t = 0
there is no jump and outside t = 0 this equality holds for the ordinary
derivatives). The function from example 8.10 has a jump of magnitude 1
at t = 0, while for t < 0 the derivative is 0 and for t > 0 the derivative is
sin t. Hence, the jump formula implies that ((t) cos t)0 = (t) (t) sin t.
8.17 a The function pa has a jump of magnitude 1 at t = a/2 and of mag-
nitude 1 at t = a/2. Outside t = 0 the ordinary derivative is 0, so it
follows from the jump formula that pa (t)0 = (t + a/2) (t a/2).
b The function (t) sin t has no jump at t = 0, for t < 0 the ordinary
derivative is 0 and for t > 0 the ordinary derivative is cos t, so it follows
from the jump formula that ((t) sin t)0 = (t) cos t.
8.18 a This is entirely analagous to exercises 8.10 and 8.12b.
b The function is differentiable outside t = 1 and the ordinary derivative
is 1 for t < 1 and 2t 2 for t > 1. We denote this derivative as the
distribution Tf 0 . At t = 1 the jump is 2, so according to the jump formula
the derivative is Tf 0 + 2(t 1).
8.19 From the jump formula it follows that the derivative as distribution is given
by a(t)eat + (t), so f 0 (t) af (t) = (t) as distributions.
8.22 Subsequently apply definition 8.6 and the definition of (t a) in (8.10),
then
hp(t)(t a), i = (p)(a) = p(a)(a) = p(a) h(t a), i .
Now use definition 8.5, then hp(t)(t a), i = hp(a)(t a), i, which
shows that p(t)(t a) = p(a)(t a).
8.23 a The definition becomes: hf (t) 0 (t), i = h 0 (t), f i. The product f of
two continuously differentiable functions is continuously differentiable, so
this definition is correct and it gives a mapping from S to C. The linearity
follows immediately from the linearity of 0 (t), so f (t) 0 (t) is a distribution.
b According to part a we have hf (t) 0 (t), i = (f )0 (0), where we also
applied 0 (t) to f . Now apply the product rule for differentiation and write
the result as f 0 (0) h(t), i + f (0) h 0 (t), i = hf (0) 0 (t) f 0 (0)(t), i.
c If f (t) = t, then f (0) = 0 and f 0 (0) = 1, so t 0 (t) = (t); if f (t) = t2
then f (0) = 0 and f 0 (0) = 0, so t2 0 (t) = 0.
8.25 First apply definition 8.6 and then the definition of pv(1/t) from example
8.5 to obtain
Z Z
t(t)
ht pv(1/t), i = lim dt = lim (t) dt.
0 | t | t 0 | t |
Since R S is certainly integrable over R, the limit exists and it will be

equal to (t) dt. Hence, t pv(1/t) = 1.
8.26 Let T be an even distribution, then T (t) = T (t) (definiton 8.8), so
hT (t), (t)i = hT (t), (t)i for all S, where we used definition 8.7.
Similarly for odd T .
8.27 a From the definition of sgn t in example 8.3 it follows that hsgn t, (t)i =
hsgn t, (t)i for all S. This shows that sgn t is odd according to
exercise 8.26. Similarly for pv(1/t) (change from t to t in the integrals
defining pv(1/t)).
b From the definition of | t | in example 8.4 it follows that h| t | , (t)i =
h| t | , (t)i for all S (change from t to t in the integral defining | t |).
This shows that | t | is even according to exercise 8.26.
8.29 a Applying (8.12) to f (t) gives
Z 0 Z
hTf , i = 2t(t) dt + t2 (t) dt
0
and in e.g. exercises 8.10, 8.12b and 8.18a we have seen that such integrals
are well-defined for S. This gives a mapping from S to C and the
linearity of this mapping follows precisely as in e.g. exercise 8.3 or 8.4.
Hence, f indeed defines a distribution Tf .
b Apply the jump formula (8.21): outside t = 0 the function f is continu-
ously differentiable with derivative f 0 (t) = 2t for t > 0 and f 0 (t) = 2 for
t < 0. Note that f 0 again defines a distribution Tf 0 . At t = 0 the function
has no jump, hence (8.21) implies that Tf0 = Tf 0 .
c Again we have that the function f 0 is continuously differentiable out-
side t = 0 and f 00 (t) = 2 for t > 0 and f 00 (t) = 0 for t < 0. Let Tf 00
be the distribution defined by f 00 . At t = 0 the function f 0 has a jump
f 0 (0+) f 0 (0) = 0 2 = 2, and according to (8.21) (applied to Tf 0 and
using that Tf0 = Tf 0 and so Tf00 = Tf0 0 ) we have that
Tf00 = Tf0 0 = Tf 00 + (f 0 (0+) f 0 (0))(t) = Tf 00 2(t).

The second derivative of f considered as distribution is the same as the
second derivative of f outside t = 0, minus the distribution 2(t) at t = 0.
8.30 a Since 00 (t) can be defined for all twice continuously differentiable func-
tions, the product f (t) 00 (t) can also be defined for all twice continuously
differentiable functions f (t) by hf (t) 00 (t), (t)i = h 00 (t), f (t)(t)i. This is
because it follows from the product rule that the product f (t)(t) is again
twice continuously differentiable.
b From part b and the definition of the second derivative of a distribution
(formula (8.17) for k = 2) we obtain hf (t) 00 (t), (t)i = h(t), (f (t)(t))00 i.
Since (f (t)(t))00 = f 00 (t)(t) + 2f 0 (t)0 (t) + f (t)00 (t) we thus obtain
that hf (t) 00 (t), (t)i = f 00 (0)(0) + 2f 0 (0)0 (0) + f (0)00 (0), which equals
hf 00 (0)(t) 2f 0 (0) 0 (t) + f (0) 00 (t), (t)i ( S). This proves the iden-
tity.
c Apply part b to the function f (t) = t2 and use that f (0) = f 0 (0) = 0
and f 00 (0) = 2, then t2 00 (t) = 2(t). Next apply b to f (t) = t3 and use
that f (0) = f 0 (0) = f 00 (0) = 0, then it follows that t3 00 (t) = 0.
d According to definition 8.7 we have that
00
(at), (t) = | a |1 00 (t), (a1 t) .

Now put (t) = (a1 t), then the right-hand side equals | a |1 00 (0).
Next we use the chain rule twice to obtain that 00 (0) = a2 00 (0). Hence
h 00 (at), (t)i = | a |1 a2 h 00 , i.
9.1 Let S. From theorem 6.12 it follows that the spectrum belongs
to S. Since T is a distribution, we then have that hT, i C, and so
hFT, i = hT, i C as well. So F T is a mapping from S to C. The
linearity of F T follows from the linearity of T and F ; we will only give
the necessary steps for hFT, ci, since the rule for hFT, 1 + 2 i follows
similarly.
hFT, ci = hT, F (c)i = hT, ci = c hT, i = c hFT, i .
9.3 a Use table 5 to obtain that (t 4) e4i .
b Again use table 5 to obtain that e3it 2( 3).
c First write the sine function as combination of exponentials, so sin at =
(eiat eiat )/2i. From linearity and table 5 it then follows that sin at
i(( a) ( + a)).
d First determine the spectrum of pv(1/t) and 4 cos 2t = 2e2it + 2e2it
using table 5 and then (again) apply linearity to obtain the spectrum
4(( 2) + ( + 2)) + 2sgn .
9.4 a From example 9.1 (or table 5) we obtain the result e5it /2.
b See example 9.2: 2 cos 2t.
c The spectrum of pv(1/t) is isgn (table 5). Note that 2 cos =
ei + ei and that the spectrum of (t a) is eia (table 5). Hence the
answer is i 1 pv(1/t) + (t 1) + (t + 1).
9.5 Let T be an even distribution with spectrum U . We have to show that
U () = U (), so hU, (t)i = hU, (t)i for all S (see exercise
8.26). But hU, (t)i = hT, F (t)i and from table 4 we know that
(F (t))() = () if is the spectrum of . Since T is even, we
have that hT, ()i = hT, ()i. From these observations it follows that
hU, (t)i = hT, ()i = hU, (t)i, which shows that U is even. Similarly
for odd T .
9.7 It is obvious that (t) = (1 + sgn t)/2 by looking at the cases t > 0 and
t < 0. Since 2() is the spectrum of 1 and 2ipv(1/) is the spectrum
of (t), it follows that (t) has spectrum () ipv(1/).
9.8 a Let S have spectrum . From definition 9.1 and the action of 00 it
follows that hF 00 , i = h 00 , i = h, 00 i = 00 (0). From the differentiation
rule in the frequency domain (table 4) with k = 2 we see that 00 () =
F ((it)2 (t))(), and hence 00 2 is proven as follows:
Z Z
00
F , = F (t2 (t))(0) = t2 (t) dt = 2 () d,

00 2

so hF , i = , for all S, proving the required result.
Parts b and c can be proven using similar steps.
9.9 a Subsequently apply definitions 9.1 and 8.7: hFT (at), i = hT (at), i =
| a |1 T, (a1 ) ( S having spectrum ). From table 4 we see that

(a1 ) = | a | (F (at))(), so it follows that hFT (at), i = hT, F (at)i =

hU, (at)i, where we again used definition 9.1 in the final step. Now again
apply definition 8.7, then hFT (at), i = | a |1 U (a1 ), , which proves

T (at) | a |1 U (a1 ).
36
b We have that (4t+3) is the distribution (t+3) scaled by 4. According

to the shift rule in the time domain (see table 6) it follows from (t) 1
that (t+3) e3i . From part a it then follows that (4t+3) 41 U (/4)
with U () = e3i . Hence, (4t + 3) 41 e3i/4 . (This can also be solved
by considering (4t + 3) as the distribution (4t) shifted over 3/4.)
9.11 From table 5 it follows that 0 (t) i. Using (9.12) we then obtain that
it 0 (t) (i)0 = i, so t 0 (t) 1. Exercise 8.23c gives: t 0 (t) = (t)
and since (t) 1 we indeed get t 0 (t) 1 again. Similarly we get
t 00 (t) 2i using (9.12) or using exercise 8.30b: t 00 (t) = 2 0 (t).
9.12 From iT = 1 we may not conclude that T = 1/(i) since there exist
distributions S 6= 0 such that S = 0 (e.g. ()).
9.13 The linearity follows as in definition 8.6. The main point is that one has
to show that eiat (t) S whenever S. So we have to show that for
any m, n Z+ there exists an M > 0 such that tn (eiat (t))(m) < M .

From the product rule for differentiation it follows that (eiat (t))(m) is a
iat (k) +
sum of terms of the form ce (t) (k Z ). It is now sufficient to show
that tn eiat (k) (t) < M for some M > 0 and all k, n Z+ . But since

iat
e = 1 this means that we have to show that tn (k) (t) < M for some
M > 0 and all k, n Z+ , which indeed holds precisely because S.
9.15 From definition9.1 and the definition of eiat T (see exercise 9.13) it follows
iat iat iat

that F e T, = e T, = T, e ( S having spectrum ). Ac-
cording to the shift property in the frequency domain (table 4) we have that
eiat (t) = F ((+a))(t) (note that for convenience weve interchanged the
role of the variables and t). Hence, F eiat T, = hT, F (( + a))(t)i =
hU, ( + a)i = hU ( a), i, where we used definition 9.2 in the last step.
So we indeed have eiat T U ( a).
9.16 a Use table 5 for (t) and apply a shift in the time domain, then it follows
that (t 1) ei (() ipv(1/)).
b Use table 5 for (t) and apply a shift in the frequency domain, then it
follows that eiat (t) ( a) ipv(1/( a)).
c We have (t) () ipv(1/) and if we now write the cosine as
a combination of exponentials, then we can use a shift in the frequency
domain (as in part b) to obtain that (t) cos at 12 (( a) ipv(1/(
a)) + ( + a) ipv(1/( + a))).
d Use that 1 2() and 0 (t) i (table 5), so 3i 6i() and
(apply a shift) 0 (t 4) e4i i; the sum of these gives the answer.
e First note that (t)sgn t = (t) and the spectrum of this is known;
furthermore we have that t3 2i3 (3) () (table 5), so the result is
2 2 (3) () + () ipv(1/).
9.17 a Use table 5 for the sign function and apply a shift: 21 ieit sgn t.
b Write sin t as a combination of exponentials and apply a shift to 21 isgn t,
then we obtain the result 14 (sgn(t + 3) sgn(t 3)).
c Apply reciprocity to (t), then we obtain ((t) ipv(1/t))/2
(). Now (t) = (t) and pv(1/t) = pv(1/t), hence, the result is:
1
2
i 1 pv(1/t) + 12 (t).
d Apply the scaling property (table 6) to 1 2() to obtain 1
6(3). Next we apply a shift in the frequency domain (table 6), which
results in e2it/3 6(3 2). Using the differentiation rule in the fre-
quency domain (table 6) we obtain from 1/2 () that (it)2 /2
00 (). From linearity it then follows that (31 e2it/3 t2 )/2 (3
2) + 00 ().
9.19 We know that 0 T = T 0 , so 0 | t | = | t |0 = sgn t (by example 8.9).
9.20 According to definition 9.3 we have that
hT (t) (t a), i = hT ( ), h(t a), (t + )ii .
Since h(t a), (t + )i = (a + ), the function h(t a), (t + )i
belongs to S, so T (t) (t a) exists and
hT (t) (t a), i = hT ( ), (a + )i = hT ( a), ( )i
(the last step uses definition 9.2). This proves that T (t)(ta) = T (ta).

9.21 Use exercise 9.20 with T (t) = (t b). The convolution theorem leads to
the obvious eib eia = ei(a+b) .
9.24 a Use table 5: (t 3) e3i .
b Since (t + 4) e4i (as in part a) and cos t = (eit + eit )/2 we apply
a shift in the frequency domain: cos t(t + 4) (e4i(1) + e4i(+1) )/2.
c From table 5 we have (t) ()ipv(1/). Apply the differentiation
rule in the time domain (with n = 2), then we obtain t2 (t) 00 () +
ipv(1/)00 .
d Apply the differentiation rule in the time domain to the result obtained
in exercise 9.16c, then it follows that (2(t) cos t)0 i(( 1) + ( +
1) ipv(1/( 1)) ipv(1/( + 1))).
e Since (t) 1 it follows from first the scaling property and then a
shift in the time domain that (7(t 1/7)) ei/7 7. Finally apply the
differentiation rule in the time domain to obtain the result: ((7t 1))0
iei/7 7.
f This is a convergent Fourier series and so we can determine the spectrum
term-by-term. Since 1 2() and e(2k+1)it 2( (2k + 1)) we
obtain the following result:

X
2 () 4 (2k + 1)2 ( (2k + 1)).
k=
9.25 a From table 5 we know that eit 2( 1) and similarly for eit .
Hence, i 1 sin t ( 1) ( + 1).
b Apply the differentiation rule in the time domain (with n = 2) to (t)
1, then 00 (t) 2 .
c From table 5 we obtain that (t + 12 )/4 ei/2 /4.
d From table 5 (and linearity) we obtain that ((t + 1) (t 1))/2i
(ei ei )/2i, which is sin . Now apply differentiation in the time domain
(with n = 3), then we obtain that ( (3) (t + 1) (3) (t 1))/2 3 sin .
e From exercise 9.4c and a shift in the frequency domain it follows that
e4it ((t + 1) + (t 1))/2 cos( 4).
9.26 a In exercise 9.25b it was shown that (t)00 2 . Applying a shift in
the frequency domain leads to eit 00 (t) ( 1)2 .
b From the differentiation rule in the time domain and table 5 it follows
as in exercise 9.25b that 0 (t) i and 00 (t) 2 , so 00 (t) + 2i 0 (t) +
(t) 2 2 + 1.
c Since ( 1)2 = 2 2 + 1, the results in part a and b should be

the same. Using exercise 8.30b with f (t) = eit we indeed obtain that
eit 00 (t) = 00 (t) 2i 0 (t) (t).
9.27 a From exercise 9.25b it follows that 00 (t) 2 . The convolution
theorem then implies that T 00 (t) 2 U where U is the spectrum of
T . This also follows by applying the differentiation rule in the time domain
to T 00 , which equals T 00 (t) by (9.21).
b As noted in part a we have that 00 | t | = | t |00 . In exercise 8.15c it
was shown that | t |00 = 2, so we indeed get 00 | t | = 2. Now let V be
the spectrum of | t |. Since 00 2 and 1 it then follows as in part
a from the convolution theorem that 2 V = 2.
10.1 a When the system is causal, then the response to the causal signal (t)
is again causal, so h(t) is causal. On
R t the other hand, if h(t) is causal, then
it follows that y(t) = (u h)(t) = h(t )u( ) d and if we now have
a causal input u, then the integral will be 0 for t < 0 and so y(t) is causal
as well, proving that the system is causal.
b When the system is real, then the response to the real signal (t) is
again real, so h(t) is real. On the other hand, if h(t) is real, then it follows
from the integral for y(t) = (u h)(t) that if u(t) is real, then y(t) is also
real, proving that the system is real.
10.2 a If we substitute u(t) = (t) then it follows that h(t) = (t1)+(t)e2t ,
so h(t) is causal and real and according to exercise 10.1 the system is then
causal and real.
b We R t substitute u(t) = (t), then it follows for t 0 that a(t) = (t
1) + 0 e2(t ) d = (t 1) + 21 (1 e2t ), while for t < 0 the integral
is 0 and so a(t) = (t 1). This result can be written for all t as a(t) =
(t 1) + 12 (t)(1 e2t ).
10.3 We can express p2 (t) as p2 (t) = (t + 1) (t 1). Since a(t) is (by
definition) the response to (t) and we have a linear system, the response
to p2 (t) = (t + 1) (t 1) is a(t + 1) a(t 1).
10.5 a We differentiate a(t) in distribution sense, which results in h(t) =
(t) (t)e3t (2 sin 2t + 3 cos 2t), since a(t) has a jump at t = 0 of mag-
nitude 1 and we can differentiate in ordinary sense outside t = 0.
b We use theorem 10.1, which implies that we may ignore the delta com-
ponent and only have to Rshow that (t)e3t (2 sin 2t +3
cos 2t) is absolutely
R
integrable. Since both 0 R e3t sin 2t dt and 0 e3t cos 2t dt exist

(e.g., both are smaller than 0 e3t dt), this is indeed the case and hence
the system is stable.
10.6 a The impulse response is h1 h2 .
b If the input for the first system is bounded, then the output is bounded
since the system is stable. This output is then used as input for the second
system, which is again stable. So the output of the second system is again
bounded. This means that the cascade system itself is stable: the response
to a bounded input is bounded.
10.7 a The spectrum of h is H() = 1+1/(1+i)2 since 1 and tet (t)

1/(1 + i)2 .
b Since eit 7 H()eit it follows that the response is given by eit (1 +
1/(1 + i)2 ).
10.8 a We need to determine the inverse Fourier transform of the function
H() = cos /( 2 + 1). First note that 21 e| t | 1/( 2 + 1). Writing the
cosine as a combination of exponentials we obtain from the shift rule that
h(t) = 21 (e| t+1 | + e| t1 | ).
b It now suffices to use the time-invariance of the system: the reponse to
(t) is h(t), so the response to (t 1) is h(t 1).
10.9 a We need to determine the inverse Fourier transform of the function from
figure 10.3, which is H() = qc (). This is h(t) = 2 sin2 (c t/2)/(c t2 ).
40
b The function u has a Fourier series with terms cn eint (note that 0 = 1).
But the response to eint is H(n)eint and H(n) = 0 for n > 1 and n < 1.
So we only have to determine c0 , c1 and c1 . These can easily be calculated
from the defining integrals: c0 = 21 and c1 = c1 = 1/. Hence, the
response follows: y(t) = H(0)c0 +H(1)c1 eit +H(1)c1 eit = 12 3 2
cos t.
10.11 a Put s = i and apply partial fraction expansion to the system function
(s + 1)(s 2)/(s 1)(s + 2). A long division results in 1 2s/(s 1)(s + 2)
and a partial fraction expansion then gives
(s + 1)(s 2) 2 1 4 1 2 1 4 1
=1 =1 .
(s 1)(s + 2) 3s1 3s+2 3 i 1 3 i + 2
Now (t) 1 and (t)e2t 1/(i + 2) (table 3, no. 7) and from time
1
reversal (scaling with a = 1 from table 4, no. 5) it follows for i1 =
1 t 1 2 t 4 2t
i()+1
that (t)e i1
. Hence, h(t) = (t) + 3
(t)e 3
(t)e .
b The impulse reponse h(t) is not causal, so the system is not causal.
c The modulus of H() is 1, so it is an all-pass system and from Parseval
it then follows that the energy-content of the input is equal to the energy-
content of the output (if necessary, see the textbook, just above example
10.7).
10.13 a From the differential equation we immediately obtain the frequency
response:
2 02
H() = .
2 i 20 02
b Write the cosine as a combination of exponentials, then it follows from
eit 7 H()eit that y(t) = (H(0 )ei0 t + H(0 )ei0 t )/2. However
H(0 ) = 0, so y(t) = 0 for all t.
c Note that we cannot use the method from part b. Instead we use
(10.6) to determine the spectrum of the response y(t). From table 5 we
obtain that (t) pv(1/i) + (). Write the cosine as a combination
of exponentials, then it follows from the shift rule that the spectrum of
u(t) = cos(0 t)(t) is given by U () = pv(1/(2i( 0 )) + pv(1/(2i( +
0 )) + (/2)( 0 ) + (/2)( + 0 ). To determine Y () = H()U ()
we use that H()( 0 ) = H(0 )( 0 ) = 0. Hence, writing
everything with a common denominator, Y () = /i( 2 i 20 02 ).
Put s = i and applypartial fraction expansion to obtain that 2Y () =
(1 + i)/(s + 0 (1 i)/ 2) + (1 i)/(s + 0 (1 + i)/ 2). The inverse Fourier

transform of this equals e0 t/ 2 (cos(0 t/ 2) sin(0 t/ 2))(t).
10.14 a From the differential equation we immediately obtain the frequency
response:
i + 1 + 1 1 + /2
H() = = + ,
2i + 2 2i +
where we also used a long division. Using the tables it then follows that
h(t) = 12 ((t) + (1 + /2)(t)et/2 ).
b We have to interpret the differential equation the other way around, so
with input and output interchanged. This means that the system function
is now 1/H(), so
2i + 2+
=2
i + 1 + i + 1 +
where we also used a long division. Using the tables it then follows that
h1 (t) = 2(t) (2 + )(t)et(1+) .
c Note that the spectrum of (h h1 )(t) is the function H() (1/H()),
which is 1. Since (t) 1, it follows that (h h1 )(t) = (t).
10.16 We use separation of variables, so we substitute u(x, y) = X(x)Y (y) into
uyy + uxx = 0. This gives for some arbitrary constant c (the separation
constant) that X 00 + cX = 0, Y 00 cY = 0. In order to satisfy the linear
homogeneous condition as well, X(x)Y (y) has to be bounded, and this
implies that both X(x) and Y (y) have to be bounded functions. Solving
the differential equations we obtain
from the boundedness condition that
i cx i cx
X(x)

= 1

if c = 0 and e
, e if c > 0. Similarly Y (y) = 1 if c =0 and
e cy , e cy if c > 0. But e cy is not bounded for y > 0 so Y (y) = e cy for
c 0. We put c = s2 , then it follows that the class of functions satisfying
the differential equation and being bounded, can be described by
X(x)Y (y) = eisx e| s |y , where s R.
By superposition we now try a solution u(x, y) of the form
Z
u(x, y) = e| s |y F (s)eisx ds.

If we substitute y = 0 in this integral representation, then we obtain that

Z
1
u(x, 0) = = F (s)eisx ds.
1 + x2
1 | t |
Since 2
e 1/(1 + 2 ) this means that
1 | t | it
Z
1
= e e dt.
1 + 2 2
The (formal) solution is thus given by
Z Z
u(x, y) = 21 e| s |(1+y) eisx ds = e| s |(1+y) cos(sx) ds.
0
10.18 a We substitute u(t) = (t),then

Z t Z
h(t) = e(t ) ( ) d = (( + 1 t) ( t))e(t ) ( ) d,
t1
t
so h(t) = ((t) (t 1))e . Applying table 3, no. 7 and a shift in the
time domain gives H() = (1 e(1+i) )/(1 + i).
b The impulse response is causal, so the system is causal.
c It is straightforward to verify that the impulse response is absolutely
integrable, so the system is stable.
d The response y(t) to the block function p2 (t) is equal to the convolution
of h(t) with p2 (t), which equals
Z 1 Z t+1
y(t) = h(t ) d = h( ) d.
1 t1
This is 0 for t < 1 or for t > 2. For 1 < t < 0 it equals 1 e(t+1) , for
0 t < 1 it equals 1 e1 , and for 1 t < 2 it equals e(t1) e1 .
10.19 a The impulse response is the derivative in the sense of distributions of
a(t) = et (t), which is (t) et (t).
b The frequency response is H() = i/(1 + i). (Apply e.g. the differ-
entiation rule to h(t) = a0 (t).)
c We have Y () = H()U () (using obvious notations), so Y () =
i/(1 + i)2 = 1/(1 + i) 1/(1 + i)2 . The response is the inverse
Fourier transform of Y (): y(t) = (1 t)et (t).
10.21 a The frequency response H() is the triangle function qc (). The in-
verse Fourier transform follows from table 3: h(t) = 2 sin2 (c t/2)/(c t2 ).
b Since a0 (t) = h(t) and h(t) 0, the function a(t) is a monotone increas-
ing function.
10.22 The frequency response follows immediately from the differential equation:
1 + i
H() = .
2 + 2i + 2
Applying partial fraction expansion (use s = i) we obtain
1 1
H() = + .
2(i + 1 i) 2(i + 1 + i)
The inverse Fourier transform is then h(t) = (et cos t)(t). Integrating
this over (, t] gives the step response a(t) = 12 (1 + et (sin t cos t))(t).
b We have Y () = H()U () (using obvious notations), so Y () =
1/( 2 + 2i + 2). Applying partial fraction expansion we obtain
1 1
Y () = .
2i(i + 1 i) 2i(i + 1 + i)
The response is the inverse Fourier transform of Y (), which gives as
repsonse the function y(t) = (et sin t)(t).
a Since | i 1 i | = | i + 1 i | and eit0 = 1 we have | H() | = 1

10.23
and so L is an all-pass system.
b First write (i 1 i)/(i + 1 i) as 1 2/(i + 1 i) and then use
the inverse Fourier transform (the tables) to obtain (t) 2e(1i)t (t)
1 2/(i + 1 i). From the shift property in the time domain we obtain
h(t) = (t t0 ) 2e(1i)(tt0 ) (t t0 ).
c Ignoring the delta function it is easy to verify that h(t) is absolutely
integrable ( ei(tt0 ) = 1), hence the system is stable.

d Write u(t) = 1 + eit + eit and use that eit 7 H()eit , then y(t) =
H(0)+H(1)eit +H(1)eit , which equals ieit0 eit +(4i3)eit0 eit /5.
10.24 We use separation of variables, so we substitute u(x, y) = X(x)Y (y) into
uxx 2uy = 0. This gives for some arbitrary constant c (the separation
constant) that X 00 +cX = 0, 2Y 0 +cY = 0. Here X(x) and Y (y) have to be
bounded functions. Solving the differential equations,we obtain from the
boundedness condition that X(x) = 1 if c = 0 and ei cx , ei cx if c > 0.
For c 0 we obtain for Y (y) the solution ecy/2 . We put c = s2 with
s R. It then follows that the class of functions satisfying the differential
equation and being bounded, can be described by
2
X(x)Y (y) = eisx es y/2
, where s R.
By superposition we now try a solution u(x, y) of the form
Z
2
u(x, y) = es y/2 F (s)eisx ds.

If we substitute y = 0 in this integral representation, then we obtain that

Z
u(x, 0) = xex (x) = F (s)eisx ds.

t
Since te (t) 1/(1+i)2 this means that F (s) = 2(1+is) 1
2 . The (formal)
solution is thus given by

Z
1 1 2
u(x, y) = es y/2 eisx ds
2 (1 + is)2
Z
1 (1 s2 ) cos sx + 2s sin sx s2 y/2
= e ds.
2 (1 + s2 )2
11.1 In parts a, b and c the domain is C and the range is C as well. In part d
the domain is C \ {3} and the range is C \ {0}.
11.2 a If we write z = x + iy, then z = x iy, so the real part is x and the
imaginary part is y.
b Expanding z 3 = (x + iy)3 we see that the real part is x3 3xy 2 and
that the imaginary part is 3x2 y y 3 .
c The real part is x 4 and the imaginary part is y 1.
d The real part is (3y 2x 6)/((x + 3)2 + y 2 ) and the imaginary part
is (2y + 3x + 9)/((x + 3)2 + y 2 ). To see this, write z = x + iy, then
z + 3 = x + 3 + iy and so
(3i 2)(x + 3 iy) 3y 2x 6 + i(2y + 3x + 9)
f (z) = = .
(x + 3 + iy)(x + 3 iy) (x + 3)2 + y 2
11.3 Apply definition 11.3 and expand the squares; several of the exponentials
cancel and only 1/2+1/2 remains, so sin2 z +cos2 z = 1. Similarly it follows
by substitution that 2 sin z cos z = sin 2z.
11.5 a From definition 11.3 it follows that sin(iy) = (ey ey )/2i = i sinh y
and cos(iy) = (ey + ey )/2 = cosh y.
b Write z = x + iy; from exercise 11.4 with z = x and w = iy it follows
that sin(x + iy) = sin x cos(iy) + cos x sin(iy). Now apply part a, then
sin(x + iy) = sin x cosh y + i cos x sinh y, so the real part is sin x cosh y and
the imaginary part is cos x sinh y.
11.6 The proofs can be copied from the real case; this is a straightforward mat-
ter. The same applies to exercise 11.7.
11.8 This rational function is continuous for all z C for which the denominator
is unequal to 0. But the denominator is 0 for z = 1, z = i or z = 2i. So
g(z) is continuous on G = C \ {1, i, 2i}.
11.9 The proof can be copied from the real case; this is a straightforward matter:
f (w) f (z) w2 z 2
lim = lim = lim (w + z) = 2z.
wz wz wz w z wz
11.11 a The derivative is 4(z 1)3 ; the function is differentiable on C, so it is

analytic on C.
b The derivative is 1 1/z 2 ; since the function is not differentiable at
z = 0, it is analytic on C \ {0}.
c The derivative is ((z 3 + 1)(2z 3) 3z 2 (z 2 3z + 2))/(z 3 + 1)2 ; the
function is not differentiable when z 3 = 1. Solving this equation one
obtains that it is analytic on C \ {1, 12 12 i 3}.
2
d The derivative is 2zez ; the function is analytic on C.
11.12 Using definition 11.3 and the chain rule it follows that (cos z)0 = (ieiz
ieiz )/2 = (eiz + eiz )/2i = sin z.

11.13 The step wz = w z cannot be applied for non-real numbers (so e.g.
for w = 1, z = 1).
11.14 The real and imaginary part are u(x, y) = x2 y 2 and v(x, y) = 2xy
45
(example 11.4). So u/x = 2x, which equals v/y, and u/y = 2y

which equals v/x. Hence, the Cauchy-Riemann equations are satisfied
on the whole of R2 .
11.16 a This is not true; take e.g. z = 2i, then cos 2i = (e2 + e2 )/2 > 3.
b Use definition 11.3; expand the exponentials in the resulting expression
for cos z cos w sin z sin w.
c Write z = x + iy and use part b, then cos(x + iy) = cos x cos iy
sin x sin iy. But cos iy = cosh y and sin iy = i sinh y (see exercise 11.5a), so
cos(x + iy) = cos x cosh y i sin x sinh y, which gives the real and imaginary
parts.
d Since ez is analytic on C, it follows from theorem 11.5 that cos z =
(eiz + eiz )/2 is also analytic on C.
11.17 a This function is analytic on C \ {1}. From the quotient rule it follows
that the derivative is given by (2z 3 3z 2 1)/(z 1)2 .
b This function is analytic when z 4 6= 16, so on C \ { 2 i 2}. The
3 4 11
derivative is given by 40z /(z + 16) .
c This function is analytic when z 2 6= 3, so on C \ {i 3}. The deriv-
ative is given by ez (z 2 2z + 3)/(z 2 + 3)2 (use the quotient rule).
d This function is analytic on C since both ez and sin w are analytic on
C. The derivative is given by ez cos ez (use the chain rule).
12.1 a The complex number eiR lies on the unit circle for all R and so the
limit R does not exist.
b Since limR eR = 0 only for > 0, and eiR = 1, it follows

that the limit exists precisely for > 0.

12.2 The integrand equals e(as)t and a primitive of this is given by e(as)t /(a
s). The lower limit 0 leads to 1/(s a), while the upper limit results in the
limit limR e(as)R (note that 1/(as) does not influence the outcome of
this limit). Write s = + i, a = + i and use that limR e()R = 0
only if < 0, so if > . Hence, the Laplace transform equals 1/(sa)
for Re s > Re a.
12.3 b The function equals 1 for 0 t < b and is 0 elsewhere. It is easy to
calculate the Laplace transform using the definition and an integration by
parts and it is given by (1 ebs )/s for all (!) s 6= 0, while it equals b for
s = 0.
12.4 One can use the method of example 12.9 and apply an integration by parts
for s 6= 0. It then follows that
2 st
Z
1
F (s) = lim R2 esR + te dt.
s R s 0
The remaining integral is the Laplace transform of t for Re s > 0, which
is 1/s2 (example 12.9). Since limR R2 eR = 0 for > 0, it follows as
before that limR R2 esR = 0 for Re s > 0. This shows that F (s) = s23 .
12.5 a From examples 12.2 and 12.8 it follows that 1/(s + 2) is the Laplace
transform and that a = c = 2.
b From example 12.7 it follows that e4s /s is the Laplace transform and
that a = c = 0.
c From exercise 12.2 it follows that 1/(s 2 3i) is the Laplace transform
and that a = c = 2.
12.6 a From example 12.1 it follows that f (t) = 1 (that is, (t)).
b From example 12.7 it follows that f (t) = (t 3).
c From example 12.2 it follows that f (t) = e7t (that is, (t)e7t ).
d From exercise 12.4 it follows that f (t) = t2 /2 (that is, (t)t2 /2).
12.8 a Using the method of example 12.10 (write cos t as 1 it
2
e + 12 eit ), we
obtain the Laplace transform

1 1 1
+
2 si s+i
and this is equal to s/(s2 + 1) (for Re s > 0).
b As in part a we now obtain the Laplace transform s/(s2 + a2 ).
c Using the same method as in parts a and b it follows that the Laplace
transform of cosh at = (eat + eat )/2 is given by

1 1 1 s
+ = 2 .
2 sa s+a s a2
12.9 Follow the hint, e.g. write cos(at + b) = cos at cos b sin at sin b, then apply
47
linearity and the fact that we know the transforms of cos at and sin at. In
table 7, lines 8 and 9 the answers are given.
12.10 In all these exercises we have to use linearity and/or table 7.
a (20/s3 ) (5/s2 ) + ((8i 3)/s)
b 4/(s2 + 16)
c s/(s2 25)
d (1/s2 ) + (1/s) (s/(s2 + 1))
e (1/(s 2)) + (1/(s + 3))
f (1/2s) (s/2(s2 + 4))
g (cos 2 s sin 2)/(s2 + 1)
h 1/(s ln 3) (use that 3t = et ln 3 ).
12.11 a The function is 1 for 0 t < 1, 3 2t for 1 t < 2 and 1 t for t 2.
b The Laplace transform of 1 equals 1/s. Also, (t 1)(2t 2) = 2(t
1)(t 1) and so we can apply a shift in the time-domain, which gives as
Laplace transform 2es /s2 . The same applies to (t 2)(t 2), which gives
as Laplace transform e2s /s2 . Add these three results.
12.12 The function equals cos t for 0 t < 2 and is 0 elsewhere since cos(t
2) = cos t. The Laplace transform of cos t is s/(s2 + 1). A shift in
the time-domain shows that se2s /(s2 + 1) is the Laplace transform of
(t 2) cos(t 2). Adding these results leads to s(1 e2s )/(s2 + 1).
12.15 Apply the scaling property to f (t), then G(s) = (s2 2s+4)/(4(s+1)(s2)).
12.16 For all these exercises one first needs to recognize the basic form of the
function, then apply table 7, in combination with a shift in the time- or
s-domain.
a 1/(s 2)2 ; use a shift in the s-domain.
b 2es /s3 ; use a shift in the time-domain.
c 5/((s + 3)2 + 25); use a shift in the s-domain.
d (s b)/((s b)2 + a2 ); use a shift in the s-domain.
e se3s /(s2 1); use a shift in the time-domain.
f 2e3 /(s 1)3 ; use a shift in the s-domain.
12.17 a The function is 0 for 0 t < 1 and t 1 for t 1. From table 7 and a
shift in the time-domain the Laplace transform es /s2 follows.
b The function equals t 1 for t 0. From table 7 (and linearity) the
Laplace transform follows: (1/s2 ) (1/s).
c The function equals 0 for 0 t < 1 and t for t 1 (so there is a jump
at t = 1 of magnitude 1). In order to apply a shift in the time-domain
we write f (t) = (t 1)(t 1) + (t 1). Using part a and table 7 (and
linearity of course), the Laplace transform follows: (es /s2 ) + (es /s).
12.18 Write f (t) = (t)t (t 1)t, then it follows from exercise 12.17c and table
7 that the Laplace transform is given by (1 (1 + s)es )/s2 .
12.19 For this exercise one again first has to recognize the basic form of the
Laplace transform, e.g. using table 7, and then, if necessary, combine it
with properties like a shift in the time- or s-domain.
a 2e3t
b 3 sin t
c 4 cos 2t
d (sinh 2t)/2
e (t 2)(t 2); use a shift in the time-domain.
f (t 3) cos(t 3); use a shift in the time-domain.
g (et sin 4t)/4; use a shift in the s-domain.

h et (3 cos t sin t); use a shift in the s-domain; in order to do so we first
have to write F (s) as
s+1 1
3 ,
(s + 1)2 + 1 (s + 1)2 + 1
which can be obtained by noting that 3s + 2 = 3(s + 1) 1.
i 3e3t t2 ; use a shift in the s-domain.
j e2t cos 2t; use a shift in the s-domain (first complete the square in the
denominator, writing it as (s 2)2 + 4).
k 41 (t 1) cos(3(t 1)/2); use a shift in the time-domain (first write the
function F (s) as 14 es s/(s2 + (9/4)).
12.21 Apply De lHopitals rule repeatedly (n times) to the limit t of tn /et
and use that limt et = 0 for any > 0. Theorem 12.3 implies that
the Laplace transform of tn exists for Re s > 0 (it is easy to show that
tn = (t)tn is of exponential order for > 0 arbitrary).
12.23 We know that (L1)(s) = 1/s. According to (12.13) we then have for n N
(and Re s > 0) that
dn 1
= (1)n (Ltn )(s),
dsn s
hence, (1)n n!/sn+1 = (1)n (Ltn )(s), that is, (Ltn )(s) = n!/sn+1 .
12.25 a We know (e.g. from table 7) that (Ltn )(s) = n!/sn+1 and using the
shift rule in the s-domain we then obtain that F (s) = n!/(s a)n+1 .
b We know (e.g. from table 7) that (Leat )(s) = 1/(s a) and using the
differentiation rule in the s-domain we then obtain that
dn 1 n!
F (s) = (1)n = .
dsn s a (s a)n+1
12.27 The causal function sinh at is continuous on R, so it follows from the integ-
ration rule (table 8) that
Z t
1
L sinh a d (s) = F (s)
0 s
Rt
with F (s) = (L sinh at)(s) = a/(s2 a2 ). Hence f (t) = 0 sinh a d =
(cosh at 1)/a.
12.28 a Use the differentiation rule in the s-domain and table 7 for the Laplace
transform of cos at. Then f has Laplace transform
d2 s 2s(s2 3a2 )
= .
ds2 s2 + a2 (s2 + a2 )3
b Using the differentiation rule in the s-domain and table 7 for the Laplace
transform of sinh 3t one obtains that
d 3 6s
(Lt sinh 3t)(s) = = 2
ds s2 9 (s 9)2
and
d2 3 18(s2 + 3)
(Lt2 sinh 3t)(s) = = .
ds2 s2 9 (s2 9)3
Finally apply linearity, then one obtains that

18(s2 + 3) 18s 6
F (s) = 2 + 2 .
(s2 9)3 (s 9)2 s 9
12.30 a The function equals 2(t)t for t < 1 and since t = 2t t it follows that
f (t) = 2(t)t (t 1)t = 2(t)t (t 1)(t 1) (t 1).
b From part a, table 7 and the shift rule in the time domain it follows
that
2 es es
F (s) = 2
2 .
s s s
c The function is not differentiable at t = 0 and t = 1. Apart from these
two points the derivative equals 0 for t < 0, 2 for 0 < t < 1 and 1 for
t > 1. Hence, f 0 (t) = 2(t) (t 1) for t 6= 0, 1. Since the Laplace
transform does not depend on the value at these points, we have that
(Lf 0 )(s) = (2/s) (es /s).
d According to the differentiation rule in the time domain one should have
(Lf 0 )(s) = s(Lf )(s), so
2 es 2 es (s + 1)
=s .
s s2
This is not correct since we cannot apply the differentiation rule in the
present situation: f has a jump at t = 1 and so it isnt differentiable on R.
12.31 a From the shift rule in the s-domain it follows that (Leibt f (t))(s) = F (s
ib) and since sin at = (eiat eiat )/2i it follows that (Lf (t) sin at)(s) =
(F (s ia) F (s + ia))/2i.
b First apply the scaling property and then the shift rule in the s-domain,
then (Le2t f (3t))(s) = e(s+2)/3 /(s + 2).
c We can apply the integration R t rule here (t3 f (t) is continuous on R).
3
Hence the Laplace transform of 0 f ( ) d is given by G(s)/s with G(s) =
(Lt3 f (t))(s). Now apply the differentiation
Rt rule in the s-domain, then it
follows that the Laplace transform of 0 3 f ( ) d is given by
1 d3
F (s).
s ds3
12.32 a Since 3et2 = 3e2 et it follows that (L3et2 )(s) = 3e2 /(s 1) (see
table 7). We also have that (L(t 2))(s) = e2s /s so (for Re s > 1)
3e2 s + e2s (s 1)
F (s) = .
s(s 1)
b Apply linearity (and table 7) to (t 1)2 = t2 2t + 1, then we obtain
that
s2 2s + 2
F (s) = .
s3
c From (L(t 4))(s) = e4s /s and the shift property in the s-domain
(table 8) it follows that F (s) = e4(s2) /(s 2).
d Note that f (t) = e2it et = e(1+2i)t and applying table 7 we thus obtain
that F (s) = 1/(s + 1 2i). (One can also use the Laplace transforms of
sin 2t and cos 2t and a shift in the s-domain.)
e The Laplace transform of sin t is 1/(s2 +1). Applying a shift in the time-
domain we obtain that (L(t 2) sin(t 2))(s) = e2s /(s2 + 1). Finally we
note that et+3 = e3 et and so we apply a shift in the s-domain:
e3 e2(s1)
F (s) = .
(s 1)2 + 1
f The Laplace transform of cos 2t is s/(s2 + 4). Since 3t = et ln 3 we apply
a shift in the s-domain:
s ln 3
F (s) = .
(s ln 3)2 + 4
g One can write f (t) as the following combination of shifted unit step
functions: f (t) = (t) (t 1) + (t 2). From table 7 we then obtain
that
1 es + e2s e3s
F (s) = .
s
12.33 a Since (L1)(s) = 1/s and (L(t 1))(s) = es /s (table 7) it follows that
f (t) = 1 (t 1).
b Since F (s) = 1/s + 3/s4 we obtain from table 7 that f (t) = 1 + t3 /2.
c Since (Ltet )(s) = 1/(s + 1)2 and (L sinh 2t)(s) = 2/(s2 4) (table 7) it
follows that tet + 12 sinh 2t has Laplace transform 1/(s + 1)2 + 1/(s2 4).
Furthermore we have that (L sin t)(s) = 1/(s2 + 1) (table 7) and from a
shift in the time-domain it then follows that (L(t ) sin(t ))(s) =
es /(s2 + 1). Hence f (t) = tet + 21 sinh 2t + sin t + (t ) sin(t ).
d The denominator equals (s 2)2 + 16 and if we now use that 3s 2 =
3(s 2) + 4, then it follows that
s2 4
F (s) = 3 + .
(s 2)2 + 16 (s 2)2 + 16
From table 7 and a shift in the s-domain we then obtain that f (t) =
3e2t cos 4t + e2t sin 4t.
e The denominator equals (s+4)2 and if we now use that s+3 = (s+4)1,
then it follows that
1 1
F (s) = .
s+4 (s + 4)2
From table 7 and a shift in the s-domain we then obtain that f (t) =
e4t (1 t).
f Apply a shift in the time domain to (Lt2 e2t )(s) = 2/(s 2)3 (table 7),
then we obtain that f (t) = 21 (t 4)e2t8 (t 4)2 .
g Applying the integration rule to (L sin 3t)(s) = 3/(sR2 + 9) (the causal
t
function sin t is continuous on R) we obtain that (L 0 sin 3 d )(s) =
2
3/(s(s + 9)). But the integral equals (1 cos 3t)/3, so (L(1 cos 3t))(s) =
9/(s(s2 + 9)). From a shift in the time domain it then follows that f (t) =
(t 1)(1 cos 3(t 1))/9.
13.1 The integral defining the convolution can be calculated by using the formula
for the product of two cosines. The convolution then equals 12 t cos t +
1
2
sin t. Using the convolution theorem we obtain s2 /(s2 +1)2 as the Laplace
transform. On the other hand we obtain from the Laplace transforms of
cos t and sin t and the differentiation rule in the s-domain the Laplace
transform (s2 1)/(2(s2 + 1)2 ) + (1/(2(s2 + 1)), which agrees with the
result obtained from the convolution theorem.
13.2 a Table 7 gives f (t) = eat .
b The convolution theorem implies that g(t) = eav ebv ; to determine
g(t) explicitly, we need toR calculate this convolution. From the definition
t
it follows that g(t) = ebt 0 e (ab) d . If a = b, then g(t) = teat . If a 6= b
at bt
then g(t) = (e e )/(a b). Next we can verify the convolution theorem.
Write G(s) = (Lg)(s). If a = b, then G(s) = 1/(s a)2 (table 7, no. 10).
If a 6= b then G(s) = (1/(s a) 1/(s b))/(a b) (table 7, no. 2), which
equals 1/(s a)(s b).
13.4 a Consider this as the product of the Laplace transforms of t and et ,
which gives t et as result.
b Similarly we now obtain e2t cos 2t.
c sinh t cosh t.
1
d 16 sinh 4t sinh 4t.
13.5 This is not possible, since lims sn does not exist, contradicting theorem
theorem 13.2.
13.6 a From table 7 we obtain that F (s) = s/(s2 9). We indeed have
f (0+) = 1 = lims sF (s).
b From table 7 we obtain that (L sin t)(s) = 1/(s2 + 1) and (L1)(s) =
1/s. Applying the differentiation rule in the s-domain it follows that
(Lt sin t)(s) = 2s/(s2 + 1)2 and so F (s) = (2/s) + (2s/(s2 + 1)2 ). We
indeed have f (0+) = 2 = lims sF (s).
c From the integration rule (table 8) we obtain that F (s) = (Lg)(s)/s
and so sF (s) = G(s) with G(s) the Laplace transform of g(t). Applying
theorem 13.2 to g(t) we obtain that lims sF (s) = lims G(s) = 0 and
for f we indeed have that f (0+) = f (0) = 0.
13.8 a From table 7 we obtain that F (s) = 1/(s + 3). Since f () exists,
we may apply the final value theorem and we indeed have f () = 0 =
lims0 sF (s).
b From table 7 we obtain that (L sin 2t)(s) = 2/(s2 + 4). Applying the
shift property in the s-domain we obtain that F (s) = 2/((s + 1)2 + 4).
Since f () exists, we may apply the final value theorem and we indeed
have f () = 0 = lims0 sF (s).
c From table 7 we obtain that F (s) = (1/s) (es /s). Since f () exists,
we may apply the final value theorem and we indeed have f () = 0 =
lims0 (1 es ).
13.9 For the functions cos t and sinh t the value f () does not exist and so the
final value theorem cannot be applied.
13.11 a For a periodic function f () will in general not exist and so the final
value theorem cannot be applied.
b Theorem 13.5 implies that
52
Z T
s
sF (s) = f (t)est dt.
1 esT 0
Taking the limit s 0 gives (note that the integral is over a bounded inter-
RT RT
val) lims0 0 f (t)est dt = 0 f (t) dt. From the definition of derivative
(definition 11.7) it follows that (ezT )0 (0) = lims0 (esT 1)/s and since
(ezT )0 = T ezT we thus obtain that
s 1
lim = ,
s0 1 esT T
RT
which shows that lims0 sF (s) = T1 0 f (t) dt.
c In example 13.4 we have sF (s) = 1/(1 + es ) and so lims0 sF (s) = 12 .
R2
The function has period 2 and so the integral is 12 0 f (t) dt = 12 , which
verifies the result of part b for f .
13.12 a For t < a we have (t) = (t); for t < 2a we then have (t) = (t)
2(t a); finally, for all t we have (t) = (t) 2(t a) + (t 2a). If (s)
is the Laplace transform of (t), then it follows from table 7 that
1 2eas e2as
(s) = + .
s s s
Since f has period 2a we then obtain from theorem 13.5 (or table 8) that
1 2eas + e2as
F (s) = .
s(1 e2as )
b Multiply numerator and denominator by eas , write the denominator as
s(eas/2 + eas/2 )(eas/2 eas/2 ), and use the definitions of the hyperbolic
sine and cosine functions, then it follows that F (s) = tanh(as/2)/s.
13.13 b Let (t) denote the restriction of f (t) to one period, then (t) = t(t)
(t 2)(t 2) 2(t 1). Since (Lt)(s) = 1/s2 , we obtain from a shift in
the time-domain that (L(t 2)(t 2))(s) = e2s /s2 . Also (L(t 1))(s) =
es /s and so
1 e2s 2es
(s) = 2
2 .
s s s
Theorem 13.5 (or table 8) then implies that
1 2es 1 1
F (s) = = 2 .
s2 s(1 e2s ) s s sinh s
13.16 Apply (13.7) (or definition 13.2) and the definition of distribution derivat-
ive, then it follows that
D E D E
(L (n) (t a))(s) = (n) (t a), est = (1)n (t a), (est )(n) .
Since (est )(n) = (s)n est , we then obtain from the definition of the
shifted delta function that (L (n) (t a))(s) = sn eas .
13.18 This follows immediately from table 9, no 2 and (9.21) together with (13.9).
13.19 Consult tables 7 and 9 for this exercise and use linearity, and for part d
the convolution theorem.
a 1 + (1/(s2 + 1)) = (s2 + 2)/(s2 + 1),
b s + 3s2 ,
c 1/s + e2s + 2is2 e4s ,

d s3 eas .
13.20 Consult tables 7 and 9 for this exercise, but now in the opposite direction,
and use mainly linearity.
a 0 (t) + 3(t) (t 2),
b 00 (t) 4 0 (t) + 4(t) + e2t (first write (s 2)2 as s2 4s + 4),
c (t 2) sin(t 2) + (3) (t 2) (apply a shift in the time-domain to the
Laplace transform of sin t),
d (t) sin t (first write s2 /(s2 + 1) as 1 1/(s2 + 1)).
13.22 This is an important exercise: it shows how to use partial fraction expan-
sions.
a Factorise the denominator as (s + 2)(s + 3) and apply partial fraction
expansion to obtain 3/(s + 3) 2/(s + 2). From table 7 it then follows that
f (t) = 3e3t 2e2t .
b Completing the square in the denominator gives (s + 3)2 + 1 and from
table 7 it then follows that f (t) = e3t sin t.
c Apply partial fraction expansion to obtain 43 (1/(s + 3)) + 23 (1/(s +
1
2)) + 12 (1/(s 1)). From table 7 it then follows that f (t) = 3e3t /4 +
2e2t /3 + et /12.
d First put y = s2 and then apply partial fraction expansion in the vari-
able y, which gives 35 (1/(y 4)) 23 (1/(y 1)). With y = s2 we obtain
from table 7 the inverse Laplace transform f (t) = (5 sinh 2t 4 sinh t)/6.
e A partial fraction expansion leads to 1/(s + 1) + 2/(s 1) 4/(s + 1)2 .
From table 7 it then follows that f (t) = et + 2et 4tet .
f Since s2 1 = (s 1)(s + 1) one could solve this using partial fraction
expansions. However, it is easier to note that
d s 1 2
= 2 2
ds s2 1 s 1 (s 1)2
and so
1 1 d s 1 1
= .
(s2 1)2 2 ds s2 1 2 s2 1
We have (L sinh t)(s) = 1/(s2 1) and (L cosh t)(s) = s/(s2 1) and the
differentiation rule in the s-domain then implies that
d s
(Lt cosh t)(s) = .
ds s2 1
Hence, f (t) = (t cosh t sinh t)/2.
g Since the degree of the numerator equals the degree of the denominator
we first perform a long division:
s3 + 4 s2 4s + 8
= 1 + .
(s2 + 4)(s 1) (s2 + 4)(s 1)
Applying a partial fraction expansion to the second term leads to 1/(s1)
4/(s2 +4). From tables 7 and 9 it then follows that f (t) = (t)+et 2 sin 2t.
h The factor e2s can be dealt with afterwards by applying a shift in the
time-domain. Since the degree of the numerator is greater than the degree
of the denominator we first perform a long division:
s6 + s2 1 2s2 1
= s2 + 1 + 2 2 .
s2 (s2 1) s (s 1)
To the rational part we apply partial fraction expansion (again we first put
y = s2 ), which leads to (1/s2 ) + (1/(s2 1)). From table 7, a shift in the
time-domain and table 9 it then follows that f (t) = 00 (t 2) + (t 2) +
(t 2)(t 2 + sinh(t 2)).
13.24 a First write F (s) as
1 s 2
F (s) = .
2 s2 + 4 s2 + 4
From table 7 and the convolution theorem (or table 8) it then follows that
(g h)(t) = (cos 2v 21 sin 2v)(t).
Rt
b The definition of convolution gives f (t) = 12 0 cos 2 sin(2t2 ) d and
using the trigonometricRformula 2 cos a sin b = sin(a+b)sin(ab) this can
t
be written as f (t) = 14 0 (sin 2t sin(4 2t)) d . Caculating this integral
1
gives f (t) = 4 t sin 2t.
c Applying the differentiation rule in the time-domain to (L sin 2t)(s) =
2/(s2 + 4), we obtain that (Lt sin 2t)(s) = 4s/(s2 + 4)2 , so f (t) = 14 t sin 2t.
13.25 a The function f is piecesewise smooth and f () = 2, so the final value
theorem implies that lims0 sF (s) = 2. Since f (0+) = 0, the inital value
theorem implies that lims sF (s) = 0.
b Apply a shift in the time-domain to (Lt)(s) = 1/s2 , then (L(t
2)(t 2))(s) = e2s /s2 , so F (s) = (1 e2s )/s2 . Hence, lims0 sF (s) =
lims0 (1 e2s )/s. But according to definition 11.7 this limit equals
(e2z )0 (0), which is 2, and so lims0 sF (s) = 2. This agrees with part
a. Finally, applying De lHopitals rule we obtain that lims sF (s) =
lims (1 e2s )/s = lims 2e2s = 0, also in agreement with part a.
13.26 a Note that lims0 sF (s) = 1. We now determine the inverse Laplace
transform of F (s) using partial fraction expansion. We have
1 s+1
F (s) =
s (s + 1)2 + 4
and from table 7 and a shift in the s-domain it then follows that f (t) =
1 et cos 2t. We see that f () = 1 = lims0 sF (s), which verifies the
final value theorem.
b Note that lims0 sF (s) = 0. We now determine the inverse Laplace
transform of F (s). Since F (s) is a function of y = s2 , we use partial
fraction expansion for y/(y 1)(y + 4), which gives
1 1 2 2
F (s) = + .
5 s2 1 5 s2 + 4
From table 7 we then obtain that f (t) = (sinh t + 2 sinh 2t)/5. Since f ()
does not exits, the final value theorem cannot be applied.
13.27 a For 0 t < 1 we have f (t) = (t)t2 ; for 0 t < 2 we then have
f (t) = (t)t2 (t 1)t2 .
b Let (t) = ((t) (t 1))t2 for all t, and let (s) be the Laplace
transform of (t), then it follows from theorem 13.5 (or table 8) that F (s) =
(s)/(1e2s ). If we write (t) as (t) = (t)t2 (t1)(t1)2 (t1)
2(t 1)(t 1), then it follows from table 7 and a shift in the time-domain
(to get the Laplace transforms of (t 1)(t 1)2 and (t 1)(t 1)) that
es 2es 2 2es
(s) = 2 + 3 3 ,
s s s s
which then also gives F (s) = (s)/(1 e2s ).

13.28 a A partial fraction expansion of G(s) = 1/s(s + 1) gives G(s) = (1/s)
(1/(s + 1)), which has inverse Laplace transform g(t) = 1 et . Combining
this with a shift in the time-domain we obtain that f (t) = 1 et (t
3)(1 et+3 ).
b A partial fraction expansion gives
2 1 2 2
F (s) = + 2 + .
s s s1 (s 1)2
From table 7 we then obtain that f (t) = 2 + t 2et + 2tet .
c Write F (s) = G(s) + H(s) where
1 s5 4s4 8s + 64
G(s) = and H(s) = es .
s2 (s2 + 4) s2 (s2 + 4)
We first determine the inverse Laplace transform g(t) of G(s). Since G(s)
is a function of y = s2 , we apply a partial fraction expansion to 1/y(y + 4),
which gives G(s) = (1/4s2 ) (1/4(s2 + 4)) and so (by table 7) g(t) =
(2t sin 2t)/8. Next we determine the inverse Laplace transform h(t) of
H(s). Since the degree of the numerator is larger than the degree of the
denominator, we first perform a long division:
s5 4s4 8s + 64 4s3 16s2 + 8s 64
=s4 .
s2 (s2 + 4) s2 (s2 + 4)
Partial fraction expansion of the rational function gives
4s3 16s2 + 8s 64 2 16 2s
= 2 + 2 .
s2 (s2 + 4) s s s +4
Hence,

2 16 2s
H(s) = ses 4es es 2 + 2 .
s s s +4
From table 7 and the shift property in the time-domain it then follows that
h(t) = 0 (t ) 4(t ) (t ) (2 16(t ) + 2 cos 2(t )) and
then f (t) = g(t) + h(t).
14.1 a We have to determine the Laplace transform H(s) of h(t). From tables
7 (for tet ) and 9 (for ) it follows immediately that H(s) = 1 + 1/(s + 1)2 .
b Using that H(s) exists for Re s > 1, we can substitute s = i into
H(s) to obtain the frequency response 1 + 1/(i + 1)2 .
c We first determine the response y(t) by calculating the convolution
product y(t) = (h u)(t). Since u = u we only need to calculate tet u,
that is
Z t Z t
u( )h(t ) d = e sin e(t ) (t ) d.
0 0
Here e and e cancel each other and the integral that remains can be
calculated by an integration by parts. This gives tet sin tet and so
y(t) = u(t) + tet sin tet = tet .
Next we determine y(t) using the Laplace transform: Y (s) = H(s)U (s) and
since U (s) = 1/((s+1)2 +1) (table 7 and a shift in the s-domain), it follows
that Y (s) = 1/(s + 1)2 and so (inverse Laplace transform) y(t) = tet .
14.2 Again use the important formula Y (s) = H(s)U (s), so H(s) = Y (s)/U (s).
In this case U (s) = 1/s2 and Y (s) = 1/s2 s/(s2 + 4), so H(s) = 1
s3 /(s2 + 4) = 1 s + 4s/(s2 + 4) (divide s3 by s2 + 4). The inverse Laplace
transform gives h(t) = (t) 0 (t) + 4 cos 2t.
14.3 a It is clear that y(0) = 0. The derivative at t = 0 can be obtained from
the definition of the derivative (and e.g. using De lHopitals rule) and we
indeed obtain that y 0 (0) = 0. For t > 0 it is straightforward to check that
y 00 y = 2t. So in ordinary sense y(t) does indeed satisfy the differential
equation.
We now differentiate in distribution sense. Since y has no jump at t = 0
and y 0 also has no jump at t = 0, the jump formula (8.21) will give the
same result (outside t = 0 the derivative can be taken in ordinary sense).
b Since h has no jump at t = 0 we have that h0 (t) = 2e2t et (in the sense
of distributions). Now h0 has a jump 1 at t = 0, so h00 (t) = 4e2t et + (t).
Hence, we indeed have that h00 3h0 + 2h = (t).
c Similar as in part b: there is no jump at t = 1 and so y 0 (t) = 2(t
1)(2e2t2 et1 ). Now y 0 has a jump 2 at t = 1, so y 00 (t) = 2(t1)(4e2t2
et1 ) + 2(t 1). Thus, y 00 3y 0 + 2y = 2(t 1).
14.4 Taking Laplace transforms of the left- and right-hand side gives (note the
condition of initial rest) Y (s) = 48/((s2 + 4)(s2 + 16)). A partial fraction
expansion (in the variable y = s2 ) results in 4/(s2 + 4) 4/(s2 + 16) and
from table 7 it then follows that y(t) = 2 sin 2t sin 4t.
14.5 a Using (14.9) we obtain that H(s) = 1/(s2 5s + 4) = 1/((s 1)(s 4))
and its zeroes do not satisfy Re s < 0, so the system is not stable.
b Partial fraction expansion of H(s) shows that H(s) = (1/3(s 4))
(1/3(s 1)) and from table 7 we then obtain that h(t) = (e4t et )/3; this
function is not absolutely integrable, which is in agreement with the fact
that the system is not stable.
c Integrating the impulse response over [0, t] gives the step response a(t) =
(e4t 4et + 3)/12.
d Either calculate the convolution product (h u)(t) or use Laplace trans-
forms; in general the latter is preferable and we will apply it here. Since
57
Y (s) = U (s)H(s) = 1/((s 1)(s 4)(s 2)) we use partial fraction expan-
sion:
1 1 1
Y (s) = + .
3(s 1) 2(s 2) 6(s 4)
From table 7 we then obtain that y(t) = (e4t + 2et 3e2t )/6.
e Use time-invariance (and linearity): 3(t 1) has response 3h(t 1) =
(t 1)(e4t4 et1 ).
14.7 a From the differential equation we get H(s) = 1/(R(s + 1/RC)) (use
(14.9)) and so H(s) has only one zero s = 1/RC. Since this zero lies in
Re s < 0 (because RC > 0), the system is stable.
b Let Q and V be the Laplace transforms of q and v, then Q(s) =
V (s)H(s) = E/(Rs(s+1/RC)) and partial fraction expansion gives Q(s) =
EC(1/s 1/(s + 1/RC)). The inverse transform of this is q(t) = EC(1
et/RC ) and since i(t) = q 0 (t) it follows that i(t) = Eet/RC /R.
c As in part b it now follows that Q(s) = aE/(R(s + 1/RC)(s2 + a2 )),
and partial fraction expansion results in Q(s) = p(1/(s + 1/RC) s/(s2 +
a2 ) + 1/(RC(s2 + a2 ))), where p = aE/(R(a2 + 1/R2 C 2 )). The inverse
transform of this is q(t) = p(et/RC cos at + (1/aRC) sin at).
d Use time-invariance (and linearity): E(t 3) has as response Eh(t
3) = E(t 3)e(t3)/RC /R (h(t) follows from part a).
14.8 a From the differential equation we get H(s) = 1/(L(s + R/L)) (use
(14.9)) and so H(s) has only one zero s = R/L. Since this zero lies in
Re s < 0 (because R/L > 0), the system is stable. The inverse transform
gives h(t) = eRt/L /L.
b Integrating the impulse response over [0, t] gives the step response a(t) =
(1 eRt/L )/R.
c Let V be the Laplace transform of v, then it follows that Y (s) =
V (s)H(s) = eas /(Ls(s + R/L)). Partial fraction expansion results in
Y (s) = (eas /R)(1/s 1/(s + R/L)). The inverse transform of this is
y(t) = (t a)(1 e(ta)R/L )/R (use a shift in the time-domain). How-
ever, it is much simpler here to use time-invariance: the response to (t a)
is a(t a) = (t a)(1 eR(ta)/L )/R.
14.10 Let Y (s) be the Laplace transform of y(t), then we obtain from the differen-
tial equation (and tables 7 and 8) that (s2 Y (s)sy(0)y 0 (0))+Y (s) = 1/s2 .
Since y(0) = 0 and y 0 (0) = 1 it follows that s2 Y (s) 1 + Y (s) = 1/s2 , so
(s2 + 1)Y (s) = 1 + 1/s2 = (s2 + 1)/s2 and thus Y (s) = 1/s2 . The inverse
Laplace transform of Y (s) is y(t) = t.
14.12 Let Y (s) be the Laplace transform of y(t), then we obtain from the dif-
ferential equation and the initial conditions y(0) = 3 and y 0 (0) = 1 (and
tables 7 and 8) that (s2 Y 3s 1) 4(sY 3) 5Y = 3/(s 1). Solving
for Y gives (s2 4s 5)Y (s) + 11 3s = 3/(s 1), hence,
3 3s 11 3s2 14s + 14
Y (s) = + 2 = .
(s 1)(s2 4s 5) s 4s 5 (s 1)(s2 4s 5)
Partial fraction expansion gives
31 3 19
Y (s) = + .
12(s + 1) 8(s 1) 24(s 5)
From table 7 we obtain the inverse Laplace transform y(t) = (62et 9et +
19e5t )/24.
14.13 Note that u(t) = t (t 2)(t 2), so (shift in time-domain) U (s) =
(1 e2s )/s2 . From the differential equation and the initial conditions we
obtain that s2 Y s + Y = (1 e2s )/s2 , hence (apply partial fraction
expansion in s2 to the first term),
1 e2s

s 1 1 s
Y (s) = 2 2 + 2 = (1 e2s ) + 2 .
s (s + 1) s +1 s2 s2 + 1 s +1
From tables 7 and 8 we obtain the inverse Laplace transform y(t) = t
sin t + cos t (t 2)(t 2 sin(t 2)).
14.14 From tables 7 and 9 we know that the Laplace transforms of 1 and (t 2)
are given by 1/s and e2s . From the differential equation and the initial
conditions we obtain that (s2 Y 2s + 2) + 2(sY 2) + 5Y = 2e2s + 1/s,
and thus (s2 + 2s + 5)Y (s) = 2s + 2 + 2e2s + 1/s. Hence,
2(s + 1) 2e2s 1
Y (s) = + + .
(s + 1)2 + 4 (s + 1)2 + 4 s(s2 + 2s + 5)
Using table 7 and a shift in the s-domain it is easy to get the inverse Laplace
transform of the first two terms since (Let cos 2t)(s) = (s+1)/((s+1)2 +4)
and (Let sin 2t)(s) = 2/((s + 1)2 + 4). For the third term we use partial
fraction expansion:
1 1 (s + 2)
= .
s(s2 + 2s + 5) 5s 5(s2 + 2s + 5)
We write the second term as (s + 1)/5(s2 + 2s + 5) + 1/5(s2 + 2s + 5) and
taking everything together now we get
1 9(s + 1) 1 2
Y (s) = + + e2s .
5s 5((s + 1)2 + 4) 5((s + 1)2 + 4) (s + 1)2 + 4
From our previous remarks and a shift in the time-domain it then follows
that y(t) = (2 + 18et cos 2t et sin 2t)/10 + (t 2)e(t2) sin 2(t 2).
14.16 Let X(s) and Y (s) be the Laplace transforms of x(t) and y(t). From table
7 we know that (L cos 2t)(s) = s/(s2 + 4) and (L sin 2t)(s) = 2/(s2 + 4).
Applying the Laplace transform to the system and substituting the initial
conditions x(0) = 1 and y(0) = 0 we obtain the algebraic system
sX + Y = 1 + 2s/(s2 + 4),

X + sY = 2/(s2 + 4).
Next we solve this system of two linear equations in the unknowns X =
X(s) and Y = Y (s). We can find Y (s) by multiplying the second equation
by s and adding it to the first equation; we then obtain
2s 2s
Y s2 Y = 1 2 = 1
s2 + 4 s +4
and so Y (s) = 1/(s2 1). One similarly obtains
2s2 2
s2 X + X = +s+ 2
s2 + 4 s +4
and so X(s) = 2/(s2 + 4) s/(s2 1). The inverse Laplace transform gives
the solution x(t) = sin 2t cosh t, y(t) = sinh t.
14.17 Let X(s) and Y (s) be the Laplace transforms of x(t) and y(t). Applying
the Laplace transform to the system and substituting the initial conditions
x(0) = 0, x0 (0) = 2, y(0) = 1 and y 0 (0) = 0 we obtain the algebraic

system
2
s X + sY = 1,
X sY = 1.
We can find X(s) by adding these two equations; this gives (s2 + 1)X = 2
and thus X(s) = 2/(s2 + 1). Since sY = X 1 this gives
1 1 2 1 1 s
Y = X = = 2 2 ,
s s s(s2 + 1) s s s +1
where we also applied partial fraction expansion to 2/(s(s2 + 1)). The
inverse Laplace transform gives the solution x(t) = 2 sin t, y(t) = 1 2 cos t.
14.18 As in exercise 14.16 we obtain the algebraic system

(2s + 1)Y + (5s 2)X = 3 + 2/(s + 1),
sY + (1 2s)X = 1 + 1/(s2 + 1).
Next we solve this system of two linear equations in the unknowns X =
X(s) and Y = Y (s). We can find X by multiplying the first equation by s,
and adding it to the second equation multiplied by 2s + 1; we then obtain,
after some simplification,
2s 2s + 1 1
X(s) = + 2 + .
(s 1)2 (s + 1) (s + 1)(s 1)2 s1
One similarly obtains
2 4s 5s 2 1
Y (s) = 2 .
(s + 1)(s 1)2 (s + 1)(s 1)2 s1
Four terms in X and Y need a partial fraction expansion, which leads to
1 1 5 s 1
X(s) = + + + 2 ,
2(s + 1) s1 2(s 1)2 2(s2 + 1) s +1
3 7 5 s 5
Y (s) = + 2 + .
2(s + 1) 2(s 1) 2(s 1)2 s +1 2(s2 + 1)
The inverse Laplace transform gives the solution x(t) = (et +2et +5tet +
cos t 2 sin t)/2, y(t) = (3et 7et 5tet + 2 cos t + 5 sin t)/2.
14.20 Apply Laplace transform with respect to t to the partial differential equa-
tion and substitute the initial conditions u(x, 0) = 2 sin 2x and ut (x, 0) =
0, then it follows as in example 14.16 that
s2 U (x, s) (2 sin 2x)s = 4Uxx ,
where U (x, s) is the Laplace transform of u(x, t). Hence, we have obtained
the ordinary differential equation
s2 1
U 00 U = s sin 2x.
4 2
The general solution of the homogeneous equation is
U (x, s) = Aesx/2 + Besx/2 ,
where A and B can still be functions of s. A particular solution can be
found using the classical method, so by trying U (x, s) = a sin 2x. It then
follows that a(4 2 + s2 /4) = s/2 and so the general solution follows:
2s
U (x, s) = Aesx/2 + Besx/2 + sin 2x.
s2 + (4)2
To determine A and B, we translate the remaining boundary conditions to
the s-domain by Laplace transforming them. From the conditions u(0, t) =
u(1, t) = 0 it follows that U (0, s) = U (1, s) = 0. Using U (0, s) = 0 we
obtain that A + B = 0 and using U (1, s) = 0 we obtain that A(es/2
es/2 ) = 0. Hence, A = B = 0 and so
2s
U (x, s) = sin 2x.
s2 + (4)2
The inverse Laplace transform gives the solution u(x, t) = 2 cos 4t sin 2x.
14.22 As in exercise 4.20, for example, one obtains the ordinary differential equa-
tion
U 00 (s + 6)U = cos(x/2).
The general solution of the homogeneous equation is

U (x, s) = Aex s+6
+ Bex s+6
,
where A and B can still be functions of s. A particular solution can be
found by trying U (x, s) = a cos(x/2). The general solution then follows:

4
U (x, s) = Aex s+6
+ Bex s+6
+ cos(x/2).
4s + 25
the s-domain by Laplace transforming them, which results in U (, s) = 0
and U 0 (0, s) = 0. This leads to A = B = 0 and so
1
U (x, s) = cos(x/2).
s + 25/4
The inverse Laplace transform gives the solution u(x, t) = e25t/4 cos(x/2).
14.23 a The impulse response is the derivative (in distribution sense if neces-
sary) of the step response. Since the step response has no jump at t = 0,
it follows that h(t) = a0 (t) = 2 sinh 2t + 2 sin t et . The transfer function
is the Laplace transform of h(t) and from table 7 we obtain that
4 2 1
H(s) = + 2 .
s2 4 s +1 s+1
b Since (L(t 1))(s) = es , it follows that Y (s) = 2es H(s), where
Y (s) = (Ly)(s). From part a and the shift rule in the time domain it
follows that y(t) = 2(t 1)(2 sinh(2t 2) + 2 sin(t 1) et+1 ). One can
also use the time-invariance of the system.
c Since (Lt)(s) = 1/s2 it follows that
4 2 1
Y (s) = + 2 2 2 .
s2 (s2 4) s (s + 1) s (s + 1)
A partial fraction expansion of these terms leads to
1 2 1 1
Y (s) = 2 + .
s2 4 s +1 s s+1
The inverse Laplace transform gives y(t) = 1
2
sinh 2t 2 sin t + 1 et .
14.24 a From the differential equation it immediately follows that
1 1
H(s) = ,
L s2 + 02
where 0 = (LC)1/2 . From table 7 we obtain: h(t) = (sin 0 t)/(L0 ).

b The system is not stable since h(t) is not absolutely integrable (or: since
the poles i0 and i0 do not lie in the half-plane Re s < 0).
c Let Q and V be the Laplace transforms of q and v, where v(t) = eat
(a > 0). Then
1 1
Q(s) = V (s)H(s) = .
L (s + a)(s2 + 02 )
A partial fraction expansion gives
1 1 a 1 1 s
L Q(s) = + 2 2 .
a2 + 02 s + a a + 02 s2 + 02 a + 02 s2 + 02
The inverse Laplace transform gives

1 at a
q(t) = e + sin 0 t cos 0 t .
L(a2 + 02 ) 0
d Note that 0 6= a. Since V (s) = s/(s2 + a2 ) it follows as in part c that

1 s 1 s s
Q(s) = = ,
L (s2 + a2 )(s2 + 02 ) L(02 a2 ) s2 + a2 s2 + 02
where we also applied a partial fraction expansion. The inverse Laplace
transform gives
1
q(t) = (cos at cos 0 t) .
L(02 a2 )
e Since V (s) = 2(L cos 0 t)(s) = 2s/(s2 + 02 ) it follows as in part c that
1 2s
Q(s) = .
L (s2 + 02 )2
Since (L sin 0 t)(s) = 0 /(s2 + 02 ), it follows from the differentiation rule
in the s-domain that
d 0 2s0
(Lt sin 0 t)(s) = = 2 .
ds s2 + 02 (s + 02 )2
Hence, q(t) = (t sin 0 t)/(L0 ). This keeps increasing (in an oscillating
way) as t increases.
14.25 a One can write u(t) = cos t + (t ) cos(t ). Taking the Laplace
transform gives U (s) = (Lu)(s) = (1 + es )s/(s2 + 1). Applying the
Laplace transform to the differential equation and substituting the initial
conditions gives (s2 +s2)Y s2 = U (s). Since s2 +s2 = (s1)(s+2)
we thus obtain, after a little simplifying, that
1 s
+ 1 + es
`
Y (s) = .
s1 (s + 2)(s 1)(s2 + 1)
For the second term we use a partial fraction expansion, which eventually
leads to
1
+ 1 + es
`
Y (s) =
s1
2 1 3s 1
+ + .
15(s + 2) 6(s 1) 10(s2 + 1) 10(s2 + 1)
From table 7 and a shift in the time domain it follows by the inverse
Laplace transform that y(t) = et + g(t)/30 + (t )g(t )/30 with
g(t) = 4e2t + 5et 9 cos t + 3 sin t.
b We have (L(t2))(s) = e2s and (L 0 (t3))(s) = se3s (table 9). Ap-
plying the Laplace transform to the differential equation and substituting
the initial conditions gives as in part a:
1 3e2s + 6se3s
Y (s) = + .
s1 (s + 2)(s 1)
Partial fraction expansion leads to

1 2s 1 1 3s 1 2
Y (s) = +e + 2e + .
s1 s1 s+2 s1 s+2
From a shift in the time domain it follows by the inverse Laplace transform
that y(t) = et + (t 2)(et2 e2t+4 ) + 2(t 3)(et3 + 2e2t+6 ).
14.26 a From table 7 we know that (LE)(s) = E/s. Applying the Laplace
transform to the system of differential equations and substituting the initial
conditions gives

2RI2 + (3R + sL)I1 = E/s,
2(R + sL)I2 (R + sL)I1 = 0,
where I1 and I2 are the Laplace transforms of i1 and i2 . From the second
equation we get I1 = 2I2 . Substituting this into the first equation we obtain
E 1
I2 = .
2L s(s + 4R/L)
After a partial fraction expansion we obtain from the inverse Laplace trans-
form the solution
E
i1 (t) = 2i2 (t) = 1 e4Rt/L .
4R
b Since (L sin 2t)(s) = 2/(s2 + 4) we obtain as in part a that
1 1
I2 = .
L (s2 + 4)(s + 4R/L)
After a partial fraction expansion we obtain from the inverse Laplace trans-
form the solution

L 4Rt/L 2R
i1 (t) = i2 (t) = e cos 2t + sin 2t .
8R2 + 2L2 L
14.27 Apply the Laplace transform with respect to t to the partial differential
equation and substitute the initial conditions u(x, 0) = 0 and ut (x, 0) =
2 sin x, then it follows that
s2 U (x, s) 2 sin x = 4Uxx ,
where U (x, s) is the Laplace transform of u(x, t). Hence, U (x, s) satisfies
the ordinary differential equation
s2 1
U 00 U = sin x.
4 2
The general solution of the homogeneous equation is U (x, s) = Aesx/2 +

Besx/2 , where A and B can still be functions of s. A particular solution
can be found by trying U (x, s) = a sin x. It then follows that a( 2 +
s2 /4) = 1/2 and so the general solution follows:
2
U (x, s) = Aesx/2 + Besx/2 + sin x.
s2 + 4 2
the s-domain by Laplace transforming them. From the conditions u(0, t) =
u(2, t) = 0 it follows that U (0, s) = U (2, s) = 0. Using U (0, s) = 0 we
obtain that A+B = 0 and using U (2, s) = 0 we obtain that A(es es ) = 0.
Hence A = B = 0 and so
2
U (x, s) = 2 sin x.
s + 4 2
The inverse Laplace transform gives u(x, t) = 1 sin 2t sin x as solution.
15.1 For n 4 we have f [n] = 1 1 = 0, for n < 1 we have f [n] = 0 0 = 0,

and for 1 n < 4 we have f [n] = 0 1 = 1. Hence, f [n] = ([n +
1] + [n] + [n 1] + [n 2] + [n 3]).
15.2 Since f [n] has period 5 we obtain that f [n] = 5 [n] + 5 [n 2] + 5 [n 3].
15.3 Write z = ei/6 , then z 12 = 1, so f [n] = z n has period 12.
15.4 Since [k] = 0 for k < 0 and [k] = 1 for k 0 we can write the sum in the
given right-hand side as

X
X
[n k] = [k][n k].
k=0 k=
From theorem 15.1 it then follows that the sum equals [n].
15.7 Let () be the spectrum of (t), then () = 0 for | | > 0 for some
0 . According to the convolution theorem the spectrum of the convolution
is equal to the product of the spectra. This product is then also equal to 0
for | | > 0 , hence the convolution is also band-limited.
15.9 Using Fourier series one can determine P () explicitly as follows. We have

X
P () = cn ein0 = ei0 + ei0 ,
n=
where 0 = 2. Hence, F () = (ei0 + ei0 )ps (). From table 3 we

know that p(t) = sin(s t/2)/(t) ps () and applying the shift rule we
then obtain that f (t) = p(t + 2) + p(t 2).
15.10 We have to determine the Nyquist frequency of the convolution. By defin-
ition of convolution we have
Z Z Z +
F () = p ( u)p2 (u) du = p ( u) du = p (u) du.

Since p () is 0 outside [/2, /2] it follows that F () = 0 outside

[3/2, 3/2]. The Nyquist frequency is thus equal to 3 and the sampling
frequency should satisfy 2/T > 3, hence T < 2/3.
15.11 We write f (t) = (ei(0 +0 t) + ei(0 +0 t) )/2. Then the spectrum F () =
(ei0 ( 0 ) + ei0 ( + 0 ). In the proof of the sampling theorem we
see that the spectrum Fr () of the reconstructed signal fr (t) equals

X
Fr () = F ( ks )ps ().
k=
Hence,

X
Fr () = ei0 ( 0 ks )ps ()
k=

X
+ ei0 ( + 0 ks )ps ().
k=
65
Since f (t)(t t0 ) = f (t0 )(t t0 ) we thus have

X
Fr () = ei0 ( 0 ks )ps (0 + ks )
k=

X
+ ei0 ( + 0 ks )ps (ks 0 ).
k=
Since 0 = 2s /3 we have ps (ks 0 ) = ps ((k 23 )s ). This means

that only the terms k = 1 and k = 1 contribute to the sum. Hence,
Fr () = ei0 ( + 12 0 ) + ei0 ( 21 0 ).
Applying the inverse Fourier transform leads to the reconstructed signal
fr (t) = cos(0 12 0 t).
15.12 a From T = 4/3 it follows that s = 3/2. The sampling condition is
satisfied, so fr (t) = f (t).
b From T = 2 it follows that s = . Although the sampling condition is
not satisfied, it is easy to see that in this case Fs () = 1 for all and so
Fs () = p () = F (). Again, fr (t) = f (t).
c From T = 8/3 it follows that s = 3/4. The sampling condition is not
satisfied. We have Fr () = 2ps () p () with = s /3 = /4. Using
table 3 fr (t) follows:
2 sin(3t/8) sin(t/8)
fr (t) = .
t t
15.13 a The impulse response follows from table 3:
2 sin2 (t/2)
h(t) = .
2 t2
b Let u(t) be an input with spectrum U (), then the spectrum Y () of
the output y(t) is given by Y () = U ()H(). The Nyquist frequency of
u(t) is , so U () = 0 outside [/2, /2]. Hence, also Y () = 0 outside
[/2, /2].
c For T = 1 the sampling frequency equals 2. This is greater than the
Nyquist frequency of the input and so the sampling condition is satisfied.
From the sampling theorem it then follows that
1
1 X sin((t nT ))
u(t) = .
n=1 t nT
To determine y(t) it suffices to know the response to the signal (sin t)/t
since the system is linear and time-invariant. The spectrum of (sin t)/(t)
is p2 () and the spectrum of the corresponding output is then given by
p2 ()q () = q (). The response to (sin t)/(t) is thus the inverse
Fourier transform of q (), which is 2 sin2 (t/2)/( 2 t2 ) (table 3). Hence,
2 sin2 (t/2) 2 sin2 ((t 1)/2) 2 sin2 ((t + 1)/2)
y(t) = 2 2
+ + .
t (t 1)
2 2 2 (t + 1)2
a We know that f [n] = 3k=0 f [k]4 [n k] holds for all periodic discrete-
P
15.15
time signals with period 4. Hence, we only have to show that the sampling
has period 4, which is easy because
n
f [n] = f ( + 2) = f ((n + 4) ) = f [n + 4].
2 2
b The sampling frequency is 2/T = 4 > 3, so the sampling condition

is satisfied. The signal can thus be reconstructed completely from the
sampling. P ik0 t
c Let f (t) = k= ck e be the Fourier series of f , where 0 =
2/T = 1. Since ei0 t 2( 0 ) we can write the spectrum as

X
F () = 2 ck ( k0 ).
k=
This is a line spectrum with lines at k0 . The periodic signal is band-limited

with Nyquist frequency 3. Hence, the spectrum is 0 outside [3/2, 3/2].
This implies that cn = 0 for | n | 2.
d From part c follows that f (t) = c0 +c1 eit +c1 eit . Next substitute the
values t = 0, /2, /2, and use the given sampling from part b. Then
we obtain the three equations c0 + c1 + c1 = 0, c0 + ic1 ic1 = 1 and
c0 ic1 + ic1 = 1. Hence, c0 = 1.
15.16 a The Nyquist frequency is 2. The sampling frequency is 2/T = 3, so
the sampling condition is satisfied. The signal can thus be reconstructed
completely from the sampling.
b We know that (use table 3, no 2 and table 4, shift in the time domain,
twice)
sin (t + 1) sin (t 1) t sin t
f (t) = + = .
2(t + 1) 2(t 1) (1 t2 )
c Using the sampling theorem we obtain that

1 sin (t nT )/T
Z X Z
f (t) dt = T f [n] dt.
n=
t nT
R
The integral in the right-hand side is , so f (t) dt = T
P
n= f [n].
d According to Parsevals identity we have
Z Z Z
1 1 1
E= | f (t) |2 dt = | F () |2 d = cos2 d = .
2 2 2
16.1 The formula for the 2-point DFT is

1
X
F [k] = f [n]e2ink/2 .
n=0
i
Since e = 1 we have
1
X
F [k] = f [n](1)nk = f [0] + (1)k f [1].
n=0
16.2 The signal f [n] = (1)n has period 2 and, hence, period 4 as well. The
2-point DFT F2 [k] is given by 1 (1)k (see 16.1). The 4-point DFT F4 [k]
is by definition given by
3
X
F4 [k] = f [n]e2ink/4 = 1 eik/2 + eik e3ik/2
n=0
= 1 (i)k + (1)k ik = (1 + (1)k )(1 ik ).
16.3 The Fourier coefficients are given by
1 T /2 ik0 t
Z
1
ck = e dt = (1 eik0 T /2 ).
T 0 ik0 T
Since 0 T = 2 we obtain ck = (1 (1)k )/2ik for k 6= 0 and c0 = 1/2.
The value F [0] follows immediately from the formula for F [k]:
N
X 1 N
X 1
F [0] = f [n] = f (nT /N ).
n=0 n=0
When N is even then

F [0] 1 1
= (f (0) + f (T /N ) + + f (T /2)) = = c0 .
N N 2
When N is odd then
F [0] N 1 1 1 1
= = = c0 .
N 2N 2 2N 2N
Hence, we do not have c0 = F [0]/N for all N .
16.5 It is better to define the function value at the jumps as the average value
of the left-hand and right-hand limit. Using the DFT we then find a better
approximation of the Fourier coefficients. (In exercise 16.4 we do have
c0 = F [0]/N for all N .)
16.7 Apply the inverse 4-point DFT to F [k], then

f [n] = F [0] + F [1]ein/2 + F [2]ein + F [3]e3in/2 /4 = (1 + (i)n ) /4.
16.8 Since F [k] = | F [k] | ei arg(F [k]) we obtain from the given amplitude spec-
trum and phase spectrum that F [k] = 2eik/2 and so F [0] = 2, F [1] = 2i,
F [2] = 2, F [3] = 2i. Next apply the inverse DFT:

f [n] = 2 + 2iein/2 2ein 2ie3in/2 /4
68
and hence, f [0] = 0, f [1] = 0, f [2] = 0, f [3] = 2, that is, f [n] = 24 [n 3].
16.10 a On [0, 2] the periodic function f is given by
( t
|t |
for 0 t ,
f (t) = 1 =
2 t for t 2.

Since f (t + ) = 1 t/ for 0 < t and f (t + ) = f (t ) = t/ 1

for t 2 we obtain that f (t) + f (t + ) = 1 for all t.
b Since f [n] = f (2n/N ) we obtain from part a that f [n]+f [n+N/2] = 1.
c Apply the N -point DFT to f [n] + f [n + N/2] = 1, using the shift
rule in the n-domain. Since 1 N N [k] (table 11), we the obtain that
F [k] + e2iN k/2N F [k] = N N [k], hence (1 + eik )F [k] = N N [k]. When k
is even and not a multiple of N then 2F [k] = N N [k] = 0, so F [k] = 0.
When k is a multiple of N then N [k] = 1, hence, F [k] = N/2.
16.12 The signal is real, so F [k] = F [k], which gives F [3] = F [1] = F [1] = i.
Applying the inverse DFT leads to f [n] = (1 + in+1 + (i)n+1 )/4.
16.13 Apply the definition of the cyclical convolution and use theorem 15.2, then
one obtains that (f f )[n] = f [n]+f [n1] = N [n]+2N [n1]+N [n2].
16.14 Use the convolution theorem: first determine the functions f1 and f2 with
f1 cos(2k/N ) = (e2ik/N + e2ik/N )/2 and f2 sin(4k/N ) =
(e4ik/N e4ik/N )/2i and then calculate f [n] = (f1 f2 )[n]. Since
N [n m] e2imk/N (table 11 and table 12, shift in the n-domain),
we have f1 [n] = (N [n 1] + N [n + 1])/2 and f2 [n] = (N [n + 2]
N [n 2])/2i. From the convolution theorem and theorem 15.2 it then
follows that f [n] = (f1 f2 )[n] = (f2 [n + 1] + f2 [n 1])/2, which equals
(N [n + 3] + N [n + 1] N [n 1] N [n 3])/4i.
16.16 From table 11 we have that N [n] 1 and so (table 12, shift in the n-
domain) N [n l] e2ilk/N . Since cos2 (k/N ) = (1 + cos(2k/N ))/2 =
(2 + eik/N + eik/N )/4 it follows that f [n] = (2N [n] + N [n 1] + N [n +
1])/4. The power equals
N 1
1 X
| f [n] |2 .
N n=0
Now | f [n] |2 = (4N [n] + N [n 1] + N [n + 1])/16 since N [n]N [n + 1] =

N [n]N [n 1] = N [n 1]N [n + 1] = 0. Also note that N [n + 1] = N [n
(N 1)] and hence, | f [0] |2 = 1/4, | f [1] |2 = 1/16, | f [N 1] |2 = 1/16,
while all other values are 0. This means that

1 1 1 1 3
P = + + = .
N 4 16 16 8N
16.18 a We calculate G[k] from the expression for the 5-point DFT. Note that
g[3] = g[2] = c2 = 1 and g[4] = g[1] = c1 = 2. Hence,
G[k] = g[0] + g[1]e2ik/5 + g[2]e4ik/5 + g[3]e6ik/5 + g[4]e8ik/5
= 1 + 2e2ik/5 + e4ik/5 + e6ik/5 + 2e8ik/5
= 1 + 4 cos(2k/5) + 2 cos(4k/5).
b Since the Fourier coefficients of f are known, we can express f as a
Fourier series: f (t) = c0 + c1 ei0 t + c1 ei0 t + c2 e2i0 t + c2 e2i0 t .
Hence,
f (2m/50 )
= g[0] + g[1]e2im/5 + g[2]e4im/5 + g[3]e6im/5 + g[4]e8im/5 = G[m].

c First use Parseval for Fourier series:
Z T
1 X
| f (t) |2 dt = | cn |2 .
T 0 n=
Since ck = 0 for | k | 3 we obtain that 2

P P2 2
n= | cn | = n=2 | g[n] | =
P4 2
n=0 | g[n] | . Applying Parseval for the DFT one obtains the result.
16.19 a From table 11 we have that N [n] 1 and so (table 12, shift in the
n-domain) f [n] e2ik/N 1 + e2ik/N = 2 cos(2k/N ) 1.
b Calculate the convolution using (16.14) and theorem 15.2, then
N
X 1
(f g)[n] = f [l]g[n l] = g[n + 1] g[n] + g[n 1].
l=0
c First write g[n] as complex exponentials and then determine the N -

point DFT using table 11 and the shift rule in the k-domain:
N
G[k] = (N [k 2] + N [k + 2]).
2
Finally apply (16.19) to calculate the power:
N 1 N 1 2
1 X 1 X N 1
| g[n] |2 = 2 | N [k 2] + N [k + 2] | = .
N n=0 N 2 2
k=0
16.20 a Since f (t) is real and even, the sampling f [n] is real and even since
f [n] = f (nT /5) = f (nT /5) = f [n].
b Apply the inverse DFT, where the values of F [3] and F [4] are calcu-
lated using the fact that F has period 5 and is even. Hence, f [n] = (1 +
2e2in/5 + 2e8in/5 + e4in/5 + e6in/5 )/5, which equals (1 + 4 cos(2n/5) +
2 cos(4n/5))/5.
c The function f is band-limited with band-width 10/T . The Fourier
coefficients ck of f contribute to the frequencies k0 = 2k/T . Hence,
these are 0 for | k | 3. This means that f (t) is equal to the Fourier series
c0 + c1 ei0 t + c1 ei0 t + c2 e2i0 t + c2 e2i0 t . Substituting t = nT /5
(and rearranging) we obtain that f [n] = c0 + c1 e2in/5 + c2 e4in/5 +
c2 e6in/5 + c1 e8in/5 . But this is precisely the expression for the in-
verse DFT, which implies that c0 = F [0]/5, c1 = F [1]/5, c2 = F [2]/5,
c2 = F [3]/5 = F [2]/5, c1 = F [4]/5 = F [1]/5. Hence ck = F [k]/5 for
| k | 2. Since F [k] has period 5 and ck = 0 for | k | > 2 we do not have
ck = F [k]/5 for | k | > 2.
17.1 We can write (17.2) for N = 5 as follows: F [k] = f [0] + f [1]w5k + +

f [4]w54k where w5 = e2i/5 = w. Hence,
f [0] + f [1] + + f [4] = F [0],
f [0] + f [1]w1 + + f [4]w4 = F [1],
f [0] + f [1]w2 + + f [4]w8 = F [2],
f [0] + f [1]w3 + + f [4]w12 = F [3],
f [0] + f [1]w4 + + f [4]w16 = F [4].
Using that w5 = 1 we then obtain a system that is equal to the system
arising from the matrix representation.
17.2 As in exercise 17.1 we can write the formula for the inverse DFT in matrix
form:
01 1 1 1 1 1 0 F [0] 1 0 f [0] 1
2 3
B1 w w w w4 C B F [1] C B f [1] C
1B
B 1 w2 w4 w w3 C B F [2] C = B f [2] C .
CB C B C
5@ 3 4 2 A@
1 w w w w F [3] f [3]
A @ A
4 3 2
1 w w w w F [4] f [4]
The matrix in the left-hand side is thus the inverse of the matrix in exercise
17.1.
17.4 Take N1 = 2 and N2 = 2. Note that f [3] = f [1]. The matrix Mf now
looks as follows:

f [0] f [2] 2 2
Mf = = .
f [1] f [3] 0 1
The 2-point DFT of the rows of this matrix gives

4 0
C= .
1 1
Multiplying this by the twiddle factors w4 with w4 = ei/2 = i gives

4 0
Ct = .
1 i
Now calculate the 2-point DFT of the columns of this matrix to get the
4-point DFT:

5 i
MF = .
3 i
Hence, F [0] = 5, F [1] = i, F [2] = 3, F [3] = i.
17.6 The matrix Mf looks as follows:

f [0] f [2] . . . f [N 2]
Mf = .
1 1 ... 1
The N/2-point DFT of the first row of this matrix is A[k], while the N/2-
point DFT of the second row follows from table 11. This gives the matrix
C:
71

A[0] A[1] ... A[N/2 1]
C= .
N/2 0 ... 0
Multiplying this by the twiddle factors will not change this matrix because
of the zeroes in the second row of C and hence Ct = C. Now calculate the
2-point DFT of the columns of Ct = C to get the matrix MF and, hence,
the required N -point DFT of f [n]:

A[0] + N/2 A[1] . . . A[N/2 1]
MF =
A[0] N/2 A[1] . . . A[N/2 1]
F [0] F [1] . . . F [N/2 1]
= .
F [N/2] F [N/2 + 1] . . . F [N 1]
17.7 Let A1 [k] be the 2N -point DFT of f [2n] and B1 [k] the 2N -point DFT of
f [2n + 1]. Then we have for the 4N -point DFT of f [n] (see (17.14)):

F [] = A1 [] + w4N B1 [],

F [2N + ] = A1 [] w4N B1 [],
where = 0, 1, . . . , 2N 1. The 2N -point DFT of f [2n] follows analogously
from the N -point DFT of f [4n] and f [4n + 1]:

A1 [] = A[] + w2N C[],

A1 [N + ] = A[] w2N C[],
where = 0, 1, . . . , N 1. Also, the 2N -point DFT of f [2n + 1] follows
from the N -point DFT of f [4n + 1] and f [4n + 3]:

B1 [] = B[] + w2N D[],

B1 [N + ] = B[] w2N D[],
where = 0, 1, . . . , N 1. Combining these results leads to the 4N -point
DFT of f [n]:
3
F [] = A[] + w2N C[] + w4N B[] + w4N D[],
3
F [N + ] = A[] w2N C[] + w4N B[] w4N D[],
3
F [2N + ] = A[] + w2N C[] w4N B[] w4N D[],
3
F [3N + ] = A[] w2N C[] w4N B[] + w4N D[],
where = 0, 1, . . . , N 1.
RT
17.8 Since f (t) is causal we have FT () = 0 f (t)eit dt. Apply the trapezium
rule to the integral and substitute = (2k + 1)/T , then it follows that
N 1
T X in/N
FT ((2k + 1)/T ) e f [n]e2in/N .
N n=0
This shows that the spectrum at the frequencies = (2k + 1)/T can be
approximated by the N -point DFT of ein/N f [n].
17.9 Let F () be the Fourier transform of f (t). Applying the trapezium rule to
RT RT
0
f (t)eit dt and to 0 f (t)eit dt leads to (T /N )F [k] and (T /N )F [k]
respectively, where F [k] denotes the N -point DFT of f [n]. Adding this
gives
2k T
F( ) (F [k] + F [k]) for | k | < N/2.
T N
This means that we can efficiently approximate the spectrum of f at the

frequencies 2k/T with | k | < N/2 by using an N -point DFT.
17.11 First we determine the DFTs of the signals using table 11. Since f1 [n] =
N [n] + N [n 1] F1 [k] = 1 + e2ik/N and f2 [n] = N [n] + N [n + 1]
F2 [k] = 1 + e2ik/N we obtain the DFT of the cross-correlation as follows:
12 F1 [k]F2 [k] = (1 + e2ik/N )2 = 1 + 2e2ik/N + e4ik/N .

Applying the inverse transform gives the cross-correlation 12 = N [n] +
2N [n + 1] + N [n + 2].

17.13 Let P (z) = f [0] + f [1]z + f [2]z 2 and w3 = e2i/3 = (1 + i 3)/2 = 1/w.
k
Then F [k] = P (w3 ) = P (w ) = f [0]+f [1]w +f [2]w = f [0]+wk (f [1]+
k k 2k
wk f [2]).
17.14 Let Mf be the 3 N -matrix given by
0 1
f [0] f [3] . . . f [3N 3]
Mf = @ f [1] f [4] . . . f [3N 2] A .
f [2] f [5] . . . f [3N 1]
The N -point DFT of the rows of this matrix are given by A[k], B[k] and
C[k] respectively. The matrix C is then given by
0 1
A[0] A[1] . . . A[N 1]
C = @ B[0] B[1] . . . B[N 1] A .
C[0] C[1] . . . C[N 1]

Multiplying this by the twiddle factors w3N gives the matrix Ct. The
3-point DFT of the columns of Ct will give us the matrix MF :
0 1
F [0] F [1] . . . F [N 1]
MF = @ F [N ] F [N + 1] . . . F [2N 1] A .
F [2N ] F [2N + 1] . . . F [3N 1]
Since the 3-point DFT of g[n] is given by G[k] = g[0] + g[1]w3k + g[2]w32k
we conclude that
(+N ) 2(+N )
F [N + ] = A[] + w3N B[] + w3N C[].
m1
17.15 Take N1 = 3 and N2 = 3 and consider the N1 N2 -matrix
0 1
f [0] f [3] . . . f [N 3]
Mf = @ f [1] f [4] . . . f [N 2] A .
f [2] f [5] . . . f [N 1]
Let the N2 -point DFT of the rows f [3n], f [3n + 1] and f [3n + 2] be given
by A[k], B[k] and C[k], then the matrix C is given by
0 1
A[0] A[1] . . . A[N2 1]
C = @ B[0] B[1] . . . B[N2 1] A .
C[0] C[1] . . . C[N2 1]
Multiplying this by the twiddle factors and then applying the 3-point DFT
of the columns gives the matrix MF containing the N -point DFT of f [n]:
0 1
F [0] F [1] . . . F [N2 1]
MF = @ F [N2 ] F [N2 + 1] . . . F [2N2 1] A .
F [2N2 ] F [2N2 + 1] . . . F [N 1]
To calculate the 3-point DFT we need 6 additions and 4 multiplications,

hence 10 elementary operations. The N2 -point DFT of f [3n], of f [3n +
1], and of f [3n + 2] can be determined by repeatedly splitting this into
(multiples of 3), (multiples of 3) + 1, and (multiples of 3) + 2. We thus only
have to determine 3-point DFTs.
Let h[n] = N
P
17.16 l=0 f [l]g[n l]. Since g[n] is causal and g[n] = 0 for n > N
we have that h[n] = 0 for n < 0 or n > 2N . Hence, it suffices to calculate
h[n] for n = 0, 1, . . . , 2N . Now let fp [n] and gp [n] be two periodic signals
with period 2N + 1 and such that fp [n] = f [n] and gp [n] = g[n] for n =
0, 1, . . . , 2N . Then
2N
X
h[n] = fp [l]gp [n l] = (fp gp )[n] for n = 0, 1, . . . , 2N .
l=0
Now let fp [n] Fp [k] and gp [n] Gp [k]. Then we have

2N
1 X
h[n] = Fp [k]Gp [k]e2ink/(2N +1)
2N + 1
k=0
for n = 0, 1, . . . , 2N . Although these are really 2N + 1-point DFTs, we

continue for convenience our argument with 2N . If we assume that cal-
culating a 2N -point DFT using the FFT requires 2N (2 log N ) elementary
operations, then the number of elementary operations to calculate h[n] will
(approximately) equal 2N (2 log N )+2N (2 log N )+(2N +1)+2N (2 log N ) =
6N (2 log N ) + 2N + 1. A direct calculation would require in the order N 2
operations, which for large N is much less efficient.
17.17 Let P (z) = f [0] + f [1]z + f [2]z 2 + f [3]z 3 and w = e2i/4 = i. Then
F [k] = P (wk ), hence, F [0] = P (1), F [1] = P (i), F [2] = P (1), F [3] =
P (i). Now f [n] is even and so f [3] = f [1] = f [1]. Then F [k] is also
even, hence F [3] = F [1]. This gives F [0] = f [0] + f [1] + f [2] + f [3] =
f [0] + 2f [1] + f [2], F [1] = f [0] if [1] f [2] + if [3] = f [0] f [2], and
F [2] = f [0] f [1] + f [2] f [3] = f [0] 2f [1] + f [2].
18.1 When f [n] = 0 for | n | > N for some N > 0, then

X 1
X N
X
F (z) = f [n]z n = f [n]z n + f [n]z n .
n= n=N n=0
The anti-causal part converges for all z, while the causal part converges
for all z 6= 0. The region of convergence is thus given by 0 < | z | < . If
f [n] = 0 for n 1 then the z-transform converges for all z C.
18.2 The anti-causal part converges for all z. The causal part can be written as
n n
X 1 1
+ .
n=0
2z 3z
Hence, the z-transform converges for | 2z | > 1 and | 3z | > 1, that is, for
| z | > 1/2.
18.3 a A direct calculation of F (z) gives

X z n z n
+ .
n=0
2 3
This series converges for | z/2 | < 1 and | z/3 | < 1, hence, for | z | < 2.
b The z-transform is given by

X
F (z) = cos(n/2)z n .
n=0
Since | cos(n/2) | 1 for all n and since n

P
n=0 | z | P for | z | > 1,
converges
the z-transform also converges for | z | > 1. Moreover, n=0 cos(n/2)
diverges since limn cos(n/2) 6= 0. We conclude that the z-transform
converges for | z | > 1.
c From parts a and b it follows immediately that the region of convergence
is the ring 1 < | z | < 2.
18.4 a We rewrite f [n] in order to apply a shift in the n-domain: f [n] =
2(n 2)[n 2] + 4[n 2]. Since [n] z/(z 1) for | z | > 1, we obtain
from the shift rule that 4[n 2] 4z 1 /(z 1). It also follows from
[n] z/(z 1) and the differentiation rule that n[n] z/(z 1)2 and
applying the shift rule we then obtain that (n 2)[n 2] z 1 /(z 1)2 .
Combining these results gives the z-transform F (z) of f [n]:
2z 1 4z 1 4z 2
F (z) = + = for | z | > 1.
(z 1)2 z1 z(z 1)2
b We rewrite f [n] in order to apply a shift in the n-domain: f [n] =
2(n + 2)[(n + 2)] 4[(n + 2)]. From [n] z/(z 1) we obtain from
time reversal that [n] (1/z)/((1/z) 1) = 1/(1 z) for | z | > 1. From
the shift rule it follows that 4[(n + 2)] 4z 2 /(1 z). It also follows from
[n] 1/(1 z) and the differentiation rule that n[n] z/(1 z)2
and applying the shift rule we then obtain that 2(n + 2)[(n + 2)]
2z 3 /(1 z)2 . Combining these results gives
75
2z 3 4z 2 2z 3 4z 2
F (z) = = .
(1 z)2 1z (1 z)2
c We can, for example, calculate this z-transform in a direct way:

X 1
f [n] = (1)n [n] (1)n z n = for | z | < 1.
n=0
1+z
d Again we can, for example, calculate this z-transform in a direct way:

X z 4
f [n] = [4 n] zn = for | z | < 1.
n=4
1z
One can also use [n] 1/(1 z) and apply a shift rule.
e From example 18.6 it follows that (n2 n)[n] 2z/(z 1)3 and
n[n] z/(z 1)2 . Adding these results gives
z(z + 1)
n2 [n] for | z | > 1.
(z 1)3
From example 18.2 we obtain that 4n [n] z/(z 4) for | z | > 4. The
differentiation rule implies that n4n [n] 4z/(z4)2 for | z | > 4. Together
these results give
z(z + 1) 4z
F (z) = + for | z | > 4.
(z 1)3 (z 4)2
18.5 a A direct calculation of the z-transform gives (for | z | > 1):

X 1 z2
F (z) = cos(n/2)z n = 1 z 2 + z 4 = 2
= .
n=0
1+z 1 + z2
b A direct calculation of the z-transform gives (for | z | > 1):

X z 1 z
F (z) = sin(n/2)z n = z 1 z 3 + = = .
n=0
1 + z 2 1 + z2
c A direct calculation of the z-transform of ein [n] gives (for | z | > 1):

X 1 z
ein z n = 1 + ei z 1 + e2i z 2 + = = .
n=0
1 ei /z z ei
A direct calculation of the z-transform of 2n ein [n] gives (for | z | < 2):
0
X X 1
2n ein z n = 2n ein z n = .
n= n=0
1 ei z/2
Hence we get for 1 < | z | < 2:

z 1
F (z) = + .
z ei 1 ei z/2
18.8 One could apply a partial fraction expansion here (see e.g. exercise 18.10).
However, in this case it is easy to obtain the z-transform in a direct way
by developing F (z) in a series expansion. Since the z-transform has to
converge for | z | > 2 (there are poles at z = 2i and f [n] has a finite
switch-on time) we develop F (z) as follows:

1 1 4 16
F (z) = 2 = 2 1 2 + 4 + .
z +4 z z z
From the series we now obtain that f [n] = 0 for n 0 and that f [2n] =
(1)n1 22n2 , f [2n + 1] = 0, for n > 0.
18.9 As in the previous exercise we obtain the z-transform in a direct way by
developing F (z) in a series expansion. Since the unit circle | z | = 1 has to
belong to the region of convergence (f [n] has to be absolute convergent)
we develop F (z) for | z | < 2 as follows:
z2 z4

1 1
F (z) = = 1 + + .
4(1 + z 2 /4) 4 4 16
From the series we obtain that f [n] = 0 for n 1 and f [2n] = (1)n 22n2 ,
f [2n 1] = 0, for n 0.
18.10 The poles are at z = 1/2 and z = 3; the signal f [n] must have a finite
switch-on time, hence, the z-transform has to converge for | z | > 3. A
partial fraction expansion of F (z)/z gives
F (z) 1/10 18/5
=1+ .
z z + 1/2 z+3
Applying (18.14) to the expansion of F (z) gives
z z
(1/2)n [n] for | z | > 1/2, (3)n [n] for | z | > 3.
z + 1/2 z+3
Combining this gives f [n] = [n + 1] + ((1/2)n [n] 36(3)n [n])/10.
18.11 In exercise 18.10 we obtained the partial fraction expansion. Now the
signal f [n] has to be absolutely convergent, which means that | z | = 1 has
to belong to the region of convergence. Applying (18.14) to z/(z + 1/2)
gives
z
(1/2)n [n] for | z | > 1/2,
z + 1/2
while applying (18.15) to z/(z + 3) gives
z
(3)n [n 1] for | z | < 3.
z+3
Combining this gives f [n] = [n+1]+((1/2)n [n]+36(3)n [n1])/10.
18.12 A direct application of the definition of the convolution product gives
M1
X
(f g)[n] = f [l]g[n l]
l=N1
= f [N1 ]g[n N1 ] + f [N1 + 1]g[n N1 1] +
+ f [M1 1]g[n M1 + 1] + f [M1 ]g[n M1 ].
Since g[n N1 ] = 0 for n < N1 + N2 and, hence, also g[n N1 1] = 0,
g[n N1 2] = 0, etc., we have that (f g)[n] = 0 for n < N1 + N2 . This
means that the switch-on time is N1 + N2 .
Since g[n M1 ] = 0 for n > M1 + M2 and, hence, also g[n M1 + 1] = 0,
g[n M1 + 2] = 0, etc., we have that (f g)[n] = 0 for n > M1 + M2 . This
means that the switch-off time is M1 + M2 .
18.13 a The signal is causal and F (z) has poles at z = i. The z-transform
converges for | z | > 1. Write F (z) as the sum of a geometric series (or use
a partial fraction expansion):

z 1 1 1
F (z) = = 1 2 + 4 + .
z2 + 1 z z z
From the series we obtain that f [n] = 0 for n < 0 and f [2n + 1] = (1)n ,
f [2n] = 0, for n 0.
b The convolution theorem gives (f f )[n] F 2 (z). Hence,
n
!
X X
h[n] = (f f )[n] = f [l]f [n l] = f [l]f [n l] [n].
l= l=0
From this we obtain that h[n] = 0 for n < 0 while for m 0 we have:
h[2m + 1] = f [0]f [2m + 1] + f [1]f [2m] + + f [2m + 1]f [0] = 0,
h[2m] = f [0]f [2m] + f [1]f [2m 1] + + f [2m]f [0]
= 0 + (1)0 (1)m1 + 0 + + (1)m1 (1)0 + 0 = m(1)m1 .
18.14 Apply the definition of the convolution product and use that [n l] = 0
for l > n and [n l] = 1 for l n.
18.15 Use that f [n] F (z) and [n] 1 and apply the convolution theorem
(assuming that the intersection of the regions of convergence is non-empty)
then (f )[n] F (z) 1 = F (z). Hence, f [n] = (f )[n].
Define a discrete-time signal h[n] by h[n] = n ln
P
18.17 l= 2 f [l], which is the
n n
convolution product of f [n] with 2 [n]. Now 2 [n] z/(z 1/2) for
| z | > 1/2 and f [n] F (z). Hence, h[n] zF (z)/(z 1/2). Assuming
that | z | = 1 belongs to the region of convergence of the z-transform of f [n]
we get

ei F (ei ) X
= h[n]ein .
ei 1/2 n=
Using (18.22) to determine h[n] gives

1 ei F (ei )ein
Z
h[n] = d.
2ei 1
18.19 Applying (18.31) gives
Z Z
1 1 1
X 2
| f [n] |2 = F (ei
) d = cos2 d = .

2 2 2

n=
P
(One can also determine f [n] first and then calculate n= | f [n] |2 dir-
ectly.)
18.20 We have that [n] = (g f )[n] with g[l] = f [l]. The convolution theorem
and property (18.25) (or table 15, entry 2) imply that the spectrum of [n]
is given by G(ei )F (ei ). But G(ei ) = F (ei ) (combine table 15, entries
2
2 and 5) and hence [n] F (ei )F (ei ) = F (ei ) .
18.22 a The signal f [n] is causal. The region of convergence is the exterior of a
circle. Applying the shift rule to 2n [n] z/(z 1/2) for | z | > 1/2 gives
2(n+2) [n + 2] z 3 /(z 1/2) for | z | > 1/2. Hence, F (z) = 4z 3 /(z 1/2)
for | z | > 1/2.
b One could write g[n] = (f )[n], apply the convolution theorem and
then a partial fraction
P expansion. However, it is easier to do a direct
calculation: g[n] = n l
l= 2 [l + 2] and hence, g[n] = 0 for n < 2 while
g[n] = n l
= 8(1 2n3 ) for n 2 (it is a geometric series). We
P
l=2 2
thus obtain that g[n] = (8 2n )[n + 2].

c The z-transform of f [n] converges for | z | > 1/2, which contains the
unit circle | z | = 1. Hence, the Fourier transform of f [n] equals F (ei ) =
4e3i /(ei 1/2).
18.23 a The signal f [n] is absolutely summable. The z-transform has one pole
at z = 2 and therefore the region of convergence is | z | < 2, since it
must contain | z | = 1. Since F (z)/z = 1 2/(z + 2) we have F (z) =
z 2z/(z + 2) for | z | < 2. The inverse transform of this gives f [n] =
[n + 1] (2)n+1 [n 1].
b The Fourier transform of f [n] equals F (ei ) = e2i /(ei + 2).
c We have f [n] F (z) for | z | < 2. The scaling property (table 14, entry
5) gives 2n f [n] F (z/2) for | z | < 4. The spectrum of 2n f [n] is thus equal
to F (ei /2) = e2i /(2ei + 8).
18.24 a The signal f [n] is causal. The poles of F (z) are at i/2 and at 0. The
region of convergence is the exterior of the circle | z | = 1/2. This contains
the unit circle and so the signal is absolutely summable. The spectrum of
f [n] equals F (ei ) = 1/(ei (4e2i + 1)).
b First apply a partial fraction expansion to F (z)/z (the denominator
equals z 2 (2z + i)(2z i)):
F (z) 1 i i
= 2 + .
z z z i/2 z + i/2
Applying (18.14) to F (z) gives f [n] = [n 1] + (i(i/2)n i(i/2)n )[n].
c If F (ei ) = F (ei ), then the signal is real. Since
F (ei ) = 1/(ei (4e2i + 1)) = F (ei ),
the signal is indeed real. (One can also write (i(i/2)n i(i/2)n ) =
in+1 2n (1 (1)n ), which equals 0 for n = 2k and 21n (1)k+1 for
n = 2k + 1, showing clearly that it is real.)
For n < 0 we have that n
P
18.25 l=0 g[l]g[n l] = 0 since g[n] is causal. Thus f [n]
is also causal. Since g[l] = 0 for l < 0 and g[n l] = 0 for l > n we can
write

X
f [n] = g[l]g[n l] = (g g)[n].
l=
This implies that F (z) = G(z)2 , so we need to determine G(z). To do so,

we write G(ei ) = 1/(4 + cos 2) as a function of ei :
1 1 2e2i
= 1 = 4i .
4 + cos 2 4 + 2 (e2i +e2i ) e + 8e2i + 1
Taking z = ei we find that G(z) = 2z 2 /(z 4 + 8z 2 + 1), which gives F (z) =

G(z)2 .
19.2 a Substituting [n] for u[n] we find that

n1
X
h[n] = 2ln [l] = 2n [n 1].
l=
Use the definition of [n] and [n] to verify (19.3):

n1
X
X
X
y[n] = 2ln u[l] = 2ln [n 1 l]u[l] = h[n l]u[l].
l= l= l=
b As in part a we obtain that h[n] = ([n + 1] + [n 1])/2 and

X 1 X
h[n l]u[l] = u[l] ([n l + 1] + [n l 1])
2
l= l=
1
= (u[n + 1] + u[n 1]) = y[n].
2
c We now have h[n] = ln
[l] = 2n [n] and
P
l=n 2

X
X
X
h[n l]u[l] = u[l]2ln [l n] = u[l]2ln = y[n].
l= l= l=n
19.3 a An LTD-system is causal if and only if the impulse response is a causal

signal. So this system is causal. The system is stable Pif and only if
the impulse response is absolutely summable. Since
P n n= | h[n] | =
n=1 2 = 1 < , this system is stable.

b This system is not causal, but it is stable since

X
X
| h[n] | = ([n + 1] + [n 1])/2 = 1 < .
n= n=
P
c
PThisn system is not causal, and it is not stable since n= | h[n] | =
n=0 2 = .
19.4 a The step response is the P response to [n] and can be calculated using

(19.3): a[n] = (h )[n] = l= ([l] 2[l 1] + [l 2])[n l] =
[n] 2[n 1] + [n 2].
b The response to an arbitrary input also follows from (19.3): y[n] =
(h u)[n] = u[n] 2u[n 1] + u[n 2].
19.5 Since [n] = [n] [n 1], it follows from linearity and time-invariance
that h[n] = a[n] a[n 1]. Now use (19.3) to calculate the response y[n]
to u[n] = 4n [n]:

X
X
y[n] = (h u)[n] = a[l]u[n l] a[l 1]u[n l]
l= l=

X
X
= a[l]u[n l] a[l]u[n 1 l].
l= l=
80
We now calculate the first sum; the second one then follows by replacing n
by n 1.

X
X
a[l]u[n l] = 2l [l] 3l [l 1] u[n l]
l= l=
X
X
l ln
= 2 4 [n l] 3l 4ln [n l]
l=0 ! l=1
n
X n
X
n l n
= 4 2 [n] 4 (4/3)l [n 1]
l=0 l=1
= 4n (2n+1 1)[n] 3 4n ((4/3)n+1 (4/3))[n 1]
= (21n 4n )[n] 4(3n 4n )[n 1].
Hence, replacing n by n 1 and then taking terms together in the sum,
y[n] = (21n 4n )[n]4(3n +2n 24n )[n1]4(31n 41n )[n2].
19.8 The transfer function follows from an [n] z/(z a) for | z | > | a |; this
is because we can write cos n = (ein + ein )/2, and hence

1 z z
h[n] +
2 z ei /2 z ei /2
i
for | z | > e /2 = 1/2. We thus obtain:
z(z cos /2)
H(z) =
z 2 cos z + 1/4
for | z | > 1/2. The poles are at ei /2 and ei /2, which is inside the unit
circle. Therefore the system is stable.
19.9 a The impulse response h[n] can be determined by a partial fraction ex-
pansion of H(z)/z. Since

H(z) 1 1 1/3
=
z 9 z + 1/3 (z + 1/3)2
we have

1 z z/3
H(z) = .
9 z + 1/3 (z + 1/3)2
The system is stable, so the region of convergence must contain | z | = 1.
This region is thus given by | z | > 1/3. Using table 13 we find that
h[n] = ((1/3)n + n(1/3)n )[n]/9.
b Write u[n] = (ein/2 ein/2 )/2i and use (19.10): ein/2 has re-
sponse H(ei/2 )ein/2 , so the response to u[n] is (H(ei/2 )ein/2
H(ei/2 )ein/2 )/2i, which is of the form (w w)/2i = Im (w). Hence
the response is

1 8 + 6i
Im ein/2 = Im (cos(n/2) + i sin(n/2)) ,
9 + 6i + 1 100
which is (3 cos(n/2) + 4 sin(n/2))/50.
19.11 a The frequency Presponse can be written as H(ei ) = 1 + e2i + e2i .
i in
Since H(e ) = n= h[n]e it follows that h[0] = 1, h[2] = h[2] = 1
and h[n] = 0 for all other n. Hence, the impulse response is h[n] = [n] +
[n 2] + [n + 2]. The input is u[n] = [n 2]. Since [n] 7 h[n], we have
u[n] 7 h[n 2], so the response to u[n] is y[n] = [n 2] + [n 4] + [n].

b The impulse response is not causal, so the system is not causal.
19.13 From (19.15) and the fact that H(ei ) is even we obtain that
Z
1 b
Z
1
h[n] = H(ei ) cos(n) d = cos(n) d
2 a
1
= (sin nb sin na ),
n
which can be written as 2(sin 21 n(b a ) cos 12 n(b + a ))/(n) for n 6= 0
and
1 b
Z
b a
h[0] = d = .
a
19.14 The spectrum Y (ei ) of y[n] is a periodic function with period 2. Apply
Parseval for periodic functions and substitute Y (ei ) = H(ei )U (ei ) to
get the desired result.
19.15 a Apply the z-transform to the difference equation, using the shift rule
in the n-domain. We then obtain that (1 + 21 z 1 )Y (z) = U (z). Since
H(z) = Y (z)/U (z) it follows that
1 z
H(z) = = .
1 + z 1 /2 z + 1/2
From table 13 we get the impulse response h[n] = (1/2)n [n].
b We could use z-transforms here: from Y (z) = H(z)U (z) we get Y (z) =
z 2 /((z + 1/2)(z 1/2)) (use table 13) and applying a partial fraction ex-
pansion to Y (z)/z then leads to y[n] (again use table 13). However, in this
case it is easier to follow the direct way:

X
(h u)[n] = (1/2)l [l](1/2)nl [n l].
l=
Now if n < 0 then this is 0, while if n 0 then it equals (1/2)n n l

P
l=0 (1) =
n+1 n
(1/2) (1 + (1) ).
c The transfer function H(z) has one pole at z = 1/2, which is inside
the unit circle, so the system is stable.
19.17 a From the difference equation we obtain that (1 z 2 /4)Y (z) = (1 +
z 1 )U (z) and hence
1 + z 1 z(z + 1)
H(z) = = 2 .
1 z 2 /4 z 1/4
A partial fraction expansion of H(z)/z gives
H(z) 1/2 3/2
= + .
z z + 1/2 z 1/2
Hence, H(z) = (z/2)/(z + 1/2) + (3z/2)/(z 1/2). Using table 13 we
find that h[n] = ((1/2)n+1 + 3(1/2)n+1 )[n].
b The (rational) transfer function H(z) has poles at z = 1/2, which lie
inside the unit circle, so the system is stable.
c The z-transform of [n] is z/(z 1) and therefore the z-transform A(z)
of the step response a[n] is given by A(z) = H(z)U (z) = z 2 (z + 1)/((z
1)(z + 1/2)(z 1/2)). A partial fraction expansion of A(z)/z gives
A(z) 8/3 3/2 1/6

= .
z z1 z 1/2 z + 1/2
Multiply this by z and use table 13 to obtain a[n] = ((8/3) 3(1/2)n+1
(1/3)(1/2)n+1 )[n].
d Since u[n] = [n] + [n 2] and [n] 7 a[n] we get u[n] 7 a[n] + a[n 2].
19.18 a To find the impulse response we first apply a partial fraction expansion
to H(z)/z, which gives
H(z) 1 1 1/4
= .
z z z + 1/2 (z + 1/2)2
Multiply this by z and use table 13 to obtain that h[n] = [n] ((1/2)n
(1/2)n(1/2)n )[n].
b According to (19.9) we have that z n 7 H(z)z n . Substituting z = 1
we get the response to the input (1)n . Since H(1) = 0, the response is
the null-signal.
c The (rational) transfer function H(z) has one pole at z = 1/2, which
is inside the unit circle, so the system is stable.
d The impulse response is real, so the system is real.
e Let u[n] 7P y[n], then Y (ei ) = H(ei )U (ei ). Furthermore we have
that U (ei ) = n= u[n]e
in
. Comparing this with U (ei ) = cos 2 =
2i 2i
(e +e )/2 we may conclude that u[2] = u[2] = 1/2 and u[n] = 0
for n 6= 2, hence, u[n] = ([n 2] + [n + 2])/2. By superposition it then
follows from [n] 7 h[n] that y[n] = (h[n 2] + h[n + 2])/2.
19.19 a The response to u[n + N ] is y[n + N ] (time-invariance), but also u[n] =
u[n + N ] for n Z, so y[n] = y[n + N ] for n Z.
b In (16.7) (with f replaced by u) the input u[n] is written as superpos-
ition of the signals e2ink/N . Since z n 7 H(z)z n , we have e2ink/N 7
H(e2ik/N )e2ink/N . Hence we obtain from (16.7) that
N 1
1 X
y[n] = U [k]H(e2ik/N )e2ink/N .
N
k=0
On the other hand we have from the inverse DFT for y[n] that
N 1
1 X
y[n] = Y [k]e2ink/N ,
N
k=0
where Y [k] is the N -point DFT of y[n]. Hence, Y [k] = U [k]H(e2ik/N ).

19.20 a Since H(ei ) = cos 2 = (e2i + e2i )/2 we see from definition (19.11)
of the frequency response that h[2] = h[2] = 1/2 and h[n] = 0 for n 6= 2.
Hence, h[n] = ([n + 2] + [n 2])/2.
b Using the inverse DFT we can recover u[n] from the DFT F [k] of u[n]:
3
1X
u[n] = F [k]e2ink/4 ,
4
k=0
where F [k] is the 4-point DFT of u[n]. We have F [0] = 1, F [1] = 1,

F [2] = 0, F [3] = 1 and since e2ink/4 7 H(e2ik/4 )e2ink/4 , it follow by
superposition that y[n] = (1 + 2i sin(n/2))/4.
19.21 a Since [n] = [n] [n 1] we have for the responses that h[n] =
a[n] a[n 1] and hence h[n] = n2 (1/2)n [n] (n 1)2 (1/2)n1 [n
1]. For the z-transforms we have (use the shift rule in the n-domain)
H(z) = A(z) A(z)/z = A(z)(z 1)/z. From table 13` it follows that
n
(1/2)n [n] z/(z 1/2), n(1/2)n [n] 2 n
` (z/2)/(z 1/2) , 2 (1/2) [n]
(z/4)/(z 1/2)3 and since n2 = 2 n2 + n it then follows that
z/2 z/2 1 z(z + 1/2)
A(z) = + = .
(z 1/2)3 (z 1/2)2 2 (z 1/2)3
This means that the transfer function H(z) equals
1 (z 1)(z + 1/2)
H(z) = .
2 (z 1/2)3
b The impulse response is causal, so the system is causal.
c From ein 7 H(ei )ein it follows that
1 (ei 1)(ei + 1/2) in
y[n] = e .
2 (ei 1/2)3
19.22 a From the difference equation we obtain that (1 z 1 /2)Y (z) = (z 1 +
z 2 )U (z) and hence
z 1 + z 2 z+1
H(z) = = 2 .
1 z 1 /2 z z/2
Since [n] z/(z 1) = U (z) we have
z+1
a[n] A(z) = H(z)U (z) = .
(z 1/2)(z 1)
A partial fraction expansion of A(z)/z gives
A(z) 2 4 6
= + .
z z z1 z 1/2
Multiply this by z and use table 13 to obtain that a[n] = 2[n] + (4
6(1/2)n )[n].
b The (rational) transfer function H(z) has poles at z = 0 and z = 1/2,
which lie inside the unit circle, so the system is stable.
19.23 a From the difference equation we obtain that (6 5z 1 + z 2 )Y (z) =
(6 6z 2 )U (z) and hence
6 6z 2 6(z 2 1)
H(z) = 1 2
= 2 .
6 5z + z 6z 5z + 1
A partial fraction expansion of H(z)/z (note that the denominator equals
z(2z 1)(3z 1)) gives
H(z) 6 16 9
= + .
z z z 1/3 z 1/2
Multiply this by z and use table 13 to obtain that h[n] = 6[n] +
(16(1/3)n 9(1/2)n )[n].
b The frequency response H(ei ) is obtained from the transfer function
H(z) by substituting z = ei , so H(ei ) = 6(e2i 1)/(6e2i 5ei + 1).
c From (19.10) we know that Y (ei ) = H(ei )U (ei ). Since y[n] is
identically 0, we know that Y (ei ) = 0 for all frequencies . Since H(ei ) 6=
0 for e2i 6= 1 we have U (ei ) = 0 for e2i 6= 1. The frequencies = 0
or = may still occur in the input. These frequencies correspond to
the time-harmonic signals ei0n = 1 and ein = (1)n respectively. Hence,

the input consists of a linear combination of 1 and (1)n , which means
that the solution equals u[n] = A + B(1)n , where A and B are complex
constants.
19.24 a The frequency response can be written as H(ei ) =P 1+2 cos +cos 2 =
1 + ei + ei + e2i /2 + e2i /2. Since H(ei ) = n= h[n]e
in
it
follows that h[n] = [n] + [n + 1] + [n 1] + [n + 2]/2 + [n 2]/2.
b If we write U (ei ) = 1+sin +sin 2 as complex exponentials, as in part
a, then it follows that u[0] = 1, u[1] = u[2] = i/2, u[1] = u[2] = i/2
P + i([n 1]2+ [n 2] [n + 1] [n + 2])/2. We have to
and so u[n] = [n]
calculate E = n= | y[n] | . In this case it is easiest to do this directly
(and so not using Parseval). From the expression for u[n] it follows (by
linearity and time-invariance) that y[n] = h[n] + i(h[n 1] + h[n 2]
h[n + 1] h[n + 2])/2. Substituting h[n] from part a we get y[n] as a linear
combination of [n 4], [n 3], . . . , [n + 3], [n + 4]. The coefficients in
this combination are not hard to determine. In fact, they are i/4, 3i/4,
(1/2) i, 1 3i/4, 1, 1 + 3i/4, (1/2) + i, 3i/4, i/4. Their contribution to E
is 1/16, 9/16, 20/16, 25/16, 1, 25/16, 20/16, 9/16, 1/16. The sum of these
contributions is 126/16, hence, E = 7 87 .

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Answers to selected exercises for chapter 1

1.1 Apply cos( + ) = cos cos sin sin , then

it follows from the boundedness of u(t), so | u( ) | K for some constant

phase and amplitude response the frequency response follows: H() =

then y[n] = (e2i(n+1) e2i(n+1) )/(10i), so y[n] = (sin(2n + 2))/5. The

which equals 4K. Hence, the system is stable.

b The series is convergent; proceed as in part a:

2.19 Determine the radius of convergence as follows:

3.2 A trigonometric polynomial can be written as

Multiplying by 2/T gives an .

3.7 From the description of the function we obtain that

The second integral can be calculated by an integration by parts and one

The first integral can be calculated by applying integration by parts twice;

The first integral equals T /2 for n = 1 while for n 6= 1 it equals i((1)n +

1 a/2 2bt 1 a/2 2bt

since sin2 (n0 a/2) 1. The series

b The function is piecewise smooth and it thus satisfies the conditions of

4.9 a From f (0+) = 0 = f (0) and f (1) = 0 = f ((1)+) it follows that f

(again we split the sum in a part from n = 1 to and from n = 1 to

it follows from part a that

b The derivative f 0 exists for all t 6= n (n Z) and is piecewise smooth.

At t = n the differentiated series converges to (f 0 (t+) + f 0 (t))/2, which

Since sin(n/2) = 0 if n even and (1)k if n = 2k + 1, the Fourier series is

Substituting t = 0 and t = it is easy to verify the fundamental theorem

Since | 0 | is not an integer, there are no homogeneous solutions having

5.9 a The heat equation and initial conditions are as follows:

Substituting t = 0 (and using the remaining initial condition) leads to

Substituting t = 0 (and using the remaining initial condition) gives

Substituting t = 0 (and using the remaining initial condition) leads to

Changing Rfrom the variable t to t in the second integral we obtain that

and Rchange from t to t in the second integral, then it follows that F () =

6.13 a We have F () = F () and F () is even, so F () = F (), and thus

First we take t 0. Then | t | = t for < 0. Furthermore we have

A straightforward calculation of these integrals gives (1 + t)et .

A straightforward calculation of these integrals gives (1 t)et .

Here p3 (t ) 6= 0 only if t 3/2 t + 3/2. Moreover, we have

b At t = a the function is discontinuous, so we have convergence to

7.16 This is an important exercise: it teaches to recognize useful properties.

7.24 From table 3 we know that e| t | /2 1/(1 + 2 ). By the convolution

from (7.23) with T = 1 that

Replacing a by x the result follows.

Multiplying numerator and denominator by e2a the result follows.

where we changed to the variable u = t . Now if a t a, then

If t > a, then t a > 0 and so

Finally, if t < a, then t + a < 0 and so

c The function g from part b is continuous at t = a since limta g(t) =

8.1 b For t 6= 0 we have that lim R a0 Pa (t) = 0, while for t = 0 we have

and by changing from to a t we then obtain

Using (a t) = (t a), which by (8.3) is reasonable to expect (see section

and for 1 , 2 S we have

so h1, 1 + 2 i = h1, 1 i + h1, 2 i. This proves that 1 is a linear mapping

So h| t | , i exists and one can now show that | t | is indeed a distribution

hence, (sgn t)0 = 2(t).

Since R S is certainly integrable over R, the limit exists and it will be

Tf00 = Tf0 0 = Tf 00 + (f 0 (0+) f 0 (0))(t) = Tf 00 2(t).

(a1 ) = | a | (F (at))(), so it follows that hFT (at), i = hT, F (at)i =

b We have that (4t+3) is the distribution (t+3) scaled by 4. According

c Since ( 1)2 = 2 2 + 1, the results in part a and b should be

10.7 a The spectrum of h is H() = 1+1/(1+i)2 since 1 and tet (t)

If we substitute y = 0 in this integral representation, then we obtain that

10.18 a We substitute u(t) = (t),then

If we substitute y = 0 in this integral representation, then we obtain that

solution is thus given by

10.7 a The spectrum of h is H() = 1+1/(1+i)2 since 1 and tet (t)

thus obtain that g[n] = (8 2n )[n + 2].

Use the definition of [n] and [n] to verify (19.3):