CAPE Chemistry UNIT 1 Chemical Principles and Applications I

Module 1 Fundamentals in Chemistry Lecture Notes 2

Atomic Structure
Daltons Atomic Theory
John Dalton (1754-1826) is credited with developing the modern theory of the atom. Dalton suggested that:
Different elements have atoms which differ in mass
Each element is characterized by the mass of its atom.
The basis of Daltons Atomic Theory is that all matter is composed of extremely small particles called
atoms. He described how these atoms behaved in four (4) postulates as follows:
1. Elements are made up of small, indivisible particles called atoms.
2. Each element is characterized by the mass of its atoms, all atoms of the same elements have the same
mass but atoms of different elements have different masses.
3. Chemical combinations of elements to make different substances occurs when atoms join together
in small whole number ratios.
4. Chemical reactions only rearrange the way the atoms are combined. The atoms themselves are not
changed.
As time passed, and additional information became available, some of Daltons Postulates were proven
invalid by the modern atomic theory. These include:
1. All atoms are indivisible It is now known that atoms can be bombarded with high speed particles
and split apart (nuclear fission)
2. All atoms of the same element has the same mass - With the discovery of isotopes, it is now known
that there are atoms of a single element having the same atomic number but different mass numbers.
Sub-atomic Particles (Fundamental Particles)
Atoms are made up of three (3) fundamental particles.
1. Protons has a mass of 1, positively charged and found within the nucleus.
2. Electrons has a mass of 1/1840 which is considered to be insignificant, negatively charged and
found in atomic orbitals surrounding the nucleus.
3. Neutrons has a mass of 1, no charge and are found together with protons in the nucleus (protons
and neutrons are collectively referred to as nucleons.)
When beams of protons are passed through an electric field, the protons are deflected towards the negative
plate. It is deflected to a lesser extent that electrons since it has mass and therefore is heavier.
When beams of electrons are passed through an electric field, the electrons are deflected towards the positive
plate. It is deflected to a greater extent than the proton since it has virtually no mass.
When beams of neutrons are passed through an electric field, the neutrons are not deflected since they do
not carry a charge.

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Atomic Mass and Atomic Number
The Atomic number (Z) of an element is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom of that element.
The Mass number (A) of an element is the summation of the number of nucleons in the nucleus of the atom
of that element. That is, the summation of the atomic number and the number of neutrons.

Relative Atomic Mass (RAM)

The Relative Atomic Mass (RAM) of an atom of an element is the ratio of the average mass of that atom
relative to or when compared to 1/12th the mass of carbon 12.
NB: Relative Atomic Mass of unit-less since it is a ratio.

Relative Atomic (Isotopic) Mass Calculations

The atomic mass for each element is reported on the periodic table. This number is a weighted average of
the masses of each of the isotopes of an element. For example, the atomic mass of carbon is reported as
12.0111 atomic mass units (amu).

Atomic mass unit (amu) is synonymous to relative atomic mass, i.e. Atomic mass unit is defined as a mass
exactly equal to one-twelfth the mass of one carbon-12 atom. One atomic mass unit also called one Dalton.

Carbon is composed primarily of two isotopes: carbon-12 and carbon-13. The atomic mass is calculated
from the relative abundance and the masses for these two isotopes. Using the equation below, the atomic
mass of carbon can be calculated.

Atomic mass = (% isotope 1 x mass of isotope 1) + (% isotope 2 x mass of isotope 2) + .

Eg. Given that in a sample of carbon the percentage of C 12 is 98.89% and the percentage of C 13 is
1.11%. The atomic mass of carbon is calculated by:

Atomic mass = (% isotope 1 x mass of isotope 1) + (% isotope 2 x mass of isotope 2)

98.89 1.11
Atomic mass = x 12 + x 13
100 100

Atomic mass = 12.0111

Questions

1. Argon has three naturally occurring isotopes: argon-36, argon-38, and argon-40. Based on argons
reported atomic mass, which isotope do you think is the most abundant in nature? Explain.

2. Copper is made of two isotopes. Copper-63 is 69.17% abundant and it has a mass of 62.9296.
Copper-65 is 30.83% abundant and it has a mass of 64.9278. What is the weighted average mass of
these two isotopes?

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3. Calculate the atomic mass of silicon. The three silicon isotopes have atomic masses and relative
abundances of 27.9769 (92.2297%), 28.9765 (4.6832%) and 29.9738 (3.0872%).

4. Gallium has two naturally occurring isotopes. The mass of gallium-69 is 68.9256 and it is 60.108%
abundant. The mass of gallium-71 is 70.9247 and it is 39.892% abundant. Find the atomic mass of
gallium.

5. Bromine has two naturally occurring isotopes. Bromine-79 has a mass of 78.918 and is 50.69%
abundant. Using the atomic mass reported on the periodic table, determine the mass of bromine-81,
the other isotope of bromine.

6. Calculate the atomic mass of lead. The four lead isotopes have atomic masses and relative
abundances of 203.973 (1.4%), 205.974 (24.1%), 206.976 (22.1%) and 207.977 (52.4%).

7. Antimony has two naturally occurring isotopes. The mass of antimony-121 is 120.904 and the mass
of antimony-123 is 122.904. Using the average mass from the periodic table, find the abundance of
each isotope. (Remember that the sum of the two abundances must be 100).

8. Boron has two naturally occurring isotopes with masses of 10.0129 which occupies 19.91 percent
and another isotope of 11.0093 and occupying 80.09 percent. Calculate the average atomic mass of
Boron (The number listed on the periodic table)

9. Bromine has two isotopes with the first having a mass of 78.918336 and occupying 50.69% and the
second isotope having a mass of 80.916289 and occupying 49.31%. What is the average atomic
mass of bromine?

10. Verify the atomic mass of Magnesium as 24.31 knowing the following information:
24
Mg = 23.985042 and percent abundance of 78.99%
25
Mg = 24.985837 and percent abundance of 10.00%
26
Mg = 25.982593 and percent abundance of 11.01%

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 Radioactivity
Radioactive decay is the spontaneous decomposition of a nucleus forming different nuclides. A nuclide is a
unique atom, characterized by the composition of its nucleus and hence by the number of protons, the
number of neutrons and its energy content.
When an unstable/radioactive nucleus decays/disintegrates spontaneously, certain kinds of particles and/or
high energy photons are released. These particles and photons are collectively called rays. Three kinds of
rays are produced by naturally occurring radioactivity. They are:
Alpha particles
Beta particles
Gamma rays
These particles/rays differ in their ability to penetrate matter. particles are the least penetrating, being
blocked by a thin ( 0.01 mm) sheet of lead. Whereas particles penetrate lead to a much greater extent
(0.1 mm). rays are the most penetrating and can pass through a thickness of 100 mm of lead.
It is observed that all nuclides with 84 or more protons are unstable with respect to radioactive decay. Light
nuclides are stable when the proton to neutron ration is 1. That is, there are equal number of protons and
neutrons. Radioactive nuclides decompose as a means of stabilizing the nuclide. Through decay, the
neutron-proton ratio reduces closer to 1.

Types of Radioactive Decay

Decay
When a nucleus disintegrated and produces particles, it is said to undergo decay. An particle is a
helium nucleus hence it has an atomic number of 2 and a mass # or nucleon number of 4.

The original nucleus is referred to as the Parent nucleus (P) and the nucleus remaining after decay is called
the Daughter nucleus (D).
Upon the release of an -particle, the mass # decrease by 4 and the atomic number decrease by 2,
forming the daughter nucleus.
Since the parent and daughter nuclei are different, this process is known as transmutation. decay follows
the law of mass and charge conservation and increases the neutron-proton ratio.

Examples:
1. Illustrate the process of Uranium-238 undergoing decay by writing the nuclear equation.

2. Write the nuclear equation for the decay of thorium-230

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 Decay
decay, like decay results in transmutation. Experiments show that rays consists of negatively charged
particles or - particles and that these particles are electrons.

The electrons emitted in decay does not actually exist within the parent nucleus nor is it one of the electrons
orbiting the nucleus. Instead this - particle (electron) is created when a neutron decays into a proton and an
electron.

Since a proton is produced, the atomic number increases by 1. However, the mass number remains the same
since the proton replaces the neutron that was disintegrated.
When a - particle is emitted, the nucleon number remains the same but the atomic number increases
by 1.
The law of conservation of mass # is obeyed. The electron is usually fast moving and escapes from its atom,
leaving behind a positively charges atom. - decay decrease the neutron-proton ratio.

Example: Write the nuclear equation for the decay of Thorium-234 and Iodine-127

Decay
The nucleus, like the orbital electrons, exists only as discrete energy levels. When a nucleus changes from
an excited energy state (denoted by and asterisk - *) to a lower energy state/level, a photon is emitted.
With nuclear energy levels, however, the photon has a much greater energy and is called a ray. decay
does not result in transmutation. It just results in a daughter nucleus in its ground state (lowest energy level).
NB: decay has no effect on neutron-proton ration.

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Example: Write the nuclear equation for the decay of Arsenic-73 and Actinium-227.

Practice Questions:
1. One type of commercial smoke detector contains a minute amount of radioactive americium 241
(241Am), which decays by -particle production. The -particles ionize molecules in the air,
allowing it to conduct an electric current. When smoke particles enter, the conductivity of the air is
changed and the alarm buzzes.
a. Write the equation for the decay of 241Am by -particle production.
b. The complete decay of 241Am involves successively , , , , , , , , , , and
production. What is the final stable nucleus produced in this decay series?
c. Identify the 11 intermediate nuclides.

2. Write a nuclear equation describing the radioactive decay of each of the following nuclides. (The
particle produced is shown in parentheses.
a. 31H ()
b. 83Li( followed by )
c. 68
31Ga ()
d. 212
87Fr ()
129
e. 51Sb ()
f. 214
83Bi ( followed by )
237
g. 93Np ()

3. In each of the following radioactive decay processes, supply the missing particle.
a. 60 60
27Co 28Ni + ?
99 99
b. 43 Tc 44 Ru+ ?
239 235
c. 94Pu 92U+ ?
d. 73Ga 73Ge + ?
e. 192Pt 188Os + ?

4. Thorium-232 is known to undergo a progressive decay series

until it reaches stability at Lead-208. For each step of the
series indicated in the table below, indicate which nuclear
particle is emitted.

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