An Oil-Well Pump Dynagraph
WALTONE. GILBERT*
ABSTRACT
A bottom-hole instrument for recording action of oil-
well plunger pumps is described; methods of interpret-
INTRODUCTION
Oil-well plunger pumps have been used in this country
with satisfactory results for two-thirds of a century.
During most of this period i t was commonly agreed that
a loss of pump displacement could be expected to re-
suit in the deeper pumping wells from stretch of rods
and tubing. The exception which occasionally tended
to disprove this rule was probably explained either a s
due to a " semi-flowing " condition, or simply a s a
kindly act of Providence. However, upon introduction
of the rod-type sectional-liner pump, some eight years
ago, and with its extended use in deeper settings in place
of the cup-plunger pump, convincing proof was pro-
vided that the plunger stroke does a t times exceed the
polished-rod stroke by a considerable margin. In addi-
tion to unsettling evidence of this sort, the costs involved
in deep-well pumping and the appearance of alternative
methods of production both have led to more critical
examination of the efficiency of rod-operated pumps,
and it has become increasingly obvious that the action
of a pump a mile o r more under ground cannot be
accurately understood from observations made a t the
well head. This situation has led to the development
of a device for recording pumping action a t the pump.
Description of Pump Dynagraph
The pump dynagraph is a n instrument which pro-
vides indicator diagrams analogous to the indicator
diagrams ordinarily obtained for engines, compressors,
and surface pumps-with, the principal distinction that
no zero-pressure line is traced on the record. Indica-
tion of the plunger loading is obtained by recording the
stretch in a calibrated length of the sucker rods im-
mediate]? above the pump, a stylus which bears on a
cylindrical tube being used for this purpose. At the
same time, the plunger motion is recorded by rotational
oscillations of the stylus.
As shown a t A in Fig. 1, a thin cylindrical recording'
tube (1) is mounted on a winged nut (2) threaded onto
a calibrated rod ( 3 ) , which is coupled to the pull rod
(4) of the pump (5). A rotating tube (6) is connected
by means of a self-aligning bearina ( 7 ) to the upper
end of the calibrated rod, and on the lower end of the
rotating tube is mounted a stylus (8) which bears upon
the recording tube. Two opposite spiral grooves (9) are
* Shell Oil Co., Los Angeles. Calif.
,
I ing records are considered; and preliminary results are
outlined.
I n securing satisfactory operation -of a pu~nping
well, it would seen1 desirable to distinguish clearly
between the performance of the pumping equipment
and the performance of the well itself-considering the
latter both with regard to individual possibilities and
with regard to the part the well should play in the
general scheme of econoinical withdrawal of oil and gas
from a given producing zone. It is now generally agreed
that determination of individual well characteristics is
a matter of prime importance, and there can be no doubt
t h a t abplication of recording devices for determining
fluid levels in relation to rates of inflow has been the
most significant improvement so f a r contemplated for
securing efficient operation of deep pumping wells.
I t may be anticipated with some confidence that de-
vices located a t the well head, such a s fluid-level finders
and polished-rod dynagraphs, will ultimately provide
all necessary information for efficient regulation of oil-
well pumps. However, the study of pumping conditions,
with use of instrumelits located a t the pump, is es-
sential a s a preliminary step toward this objective, and
should lead to improvements in equipment and operating
control.
cut in the outer surface of the rotating tube, a s shown
a t B in Fig. 1. The members so f a r described recipro-
cate with the rods and the plunger. The final member of
the dynagraph is a cover tube (10) integrally-connected
to the sealing-head mandrel a t the upper end of the pump
body. The cover tube (10) is constructed with two ver-
tical grooves (11) in which ride the two lugs (12) of the
winged nut. 'At the upper end of the cover tube a r e
mounted two lugs (13) which ride in the spiral grooves
of the rotating tube. Due to this arrangement, the
recording tube (1) is prevented from rotating a s the
pump plunger reciprocates, and the rotating tube, with
the stylus, turns back and forth amounts proportional
to the plunger travel. I t will be seen t h a t any stretch o r
change in length of the rod between the bearing (7)
and the winged nut ( 2 ) is recorded by vertical inove-
ment of the stylus with reference to the recording tube,
and that any change in position of the plunger is re-
corded as a rotational movement of the stylus around
the recording tube. Thus, when the pump is in opera-
tion, the stylus traces a series of indicator cards, one
on top of the other. When a new series of indicator
 AN OIL-WELL PUMPDYNAGRAPH
cards is desired, the rods a r e turned a t the well head
while the pump is operating. The twist in the rods, due
to this operation, is dissipated in one or two pump
Pump Dynagraph Shown in Bottom-Stroke Position.
FIG. 1
strokes by rotation of the lower end of the string, which
causes the recording tube to mount higher on the cali-
brated rod. Upon completion of a test, the recording
tube (which is 36 in. in length) is removed from the in-
95
strunlent and flattened into a sheet, which then forms a
permanent test record. P a r t s of such records are repro-
duced in Fig. 3.
Correlation of a Dynagraph Card with Pumping
Action
I n Fig. 2 successive steps in the tracing of a dyna-
graph card are shown in relation to the plunger motion,
valve action, fluid pressures, and rod loading-the
~un~pin
Cycle.
g
FIG. 2
principal events which occur during each phase of the
pumping cycle being listed in Table 1.
To simplify the illustrations in Fig. 2, the gas in the
pump is shown separated from the liquid. Gas usually
enters the pump in the form of bubbles; and, usually,
some of these bubbles a r e still present in the fluid
occupying the clearance space, after the plunger has
reached the bottom of its stroke. If ffee gas is not
present in the clearance space, the load is assumed by
the rods before perceptible motion of the plunger
occurs, and the dynagraph curve D-A becomes a straight
line.
Further discussion of the pumping cycle is included in
the appendix, in connection with the development of
formulas for use in analyzing pump-dynagraph records.
These formulas a r e based upon the Joule cycle con-
sisting of two adiabatic and two isobaric pressure-
volume changes, a s the records obtained in nearly all
wells so f a r investigated conform to this general tjrpe
of cycle with sufficient accuracy for purposes.
Interpretation of Pumping Action from Dyna-
graph Cards ,
A number of different types of pump cards are illus-
trated in Fig. 4.
A t the beginning of the " pumping-up " period, a s
indicated a t A in Fig. 4, the stroke of the plunger is
this reason, the operating compression ratio of the pump
tends to limit the extent to which the fluid level may be
reduced. Close plunger spacing, to minimize the clear-
ance volume, and use of longer strokes, both help to
reduce gas-locking for a given operating fluid level. I t
should also be pointed out that a temporary increase in
speed aids in overco~ninggas-lock by increasing the
plunger stroke and reducing the clearance space. This
appears to constitute a good reason for setting the
governor of a gas engine with sufficient latitude to
permit some increase of speed when the power require-
ment decreases a s i t does when a pump approaches a
gas-locked condition. The theoretical example of Fig. 5
is introduced to illustrate the fact that existence of a

TABLE 1

-
Events of Normal Pumping Cycle
I Motion
of
Plunger
From To Valve Action Fluid in Pump Fluid Load Is:
D A Both Calves remain Gas in clearance space expands Assumed by the rods a s
closed from static pressure in tubing to pressure in the pump
. fluid-level pressure a t pump decreases
A B Standing valve opens Fluid is drawn into the pump Sustained by the rods
. a t A and closes a t B
B C Both valves remain Gas. in the pump is compressed Transferred from the
closed from the fluid-level pressure t o rods to the tubing a s
the static pressure in the tubing gas, in the pump is
compressed
C D Traveling valve opens Fluid is displaced through the Sustained by ,the tubing
a t C and closes a t D traveling valve into the tubing

maximum, and gradually diminishes a s the load on the
plunger increases. If the plunger is not accurately
spaced, over-stroking during this period may cause the
plunger to hit u p or down with a force equivalent to
two or three times the normal plunger load-with conse-
quent possibilities of damaging rods and pump. The
practice of filling the tubing, and the practice of reduc-
ing the pumping speed until the fluid reaches the well
head, both tend to prevent difficulties of this sort.
I n Fig. 4 cards B and C represent sticking of the
traveling valve and standing valve, respectively. A
sticking traveling valve results in over-stroking, and
may cause the plunger to hit up or down; while a stick-
ing standing valve would result in under-stroking.
Gas-lock and gas-compression cards are shown a t D
and E in Fig. 4. I n the case of the former (refer to
equations (7) and (8) of the appendix) the compres-
sion ratio of the pump is too small, with the result that
neither valve opens until either the clearance space fills
by leakage past the plunger, or the fluid level outside
the pump rises so t h a t a smaller compression ratio is
required to force gas from the pump into the tubing.
Usually, when any considerable amount of free gas is
present in the fluid, the percentage volumes of gas and
liquid in the pump are continually changing; and, for
gas-locked condition is no guarantee that the well i s
being " pumped off."
Cards F and G in Fig. 4 are typical of those obtained
when both gas and liquid are being handled with a
fluid-level pressure of 200 lb. per sq. in., or more. Card
G', a s compared with card G, indicates a lower fluid level.
The arrows in these cards indicate the loss of stroke due
to spacing, which is poor in the case of card G. When
the operating fluid level is close to the pump, and also
when only liquid is being handled, poor spacing does not
materially reduce the effective stroke.
Card H indicates perfect pump performance, with
only li,quid being handled. However, this card also
indicates the probability that more liquid is available
than the pump is handling. Card J indicates perfect
pump action, and also indicates that all the available
liquid is being handled.
Card K indicates a " pumped-off " condition, with the
rods going into compression momentarily a s the plunger
hits the fluid. (Experience in use of the dynagraph
leads to the conclusion t h a t opening of the traveling
valve is very often.accompanied by a shock which i s
perceptible by holding onto the polished rod even when
considerable volumes of gas are being pulr~ped and,
accordingly, this shock is not a foolproof indication of
 I
1 :[tVELING VALVE STICK-

= I ----------

'I LIQUID BEING PUMPED).

I HIGH FLUID L E V E L W I T H
1 LARGE GAS DISPLACE-
MENT. SPACING GOOD.'

- I SAME AS CARD~C'EXCEPT
FLUID LEVEL IS LOWER
I AND GAS QUANTITY I S
SMALLER.
I PERFECT PUMP PERFORM-
ANCE. WELL PERFORM-
I ANCE QUESTIONABLE.

"PUMPING OFF" AND

LOSS OF STROKE DUE

BOTH T O " H I T T I N G UP"
AND T O POOR SPACING.

Interpretation of Pump Cards.

FIG. 4
the pumped-off condition.) I n this case the displacement
is excessive.
Cards L and M in Fig. 4 indicate loss of stroke due
to hitting down and up, respectively. When the pump
hits down, the clearance volume is minimum, so that
opening of the standing valve practically coincides
with the start of the upstroke, regardless of the gas-
liquid ratio of the fluid handled. Card M indicates less
liquid production than card L, due to the large clearance
volume and consequent loss of effective stroke. In
general, spacing a pump too high introduces the possi-
bility of a double loss in effective stroke.
- in Fig. 2, all a t approximately full scale except those
from well E, which are slightly greater than full scale.
I n one or two instances it was necessary to re-touch the
record. The pumping-up cards of well G are of special
interest, a s they are not susceptible to analysis on the
basis of the Joule cycle, and are responsible for the ir-
regular data shown for the 3,000-ft. pump setting of
well G in Fig. 8: Cards of this type, which were also
noted in connection with the large acceleration factor
for well B, Table 3, are unusual, and cannot be satis- ,
factorily explained on the basis of present informa-
tion-although there is no lack of suggestions a s t o

C o i ~ t p ~ e s s i oRatio
n f o r Contplete Ga.s Lock:

G a s Lock i s Cleared b y :
1. Rise of fluid level.
2. Leakage past plunger or traveling valve.
3. Temporary increase of pump speed.
Exa~taple:
Pump setting= 6,000 ft.
S= 50 in.
LC= 8 in.
Pa depth of setting
If--= .
P1 helght of fluid level above pump '
Maximum fluid level above pump for occurrence of gas ,

= 504 ft.

(Theoretical esample.)
Colr~pleteGas Lock.
FIG. 5

The three superimposed cards a t N in Fig. 4 are illus-
trative of the usual pump action which accompanies
temporary increases in the percentage of free gas
handled with constant pumping speed. Such increases
may apparently be counted upon materyally to decrease
over-st~okingin the downstroke di~ection,so that the
actual stroke is reduced and a t the same time the
effective clearance volume is increased. Conversely, de-
crease in the percentage of gas Handled results in a
longer stroke and a smaller clearance volume. This
action, which may cause cyclical fluctuations of the
operating fluid level, is indicated by the cards of test 1,
well " J," Fig. 2. The increase of stroke, without change
of the engine-throttle setting, was artificially produced
in this instance by closing in the casing, thus tempo-
rarily reducing the displacement of gas bubbles and
forcing more liquid into the pump with each stroke.
A number of different types of records are illustrated
possible causes. This type of card did not occur in the
test of well G with the pump set a t 2,404 ft. of depth.
Measurement of Plunger Stroke
I t is apparent from dynagrapli cards so f a r obtained
that temporary increase of free gas handled in the
pump generally reduces the actual pump stroke, a t any
constant speed, in addition to displacing liquid in the
pump. Also, a s free gas pumped into the tubing rises
faster than the accompanying liquid and is not produced o
a t a constant ratio, i t will be observed that gas and
liquid are often produced alternately a t the well head.
Such changes may materially affect the load carried by
the plunger, and this in t u r n affects the plunger stroke.
There is also a variety of other factors which may cause
incidental' changes in length of stroke, such a s changes
in pump friction and valve action, impulse loads and
 '

harmonic stress reflections occurring with certain speed . From data now available, i t i s evident that the plunger
and load conditions. For reasons of this sort, the stroke becomes less predictable as the pumping depth
plunger stroke a t any given moment is not accurately increases. Three examples are given in Fig. 6. In the
predictable from consideration only of the polished-rod first test made with the dynagraph, a s shown for well
stroke, the rod loading, and the pumping speed. Never- A, the actual stroke a t 4,823 ft. of depth was considerably
theless, average measurements do indicate a general greater than the computed stroke. The same observa-
relationship of these factors to the stroke lengths in tion holds for well E, with a pump setting a t 6,335 ft.;
any particular well. while in the case of well D, with the pump at'6,SOl ft.,
Table 2 is introduced a s an indication of observa- the computed curve fits the observed strokes with f a i r
, tional errors occurring in measurement of recorded accuracy. Data relative to these and other tests a r e
stroke lengths. summarized in Table 3.
In all cases the computed stroke referred to in this
TABLE 2 paper was obtained by use of the theoretical method
Differences in Separate Detern~inationsof Stroke of estimating plunger over-travel suggested by C. J.
Length from the Same Record Coberly * (Kobe, Inc.). Also in determining rod stretch,
the plunger load, a s measured by the pump dynagraph,
Plunger Stroke Maximum was used; and the modulus of elasticity was taken to
be 29.5 x 10%lb. per sq. in. The " measured " curve pass-
A
Cycles A B C' Difference
Per I (Per ing through t h e points was obtained by selecting the
Minute (Inches) Cent) I acceleration factor which seemed to conform most closely
in each case to the recorded data.
16 38.8 38.8 39.1 0.5 ' Results obtained in a n electric-motor-operated well
20 47.7 47.8 47.7 0.2 by changing the length of polished-rod stroke are shown
24 54.4 54.0 53.5 0.9 in Fig. 7, the two speeds being due to use of different
25.5 53.9 54.1 54.3 0.8
surface units. In this well the average plunger stroke
27 55.1 55.0 54.7 0.7 conformed closely to the stroke computed with use of
28.4 60.1 59.1 59.8 1.7 the theoretical acceleration factor a s indicated both in
Average. . . . . . . . . . 0.8 Fig. 7 and in Table 3 under well C.
" Pumping-up " tests may prove of value in supplying

I n the double-size photographs of the original records
used in analyzing results, the recorded stroke lengths
are 5.12 per cent of the actual plunger travel, and a
plunger load of 10,000 lb. would be represented by a de-
flection of 1 in. ,
information from which the approximate stroke with
any size of plunger in a given well may be predicted.
Provided under discussion of paper on " H i g h Volum:tric
Emciencv of Oil-Well Pumping and I t s Practical Results by
Hallan R. Marsh i n A. P. I. Prod. Bull. No. 207, beginning'with
p. 59.

60

50

40

30

30 20 '
10 20 30 10 20 30 10 to 50
C.P. M. C.P.M. C.P.M.
Well "A." Well " E." Well " D."
'

Relation Between Plunger Stroke and Puniping Speed.

FIG. 6
 TABLE 3
Acceleration Factors Determined from Pump-D~nagraphTests
P e r Cent
Length in Feet of : Thee-
A hfasimum Fluid Load retlcal
'7 $5-111. Polished- Computed Accelera- A c ~ ~ ~ ~
Setting Tubing Rod Plnnger Cycles Plunger from tion
Depth $-In. . $-In. Below Stroke Size Per Stroke Dynagrapli Factor t
Well (Feet) Rods Rods Catcher (Inches) (Inches) Minute (Inches) (Pounds) (A)
A 4,823 2,460 2,363 923 48 13 28.4 59.8 3,700 3.2 170
B 6,786 , 2,027 4,759 976 42 11 24.2 68.7 4,620 . 4.8 250
C 4,600 1,250 3,350 4,600 22 to 46 It 20.3 37.3 3,340 2.0 100
D 6,801 1,777 5,024 1,401 44 11 27 51.5 3,570 1.7 90
E 6,335 2,135 4,200 6,335 . 40 12 24 46 3,400 3.3- 120
F 6,874 1,757 5,117 1,376. 43.5 1 22.9 ' * 2,050 4.2 220
F 6,874 1,757 5,117 1,376 43.5 It 22.5 * 3,150 4.3 220
G 3,000 0 3,000 3,000 34 12 24.8 * 3,200 2.6 130
G 2,404 0 2,404 2,404 34 12 24.8 * 2,980 1.9 100
H 4,100 0 4,100 4,100 48 It 22.5 61 1,650 5.1 260
* Refer to Fig. 6.
+ T h e s e fa,:tors replace 1.93 a s given by Rlr. Coberly i n e - e'= (1'9fbAiN''
. Refer to 8. P. I. P r o d . Bull. Jo. 207, p. 60.

A number of dynagraph cards is taken a s the fluid is The range of acceleration factors, for wells listed in
being pumped to the surface, preferably using a plunger Table 3, is shown graphically in Fig. 9.
of maximum diameter. Having established the relation-

DEPTH OF PUMP SETTING IN FEET

Variation of Over-travel in Different Wells Tested.
FIG. 9

correlation of Polished-Rod Cards with Pump

POLISHED ROD STROKE IN INCHES
Relation of Plunger Stroke to Polished-Rod Stroke in
Well L' C."
FIG. 7
ship between plunger stroke and loading, the load to be
expected for any smaller size of plunger may be esti-
mated and the corresponding plunger stroke determined.
Pumping-up tests made in two wells a r e shown in Fig. 8.
Cards
Principal attention has been directed toward develop-
ment of ability to analyze pump cards, and no concerted
effort has yet been made to correlate bottom-hole and
top-hole cards., However, a considerable amount of data
is now available for such investigation, and comparative
cards a r e shown in Fig. 10 a s a matter of incidental
interest.
Dynagraph Measurements of Production Rat-
Five tests have been made a t one well, using both the
pump dynagraph and a clock-work pressure-recording
gage mounted below the pump. Use of these two instru-
STROKE OF I - IN. PLUNGER I N INCHES STROKE OF I I/4-IN. PLUNGER I N INCHES
Depth ........................... 6,874 ft.
Free tubing ...................... 1,376 ft.
&in. rods ........................ 1,757 ft.
$-in. rods ........................ 6,117 ft.
Polished-rod stroke ............... 438 in.
Single-Cylinder Gas Engine.
Well " F."

PLUNGER STROKE IN INCHES WlTH PLUNGER STROKE IN INCHES WlTH

PUMPSET AT 2904 FT. OF DEPTH PUMP SET A T 3,000FT. OF DEPTH
Tubing ........................... 24 in.
Rods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 in.
Plunger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1s in.
Polished-rod stroke ................ 34 in.
Cycles per minute. ................. 24.8
Specific gravity .................... I
Electric Motor.
Well " G."

Pumping-up Tests.
FIG. 8
(102)
ments permitted computation of production rates from
bottom-hole data, which could be checked against read-
ings of a plunger-type meter connected in the flow line
from the elevated trap. During test 1, speeds were main-
tained for periods of less than 15 min., and i t was found
that irregularity of operation of the meter made corre-
lation of flowing rates impracticable. No pressure rec-
ord was obtained for test 2. Comparative results of
tests 3, 4, and 5 are shown in Table 4. No corrections
formula ( 3 ) ) and averaged. Parts of runs 2 and 3 of
test 4, Table 4, a r e shown in Fig. 2. The intermediate
thin cards were made for correlation with polished-
rod cards, and only the heavy cards were used in com-
puting production rates.
In further correlations of this sort, it would be sug-
gested that the pressure recorder be placed a s close to
the pump a s possible, and that six 15-min. cards be ob-
tained a t each speed.

Run N S B/D Mcf/D1 Hp, Hp,, E,

A 18.2 48 243 3.24 6.6 7.1 93
B 18.2 48 176 7.9 6.3 7.1 88.5
13-in. plunger
43141. polished-rod stroke
235-1b.-per-sq.-in. fluid pressure
Comparison of Pump and Polished-Rod Dynagraph Cards.
FIG. 10

were applied for temperature in the pump or for plunger
slippage. Considering the fact that the meter only
operated for short intervals of 5 min. or less from two
to five times a n hour, depending on the pumping speed,
these correlations are a s close a s could be expected. In
obtaining these data, a constant speed was maintained
during each r u n ; and a number of cards was made by
moving the dynagraph record a t regular intervals. In
this way a series of cards was obtained for each run,
from which the production was computed (by use of
Selection of Gas Anchors
Use of the dynagraph has proved conclusively that
loss of displacement in wells a t pump settings below
5,000 ft. of depth is generally not due to loss of stroke,
but may often be attributed to.ineffective separation of
gas froin the liquid pumped.
Since chemical reactions practically double in in-
tensity for each 10-deg. rise in temperature, there can
be little doubt that heat generated in compressing gas
104 PRODUCTION
PRACTICE
TABLE 4
Comparison ef Production Rates Determined from Dynagraph Cards with Rates Determined from Oil-Meter Readings
Production in Barrels
per Run from:
7 -A Per Cent
Duration Dynagraph Difference Difference

Test Run
of Run
, (Hours)
Oil Meter
(A)
Cards
'(B)
in
Barrels (yx 100)
3 1 1.5 21.1 19.7 ... - 6.6
2 1.5 15.5 14.9 ... - 3.9
3 1.5 10.35 11.75 ... 13.5
4 1.5 20.1 21.6 . ... 7.5
5 1.5 22.6 18.9 ... -16.3
6 1.5 15.1 14.2 ... - 6.0
7 1.5 11.8 12.0 ... 1.7
8 1.5 22.9 23.2 ... 1.3
9 1.5 20.9 21.5 ... 2.9
( 1 to 9) 13.5 160.4 157.8 2.6 - 1.6
- - -
1 1 15.2 15.5 .. . 2.0
2 1 10.7 11.6 ... 8.4
3 1 8.7 9.0 ... 3.5
( 1 to 3) 3 34.6 36.1 1.5. 4.5
- -- -
1 0.75 8.9 9.25 ... 3.9
2 0.75 5.0 7.1 . .. 42.0
3 0.75 5.8 6.55 ... 12.9
4 0.75 3.75 4.05 ... 8.0
5 0.75 4.9 6.25 ... 27.5
6 0.75 6.25 5.65 ... - 9.6
7 0.75 3.0 3.9 ... 30.1
8 0.75 1.75 3.1 ... 77.0
9 0.75 5.5 6.55 ... 19.1
- 10 0.75 5.05 5.55 ... 9.9
11 0.75 3.9 3.95 ... 1.3
12 0.75 3.85 3.30 ... ' -14.3

( 1 to 12) 9 57.6 65.2 7.6 13.2

- - -
pump. With this in mind, use of the best available
equipment for excluding gas from the pump shiuld
prove profitable in areas where difficulties from cor-
rosion are acute.
Referring to Fig. 11, i t was found that use of a casing-
type gas anchor (test 5) in well J resulted in more effec-
tive exclusion of gas than use of a n anchor of conven-
tional type having a single down-pass and employing a
15-in. skeeter bill 5 ft. in length (test 4). No gas anchor
is universally applicable, and in this well the casing-
type anchor was not required to secure maximum pro-
duction. However, the illustration is provided a s a n in-
dication of the possibilities in securing comparative in-
formation regarding such equipment under known well
CYCLES PER MINUTE conditions.
Relation Between Pumping Speed and Gas-Anchor
Efficiency.
Rod-Transmission Efficiency
FIG. 11
I t was found that individual comparisons, between
in the pump is a n important factor tending to accelerate work done a t the pump and work supplied per cycle
corrosion both in the pump and in the tubing near the a t the polished rod, varied widely. The data of Fig. 12
were obtained by averaging the efficiencies of each run
so that 'points plotted in the figure each represents a run
of one hour or more. The opinion has often been ad-
vanced that rods are an inefficient means of power trans-
mission. Individual wells probably differ widely in this
respect. However, i t is apparent from the data of Fig.
12 that rod-frictional losses in well J are not excessive a t
ordinary pumping speeds.

2 80
wU CONCLUSION

60 The purposes of this paper have been to describe a new

W type of instrument, to outline preliminary results ob-
tained with its use, and to supply sufficient information
40 SIZE OF RODS=3/4 INCH to obviate unnecessary duplication of effort on the part
a SIZE OF TUBlNGzZ 1/2 INCH of others -who may take occasion to investigate its ap-
I I I plication in solving practical pumping problems.
It is desired particularly to call attention to the part
ably taken in this development by S. B. sargent; Jr.
0 1 I I I I I I (Sargent Engineering Corporation) a s co-inventor and
10 15 20 25 designer of the pump dynagraph, and to acknowledge
CYCLES PER MINUTE the assistance of Ned Clark (Shell Oil Company) in ob-
taining and analyzing data, and the helpful coopera-
Relation Between Pr~mpingSpeed and Rod-Transmission
tion of H. C. Pyle (Union Oil Company) in organizing
Efficiency.
field tests to determine the validity of pump-dynagraph
FIG. .12 measurements.

APPENDIX

DEVELOPMENT OF FORMULAS
Although a n oil-well pump is designed primarily to
raise oil to the surface, i t is generally required to handle
some gas in the free. state, and thus performs the dual
function of liquid pump and gas compressor.
During the pumping cycle the gas bubbles entrained
in the liquid tend to rise to the top of the pump so that
the gas-liquid ratio of the fluid in the pump, when the
plunger is a t the top of its stroke, may be perceptibly
greater than the gas-liquid ratio of the fluid in the
clearance space when the plunger reaches the bottom of
its stroke. I n handling some fluid mixtures a t slow
pumping speeds, this separation of gas and liquid may
be almost complete; or, in handling "fluffy" oil, i t may
be negligible. However, for clarity in representing pump
action, i t is convenient to consider the gas a s com-
pletely separated from the liquid in the pump and oc- PLUNGER MOTION IN INCHES .
cupying a space above the liquid and under the traveling
valve.
Gas comes out from solution in oil by reduction of
pressure f a r more readily than i t can be re-dissolved
by compression. Accordingly, in the following discus-
sion i t is assumed that the proportion of free gas in the
pump returned to solution during the compression stroke
'is small enough to be neglected.
Ideal pump cards a r e represented in Fig. 13. Starting
a t the point A, where the standing valve opens, fluid is
drawn into the pump by the upward motion of the PLUNGER MOTION IN INCHES
plunger from A to B. During this phase of the cycle Pump Cards.
the pressure in the pump is nearly constant a t ordinary FIG. 13
 TABLE 5
List o f Symbols
Symbol Units Description
sq. in. Total plunger area.
bbl. per day Liquid production rate.
A coefficient = 1

D in. Plunger diameter.

E,. A relative index of gas-anchor efficiency= So/S,.
Ev Apparent - volumetric efficiency of the pump = S,/S.
EL Apparent liquid displacement efficiency of the pump=So/S.
E, Efficiency of rods in transmitting power to the pump.
E,, Efficiency of the surface equipment between prime mover and polished rod.
Et Total efficiency of equipment in transmitting power from p r i ~ n emover to pump.
HP, Power delivered a t the pump.
HPC Rate a t which work is done on the fluid.
HPL Rate a t which useful work is done on the liquid.
HP'L Rate a t which useful work would be done on liquid if no gas were present in tubing.
HP, Rate a t which useful work is done on the liquid by gas compressed in the pump.
HPP~ . Power delivered to the polished rod.
H P ~ Power delivered by the prime mover.
K A coefficient= .B /D (Refer to Fig. 14 for evaluation of R.)
SON
L in. Plunger stroke plus effective clearance length =S +LC.
LC in. Effective clearance lengthzclearance space/plunger area.
L, and L', in. Equivalent lengths of free gas in pump for top and bottom positions of plunger,
respectively.
Lo and L', in. Equivalent lengths of liquid in pump for top and bottom positions of plunger,
respectively.
Mcf /D' cu. ft. per day Rate a t which gas is compressed in the pump expressed in thousands of cubic
1,000 feet per day a t 14.73 lb. per sq. in., and a t 60 deg. F.
Pump cycles per minute.
Theoretically, the ratio of the specific heat a t constant pressure/specific .heat a t
constant volume, of the gas handled in the pump (values of n may be determined
from dynagraph cards).
PI lb. per sq. in. Average absolute pressure acting upward on plunger during upstroke.
Pz lb. per sq. in. Average absolute pressure acting downward on plunger during upstroke.
PC
P'.
R'.
lb. per sq. in. Fluid pressure in well a t the pump setting.
lb. per sq. in. Product of specific gravity of liquid, depth of setting in feet.
1,000 .Gas-liquid ratio a t the surface including only that p a r t of the gas produced
cu. ft. per bbl. through the tubing.
Rp .... Ratio of free gas displacement to liquid displacement in the pump.
S in. Full plunger stroke.
S1 in. Gas-expansion phase of upstroke.
Sz=Se in. Intake phase of upstroke=effective stroke.
S3 in. Gas-compression phase of downstroke.
S, in. Exhaust phase of downstroke.
So in. Effective liquid stroke.
s, in. Effective gas stroke.
tl deg. F. ,Temperature of fluid in pump a t end of upstroke.
t, deg. F. Temperature of gas in pump a t end of compression phase of downstroke.
T , and Tz deg. F. Absolute temperatures corresponding to t, and tz, respectively.
Wr ft-lb. Work done on the fluid per cycle.
WP ft-lb. Work done a t the pump per cycle.
x and y Proportions by volu~neof liquid/total fluid and gas/total fluid in pump a t end of
upstroke, respectively.
speeds, and nearly equal to the fluid-level pressure out- Rates of liquid production a s determined by'use of
side the pump. More specifically, equation (3) should be diminished in accordance with
the differences in temperature of the liquid a s measured
P.-b=PI 2 PI-Ps.. ............ (1)
in the pump and a s measured a t the surface. In addi-
Pi =fluid-level pressure. tion, rates of both liquid and gas production, measured
Pt=pressure due to the inertia of the fluid, above in the pump, will exceed those measured a t the surface
and below the pump, set in motion by the by the rate of leakage past the plunger and traveling
plunger. valve on the upstroke, and past the standing valve on the
P.=pressure loss developed by restrictions to flow downstroke. Temperature corrections are discussed
of fluid in entrance passages, including those below.
of the standing valve. The gas displaced per cycle is closely proportional to
During the phase represented by B-C, in Fig. 13, gas the difference between the volulne of gas present when
in the pump is being compressed adiabatically by down- the traveling valve opens a t A, and the volun~eof gas
ward motion of the plunger, both valves remaining present when the traveling valve closes a t B. Con-
closed. At the beginning of this phase, fluid may con- sequently:
tinue lnomentarily to enter the pump due to the inertia s,= (L,+Ss) - (Lt6+S,)
of the moving column of fluid in the entrance passages. Sizce: L6=CS3 and L1,=CSI:
At C the pressure in the pump 'has increased sufficiently
to cause the traveling valve to open, and during the
phase C-D the plunger continues to the bottom of its
stroke-the pressure in the pump remaining approsi-
mately equal to the static pressure in the tubing above
the plunger. At the bottom of the plunger stroke the
traveling valve closes, and during the phase D-A the gas
remaining in the clearance,space espands adiabatically,
a s the plunger moves upward, until the cycle is com-
In order to develop equations for gas lock, the effective
pleted by opening of the standing valve, a s represented
pump stroke Se may be related to x and ? j , the propor-
a t A. Thus, when both liquid and gas are being handled, tions of liquid and gas in the pump when the plunger is
the ideal pumping cycle includes four principal changes, a t the top of its stroke, a s follows:
of which two tend to be isobaric and two tend to be
adiabatic. For determining pumping efficiencies and
amounts of liquid and gas handled, i t is assumed that
changes of state of the fluid in the pump are truly iso-
baric or adiabatic.
On the basis of the above assumption, the equivalent F,ron~?ohiclr.:
liquid levels in the pump a t the top and bottoln of the
plunger stroke may be determined a s follows:
P,(L6+S3)n=P2L6n Arlrlixg X L to both sides of this last equation and divid-
and ing by L:

C, which appears in several of the following formulas, From Fig. 13 it will be seen that:
may be conveniently evaluated from 91, P,, and P2by the
graphical method indicated in Fig. 14.
From the previous equation :

LC
L,+S,=
and by the same process:

So that :
Since the volume of liquid displaced per cycle is directly
proportional to the difference in heights of the equivalent
fluid level a t the beginning and end of 6he downstroke,
the effective liquid stroke:
When the pump is gas-locked, S,=O. For this condi-
tion, equation (6) becomes :
and tl?e producing rate:
 G - S PUMP DYNAGRAPH
COMPUTATION CHART

01.k PUMP/NG RATE

S~aar~
Ps DAY =
~ P [SI -C (53- SI)] Nlf -
GAS PUMP/NG k2A TE -
M.C.P. pm ~ a = rb +t] (5>.:;)gAR

Nofw
1 5,. Sz e n d 5,musf be converfcd f o
inch- ofp/vngcr /rave/ before
(~~;bsI,lu/,o inn +he rborc eyushona
I andm.

PLUNGER DIAMETE
IN INCHES

.023/
.026/

1%

G-S Pump-Dynagraph Computation Chart.

FIG. 14
112 zulz.ich the limits of x and y are: are not controlling factors, i t may be found useful to
. lry>- . compare Hpr, with:
O L x < - LC and , respectively.
S+Lc S+Lc
For the limiting condition of gas lock where no liquid
is present in the pump, x=0, y = l , and equation (7) in which PI.-PC represents the average differential
becomes : pressure on the plunger which would result if no appre-
ciable quantity of free gas were present in the tubing.
Thus, a measure of the rate a t which useful work is
done on the liquid by gas compressed,in the pump may
Co~nparisonof gas-liquid ratios measured a t the sur- be obtained from:
face with gas-liquid ratios handled in the pump may be
obtained by dividing equation (5) by equation (3) from -
which, after simplifying:
I/ Temperature and Pressure Effects-
With the method of analysis used, .it is not prac-
S ticable to distinguish volume changes of the liquid from
with R1.= Mcf/D' and R,= 2. This equation includes
B/D So volume changes of the gas occurring during the pump-
only that part of the total gas which is produced through ing cycle. However, reduction in volume of the liquid
the tubing. under the full static pressure a s encountered in pumping
practice will be less than 2 per cent and, i t is believed,
On the basis of the assumption that the pumping cycle
for all practical purposes may be neglected.
may be considered a s made up of two adiabatic and two
The per r e n t increase in volume of water, and the
isobaric changes, the work done on the fluid per cycle
per cent increase in volume of oils. through the usual
may be shown as: .
range of gravities, is shown in relation to temperatures
in Fig. 15 and 16, respectively. If desired, liquid-produc-
tion rates determined from pump cards may be dimin-
Evaluating these areas : ished in accordance with these data if the temperature
of oil entering the pump and the per cent water cut
have been satisfactorily determined. I .
and since L6=CS3 and L1,=CSI: The relation between the absolute temperatures of '

gas in the pump a t the beginning and end of the com-

w*=-[
A P z C S ~ - P I S ~ ( ~ - ~ C ) - P , C S I + PSI
1"
n-I
I (I+C)
+ I~,S,-P~S~] - pression phase of the downstroke is given by:
Siw~p1ifyin.g:
A (Sz-Si) [P,C-P1(1+C)I
\vc= - [ +P,S~-P~S.]........(10)
12

c~ndthe fluid horsepower :

n-1
I Pumping Efficiencies
WrAK - A N
Hpf = -
(Ss-S,)[I',C-PI(l+C)l ...(11) In many cases pumping wells a r e not producible a t
396,000- 0 - [ n-1 +P:s~-P~E~] maximum rates of inflow because of the loss of liquid ;
The work (W,) and power (Hp,) expended in the displacement incidental to handling free gas in the
pump nlay be determined in the usual manner from the pump. Since gas anchors are designed to prevent en-
areas of pump cards. This procedure involves no as- trance of free gas into the pump, the efficiency of a gas
sumptions a_s to the nature of volume-pressure changes anchor for any steady producing rate in a particular
during the cycle. well may be represented by:
The work done by the pump in compressing gas is not effective liquid stroke -
entirely lost, since the gas introduced into the tubing E,.= so - (16)
total effective stroke - So+S6 -1 R,,'

tends to diminish the static head and inertia of the fluid

column in the tubing-thus reducing rod loads-and, in Although the gas-axchor efficiency might be shown a s
expanding, returns energy to the pumping system. The the ratio of the effgctive liquid stroke, So,to the total
rate a t which potential energy is stored in the liquid by stroke, S, the efficiency defined by equation (16) is 0

preferable because; fpr example, in comparing two

the pump is:
types of gasanchors used alternately in, the same well
for the sanie fluid-level condition, neither type would be
penalized by differences in plunger spacing. Gas-anchor
efficiencies, a s defined, may be evaluated using equations
(2) and (4) for Soand'sg; or, if surface indications are
acceptable, from equations (16) and (9) :
In connection with determining the effectiveness of 0.198P1
gas anchors where pump displacement and rod loading E,. = 0.198P,+R1sT1 ......... (16a)
 .
The apparent volu?~tentric eficiency of a plunger Pump cards do not supply adequate indications of such
pump may be represented a s : leakage and, accordingly, S., So, and Sg a s obtained from

E,=
effective stroke - So+S, S, - . . . . (17) pump cards will be too large in proportion to the leakage
per cycle past the plunger, traveling valve, and standing
stroke - S - S
valve.
The apparent liquid, displac'ewaent eficiency :

a s determined from normal pump cards, is subject to

correction for leakage a s indicated in connection with -
equation (17).
- The ratio of Wf, the work done on the fluid a s deter-
mined from equation ( l o ) , to Wp, the work done in the
pump a s determined from the area of a pump card,
has been considered a s a means of estimating the me-
chanical efficiency of the pump. However, i t is doubtful
whether this ratio can be used to advantage, since
entrance pressure losses cannot be separately evaluated
and, consequently, PI and Pzcannot be evaluated with
sufficient accuracy for this purpose. I n this connection,
i t may be mentioned that theoretically the specific equa-
60 tion of a n adiabatic change nlay be determined by two
0 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 methods if the value of n is known as, for example, by ,
PERCENT INCREASE I N VOLUME OVER V O L U M E A T 60 DEG. F. measuring the tangents a t two points on the curve and
Relation Between Temperature and Volu~neof Water. the pressure or volume intercept between the two points
(Derived from Sn~ithsonianTables.) and solving for the adiabatic constant in two siinul-
FIG. 15 . taneous equations of the first differential. However,
sufficiently reliable values of PI and P2have not resulted
from preliminary attempts to apply this method.
The ~ o d - t ~ a n s n z i s s i oefficiency
n is :
Er=, work represented by area of pump card \V,.
--
- \V,,
!vol.k represrnted by area of polished-rod card
....(19)
and, since the surface-equipttent eficie?zcy is:
horsepower delivered a t well head -HP"~
Em=
horsepower delivered by the prime mover - Hp,,,
The over-all power transnzission eficiency is:
Et=ErxEse=
llorsepoaer represented b; area of pump card --Hpr
Ilorsepoaer delivered by the prinie mover - ltl)pm
This over-all efficiency should be adaptable to use in
comparing rod-operated pumps with pumps operated
hydraulically.

60
0 10 20 30 -40 5 0 6 0
A.P.I. GRAVITY AT 6 0 DEG. F.
Approximate Relation Between Volun~e of Oil at
60 Deg. F. and,Volume of the Same Oil at Higher Tem-
peratures. (Derived from " Revised Supplement to
N.B.S. Circular C-154," National Bureau of Standards.)
FIG. 16 . ' tangular, the upstroke and downstroke lines being
and may be used to evaluate loss of stroke due to poor
plunger spacing. The true volumetric efficiency would
account for leakage past both valves and the plunger.
DISCUSSION
.
John F. Kendrick (Sullivan Machinery Company)
(written) : The fact that the dynagraph cards do not
give any positive indication of increased stress due to
inertia is a n interesting characteristic not touched upon
by Mr. Gilbert. There is no question of phase difference
involved, and it should be f a i r to expect such a n increase
to appear a s a peak a t the beginning of the upstroke
line. However, no such peak has been observed in the .
many dynagraph cards examined.
Basically, the shape of the dynagraph card is rec-
roughly horizontal. Where the gas present is negligible,
a s is frequently the case in a heavy water well, the
reversal a t the bottom of the stroke is shown by a line
that is nearly vertical. This characteristic has been
observed to persist throughout the entire speed range,
when a series of cards has been traced a t various
polished-rod velocities, the points separated by about
15 ft. per min. and going a s low a s 30 or 45 ft. per min.
A t the lower speeds the surface cards, taken simul-
taneously, show definite indications of rod stretch, which
disappears in the cards taken a t the higher speeds.
Therefore, it is probably safe to conclude that this line
represents rod stretch throughout the entire range of
speeds, and to deduce that the string of- rods stretches
sufficiently a t each speed to eliminate the peak that
otherwise would be espected to result from inertia.
Thus the dynagraph adds fuel to a n old argument, and
probably points the way to the extension of the useful-
ness of the sucker-rod pump.
During its brief existence the dynagraph has dem-
onstrated the inadequacy of inertia alone to account for
plunger reaction, while a t the same time it has strength-
ened the conception of the sucker-rod pump as a vi-
brating system with 1 deg. of freedom, with forced
vibrations and viscous damping. Those interested in the
operation of sucker-rod pumps will find it well worth
the effort to become familiar with the characteristics of
such a system as defined by the mathematics of S.
Timoshenko ' and discussed by others.'
Mr. Gilbert: 'In regard to inertia loading, it should-
perhaps be pointed out that while the full static load
of the liquid in the tubing is concentrated a t the plunger,
the center of mass of the liquid is often 4 mile or more
up the hole. Since the speed of force transmission in the
liquid is less than 1 mile per second, any acceleration
of the plunger a t the s t a r t of the upstroke could not
be transmitted to the liquid throughout 5,000 ft. of
tubing until after one second had elapsed. Consideration
of such factors leads to the conclusion that the plunger
usually stops its relative nlotion in the pulnp a t the
bottoln of the stroke, while the rods a r e being stretched
sufficiently to permit them to assulne the static load.
Then even if the plunger starts upward with a very high
acceleration, an appreciable time interval must elapse
before this acceleration is transmitted throughout the
length of the liquid colun~n. Consecluently, the plunger
does not encounter resistance from the full mass of the
liquid a t the s t a r t of its upstroke, and nlaximum inertia
loads are, therefore, not to be expected a t this point in
the cycle.
I t is believed that inertia effects appear in the dyna-
graph card principally during the phase A-B, Fig. 3, a s
suggested by equation (1). However, it is apparent that
inertia loads do not cause critical rod stresses under
ordinary pumping conditions, and no detailed study has
yet been made of this p a r t of the general problem.
J. S. Montgomery (Phillips Petroleum Company)
(written) : The contents of this paper bring forth in-
1 S Timosheuko and J . RI. Lessels, Applicd Elastioitl/ 1st edi-
tion. ' Westinghouse Technical Night School Press, ~ a k tI'itts-
br~rgh Pa. ( 1 9 2 5 ) .
- J . ' P . Den Hartog, Mccha~ticnl T i b m t i o ~ ~ s1st
, e ~ l ~ t i o nhlc-
, and Mr. Montgomery of using instruments a t inter-
Ornlv-Hill Book Co., New Tork ( 1 9 3 1 ) .
formation which' is very valuable to the petroleum in-
dustry, in that i t gives us actual facts relative to pump-
ing conditions which have been calculated in the past
using many assumed factors. Through the courtesy of
S. P. Sargent, our company has r u n several tests with
this instrument. I n one of our most recent tests we r a n
one instrument directly above the pump and a second
instrument 3,050 ft. from the surface in a 6,300-ft.
well in the Oklahoma City Field. These two instruments
were r u n with two different designed sucker-rod strings,
one test using a full string of &in. rods, and the second
string using 3,000 ft. of &in. rods and 3,300 ft. of 1-in.
rods. The recordings on the tests using the combination
$-in. and a-in. strings were very satisfactory; however,
in the full string of Z-in. rods, making two tests, we
were unable to obtain records in the middle dynamom-
eter due to mechanical difficulties within the instru-
ment. This was believed to have been caused by a2-in.
rod being used inside of the instrument which was over-
loaded to a degree that satisfactory recordings were not
obtained. I t will be interesting to note that the dyna-
mometer in the middle of the string indicated similar
cards to those on the polish rod.
We found in the conlbination string test that in some
cases we obtained a greater indicated horsepower in the
middle and bottom dynamometer than was obtained in
the surface dynamometer. At this time we are hesitant
to offer a n explanation of this unusual indication, in
that it was shown only in the one series of tests. As-
sumptions a r e that this unusual condition prevails due ::
to the rods being smaller in diameter and stretching to
a greater degree than the full &in. string. This might
also be correlated with the fact that the plunger was not
in harmony with the polish-rod stroke. -,
These factors indicate to us that additional work will
be necessary to correlate these unusual conditions, and
the necessity of developing an instrument which will
record in such a manner that the action a t the pump
can be correlated with the action in the polish rod. I t
would be very valuable to obtain dynamometer indicator
cards on the tubing, together with the bottom-hole
dynamometer and the surface dynamometer. We believe
that the tubing action in a well offers a great many
difficulties with which we a r e not familiar a t this time.
The indication of over-stroking in the pump a t in-
creased speeds we have found would be possible in wells
producing fluids containing less than 50 per cent salt
water. I n the only test which we have conducted under
these conditions, we find that the heavier fluid tends t o
decrease the plunger travel a s the speed is increased.
We should like'to obtain a n expression from Mr. Gilbert
relative to his experience under these conditions.
I t is our thought that we should study the char-
acteristics of load action a t points where we find the
greatest number of breaks in the rod string. This in-
formation would allow us to improve the design of our
rod strings and materially increase the economic life of
the string.
Mr. Gilbert: The procedure initiated by Mr. Sargent
mediate points between the polished rod and the plunger
offers interesting possibilities for improving design and
operation of sucker-rod strings.
Although it is believed that the action of the plunger
and the polished rod may be correlated with use of in-
struments of the types now available, this work would
be greatly facilitated if a'definite means of time corre-
lation could be used. Mr. Montgomery apparently has
in mind the need for some such device. Consideration
has been given to the possibility of transmitting time
signals down the rods for this purpose.
Regarding the cases mentioned by Mr. Montgomery,
in which the work done p e r cycle a t the pump or a t an
intermediate point was found to exceed the input a t
the polished rod, similar instances have been found in
tests conducted in California, particularly when load
conditions a t the pump were continually changing.
However, when cards for any one pumping control were
averaged, results a s shown in Fig. 12 have been ob-
tained-the average output always being greater than
the input a t the polished rod. Undoubtedly, energy may
be temporarily stored in the rods, and in such a vibrat-
TABLE , 1 (COBERLY)
Polish- Stretch of
Cycles Rod Rods and
Per Stroke Tubing Over-travel
Minute (Inches) (Inches) (Inches j
ing system i t is apparently too much to espect that
correlation of two simultaneous cycles (one a t the top
and one further down the string) will provide a reliable
index of power-transmission efficiency.
The test mentioned by Mr. Montgomery, where in-
.crease of pumping speed resulted in decreased plunger
travel, is of especial interest. So f a r we have not ob-
served any similar instance, although tests have been
made in one or two wet wells. For example, the water
cut in well F, Fig. 8, is about 46 per ,cent, and in this
-well a definite increase in plunger travel accompanied
increases in pumping speed.
C. J. Coberly (Kobe, Inc.) (written) : Engineering
problems involved in the study of positive-displacement
punlps are relatively simple a s long a s the prime mover
is adjacent to the pump. When they are several thou-
sand feet apart, a s in a n oil-well pump, the change of
deformation of the rod and tubing with variation of
both static and dynamic load and the time required for
the transmission of stress are such that the motion of
the pump plunger may differ materially from that of
the motion supplied a t the surface in form, magnitude,
and phase. In deep wells, a s pointed out by Mr. Gilbert,
these effects may be sufficiently laige, compared with
the stroke a t the surface, to make i t very difficult to
study the pump action from observations made a t the
well head.
The device described in this paper offers a simple,
direct solution to a complex problem, and should prove
to be a very useful tool to the production engineer.
The results given in Table 2 are assumed to be from
well A given in Table 3. Using the data of Table 3,
Table 1 (Coberly) was made to compare the measured
" dynagraph " stroke with the estimated stroke, a s de-
termined by deducting the rod and tubing stretch from
the polish-rod stroke and adding the over-travel com-
puted by the relation:
Two points of interest a r e suggested by this com-
putation.
First, the stroke shown by the " dynagraph " is longer
than the computed stroke a t all speeds except 16 s.p.m.
The results given in Table 3 also show actual strokes
longer than the computed. The acceleration factor
~ e t Dynagraph
Computed Stroke,
Stroke Average Difference
(Inches) (Inches) (Per Cent)
(1.93) is based upon the very elementary conditions of
simple harmonic motion, no reflected stresses, and no
time lag in the transmission of stress through the sucker
rod. Some of these deviations from the assumed condi-
tions add materially to the acceleration. With a crank
motion in which the pitman is four times the crank a n n ,
the acceleration is 25 per cent higher than with simple
harmonic motion. This, in round figures, would raise
the acceleration factor to 2.5. Variation in crank-pin
velocity will also materially alter the acceleration.
When this acceleration method of estimating over-travel
was suggested, the magnitude of these uncontrolled
variables appeared to be so large that the selection of
any factor other than one based upon simple conditions
was not warranted. However, with sufficient data from
test with this device, i t will be possible to determine an
average acceleration factor which will give good agree-
ment between the estimated and actual pump stroke.
Second, there seems to be a cyclic variation in the
difference between the computed and actual stroke a s
the strokes per minute are varied.
The natural period of longitudinal vibration in the
sucker rod and tubing is such that all pumping speeds
are sub-synchronous; and, hence, i t is not possible to
reach the fundamental resonance point. The natural
period of the fluid colun~n,however, is much longer, and
might correspond to thk cycle o r half-cycle time of the
pump motion. This would account for abnormal stroke
length a t one or possibly two speeds within the normal
range, but not a t two speeds fairly close together. Re-
flected stresses in the rod system, while they would be
materially damped after traversing the rod the number
of times required to be in step with the pumping cycle,
could account for the variation shown in the above
results. The reflected stress would be in phase with the
acceleration a t the s t a r t of the upstroke in the well re-
ferred to a t 15.3, 17.8, 21.4, 26.8, and 35.6 s.p.m., and
would be in phase a t both ends of the stroke a t 15.3,21.4,
and 35.6 s.p.m.; 21.4 s.p.m. corresponds closely to the
speed which gave the maximum deviation from the com-
puted stroke. It would be of interest to check other wells
on which " dynagraph " cards have been taken a t differ-
ent pumping speeds to see if any general correlation of
this kind can be obtained.
The cards obtained with the " dynagraph " are very
simple in form, while polish-rod cards taken simul-
taneously are the usual irregular, unsymmetrical form.
A space time card of the polish rod is quite regular, par-
ticularly when driven by a motor or an engine with
close speed regulation. Since we have a regular-speed
card and irregular-force card a t the polish-rod end of
the system, and have a regular-force card a t the bottom
end, i t would seem reasonable to expect an irregular-
speed card a t the bottom. Such a velocity cycle for the
pump plunger in combination with valve or plunger
leaks would offer a logical explanation for some of the
variations shown in the " dynagraph " cards.
As Mr. Gilber't has pointed out in this paper, the
" dynagraph" is of particular value in studying in de-
tail the action of the oil-well pump itself. Polish-rod
cards serve a different purpose. Correlation of simul-
taneous bottom-hole and top-hole cards will permit
analyzing the polish-rod card with a definite knowledge
of bottom-hole conditions; will greatly simplify the
technique of dynamometer-card analysis, and should
lead the way to a much better understanding of pump-
ing conditions a s . interpreted from well-head instru-
ments. . anchors) the efficiency of gas anchors (with and with-
Mr. Gilbert has referred to the necessity for adequate
gas anchors, and the value this device has in the study
of gas anchors. The point is entitled to further em-
phasis, a s i t is of great importance to all forms of
pumps. An oil-well pump is fundamentally a poor com-
pressor; and, if reasonable volumetric efficiencies are
to be obtained, separation of gas and 1iqui;d must take
place ahead of the pump; 50 cu. ft. of free gas per
barrel of oil a t a bottom-hole pressure of 50 lb. per sq.
in. limits the maximum volumetric efficiency to 33 per
cent.
This paper, and the device i t describes, is a real con-
tribution to production engineering. I think Mr. Gilbert
and those who have been associated with him in this
development should be congratulated 011 having given us
something new and something of value to the inchstry.
J. C. Slomleger (The..Falk Corporation) (written) :
No doubt Mr. Gilbert's paper has aroused a s great an
interest in others a s i t did in myself. There can be no
doubt that Mr. Gilbert and those who assisted him have
contributed a most valuable work to the a r t of producing
oil wells with rods and pump. They not only have con-
tributed a valuable device, but have also worked out
details on its practical application and interpretation of
the results.
As was pointed out in this paper, little has been done
toward analyzing polish-rod cards to determine the hap-
penings a t the pump. This work has been delayed be-
cause there has been no means of checking conclusion
against the actual cycle of the pump in the well. The
dynagraph now offers this means, and rapid progress
' should be made in this direction by its use. The dyna-
graph has certain limitations. I t should be clearly
pointed out that the card of the dynagraph represents
force a s one ordinate, and relative distmce a s another.
The absolute distance and, hence, the actual work done
may not correspond to the recorded work done. The
recorded work done is that done against the fluid within
the tubing. It is quite clear that the movement of the
tubing is not recorded. Also there is no indication of
rate of movement or speed, nor can that be predicated
upon polish-rod motion directly. The beginning of the
upstroke a t the polish rod does not necessarily occur a t
the same instant a s the plunger. I n this connection i t is
interesting to note that the relative plunger stroke is
decreased with a n increase in rod load a s shown in
Fig. 8. Alsoin Fig. 6, well A shows a nearly constant
relative plunger travel from 24 to 27 s.p.m. This sug-:
gests that the plunger travel also depends upon the
degree of synchronism of the rod frequency of the well
and the strokes per minute. It seems to me that here is
an al~nostuntouched field for research.
This instrument also offers a means of determining
the value of anchoring the tubing. I n deep wells prac-
tical experience has already proved the value of tubing
anchors; but i t is still unknown a t what depth, with
respect to plunger size and tubing size, it'is worthwhile
to anchor the tubing. By a comparison of polish-rod
dynamometer and dynagraph cards (with and without
out tubing .anchors) production, etc., the amount of
wasted work due to friction in the free tubing, could
be determined. Again we might learn some interesting
facts from two dynagraph cards taken simultaneously,
one a t the' pump and one a t the tubing anchor where
there could be no relative tubing motions.
I t is rather surprising to find the compression of the
gas in the pump to be adiabatic instead of isothermal.
If the gas were in the form of small bubbles, the com-
pression would be isothermal. However, with a 'wide
range in pressures, such a s would be encountered in a .
deep well with low fluid level, the compression would no
doubt lie between a true isothermal and a true adiabatic.
In wells having a low fluid level and high bottom-hole
temperature, i t is quite conceivable that vapor pressure
may prevent the pump cylinder from filling. Because the
vapor pressure would be small, i t would not be detected
on the dynagraph card, and the well would "pound
fluid "-although, in fact, i t would not be pumped off.
I t might be interesting to experiment with an extremely-

light standing valve. The weight of the ball divided by
th'e area of the valve gives the difference in pressure
necessary to hold the valve open. Since the vapor pres-
sure is a function of temperature only, it is quite obvious
that the vapor pressure will determine the maximum
difference in pressure between the outside and inside of
the pump barrel. If this difference is close to the pres-
sure necessary to hold the valve open, the pump will
fail to fill even though there is plenty of fluid in the hole.
Here again the dynagraph offers a means of comparing
effective stroke length, and thus offers a n effective means
of research in t h a t direction.
No doubt, many uses not now apparent will be found
for this ingenious instrument.
Mr.. Gilbert: Undoubtedly, the gas-compression and
-expansion curves vary between a true isothermal and a
true adiabatic, a s suggested by Mr. Slonneger-the
value of ?a increasing with increase of pumping speed.
Probably experimental values of n will not be the same
for expansion a s for con~pression. While selection of
good values of ?L a r e important in estimating free gas
produced through the pump, the value is.relatively un-
important in estimating rates of liquid production from
pump cards.
As Mr. Slonneger points out, the pump dynagraph is
designed to record relative motion of the plunger in the
pump body, and does not record the independent motions
of either the plunger or of the puinp body. If it were
desirable, and suitable surface equipment were avail-
able, it would be possible to pump with present bottom-
hole pumping equipment by reciprocating the tubing in-
stead of the rods. The point is that, regardless of how
it may be obtained, the relative motion between the
plunger and the pump body a s recorded by a pump dyna-
graph is the only motion which contributes to useful
pumping action.
Anchoring the tubing a t a point near the pump milii-
mizes expenditure of energy in tubing friction, and will
usually be found advisable in deep wells, a s it also pro-
vides additional displacement (in proportion to the
normal tubing stretch) without increasing rod loads.
I t would seem that a reciprocating pump cannot re-
duce the fluid level in a well below the level for which
the pressure a t the intake is equal to the vapor pres-
sure for the liquid pumped. However, when a pump
ceases to function through gas o r vapor lock, both valves
will remain closed throughout the cycle.
Emory Kemler (Gulf Oil Corporation) (written) :
The instrument which Mr. Gilbert has developed is a
very important contribution, and will do much to im-
prove our knowledge of pump operation. I t will also
be very valuable in the study of general pumping prob-
lems. The question of over-travel has always been one
of considerable interest; and, while this instrument will
make it possible actually to measure it, it is a rather
expensive and involved test to make for routine investi-
gations. The following method is one which the writer
J PRACTICE
has used for t h e , purpose of getting a n approsimation
of actual plunger travel. Any exact method of deter-
mining plunger motion from calculations requires . ' a
better knowledge of the behavior of sucker-rod strings
! than we have a t the present time. The method, a s given,
is based on certain assumptions which do not appear a t
present to be unreasonable, and is to be used in connec-
tion with dynamometer cards. This method requires
that the time the valves operate be known, since the
position of the polished-rod stroke where the traveling
valve operates can usually be determined from the dyna-
. mometer card by inspection. The position where the
standing valve closes can be assumed, with little error,
to be a n equal distance from the other end of the stroke
when it cannot be determined from inspection. To illus-
trate briefly, three general conditions will be considered.
Fig. 1 (Kemler) shows a normal card for moderate
pumping speeds. On this card the points a t which the
traveling valve closes and the point where the standing
valve closes have been indicated. I t will be found that,
FIG. 1 (KEMLER)
on a given well, the higher the speed, the greater the
distance the polished rod will travel before the traveling
valve closes. The reason for this is t h a t the time to
transmit the motion from the polished rod to the plunger
depends on the velocity of sound in steel; and, a s this
is constant, the faster the pumping speed, the farther
the polished rod would have traveled before the polished-
rod motion is transmitted to ,the plunger. I n this case
it is seen t h a t the load a t the time the traveling valve
closes is higher than the load a t the time the standing
valve closes. Since there is a smaller load on the rods a t
the end of the stroke t h a n a t the start of the stroke, they
will be shorter, and the plunger will, therefore, have
traveled a distance greater than the polished-rod travel.
Fig. 2 (Kemler) shows the case of a well pumping a t
high speed. I n this case the difference between the load
a t the s t a r t of the stroke and the bottom of the stroke
is still greater, indicating a still larger over-travel.
Fig. 3 (Kemler) shows the case of a well on which the
pump was sanded. I n this case the load a t the s t a r t of
the upstroke was much less than a t the end. This is a
reversal of the case of pumping a t high speed; and, a s
the load is larger a t the end of the upstroke, the rods
would have stretched a large amount, resulting in the
plunger traveling much less t h a n t h e polished rod, o r
giving " under-travel."
I n actual cases i t is necessary t o take into account t h e
dynamic loads of the rods a t each of these points. The
method is essentially t h e same, except t h a t p a r t of t h e
load becomes a distributed load rather than a concen-
trated load. I t would be interesting to see whether a
method such as this, when applied to surface dynamom-
FIG. 2 (KEMLER)
I I I I I I
cuit is a product of voltage and current. I n a mechanical
system, power is a product of forck a n d velocity. While
the tern1 " power factor " in a mechanical system is not
a common term, i t h a s somewhat t h e same significance
a s in a n electrical circuit. If the force and velocity a r e
cyclic in nature, they can be resolved into harmonic com-
ponents. If these con~ponentsa r e i n phase, i t is obvious
that, f o r a given power requirement and a given velocity;
the force will be a minimum. If they a r e out of phase,
the force must necessarily be larger i n order to give
the same power. The significance of this is t h a t in a
pumping system, assuming the same plunger displace-
ment, the lower the mechanical power factor, t h e larger
the forces necessary to supply this power. The cards
shown in Fig. 1 and 2 (Kemler) show the difference be-
tween these two systems. I n Fig. 1 (Kemler) the force
is more'nearly in proportion to t h e velocity; so that, f o r .
transmitting equal amounts of power, smaller forces
a r e required pumping under these conditions than in t h e
case shown i n Fig. 2 (Kemler). I n Fig. 2 (Kemler) the
force is very much out of phase with the velocity, and
i t is seen to be relatively much higher. It would be inter-
esting to have dynamometer cards taken sin~ultaneously
to show the relative phase displacements a t different
points in the sucker-rod string. The information which
Mr. Gilbert's instrument will give, however, will con-
tribute a g r e a t deal to our knowledge of pumping
conditions.
I I

Mr. Gilbert: I believe i t is, o r will be practicable, in

. three reflections of the load release, and three reflections
FIG. 3 (GEMLER)
eter cards, will check with t h e information obtained
from the sub-surface dynamometer. Should such a rela-
tionship prove to exist, i t will then be possible, without
a n escessive amount of work, to calculate the actual
volulnetric efficiency of t h e pump from the surface card.
There is a n analogy between a n electrical and me-
chanical system.' I n electrical systenls we commonly
refer to the " power factor." 'Power in a n electrical cir-
E m o r r Iiemler. "An I n r e s t ~ g a t i o nof Espe1~imellta131ethnds
of ~jeter&inintr Sucker-Hod Loads." T r a n s . .4 J J ~I ~. r s t .J l r ~ i r , ~o~zd
~j
M e t . Eny. (K& Tork nleetiug, Feb. 1016), 118, SY (192lil.
most polished-rod cards to distinguish the load pick-up
and t h e traveling-valve closure. However, the opening
and closing of the standing valve a r e not accompanied
by abrupt changes of load when f r e e g a s is being han-
dled with the liquidin t h e pum11, and in such cases these
two events will not be easily distinguishable. From
preliminary observations, i t is very obvious t h a t a dis-
cussion of force wave reflections will do much to esplain
the load changes recorded in polished-rod cards. I n
several cards we have been able to identify a t least
of the pick-up.
I11 order to derive maxilnunl benefit from polished-rod
cards, some uniform basis of comparison of data ob-
tained in different wells will be necessary. It is, there-
fore, suggested t h a t t h e ratio of t h e natural period of
vibration of the rods to the forced period of vibration is
a definite characteristic, a n d t h a t cards with the same
vibration ratio should have the same general appearance
if the bottom-hole cards a r e comparable. (Vibration
r a t i oLN= , where L I l e n g t h of rod string, in feet;
15V.
AT=pumping cycles per minute; and I7=velocity of
stress translnission in the rod string.)